For Reference Not to be taken from this room Villanova College VILLANOVA, PENNSYLVANIA LIBRARY L 111 Class .A3 1392-93, v.l Accession 273 74 V [ Whole Number 217 REPORT OF THE FOR OF EDUCATION MAR 2 3 2013 400 WARYUNO AVEWUFS.W. WASHINGTON. D.C. 20202 THE YEAR 1892-93. NO LONGER PROPERTY OF FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY Volume 1 . CONTAINING- PARTS I AND II. V v WASHIRGTOR: ^ o ^ (jK) ¥ ernme n t printing office. , . >4835, a > - .v, j » * : * * * THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Created as a Department March 2, 1867. Made an Office of the Interior Department July 1 , 1869. O'" X" i o . j - COMMISSIONERS. Henry Barnard, LL. D., March 14 , 1867 , to March 15 , 1870, John Eaton, Pk. D., LL. D., March 16 , 1870 , to August 5, 1886. Nathaniel H. R. Daw^qn^L. H. E., August 6 , 1886) to September 3. 1889. William T. Harris, Pk. D., LL. D., September 12 , 1889, to date. TABLE OF CONTEXTS. THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. Page. General summary of pupils . . . . . . . 1 The common schools - .......... - - - - - - .... . . . 1 Secondary schools . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Higher education . . . . . . v . . . . . . . 4 Illiteracy . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Education in foreign countries . . . . . — . . . . 6 Education at the TF orld ’ s Columbian Exposition . . . . . . 11 PART I. Chapter I.— Statistical Summaries. General summary of pupils of all grades in public and private schools and institutions . 19 State common school systems . 23 Table 1. — Total population, school population, adult male population . 24 Table 2. — Relation of school population to total population, etc . 25 Table 3. — Number of pupils enrolled in the common schools at various periods . 26 Table 4. — Common school enrollment of 1892-93, classified by sex . 27 Table 5. — Average daily attendance of pnpils . 28 Table 6. — Average length of school term, etc . 29 Table 7. — Number and sex of teachers . 30 Table 8.— Teachers’ salaries . . . . .... 31 Table 9. — Schoolhouses and value of school property . 32 Table 10. — Public secondary education, private schools . 33 Table 11 . — Receipts of school moneys . 34 Table 12. — School revenue compared -with adult male population and with school population - 35 Table 13. — Progress of school expenditure . . 36 Table 14. — School expenditures for different purposes . 37 Table 15. — Expenditure per pupil, etc . 38 City school systems . 39 Expenditures . 42 Table 1. — Summary of statistics of city school systems . 45 Table 2. — Summary of enrollment, officers, teachers . 47 Table 3. — School property and expenditures in cities . 48 Table 4. — Comparative statistics of city school systems . . - . . . 49 Public high schools and private secondary schools . 51 Table 1. — Public high schools, instructors, and students . 54 Table 2. — Students and courses of study . . . . . 55 Tables 3-5. — Number of students in certain studies . 56 Table 6. — Equipment and income . 59 Table 7.— Private secondary schools, instructors, and students . . . . . -- . 60 Table 8. — Students and courses of study in private secondary schools . . . 61 Tables 9-11. — Number of students in certain studies . . . . 62 Table 12. — Equipment and income of private secondary schools . 65 Table 13. — Condensed statistics of public and private-secondary schools . 66 Table 14. — Number of denominational schools included in the tables of private secondary schools . 67 Table 15. — Denominational schools, teachers, and students . 68 Table 16. — Students in secondary schools each year since 1871 . 69 Table 17. — Per cent of students pursuing certain studies . 69 Universities and colleges . 69 Number of colleges for men and of coeducational colleges . 70 III zi3 11 IY TABLE OF CONTENTS. Pagb. Summary of professors and instructors . . 71 Summary of students . 73 Preparation of freshmen . 80 Degrees conferred, excluding professional degrees . 81 Honorary degrees conferred . 84 Property of universities and colleges . . 86 Income of universities and colleges . 88 Colleges for women . 88 Summary of statistics for 1892-93 . 89 Colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts . . 92 Disbursement of the Congressional appropriation to agricultural colleges . 95 Schools of theology, law, and medicine. . . 96 Summary of statistics of schools of theology for 1892-93 . 97 Summary of statistics of schools of law for 1892-93 . . . 98 Schools of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, and for nurses and veterinarians . 99 Normal schools . 102 Number of instructors and students in public normal schools . 104 Instructors and students in private normal schools . 106 Income of public and private normal schools . 108 Normal students in universities and colleges . 109 Normal students in public and private secondary schools . 110 Total number of normal students in all schools . Ill Appropriations for normal schools . 112 Chapter II.— Illiteracy in the United States. General remarks . 115 Chart showing relative density of illiteracy in the States in 1890 . 119 Diagram 1.— Showing relative number of illiterates to population . 120 Diagram 2. — Proportion of illiterates to population 10 years of age and over in 1890, 1880, and 1870 . 121 Diagram 3. — Illiterates in native white population, foreign white, colored . 122 Diagram 4. — Rank of each State according to illiteracy . . 123 Diagram 5. — Rank of each State according to decrease or increase of illiteracy between 1880 and 1890 . 124 Illiterate population 10 years of age and over . 125 Illiterate male population . 126 Illiterate female population . . . 127 Illiterate native white population . 128 Illiterate foreign -horn population . 129 Illiterate white population . 130 Illiterate colored population . 131 Percentage of illiterates in 1890 and 1880 . 135 Decrease and increase of illiteracy in the States between 1880 and 1890 . 137 Illiteracy in the countries of Europe . 144 Comments on the tables of illiteracy . 145 Chapter ill. — System of Public Education in Belgium. Topical outline . 157 Political organization of the Kingdom . 157 The system of public education . 159 Elementary instruction . 161 Intermediate instruction . 174 Superior instruction . 179 Technical and industrial schools . 186 Typical exhibits of subsidized industrial schools at the Antwerp Exposition . 188 Appendix A. — Citation from L’Instruction du Peuple, by Hmile de Laveleye . 192 Appendix B. — Primary instruction in Belgium, communal schools, programme of studies . 194 Appendix C. — Law controlling primary instruction . 199 Chapter IV.— Elementary Education in Great Britain. Elementary education in England and Wales . 203 Elementary education in Scotland . 207 Religious instruction under the London school board . 208 Movements affecting secondary schools . 217 TABLE OF CONTENTS. V Chapter V.— Education in France. Page. Outline of system of public instruction . 219 Enrollment in universities and schools . 222 Public secondary schools for girls . 223 Summary of recent measures affecting secondary instruction . 225 Certificate of physical, chemical, and natural sciences . 230 Decree regulating the course of study and the examinations required for the degree of doctor of medicine . 235 Chapter VI.— Education in Ontario, New Zealand, and India. System of education in Ontario . 239 Present status of the system . 246 Education in Hew Zealand . 258 Education in India . 261 Educational journalism in India . 273 Chapter VII. — Recent Developments in the Teaching of Geography in Central Europe. Introduction . 279 Historical sketch . 279 Geography in the modern school . 283 Modern methods and devices . 289 Personal observations . 313 Bibliography . 319 Chapter VIII.— The Common School System of Bavaria. Organization of the system . 323 Administration . J . 326 Chapter IX.— Education in Uruguay. Introductory notes . 337 The system of education . 338 Statistics . 349 Supervision and administration . 343 Teachers . 345 Courses of study . 348 Supplementary institutions . 353 Chapter X. — Child Study. Introduction . 357 Child study as a basis for psychology and psychological teaching, abstract of address by G. Stanley Hall . 357 Chi’d study as a basis of pedagogy, abstract of paper by Wm. H. Burnham, Worcester, Mass. . 358 A plea for special child study, by W. L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind . 359 Scope and bearing of child life study, by Dr. Frederick Tracy . 360 Citations from other educators . 361 Bibliography of child study . 385 Chapter XI. Bibliography of Herbartianism . 393 Chapter XII. — Hame Register. Chief State school officers . 397 City superintendents . 398 College presidents . 409 PART II. EDUCATION! AXD THE WORLD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. Chapter I. — Programme of the International Congress of Education and Addresses of Welcome. Committee of the National Educational Association . 423 Programme of the Congress . 424 Address by Charles G. Bonney, president of the World’s Congress Auxiliary . 437 Report of committee of arrangements, National Educational Association, on International Con¬ gress of Education, by Hon. William T. Harris, chairman . 439 Address by Dr. James B. Angell, permanent chairman . 441 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter EL— American Views and Comments on the Educational Exhibits. Page. “ The exhibit of education at the Columbian Exposition,” by Hon. John Eaton . 445 “ The educational exhibit at the World’s Columbian Exposition,” by Selim H. Peabody, LL. D. . 454 “ The World's Fair,” from Hew England Journal of Education . . . 458 “Educational exhibits at the Columbian Exposition,” by Richard Waterman, jr . 459 “ Some echoes from the Exposition,” by a correspondent of Edncation . 479 “ World's educational exhibits,” by Will S. Monroe . 481 “ World’s Fair educational notes,” by Mrs. Jennie M. Bryan, in Boston Journal cf Education. . 503 “Catholic education at the World’s Fair,” by John J. O’Shea . 505 “ The Catholic school exhibit, ” by a professor in pedagogy . 510 Chapter III.— German Criticism on American Education and the Educational Exhibits. The American system of education, by Prof. Emil Hausknecht . 521 The public school system of the United States, by Dr. E. Schlee . 534 The educational exhibit in Chicago and the school system of the United States, by Prof. Stephan W aetzoldt . 548 The exhibit of results of manual training, by Prof. Stephan Waetzoldt . 5G9 The congress and the. conference of librarians in Chicago, by Constantin Xorrenberg . 575 Chapter IV.— French Views upon American Education and the Educational Exhibits. The Chicago Exposition, by M. Jules Steeg . 585 The Chicago Exposition and American Science, by Jules Yiolle. . 593 Chicago Exposition— printing and the book trade, by M. Henri le Soudier . 595 Chapter V. Medical Instruction in the United States as presented by French Specialists . 601 Chapter VI.— Xotes and Observations on American Education and the Educational Exhibits, by Italian, Swedish, Danish, and Russian Delegates. Popular education in the United States, by Signor Commendatore Luigi Bodio . 615 Education in the United States, by Prof. A. Ghisleri . 617 Observations concerning American education by Dr. E. Osterberg, of Sweden . 624 Studies on the educational exhibits at Chicago, by Dr. X. G. W. Lagerstedt, of Stockholm, Sweden . 630 Xotes in regard to the World’s Congresses, by Kirstine Frederiksen, Copenhagen . 641 Some characteristics of the educational exhibit of the World’s Fair, by M. Eugraphe Kovalevsky. 644 Chapter VII. American Technological Schools, by Prof. A. Riedler, Berlin . 657 Chapter VIII. Higher Education of Women in Russia, by Prince Serge Wolkonsky . . . 6S7 Chapter IX.— Papers Prepared for the World's Library Congress. Introduction . . . . . . . 691 Libraries in relation to schools, by Hannah P. James, Wilkes Barre, Pa . 693 Adaptation of libraries to constituencies, by Samuel Swett Green, Worcester, Mass . 698 Aids to library progress by the Government of the United States, by A. R. Spofford, LL. D., Librarian of Congress . 704 Branches and deliveries, by George W. Cole, Jersey City, X. J . 709 Heating, ventilation, and lighting of libraries, by Xormand S. Patton, architect, Chicago, Ill.. . 718 Fires, protection, insurance, by R. B. Poole, librarian of Young Men’s Christian Association, i of Hew York . 724 Fixtures, furniture, and fittings, by Henry J. Carr, Scranton, Pa . 733 Government, constitution, by-laws, and trustees, by H. M. Utley, Detroit, Mich . 743 Library service, by Frank P. Hill, Xewark, X. J . 747 Statistics of public libraries . 756 Los Angeles public library training class, by Tessa L. Kelso, Los Angeles, Cal . 764 Sunday opening of libraries, by Mary Salome Cutler, Xew York State Library School . 771 Statistics of Sunday opening . 781 Executive department — supervision, building, finances, by F. M. Crunden, St. Louis Public Library . 795 Accession department, by G. M. Jones, Salem (Mass.) Public Library . 809 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VII Page Pamphlets, by 'Walter S. Biscoe, New York State Library . 826 Cataloguing, by William C. Lane, librarian Boston Athenaeum . 835 Museums, art galleries, and lectures in connection with public libraries, by James Bain, jr., chief librarian Toronto Public Library . 850 Classification, by Horace Kephart, St. Louis Mercantile Library . 861 Synopsis of reports from 127 libraries on system of classification . 864 Loan systems, by Mary Wright Plumner, librarian Pratt Institute, Brooklyn . 898 Elements of library binding, by D. Y. B. Johnston, New York State Reference Librarian . 907 School and college libraries, by George T. Little, librarian of Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. . 916 Regulations for readers, by W. H. Brett, Cleveland (Ohio) Public Library . 939 Reading of the young, by Caroline M. Hewins, Hartford Public Librarian . 944 Reference books, by Ernest C. Richardson, librarian Princeton College . 976 Assistance to readers, by W. E. Foster, Providence (R. I.) Public Librarian . 982 Expert annotation of book titles, indexing literature other than books, by George lies, New York . 994 Scrapbooks, by W. A. Bard well, librarian of Brooklyn (N. Y.) Library . . 999 Indexes and indexing, by W. I. Fletcher, librarian of Amherst College . 1010 Chapter X.— Notes on Education at the Columbian Exposition. Introduction . 1015 Educational exhibit of Maine . 1016 New Hampshire . 1018 Massachusetts . 1022 Harvard University . 1034 Massachusetts Institute of Technology . 1057 Institutions for higher education of women . 1058 Institutions sustained by Americans for the higher education of girls in other lands . 1059 Rhode Island exhibit . 1062 Connecticut . 1063 New York . 1069 New Jersey . 1076 Pennsylvania . ... . 1081 Maryland . 1095 Ohio . 1096 Indiana . 1098 Illinois . 1102 Michigan . 1109 Wisconsin . . - 1113 Minnesota . 1122 Iowa . 1123 Missouri . . 1126 North Dakota . 1129 Other States . 1130 United States Government exhibit . 1144 Some special exhibits . 1148 Progress and extent of temperance education . 1155 Exhibits from England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales . 1168 France . 1179 The German Empire . 1181 Austria-Hungary . 11S4 Italy . 1187 Denmark . 1188 Sweden . 1192 Norway; Russia . 1196 Japan . 1202 Turkey . 1210 Egypt . 1211 Liberia . 1212 Canada . 1213 Mexico . 1215 Brazil . 1219 Uruguay ; Argentine Republic . f . 1220 Haiti; New South Wales . 1222 Till TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART III. Chapter I. — Documents Illustrative of American Educational History. Page. Introductory remarks . . . . . _ . . . . . . 1225 Massachusetts legislation . . . . . . . 1226 Plymouth legislation _ _ ... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1238 Connecticut legislation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1240 The common school fund of Connecticut _ _ _ * . . . . . 1256 Pennsylvania legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261 Congressional land grants for common schools and universities _ . _ _ _ 1268 Congressional grants of land and money for colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts . 1275 The Bureau of Education . . . — - - - - - . 1288 Early views and plans relating to a national university . . . . . . . 1293 Provisions concerning education in the State constitutions . 1312 Chapter EE. — Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies, with Papers Relating thereto. Report of the committee of ten . . 1415 The reform of secondary education in the United States, by Nicholas Murray Butler . 1448 The curriculum for secondary schools, by William T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education . ... . . 1457 The unity of educational reform, by Charles W. Eliot, president of Harvard University - - 14455 Notes on the report of the committee of ten, by James H. Baker, president of University of Colorado . . . 1473 The report of the conference on English, by A. E. Nightingale, superintendent of high schools, Chicago . 1484 The report from the point of view of the large mixed high school, by 0. D. Robinson, principal Albany (N. T. ) High School . . . 1489 Bibliography . 1491 Chapter HI.— The National Educational Association. Historical sketch, by Zalmon Richards, Washington, D. C . . . 1495 Organization and functions of the Association, by William T. Harris, LL. D . . 1502 Constitution of the National Educational Association . 1506 Constitution of National Council of Education . 1508 List of meetings, officers, and annual membership from each State . 1510 Catalogue of papers and addresses since first organization : Subject classification . .... 1513 Author classification . 1534 Chapter IT. — The Education of the Negro.— Its Character and Eacilities. Introduction . . 1 551 Its cost is borne by the white race . . . 1552 It is almost entirely elementary . 1554 It is becoming more and more industrial . 1559 The teaching force . - . 1563 Professional training . 1564 Statistics of institutions for educating the colored race, showing grade of students during 1892-93. 1568 Chapter T.— Pecuniary Aid for Students in Universities and Colleges. Introductory rem arks . 1573 Aid in universities and colleges of the United States . . . 1576 In colleges for women . 1593 In the universities of England . 1594 In France . 1608 In Germany . 1610 Chapter VI. University Extension . . 1613 Chapter YTI.— Medical Education. Raising the standard . 1617 Effect of lengthening the course . 1618 Legal control of the practice of medicine . . 1619 Fraudulent medical schools . 1622 Spring courses of lectures— study under a preceptor . 1623 Clinical instruction . 1624 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX Page. Students having degrees . 1625 Women in the practice of medicine . 1627 Higher medical education, by Dr. 'William H. Welch, professor of pathology in Johns Hopkins University . 1629 American and German medical students, by Dr. E. B. Mallory . 1631 Chapter VPII.— Education in the Various States. Alabama . 1633 Connecticut . 1636 District of Columbia . 1643 Kentucky . 1647 Louisiana . 1649 (Massachusetts . 1650 ! Michigan . -■ . . . 1652 ! Mississippi . 1655 Missouri . 1657 New Jersey . 1664 New York . 1669 Ohio and Pennsylvania . 1671 Rhode Island . 1675 South Carolina . 1677 Tennessee . 1678 Virginia . 1679 West V irginia . 1683 Chapter IK. Report on Educational Affairs in Alaska . 1705 Chapter X. Educational Necrology . 1749 PART IV.— STATISTICAL TABLES. School population, attendance, supervisors, teachers, and accommodations in cities of 8,000 or more inhabitants . 1786 Receipts and expenditures of public school systems of cities of 8,000 or more inhabitants . 1801 Cities from which no school data are available . .. . 1815 Public high schools . 1816 Endowed*academies, seminaries, and other private secondary schools . 1897 Universities and colleges . 1952 Colleges for women, Division A . 1968 Colleges for women, Division B . 1969 Colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts . 1972 Institutions for the education of colored students in agriculture and the mechanic arts . 1976 Receipts and expenditures for the year ended June 30, 1893, of the funds for the benefit of col¬ leges of agriculture and the mechanic arts . 1978 Scientific schools and institutes of technology . 1981 Schools of theology . 1982 Schools of law . 19S8 Schools of medicine . 1990 Schools of dentistry . 1996 Schools of pharmacy . 1997 Schools of veterinary medicine . 1999 Training schools for nurses . 2000 Public normal schools . 2002 Private normal schools . 2010 Normal students in universities and colleges . . 2014 Commercial and business colleges . 2018 State institutions for the deaf . 2042 Public day schools for the deaf . 2050 Private schools for the deaf . 2053 State institutions for the blind . 2056 State institutions for the feeble-minded . 2061 Private schools for the feeble-minded . 2065 Reform schools . 2067 Public elementary education in foreign countries . 2075 Index . 2083 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington , D. 0., November 30 , 1894. Sir : I have the honor to submit herewith my fifth annual report, the same being for the year ending June 30, 1893. This report begins with a chapter of statistical summaries, a few items of which I quote: GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. The whole number of pupils enrolled in the schools and colleges of the United States, both public and private, during the school year t 1892-93, as given in Chapter I, was 15,083,630, or 22.5 of the popula¬ tion. The increase over the preceding year was 370,697. This summary does not include, however, large numbers of pupils in attendance upon various special, but less formal, educational agencies, such as evening schools, conservatories of music, schools of art and elo¬ cution, business colleges, trade schools, etc. These if included would swell the total to about 15,400,000 persons who attended a school of some kind during a longer or shorter period of the school year. The great majority of pupils, 96.2 per cent of the whole, were in the elementary grades, receiving instruction such as is given in primary and grammar schools, which usually embrace the first eight grades in a fully graded system. Only 410,420, or 2.7 per cent of the whole, were under secondary instruction in public high schools, private acade¬ mies, preparatory schools, and corresponding institutions, doing work covering the third four years of a graded course of study. All beyond this is embraced under the general term of higher instruction, under which were 154,989 students, or 1.1 per cent of the total number. Only 1 pupil in 37 was of the secondary grade, and 1 in 94 under higher instruction. THE COMMON SCHOOLS. The statistics of the ditferent State common school systems, com¬ piled from information furnished by the State school superintendents, are given in detail, pp. 23-38. The common schools are understood in this report to include all elementary and secondary public day schools. ED 93 - 1 l 2 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. The whole number of pupils enrolled in the common schools during the school year was 13,510,719. Of these, there was an average of 8,855,717 in attendance daily. The enrollment increased 1.92 per cent over the preceding year, while the average attendance increased 3.45 per cent. The fact that the average attendance increased at a greater rate than the enrollment indicates a somewhat increased regularity of attend¬ ance. An average of 65^ per cent of all the pupils enrolled during the school year were present each day, as compared with 64J per cent the preceding year, and G2^ per cent in 1879-80. Of the 136.7 days during which the schools were in session in 1892-93, each pupil enrolled attended on an average only 89.6 days. These facts indicate the great extent to which children in the United States leave school during the year to engage in labor or from other motives, particularly in large com¬ mercial and manufacturing centers and in rural districts, and empha¬ size a distinguishing feature of our schools as compared with those of Germany or France; in these countries all children of a prescribed age are required to attend school the entire school term, and official statis¬ tics would seem to show that the requirement is enforced. The school term. — The schools were kept on an average 136.7 days, being about the same as the preceding year, and an increase of 6.4 days since 1880. This period is equal to twenty- seven weeks of five school days each, or a little more than half the number of such weeks in a year, the maxi¬ mum number of weeks desirable in the school year being forty, with an aggregate of two hundred days. There were considerable variations in the different parts of the coun¬ try from the average school term, both now and in 1880, as the follow¬ ing table will show : Length of school term in days. j i 1879-80. , 1892-93. "North A tla.ntie Di vision . . . . . _ . . 159. 2 169.7 Smith A hi rmtir, Division . . . . _ . _ . . 92.4 105.7 South Central Division . . . 79.2 i 93.1 T'lnrtli Contra 1 Division . _ _ _ ... _ _ _ ... 139.8 i 146. 4 w estern Division . . . . . . . . . . . . 129.2 141. 1 Teachers. — There were employed in the schools 383,010 teachers, of whom 122,056 were men and 260,954 were women. The increase in the number of male teachers was 483, about one-half of 1 per cent; in that of female teachers it was 8,301, or more than 3 per cent. The percentage of male teachers accordingly decreased from 32.5 to 31.9. There are fewer male teachers now than in 1880, while the female teachers have increased about 70 per cent in number since that date. School property . — The number of schoolhouses in 1893 was 235,426, valued, with their grounds, libraries, and apparatus, at $398,435,039. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 3 The increase in value was over $15,000,000, or about 4 per cent, show¬ ing that the liberal expenditure for school buildings of the past decade continues uninterruptedly. The value of public school property has in fact doubled in the last twenty years. The average value of school buildings has risen during the past year from $1,679 to $1,692. Finances. — Of the $165,000,000 of school revenue received in 1892-93, $31,000,000 were derived from State taxes and $10S,000,000 from local taxes; the income of permanent school funds furnished $9,000,000 more, and the balance, $14,000,000, came from various miscellaneous sources. State taxation furnished $3,750,000 more than in 1891-92, an increase of about 12J per cent, or one-eighth. Three millions of this increase are credited to Pennsylvania. Local taxation increased $2,750,000, or less than 3 per cent. The total increase was nearly $8,000,000. or an amount nearly equal to the income from permanent school funds. Of the total common school revenue, one-fifth comes from State taxes and two-thirds from local taxes. The income from permanent school funds amounts to only about one-twentieth of the total school revenues. The total expenditure for school purposes was $163,000,000. Of this sum, $104,000,000, or 64 per cent, were paid for teachers’ wages; $31,000,000, or 19 per cent, for schoolhouses ; and $28,000,000 for fuel, supplies, and incidental purposes. It is not generally realized to what extent the expenditure of money for common schools has increased in recent years; the increase has far outstripped the gain in population, as will appear from the following table : Expenditure for common schools per capita of population. 1879-80. 1892-93. $1. 97 $3. 04 . G8 1. 08 .55 1. 05 2.03 3.07 2. 41 3. 94 1.5G 2.47 Since 1880 the common school expenditure of the United States has been more than doubled, having increased from $78,000,000 to $163,000,000. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The usual statistical summaries of public and private secondary schools are given in Chapter I, pp. 51-69. For the year ending June 30, 1893, the number of public high schools reporting to the Bureau was 2,812. In these schools 9,489 teachers were employed, and the number of pupils was 232,951. Beports were received from 1,434 private high schools and academies employing 6,261 teachers and giving instruction to 96,147 pupils. The summaries show for each State the number of high schools, the number of teachers and pupils, North Atlantic Division South Atlantic Division South Central Division. North Central Di vision . Western Division . . United States . 4 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. the number preparing for college, and the number of students pursu¬ ing each of the nine leading high school studies. In this annual report larger space is devoted to secondary schools than to the statistics of all the other educational institutions combined, as will be seen by reference to the detailed tables. HIGHER EDUCATION. Universities and colleges (pp. 69-88). — Of the 451 universities and colleges for men and for both sexes, 310 are coeducational, an increase of more than 3 per cent in two years. The total number of instructors reported by the 451 institutions was 10,247. Of this number, 5,679 were engaged in regular collegiate departments, the remainder being in preparatory, professional, and special departments. The students reported were as follows: Preparatory, 44,054 5 collegiate, 55,553; resi¬ dent graduates, 2,625; nonresident graduates, 940; professional, 19,385; total in all departments, 140,053. Of the total number, 23.5 per cent were women and 5.6 per cent were colored. The graduate students have increased from 200 in 1872 to 3,565 in 1892-93. The property of these institutions is as follows : Volumes in libraries, 5,319,602; value of material equipment, $109,078,100; productive funds, $94,500,758. The benefactions amounted to $6,532,157, and the total income was $14,601,034. Among the important events of the year were the affiliation of the Teachers’ College, Hew York City, with Columbia College, the estab¬ lishment of a school of pure science by the latter, and the opening, to a limited extent, of Brown and Yale universities to women. Colleges for women. — The 143 colleges for women reporting to this office had, in 1892-93, 2,114 instructors and 22,949 students. The mate¬ rial equipment was valued at $13,794,701, and the endowment funds at $3,594,947. The income was $3,070,516, and the benefactions amounted to $182,981. Hew institutions, for women have been estab¬ lished at Marietta, Ohio, and Lynchburg, Va. Colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. — These institutions owe their origin to an act of Congress of July 2, 1862, granting land for the endowment of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. Under said act the General Government has granted 10,400,000 acres of land from which an income of $632,677.80 was derived in 1892-93. Under the act of Congress of August 30, 1890, these institutions have received to June 30, 1893, a total of $3,010,000. The State appropriations for these schools amounted to $1,634,715.18 for the year 1892-93. Pecuniary aid for college students. — Chapter V of Part III contains a compilation of the number of scholarships and fellowships offered by the several universities and colleges of the United States, En gland, Prance, and Germany, together with the value and conditions attached to the foundations so far as given by the institutions concerned. ILLITERACY. 5 Professional education. — The whole number of medical students was 19,752 — regular, 10,130 ; homeopathic, 1,445 ; eclectic, 773 ; graduate, etc., 1,404. The number graduating was 4,911, about 25 per cent; dental students numbered 2,852; pharmacists, 3,394. The number of law students has increased very rapidly during the last five years — 3,900, 4,518, 5,252, 0,073, 0,770. Theological students numbered 7,830. One- half of them get their collegiate training in denominational schools, one-sixth in nonsectarian schools, and ouly 3 per cent in State universities. If we consider the number of students in attendance and the neces¬ sary current expenses, theological schools are more heavily endowed than any other class of institutions. Two of them have endowments of over $1,000,000, while ten others have about half a million each. Summaries of the statistics%of normal schools are given on pp. 102-112. In 121 public normal schools there were 1,301 teachers and 28,983 stu¬ dents. The number of graduates reported was 4,491. In 31 private normals 208 teachers, 7,086 students, and 552 graduates were reported. Students pursuing pedagogical or teachers’ courses in 708 universities, colleges, high schools, and academies are reported to the number of 10,790. Thus it will be seen that the number of students in 1893 in teachers’ training courses in the various institutions was 53,405. In the same connection a table is given indicating the growth of nor¬ mal schools for the past five years. It shows, by States, the amounts of money appropriated by State, county, or municipal corporations each year from 1888 to 1893 for the support of normal schools and for normal school buildings. In 1893 the amount thus appropriated for support was $1,452,914 and for buildings $816,826. ILLITERACY. Chapter II is a presentation of the statistics of illiteracy in the United States for 1890, 1880, and 1870, based upon the census reports of those years. The number of illiterates (persons 10 years of age and over unable to read), the population 10 years of age and over, and the per cent of illiterates, by States, will be seen by reference to the first seven tables in the chapter, the figures relating to each class for the three decades being placed in parallel columns on the same page. By this arrangement the progress of the white and the colored, the native white and foreign white population, from 1870 to 1890, can be more easily reviewed. In 1870 the per cent of illiterates to the total population 10 years of age and over was 20; in 1880 the rate was 17, and in 1890 the per cent had fallen to 13.3. The per cent of illiteracy of the native white population in 1870 was 10.8; in 1880 it was 8.7, and in 1890 the per cent was 6.2. In 1870 the per cent of illiteracy of the foreign-born white population was 14.4; 6 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. and in 18S0 the rate was 12, while the tables show that in 1S90 the per¬ centage had risen to 13.1. The table relating to the illiteracy of the colored population tells a still more encouraging story. In 1870 the rate of illiteracy of the colored population 10 years of age and over was 79.9; in 1SS0 it was 70, and in 1890 it had fallen to 5G.8. The following table shows, in a condensed form, the percentages of illiteracy for the total population, male, female, native white, foreign white, total white, and colored, for 1890, 1880, and 1870, in each of the five divisions of the United States Percentage of illiteracy, classified by sex, race, and nativity. Division. Tear, j Total. Male. | i Female. Native white. Foreign white. Total white. j Colored. United States . 1890 13.3 ! 12.4 14.4 6.2 13.1 7. 7 56.8 1880 17 15.8 18.2 j 8.7 12 9.4 70 1 1870 20 10. 8 14.4 11. 5 79. 9 North Atlantic Division. . . 1890 G. 2 5.9 6.5 j 2.3 15.6 5. 9 21.7 1880 6.2 5. 4 7 2.8 15.4 5.9 24. 2 1870 7. 6 3.2 18. 3 7. 2 21. 7 South Atlantic Division.. 1890 30.9 29.1 32.6 14.6 12. 2 14. 5 60.1 18S0 40.3 38.8 41.7 20 io!i ! 19.5 75.1 1870 46.2 24.2 12.2 i 23.5 85 South Central Division — 1890 29.7 27.6 31.9 15 20.2 15.3 61.2 1880 39.5 37.8 41.3 22 15. 6 21.6 76 1870 44. 5 24 16.2 23.4 86 North Central Division. . . 1890 5.7 5.2 6.3 3.4 10.6 5. 1 32.8 1880 1 6.7 6.2 7.2 ; 5 8.9 5.9 41.2 1870 9.3 7.6 10.1 8. 3 56. 4 Western Division . 1890 8.3 8.1 8.7 1 4. 5 i 10.4 6.2 41.5 1880 11.3 10.1 13.6 | 8.6 j 9.2 8.8 33.2 1870 15 16 12.9 14.9 16 The remaining tables in the chapter are easily understood. The rank of each State in respect to illiteracy is given and the several classes of population are treated separately, showing the relative prog¬ ress of each. A chart shows the comparative density of illiteracy in the several States, and several diagrams illustrate the salient facts extracted from the statistical tables. This is followed by a synoptical table of illiteracy in Europe, com¬ piled from official returns, Hiibner’s statistics, and other sources. This table contains the latest available statements, and will therefore be very acceptable. The states of Germany in particular make a good showing, in that there are states in which not a single army recruit is found to be illiterate, while the total ratio of illiteracy in the Empire is less than 1 per cent. EDUCATION IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Belgium. — Chapter III presents a survey of the educational system of Belgium as developed in the organic laws and official reports. The system of Belgium resembles in its general form that of France, but is totally different in spirit. Local freedom is not more marked even in English policies, and advantage has been taken of this prin¬ ciple by opposing parties to carry out widely different conceptions of EDUCATION IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 7 popular education. Tlie changes effected in the elementary school system under successive laws (i. e., 1842, 1879, and 1884) are traced in the chapter, and the present condition of the schools set forth as shown by recent statistics. Of the changes noted the most suggestive is the reaction from a uniform system of public secular schools established by the Liberals in 1879 to the mixed public and parochial school system under the Clerical party, which came into power in 1884. In the department of secondary instruction (enseignement moyen) the same questions have arisen as in the United States. Belgium has had less difficulty in securing recognition for the new studies than neighboring countries, but this fact has not solved the problem of the correlation of studies nor of overcrowded programmes. As regards superior instruction, the union of special technical schools witli the four traditional faculties is noticeable in the case, both of the two State and the two private universities. The latter comprise a little more than half the university students, i. e., 3,463 out of a total of 5,634. The departure made in 1876, when the universities were authorized to confer degrees, a function hitherto restricted to a special jury, is con¬ firmed by the law of 1890, which is discussed in the chapter. A brief survey is also presented of industrial and technical schools, for which Belgium is justly noted. Great Britain. — Chapter IY deals with the state-aided elementary school systems (English and Scotch) of Great Britain. From an exam¬ ination of the statistics presented it appears that the effect of the law for the remission of school fees has been to increase both the amount and the regularity of school attendance. In England the enrollment for 1893 shows an increase of about 3 per cent over that for 1S92 in the case of children under 7 years of age, and of 2^ per cent in the case of older children. The increase of deposits in the school savings banks is interpreted as a disposition on the part of parents to invest the small sums (from 2d. to fid. per pupil) hitherto paid in weekly tuition fees. Among notable evidences of progress in popular education are the recent acts providing for the education of deaf and dumb and blind children, the act raising the minimum age for exemption (either partial or total) from school attendance in England from 10 to 11 years, and the new regulations for evening schools. These arc now virtually transformed from elementary schools to “continuation” schools ; that is, schools affording young men and Women of the working classes the chance to push the fundamental studies beyond the elementary stage, and to pursue special branches which may be helpful to them in busi¬ ness careers. A detailed account is given in this chapter of the agitation of the subject of religious instruction in the London school board. Some excitement prevailed when the board issued a special circular for the guidance of teachers in respect to the use of the board syllabus of 8 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. religious instruction. The spirit of the document is indicated by the statement as to the “ principles ” of the Christian religion which the teachers should inculcate. “ These principles/7 says the circular, “ include a belief in God the Father as our Creator, in God the Son as our Eedeemer, and in God the Holy Ghost as our Sanctifier. The board can not approve of any teaching which denies either the Divine or the human nature of the Lord Jesus Christ, or which leaves on the minds of the children any other impressions than that they are bound to trust and serve Him as their God and Lord.” The document was regarded as a religious test, and as such was vehemently opposed by secular associations, by nonconformists of all denominations, and by the great body of the teachers. The results of the school board elec¬ tion just closed,1 as this matter goes to press, have changed somewhat the aspect of the question. The opposition party polled a majority of nearly 150,000 votes as against the party favoring the policy indicated by the special circular, but owing to the operations of the “cumulative vote” the latter have a majority of 3 in the board. This is a reduc¬ tion of 12 below their majority in the former board. The result is regarded as a clear indication that the electors are opposed to any disturbance of the settlement of the religious question by the act of 1870. Eecent measures affecting secondary education in England, as noted in the chapter, are the conference on the subject held at Oxford Uni¬ versity in October, 1893, and the appointment of a royal commission to investigate and report upon the present condition of this important department of education with a view to needed reforms in organization and improved curricula. France.- — A brief outline of the French educational system is given in Chapter V, together with the latest official statistics and a resume of recent measures affecting secondary schools and university faculties. The enrollment in elementary schools (exclusive of infant schools) in 1891-92 was 5,556,470, or 14.5 per cent of the population. The enroll¬ ment exceeded the total number of children of the obligatory school ages (6 to 13), who form 12.1 per cent of the population. This ratio is less than the corresponding ratio for many countries. In England and Scotland, for example, the children 6 to 13 years of age form about 16 per cent of the population. The enrollment for those ages in England is relatively smaller than in France, being 13.7 per cent of the popula¬ tion, but in Scotland the corresponding enrollment rises to 15 per cent of the population. If the total enrollment in infant schools and classes be included, the ratio to total population rises to 16.4 per cent for France, and to 17 and 16J per cent for England and Scotland, respectively. M. E. Levasseur, the distinguished statistician, to whom this office is indebted for advance proofs of the “Statistique de l’enseignement xTke triennial election occurred in November, 1894. EDUCATION IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 9 primaire” for 1891-92, notes that the enrollment in primary schools for that year is 37,413 less than for the previous year. The decrease in the enrollment since 1888-89 is about the same as that in the number of births. ^ The statistics of university faculties (or separate universities) indi¬ cate the gradual development of the provincial groups. Whereas so late as 1887-88 the Paris faculties comprised more than half the total number of university students, in 1893 the enrollment in the provincial faculties exceeded that of Paris by 3,177. The reports of the two French commissions appointed to develop plans for the reorganization of medical studies and the institution of a special course of preparatory scientific study for medical students, together with the decrees giving effect to the recommendations of the commissions, are considered in detail in this chapter. British colonies. — The systems of education developed in the British colonies have a special interest for citizens of the United States. In the system of Ontario, which is described in Chapter VI, local inde¬ pendence has been happily combined with a degree of centralization sufficient to insure economy of means and equality of conditions. The principal features of this system as set forth in a recent monograph by Mr. John Miller, deputy superintendent of education, are presented, and also a survey of the practical workings of the system by Hon. George W. Boss, the minister of education. The chapter also contains a brief account of the organization and present status of the universities and technical schools of New Zealand, for which the office is indebted to an esteemed correspondent, Mr. Mark Cohen, editor of the Dunedin Evening Star, and further an exposition of the conditions of popular education in India, supplemented by a paper on educational journalism in India, by Thomas Denham, M. A., of Madras, who writes from intimate personal knowledge of the subject. Germany. — Chapter VII contains an account of the recent develop¬ ments in the teaching of geography in central Europe; it seems very desirable to enter into the history of certain leading branches of study so as to gain an insight into the development of the methods of teach¬ ing. The present historical sketch is full of interest for teachers as well as professional geographers. Prof. John Goodison, of Ypsilanti, recently deceased, has furnished some descriptions of methods applied in Europe. A teacher in Munich, Mr. Lorenz Reiser, contributes (Chapter VIII) a brief statement of the common school system of Bavaria, some fea¬ tures of which commend themselves to the attention of American educa¬ tors. Several contributions to this report touch upon Germany and the German-speaking states in central Europe, and will attract the reader’s attention on account of the high reputation German pedagogy has long borne and still retains for efficient methods. 10 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Russia. — The subject of education in Russia was presented in extenso in my report for 1890-91 (pp. 194-262). The current of operations in that country indicates continual effort to more thoroughly assimilate the border provinces (so as to increase the home influence in the faculties of the universities and schools on the western border) and to cultivate a distinct national spirit, to further develop the village industries, and to extend the facilities for indus¬ trial and higher education of women. The Russian exhibit at Chicago gave opportunity for a study of insti¬ tutions not previously reported, the exhibit from the ministry of public instruction, the Pedagogical Museum, and the Empress Marie institu¬ tions being especially noteworthy. Higher education of women in Russia. — Prince Serge Wolkonsky, del¬ egate from the ministry of public instruction in Russia to the Colum¬ bian Exposition, presents (Chapter VIII of Part II) an expose of the educational facilities given to girls in Russia, many of the institutions being under imperial patronage, and the object being to train the girls for family life or for teaching school, as well as industrially, so that those who are obliged to may earn a livelihood by the skill of their hands. He describes the vicissitudes to which the institutions for the higher education of women are subject. The remarkable intellectual development in mathematics, science, and literature of some of the Russian women may be considered as pointing toward the same desire for the broadening of woman’s sphere that is active in the countries of western Europe and America. Education in Uruguay. — A first attempt is made (Chapter IX) to present a statement of the system of education in Uruguay. It is noteworthy, as in other South American countries, that prominent educators have been detailed from Uruguay to make a thorough study of the newest methods in pedagogical science in Europe and Xorth America. The adaptability of kindergarten work, and of manual and physical training, have been taken under special consideration. Experiments are in progress with a view to the introduction of kinder¬ gartens in Montevideo. A higher 'school for agriculture, to train experts, has been started. Uruguay declared its independence of Spanish rule in 1825, its first public schools and u junta,” or body of inspectors, date from 1827, but the organization of the school system, with a special department of public instruction in charge, is accredited to Don Pedro Varela (in 1877), who is called by one of his biographers the Horace Mann of Uruguay. It is the declared intention to have instruction gratuitous through all grades, and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14. The ratio of enrollment to population in the elementary grades is 9.25 per cent. The cost of education for each pupil enrolled is $12.06* for each pupil in average attendance, $16.95. Of the teachers employed, two-thirds are reported to be normal graduates, and three-fourths lay teachers, EDUCATION AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 11 one-fourth parochial. The Government furnishes books and all neces¬ sary material for school purposes. The minister of public instruction has general supervision of the schools, with a national and a technical inspector and live other officials to aid him in the department of public instruction at Montevideo. Child study. — The chapter on child study (Chapter X) inserted in this report will be found to contain instructive contributions from the leading American representatives of this modern movement. While in the Old World few other than university professors have made attempts at a systematic study of this kind, in this country it lias enlisted teachers of all classes, and both the professional and other journals to its aid. To Dr. G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark Uni¬ versity (Worcester, Mass.), is due the credit of inaugurating this valu¬ able movement. Bibliography. — The recent popularity of Herbart’s pedagogy and philosophy have made a bibliography (Chapter XI) of Herbartian liter¬ ature desirable. In Chapter X is printed also such a bibliography of child study, compiled in this Bureau. Foreign statistics. — The table of statistics of elementary schools in foreign countries printed in my report for 1890-91 is again inserted with valuable additions based upon the latest official returns. EDUCATION AT THE WOELD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. Part II is devoted entirely to reports which were called forth on the occasion of the World’s Fair. It opens with the programme of the International Congress of Education. Then follows a symposium of American views and comments on the educational exhibits at Chicago. In the third chapter of this part are collected the criticisms on Amer¬ ican education advanced by representatives of the German Government at Chicago. They will be read with great interest because of the authoritative character of the writers. In Chapter IY will be found the substance of two articles upon American education and the educational exhibits at Chicago from the pen of an educational expert of international reputation, M. Jules Steeg, director of the Musee Pedagogique, Paris. His comments and criticisms upon our schools were inspired by actual observation of their daily exercises as well as by their exhibits. The chapter contains extracts also from reports by M. Jules Violle, commissioned to study the state and tendencies of sciencein the United States, and by M. Henri Le Soudier on the exhibits of publishers and booksellers. The latter is particularly full with respect to these indus¬ tries in the United States and Germany. In Chapter Y will be found a survey of medical instruction in the United States as presented in the reports of two French commissioners appointed to make a special study of the subject. One of these reports was prepared by Dr. Bonet-Maury, member of the general council of 12 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. the Paris faculties, who confined himself to an investigation of the entrance requirements of the chief medical schools and to a compari¬ son of the same with the preparation for professional study as required in France. The second report, which is much more extensive, was prepared by Dr. Marcel Baudouin and M. R. Mathieu, appointed by the French Gov¬ ernment as commissioners to the Chicago Exposition, the former charged also with the special investigation of medical schools and the status of medical instruction in the United States. The result of these investi¬ gations is a quarto of 308 pages, which is claimed by Dr. Baudouin to be the most comprehensive work on the subject that has yet appeared, not excepting even reports by Americans themselves. The first part of the report treats in detail of the scientific institutions of the Govern¬ ment at Washington, schools of medicine, departments of biology and hospitals. It deals also with groups of institutions and with social customs, especially such as affect health and sanitation. The second part of Dr. Baudouin’s report comprises a general survey of the condi¬ tions, standards, and results of medical instruction in the United States, which is reproduced substantially in the chapter. Particularly sug¬ gestive is the discussion of the role of women physicians. It should be mentioned that the appendixes to the report comprise a tabular view of the laws regulating medical practice in the United States, a complete list of the medical schools existing in 1893, and a very full description of the exhibitions of surgical instruments and apparatus for physiolog¬ ical and anthropological laboratories displayed at Ghicago from all countries. For obvious reasons these have not been reproduced in this chapter. Chapter VI consists of notes and observations by the Italian, Swed¬ ish, Danish, and Russian delegates. Signor Luigi Bodio, the director of the royal statistical bureau of Italy and one of the most eminent statisticians of the world, records in a generous manner his recognition of the end and aim of the methods of such of our educational devices as come under his inspection. Prof. A. Ghisleri makes a careful study of the school furniture and apparatus, and a comparison of the methods that he observed in the Few York City schools with the methods of his own country, Italy. Dr. Osterberg, of Sweden, Miss Frederiksen, of Denmark, and M. Kovaleski, the delegate from the Russian ministry of instruction, make interesting comparative studies of our educational exhibits. Another chapter (Chapter VII) contains an English version of a report on American technological schools made by Professor Riedler of the Royal Polytechnicum at Charlottenberg, near Berlin. This report is copiously illustrated, showing the courses of study of this kind of schools in a very novel manner. The author offers some standards of measurement hitherto not applied, and the graphic pre¬ sentation of the courses of study facilitate their application. THE COMMITTEE OF TEN. 13 Iii Chapter VIII of this part of the report I have printed a report of the proceedings of the World’s Congress of Librarians held at Chi¬ cago during the Exposition. Under the presidency of the Hon. Melvil Dewey, the able secretary of the State board of regents of New York, a remarkable series of articles was prepared, all of them relating to library economy. In the interest of the librarians of the 4,000 public libraries in the United States I have obtained a complete set of these papers and offer the same in this report. I am sure that these valuable papers will be appreciated not only by those immediately connected with libraries but by all intelligent persons interested in libraries. In the third part of this report Prof. B. A. Hinsdale, of the Univer¬ sity of Michigan, contributes a chapter of u Documents illustrative of American educational history” (Chapter I). This will be of particular interest, because it gives some of the important school legislation of the colonial period 5 but no attempt has been made to gather all the acts of the colonial legislatures on this subject, nor is it claimed that the lawrs quoted stand for more territory than the colonies by which they were passed. This paper also gives with considerable detail the history of the Congressional grants of land and money for common schools, universities, and agricultural colleges. It traces the agitation for and the struggle in behalf of the bill establishing this Bureau and presents the views of many statesmen and scholars on the establish¬ ment of a national university — a question whose interest begins with Washington and the founding of the National Government, and is to-day attracting attention from statesmen and educators. The last section of the paper is a compilation of the provisions of all the State constitutions relating to education from 1776 to the present time. It is believed to be complete, is divided into periods, and is of value not only as a matter of reference, but also as a means of comparative study, for by it the remarkable growth of the estimate set on education, as seen in the organic laws of the several States, can be distinctly traced. Chapter II treats of the report of the committee of ten appointed by the National Educational Association to take up the important subject of courses of instruction in the secondary schools. Not only is there great confusion in the existing curricula, but actual waste of the time and energy of students, not because of poor teaching — for the teachers of secondary schools are on the whole the most skillful of all — but because of defective courses of study. The first step toward the much needed reform in these particulars was a conference between leading representatives of secondary education in different sections of the country, including specialists in the several branches of study to be considered. Such a conference was secured through the action of the National Educational Association, which appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Eliot, president of Harvard University, and appropriated $2,500 for its expenses. Nine subcommittees were 14 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. appointed upon whose expert opinions touching the various phases of secondary instruction the final report of the committee Avas based. Thirty thousand copies of this report were printed and distributed by this Bureau under your authority. The report of the committee is reprinted in this chapter together with several reviews of the same. These have been selected as typical at once of the lines along which the report has been most sharply criti¬ cised and those on which it is most generally indorsed. The review by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler emphasises the weak points of our secondary school work, i. e., the unorganized, sporadic character of the courses in modern languages and natural sciences, weaknesses that are reflected even in the committee’s model programme. His analysis of the programmes brings into clear view the simultaneous arrangements which permit students in different courses to be united in many sub¬ jects. Dr. Eliot’s article on the unity of educational reform sets forth the elements that are common to all educational work, and shows the bearing of the report of the committee upon this integral process. In my address before the department of superintendents at Ricli- mond, I claimed for the high school course, as laid out by the school authorities of the cities of the country, that it is more rational than the secondary course of the private preparatory schools prescribed for them by the colleges, because it opens the mind to ail the phases of human learning presented by nature and humanity. The problem of secondary instruction involves a thorough inquiry into the relative educational values of different branches. In his history of the work of the committee Dr. Baker has ably defended this position. He takes exception to the report as favoring u an extreme theory of equivalence of studies.” - The importance of this central problem is reinforced by Principal O. D. Robinson in view of the fact that 90 per cent of high school pupils do not enter college. Superintendent Nightingale has confined himself chiefly to the results of the special conference on English. Of all the studies discussed this suffers most from the want of systematized instruction, and further from its unsatisfactory treatment in college entrance examinations. Hence a reason for special attention to this subcommittee report. The chapter concludes with a bibliography of the report of the com¬ mittee, which is substantially complete up to the time that this goes to press. Chapter III contains a historical account of the National Educa¬ tional Association, followed by a statement of the organization and functions of this powerful educational agency ; its constitution is quoted, and a list of its annual meetings with the name of its officers is given, as well as a catalogue of the papers and addresses delivered since its organization in 1869. It is a fortunate circumstance that the first president of the association, Mr. Z. Richards, could undertake a sketch EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 15 of its historical development. He has with singular faithfulness fol¬ lowed the growth of this worthy institution. The lists of principal subjects considered is complete; a search through it reveals a wealth of educational ideas and suggestions. The third part of the report also contains an article on u The educa¬ tion of the negro, its characteristics and facilities,” contributed by Mr. W elford Addis, who takes the ground that there are three features which distinguish the education of the American negro and to a large extent differentiate it from that of the white people among whom he lives. These facts are, (1) the cost of education of the negro is borne by the white portion of the community; (2) this education is almost always elementary; (3) it is becoming more industrial in character. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, W. T. Harris, Commissioner. Hon. Hoke Smith, Secretary of the Interior. PART I CHAP. I. — Statistical Summaries. II. — Illiteracy in the United States. III. — The System of Public Education in Belgium. IV. — Elementary Education in Great Britain. V. — Education in France. VI. — Education in Ontario, New Zealand, and India. VII. — The Teaching of Geography in Central Europe. VIII. — The Common School System of Bavaria. IX. — Education in Uruguay. X.— Child Study. XI. — German Bibliography of Herbartianism. XII. — Name Kejnster. ED 93 . PART I. CHAPTER I. STATISTICAL SUMMARIES. Contents : I. — General summary of pupils. II. — State common school systems ( p . 23). III. — City common school systems (p. 39). I V. — Public high schools and private secondary schools ( p . 51). V. — Universities and colleges ( p . 69). VI. — Colleges for women ( p.88 ). VII. — Colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts (p. 92). VIII. — Schools of theology , law, and medicine ( p . 96). IX. — Normal schools ( p . 1G2). I, —General Summary of Pupils of all Grades in Public and Private Schools and Institutions. The following table gives tlie number of pupils of all grades in the United States,1 classified according to grade of instruction imparted, instead of according to the character of institution attended. Thus, all secondary pupils in colleges have been classed as secondary, and all elementary pupils as elementary, even though attending (in the “preparatory” department) an institution of secondary grade. The statistics of private elementary education have never been com¬ pletely gathered, and the figures in column 3 are, therefore, largely estimated ; they are known to be much less than the facts would war¬ rant, and should possibly be increased as much as 50 per cent. The returns of pupils receiving secondary instruction, both public and pri¬ vate, are also incomplete. The total number of pupils and students of all grades in 1892-93 in public and piivate schools, as given by the table, was 15,083,630, or 22.5 per cent of the total population. The increase over the preceding year was 370,697, or 2.52 per cent. About 10 persons in every 44 during the year in question received formal instruction of some kind. Of the whole number of pupils and students, 96.2 per cent were receiving elementary instruction, 2.7 per cent secondary instruction, and 1.1 per cent higher instruction. Excluding, in general, evening schools: music, elocution, art, industrial training, trades, and private business schools; schools for the defective, dependent, and delin¬ quent classes, and Indian schools. These collectively enroll some 300,000 pupils. 19 20 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Only 1 pupil out of 37 was of secondary (or high school) grade, and 1 in 94 of collegiate grade. As compared with the total population, 1 person in every 161 was a secondary pupil and 1 in 413 was under higher instruction. On this basis, a city of 10,000 inhabitants would furnish on an average 62 sec¬ ondary pupils and 24 higher students (the latter including professional and normal students). Of all pupils and students, 90 per cent attended public schools and institutions and 10 per cent private. This percentage of private pupils is, however, probably too small, as the records of private school attend¬ ance are very incomplete, particularly in the elementary grades. STATISTICAL SUMMARIES. 21 Total number of pupils or .students of each grade , in both public and private schools — Continued. 22 EDUCATION REPORT, 1S92-93. ococcr^H hcc rTOOH t- H o CO UO •5 « CM 05 krt TX lO N (O r- t' 05 II C5 C- ^ C- 05 to SC os' rH o' l t'inooo II IOHH19 Q® I *1 j $s> W I | C C — & Wr^ b£ ! (M I t- o t>iOO^C5 in in ’> ,2-2 fiS « « > . £5.2 ^ rt-M -g2 5^,SSs g fl =5 2 V ?i aa 'so ^ STATISTICS OF STATE COMMON SCHOOLS. 23 II. — Statistics of State Common School Systems. Note. — Tlio common schools, as here understood, include public day schools of elementary and secondary grade (i.e., public primary, grammar, and high schools). Classification by raco is given elsewhere in this report. The enrollment hero given is less than that found by adding together columns 2 and 4 in Tablo 1, in that it does not embrace secondary pupils in public collegiate institutions. SUMMARY. The figures for 1S92-93 in the following statement are made up from returns from the different States for that year, except in a few instances, where the latest figures obtainable were used. The results are there¬ fore given subject to correction. I. — General statistics. Population of the United States (estimated)... Number of persons 5 to 18 years of age . Number of different pupils enrolled in the schools . Per cent of persons 5 to 18 years of age en¬ rolled . Average daily attendance . .Ratio to enrollment (per cent) . Averago length of school term (days) . Aggregate number of days’ attendance . Average number for each person 5 to 18 years of age . Average number attended by each pupil en¬ rolled . Male teachers . Female teachers . Whole number of teachers . Per cent of male teachers . A-veragc monthly wages of teachers in 42 States : Male teachers . Female teachers . Number of sehoolhouses . Value of school property . Average value per schodlhouse . Average valueper capitaof average attendance. II. — Finances. Receipts : Income of permanent funds . From State taxes . From local taxes . . From other sources . . - . Total revenue . Per cent of the total revenue derived from — Permanent funds . State taxes . Local taxes . Other sources . . . Expenditures : For sites, buildings, furniture, libraries, and apparatus . . For salaries of teachers and superintendents For other purposes . Total expenditures . Average expenditure per capita of population. Average expenditure per pupil : For sites, buildings, etc . For salaries . . For other purposes . Total . Percentage of the total expenditure devoted to— Sites, buildings, etc . Salaries . Other purposes . 1891-92. i I 1802-93. | Increase or decrease. Per cent j of in- j crease or j decrease. 64, 834, 561 i 63, 0S7, 900 I .. 1,253,339 I- 1.93 19, 192, 894 19, 552, 491 I .. 359,597 i I-- 1.87 13,255,921 13, 510, 719 I 254, 79S ; I-- 1.92 69.06 69. 10 I .04 8,560,603 8, 855, 717 j I 295, 114 j I.. 3. 45 64. 58 65. 54 ! I .96 136.9 136.7 : D 2 1, 171,800, 677 1.210.754,931 1 I . .38, 954! 254 ! I.. 3.33 61.1 61.9 I .8 88.4 89.6 I 1.2 121. 573 1227056 I .483 ’ I.. .40 252, 653 260, 954 I . 8. 301 i.. 3.29 374, 226 383, 010 I 8. 784 I.. 2. 35 32.5 31.9 D .6 $46. 39 $38. 46 228, 853 235, 420 I 6, 573 I.. 2. 88 $383, 167, 7C9 $393, 435, 039 I .$15,267,240 I.. 3. 08 $1,679 $1, 692 I . $13. 00 $44. 76 $45. 00 I $0. 24 $3, 081, 255 $8. 674, 945 j I .. $593,600 I I 7. 35 $29, 908, 076 $33, 694, 813 I ..$3,786,737 I.. 12. 66 $105, 629, 838 $108, 425, 054 I ..$2,795,216 i I.. 2.65 | $13, 555, 886 $14, 228, 070 I .. $672,184 I.. 4. 96 $165, 022, 882 I ..$7,847,827 I.. 4. 99 5. 1 5.3 I .2 19.1 , 29.4 I ” L3 67. 2 65. 7 j I) 1.5 8.6 8.6 .0 i $29,344,559 $31, 439, 580 j I ..$2,095, 021 I.. 7. 14 $100,298,256 $104, 090, 607 1 I ..$3,792, 351 I.. 3. 78 j $26,174,197 $27, 813, 091 : i ..$1,638,894 I.. 6. 26 ! $155, 817, 012 $163, 343. 278 ! i ..$7, 526, 266 I.. 4. 83 $2. 40 $2747' $0. 07 - ; - \ $3.42 ! $3. 55 i $0. 13 $11.72 i $11. 76 i $0. 04 $3.06 $3.14 i $0. 08 $18. 20 $18. 45 IT $0. 25 18.8 19.2 I 4 64.4 63.7 D .7 16.8 17.1 i1 .3 24 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 1. — The total population, the school population, and the adult male population. Approxi¬ mate total population in 1898. School population. Approxi¬ State or Territory. Approximate number of children 5 to 18 years of age in 1893. J Per cent of males (1890). mate adult male population Males. Females. Total. in 1893. 1 2 3 4 ! 5 6 r United States . 66, 087, 900 9,868,033 9, 684, 458 19, 552, 491 50. 47 17, 924, 401 North Atlantic Division . 18, 295, 500 2, 331, 680 2, 317, 312 4, 648, 992 50. 15 5, 311, 750 South Atlantic Division . 9, 283. 298 1, 592, 811 1. 566, 230 3, 159, 041 50. 43 2, 113, 259 South Central Division . 11, 620, 017 2, 043, 872 1, 990, 944 4, 034, 816 50. 65 2, 670, 472 North Central Division . 23, 377, 700 3, 466, 830 3, 389, 360 6, 856, 190 50. 56 6, 487, 310 Western Division . 3, 511, 390 432, 840 420, 612 853, 452 50. 70 1, 341, 610 North Atlantic Division : Maiue . ,. 650, 100 80, 820 79, 080 159, 900 50. >3 197, 900 New Hampshire . 385, 900 43, 050 42, 940 85, 990 50. 06 121. 100 Vermont . 332, 500 42, 260 39, 700 81, 960 51. 55 101, 700 Massachusetts . 2, 359, 400 268, 900 270, 700 539, 600 49. 83 700, 800 Rhode Island . 382, 200 46, 370 46, 800 93, 170 49. 77 110, 600 Connecticut . 786, 400 93, 000 92, 100 185, 100 50. 24 236, 150 New York . 6, 179, 000 758, 450 759, 950 1, 518, 400 49. 95 1, 823, 000 New Jersey . 1, 628, 000 212, 330 211, 542 | 423, 872 50. 09 465, 900 Pennsylvania . . 5, 592, 000 786, 500 774, 500 1, 561, 000 50. 38 1, 554. 600 South Atlantic Division: Delaware (1890) . 168, 493 24, 071 23, 420 47, 491 50. 69 47, 559 Maryland . 1, 077, 000 158, 200 157, 100 315, 300 50. 18 279, 700 District of Columbia . 262, 200 32, 310 34, 240 66, 550 48. 55 73, 400 Virginia . : . 1, 723, 000 296, 700 291, 800 588, 500 50. 41 394, 100 West Virginia . 800, 800 136, 100 133, 200 269, 300 50. 56 190, 400 North Carolina . 1, 688, 000 301, 600 295, 200 596, 300 50. 54 357, 500 South Carolina . 1, 202, 000 225, 400 221, 100 446, 500 50. 48 246, 100 Georgia . 1, 924, 000 345, 450 337, 650 683, 100 50. 57 416, 900 Florida - j . 437, 800 72, 980 72, 520 145, 500 50. 17 107, 600 South Central Division : Kentucky . 1, 946, 000 322, 030 315, 270 637, 300 50. 53 471, 900 Tennessee . 1, 806, 000 314, 500 303, tv,0 G18, 100 50. 89 411, 200 Alabama (1890) . 1, 513, 017 273, 812 266, 414 540, 226 50. 69 324, 822 Mississippi . 1, 352, 000 251, 800 244, 200 496, 000 50. 78 284, 150 Louisiana . 1, 178, 000 201, 500 119, 700 401, 200 50. 22 264, 000 Texas . ^ 491, 000 442. 400 431, 800 874, 200 50. 61 597, 200 Arkansas . 1, 183, 000 214, 250 207, 950 422, 200 50. 75 270, 400 Oklahoma . 151, 000 23, 580 22, 010 45, 590 51.73 46, 800 North Central Division : Ohio . 3, 723, 000 534, 200 521, 800 1, 056, 000 50. 57 1, 031. 000 Indiana . 2, 253, 000 335, 800 329, 800 665, COO 50.45 611, 600 Illinois . 4, 041,000 574, 900 567, 100 1, 142, 000 50. 34 1, 133, 000 Michigan . 2, 168, 000 303, 500 298, 500 602, 000 50.42 639, 300 Wisconsin . 1, 815, 000 273, 200 269,100 542, 300 50. 37 496, 700 Minnesota . . 1, 439, 000 210, 150 200, 150 41G, 300 50. 48 415, 600 Iowa . 1, 989, 000 304, 800 295, 300 600, 100 50. 79 541, 300 Missouri . 2, 859, 000 448, 800 440, 700 889, 500 50. 45 753, 200 North Dakota . 245, 800 34, 690 32, 420 67, 110 51. 67 75, 290 South Dakota . 308, 900 46, 290 44, 190 90, 480 51. 16 90, 920 Nebraska . 1, 122, 000 172, 700 165, 300 338, 000 51. 08 319, 600 Kansas . 1, 414, 000 227, 800 219, 000 446, 800 50. 98 379, 800 Western Division : Montana . 159, 800 14, 580 14, 280 28, 860 50. 52 79, 090 Wyoming . 85, 500 9,450 8, 790 18, 240 51. 78 38, 090 Colorado . 503, 100 55, 980 54, 720 110, 700 50. 56 201, 300 New Mexico . 164, 000 23, 510 22, 520 46, 030 51.07 48, 000 Arizona . . . 76, 120 9, 775 9, 575 19, 350 50. 52 30*, 250 Utah . 244, 600 40, 150 39, 210 79, 360 50. 59 64, 080 Nevada . . 43, 170 4, 790 4, 652 9, 442 50. 73 19, 760 Idaho . 107, 000 14, 900 14, 070 28, 970 51. 43 39, 940 Washington . 446. 800 51, 915 49, 485 101, 400 51. 20 187, 900 Oregon . 380, 300 51, 790 50, 710 102, 500 50. 52 135, 400 California . 1, 301, 000 156, 000 152, 600 308, 600 50. 54 497, 800 STATISTICS OF STATE COMMON SCHOOLS. 95 Table 2. — Relation of the school population to the total population and to the adult male population; proportion of the white school population of foreign birth or extraction; percentage of foreign born of total population. Number of children 5 to 18 years of age to every 100 persons of the total population. 1 Number ) of adult males to every 100 children 5 to 18 years of 'age, in 1890. Percent¬ age of white children 5 to 18 years of age that were of foreign birt h or parent¬ age in 1890. Percentage of foreign born of total popula¬ tion. State or Territory. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 United States . 81. 27 30.04 29. 61 91.4 Per ct. 33.5 Per ct. 14.44 | Per ct. 13.32 j Per ct. 14. 77 N orth Atlantic Division . 28. 80 26. 87 25.39 114.4 45.8 20. 49 19.40 J 22. 34 South Atlantic Division . 33. 02 32. 24 34.04 66.8 6.6 2.85 i 2.29 j 2. 35 South Central Division . 33. 92 33.13 34.76 65.9 8.6 3.62 3.08 j 2. 93 North Central Division . 32. 40 30. 63 29. 33 94.6 41.5 17. 97 i 16. 80 18. 16 W estem Division . 25. 57 25.13 24. 33 156.7 44.7 31.64 ! 28.29 '25.46 if ortli Atlantic Division: Maine . 28. 01 25. 71 24. 60 123.7 25.0 7.80 9. 07 11. 94 New Hampshire . 24. 75 22.80 22. 29 140.8 38.4 9.30 13. 34 19. 21 Vermont . . 27. 18 25. 96 24. 65 124.1 38.4 14. 27 12. 33 13.26 Massachusetts . 25. 51 23. 98 22. 87 129.9 60.5 24.24 24. 87 29. 35 Rhode Island . 25. 66 24. 64 24.38 118.7 62.4 25.49 26. 76 30. 77 Connecticut . 25. 86 24. 97 23. 54 127 6 54. 6 21. 14 20.88 24. 60 New York . 28. 09 26. 32 24. 57 120. 1 54.8 25. 97 23. 83 26. 19 New Jersey . 29. 01 I 27.98 26. 04 109.9 48.3 20. 85 19. 60 22. 77 Pennsylvania . 30. 55 29. 43 27. 92 99.6 32.3 15. 48 13.73 16. 08 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 31.84 29.11 28. 19 100.1 17.3 7.31 6.46 7.81 Maryland . 31. 30 29.89 29. 28 88.7 24.4 10.68 i 8. 86 9. 05 District of Columbia . - 27.01 26.87 ! 25.38 110. 3 26.3 12.34 | 9.64 8. 15 Virginia . 32.39 32.43 ! t 34. 16 67.0 2.8 1.12 0.97 1. 11 West Virginia . 34.13 33.37 1 33. 62 70.7 5. 9 3.87 2. 95 2.48 North Carolina . 33.60 32.30 35. 35 59.9 0.7 0.28 0.27 0.23 South Carolina . 33.15 1 33.21 i 37. 14 55. 1 2.3 1.14 0.77 0. 54 Georgia . 34.42 ! 33.17 | 35. 50 61.0 2.1 0. 94 0. 69 0. 66 Florida . 34.03 32.82 j 33. 23 74.0 11.5 2.65 3.68 5. 86 South Central Division : Kentucky . 34.41 33. 14 ! 32. 76 74.0 8.7 4.80 3. 61 3. 19 Tennessee . 34.13 33. 44 34. 22 66.5 2.9 1.53 1.08 1.13 Alabama . . 34.40 ! 33. 37 35. 70 60.1 3.2 1.00 0. 77 0. 98 Mississippi . 33.70 j 34. 12 36. 69 57.3 3.1 1.35 0. 81 0. 62 Louisiana . 31.11 31. 93 34. 04 65.8 17.8 8.51 5. 76 4. 45 Texas . 34.80 32. 60 35. 10 68.3 16.9 7.62 7.20 6.84 Arkansas . 34.16 33. 15 35.68 64.0 3. 5 1.04 1.29 1.26 Oklahoma . 30. 18 102.7 9.6 4. 43 North Central Division : Ohio . 31.74 29.75 28.37 j 97.6 30.4 13.98 12.35 12. 51 Indiana . 33. 75 31.37 29.54 91.9 17.8 8.42 7.29 6.67 Illinois . 32.24 30. 66 28. 26 99.2 47.0 20.28 18. 96 22.01 Michigan . 30.28 28. 37 27. 77 106. 2 56.1 22.63 23. 73 25. 97 Wisconsin . 33.57 30.85 29.88 -91.6 72.4 34. 56 80. 82 30.78 Minnesota . 32.45 30.43 28. 93 99.8 76.4 j 36. 55 34. 28 35. 90 Iowa . 33. 06 31. 40 30.17 90.2 42.6 17. 14 16.11 16. 95 Missouri . 33.57 | 32. 35 31. 11 84.7 22.5 12. 91 9. 76 8. 77 North Dakota . South Dakota . £ 23. 74 24. 34 5 27.30 ( 29.29 112.2 100.5 80.3 61.2 ( 33.95 ! 38. 32 5 44. 58 \ 27. 69 Nebraska . 28.07 29. 88 30.12 i 94.5 42.1 25. 00 21. 53 19. 13 Kansas . 29.83 31.73 31.59 85.0 26.4 13.28 i 11. 05 10. 36 Western Division: Montana . 10. 20 17. 10 18. 06 274.0 49.4 38.74 I 29. 42 32. 61 Wyoming . 9.39 1 18. 06 21.33 j 208. 8 47.2 38.53 l 28. 14 24. 57 Colorado . 22.47 i 18. 72 22. 00 181. 8 * 36.3 16. 55 20. 48 20.38 New Mexico . 31.90 29. 85 28. 07 104.3 13.2 6.12 6. 73 7.33 Arizona . 16.78 : 19. 59 25.42 156.4 57.1 60.15 ! 39. 69 31.52 Utah . 35. 05 | 33.39 32.45 80. 7 66.6 35. 38 30. 56 25. 52 Nevada . 12.56 18.22 21. 87 209.3 60.8 44.25 41.20 32. 14 Idaho . 11.30 22. 98 27.07 137.9 41.1 52. 57 30.59 20. 69 W ashmgton . 26. 96 27. 19 22. 69 185.3 39.3 20.97 21.04 25. 76 Oregon . 32.34 28. 63 26. 96 132.1 27.9 12.76 ; 17. 45 j 18. 27 California . . 24.48 25. 03 23.72 161.3 51.8 37. 45 j 33. 87 30.32 26 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93, Table 3. — Number of ptupils enrolled in the common schools at various periods, and rela¬ tion of the enrollment to the school population. j "Whole number of pupils enrolled on the | Number of pupils so enrolled school registers during the school year, ; for every 100 children 5 to 18 State or Territory. ' excluding duplicates. j years of age. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. j 1892-93. 1870-71. 1S79-80. 1889-90. 1832-93. 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 7, 561,582 9, 867, 505 12,722,581 13, 510, 719 61.45 65.50 68.61 09. 10 2, 743. 344 2, 930, 345 3, 112, 622 3, 228. 816 77. 95 75.17 70. 45 69. 43 C03, 619 1. 242, 811 1, 785, 486 1, 919, 9S0 30. 51 50. 74 59. 22 60. 77 707, 839 1,371, 975 2, 293, 579 2, 554, 655 34.17 46. 43 60. 14 63.31 3, 300, 660 4. 033, 828 5,015,217 5, 183, 453 76. 87 75. 84 76. 46 75. 60 146. 120 . 288, 546 515, 677 623, 815 5 4. 77 64. 96 70. 01 73. 10 a 152, 600 149, 827 139, 076 136, 868 a 87. 35 89. 80 85. 88 85. 56 71,957 64, 341 59, 813 61, 703 91. 31 81. 32 71.28 j 71. 75 c65, 384 273, 661 75, 238 eZ65, G08 371, 492 c g 65, 314 391, 745 87. 21 306, 777 72. 34 71. 76 72. 56 72. 62 a 34, 000 40, 604 52, 774 53, 695 a 59. 24 59. 59 62. 65 57. 64 113, 588 119, 694 126, 505 133, 237 80. 83 76. 97 72. 02 71.98 1, 028, 110 1, 031, 593 1, 042. 160 1, 083, 228 82.98 77. 10 70. 71 71. 33 169, 430 201, 961 234, 072 249, 588 63. 20 64. 77 62.21 58.89 834,614 937, 310 1, 020, 522 1, 053. 438 76. 35 74. 37 69. 53 67.48 20, 058 27, 823 31,434 <7 33, 174 i 50. 04 65. 20 ! 66. 19 g 67. 93 115,683 162, 431 184, 251 199, 402 j 40. 70 58.13 - 60. 37 63. 24 15, 157 26, 439 36, 906 39, 764 41. 60 55. 40 63. 10 59. 76 1 131, 088 220, 736 342, 269 348, 471 32. 34 ^ 45. 00 1 00. 51 59.22 | 76, 999 142, 850 193, 064 208, 217 49. 47 j 69. 21 I 75.27 77. 32 a 115, 000 252, 612 322, 533 356, 958 a 31. 23 1 55. 87 56. 39 58.81 66, 056 134, 072 201, 260 223, 150 27. 28 ! 40.56 ! 47. 08 49.97 49, 578 236. 533 381, 297 415, 647 11.89 ! 46. 24 | 58. 45 60.84 a 14, 000 39, 315 92, 472 95, 197 a 21. 21 44. 16 j 71. 10 65. 45 el78, 457 ae276, 000 399, 660 a 455, 000 1 . 1 65. 64 all. 38 a 140, COO 300,217 447, 950 463, 461 a 32. 00 58. 21 1 74.05 75. 00 141,312 179, 490 301, 615 h 301, 615 40. 36 42. 60 55.83 h 55.83 a 117, 000 236, 654 334, 158 334, 923 a 40. 60 61.29 70. 62 67. 31 57,639 77, 642 120, 253 155, 470 24. 78 25. 87 31.58 38. 65 63. 504 a 220,000 466, 872 553, 271 21.00 a 42. 40 59. 50 63. 29 69, 927 81, 972 223,071 264, 576 28, 339 806, 496 40. 29 30. 81 55.41 62. 66 57.79 719, 372 729, 499 797,439 84.04 | 76. 69 ! 76.54 76. 37 1 450, 057 511,283 512, 955 517, 459 78.64 [ 82. 39 79. 21 77. 75 672, 787 704, 041 778, 319 826, 085 81. 01 j 74.61 71.97 72.40 292. 466 362, 556 427, 032 455, 598 79. 66 78. 08 73. 45 75. 68 265, 285 299, 457 351, 723 372, 192 73.92 73.78 09. 77 68. 63 113, 983 180. 248 280, 960 g 300, 333 75. 92 | 75. 87 74. 59 (?74. 60 1 341, 938 426, 057 493, 267 513, 614 84.44 | 83.52 85. 51 85. 58 ! 330, 070 482, 986 j 620, 314 612. 455 56. 03 j 68. 85 74.43 68. 85 X a/1, 660 /13, 718 ; C 35, 543 S \ 78, 043 47,6:77 81,6115 a/39. 20 | / 41. CS C 71. 26 X 81. 04 71.03 90. 20 23, 265 92, 549 i 240, 300 j 260, 336 j 58. 79 68. 48 i 75. 35 77. 02 89, 777 231, 434 399, 322 389, 597 1 74. 22 73. 23 88. 56 87.20 al, 657 4. 270 16, 980 23, 550 a 70. 24 63.77 71.14 81.60 450 2, 907 7, 052 9, 933 i 45. 34 77. 44 54. 46 54.44 4, 357 22, 119 65, 490 77, 089 42. 28 00.82 72. 20 69. 63 al, 320 | 4, 755 18,215 21, 690 a 4. 42 13.32 42. 25 47. 13 0 1 4.212 7, 989 11, 320 0 53. 16 52. 72 58. 50 16, 992 24, 326 37, 279 55, 471 53. 36 50. 61 55. 26 69. 90 3, 106 9, 045 7, 387 7, 514 | 53. 97 79. 73 73. 80 79. 58 906 5, 834 14, 311 22, 510 ; 46. 06 77.85 62. 66 77.72 a 5, 000 14, 780 55, 964 83, 979 j a 69. 00 72. 36 70. 58 82. 83 a21,0C0 37, 533 63, 254 78, 258 ‘ a 67. 73 75.02 74. 78 76.35 91, 332- 158, 765 221, 756 1 232, 501 j 03. 63 73.37 77. 38 75. 35 United States . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division. South Central Division — North Central Division . . W estern Division . . North Atlantic Division : Maine . N e w Hampshire b - Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New York . Pennsylvania a . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . District of Columbia. West Virginia South Corolina . Georgia . Plorida . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee . . . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma . North Central Division : Ohio . Indiana . Wisconsin North Dakota. . South Dakota . . Nebraska . Kansas . Western Division : Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . New Mexico . . . Arizona . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . Washington . . . Oregon . California . a Approximately . & Number of pupils attending 2 weeks or mors c Number of pupils 5 to 20 years of age. d Number of pupils 5 to 13 years of age. e Highest number enrolled. /Dakota Territory. g In 1891-92. h In 1889-90. STATISTICS OF STATE COMMON SCHOOLS. 27 Table 4. — The common school enrollment of 1S92-93, classified by sex. Per cent of the male and of the female school population enrolled. State or Territory. "Whole number of pupils enrolled, excluding duplicates. Number of pupils of j each sex enrolled for ] every 100 children of ; such sex, 5to 18 years j of age. Excess of pro¬ portion of hoys (G— ex¬ cess of girls). Boys. Gills. Total. j Boys. | Girls. Both | sexes. ! I 2 3 4 5 O 8 United States . * 5, 030, 505 * 4, 847, G81 13, 510, 719 * 68. 63 , ■ 67. 55 69.10 * 1. 08 N orth Atlantic Division . * 752, 751 * 730, 987 3, 228, 816 * 66. 59 v 65. 53 69. 43 * 1. 06 South Atlantic Division . * 852. 985 * 834, 419 r, 919, DS0 * 60. 46 * 60. 21 60. 77 *0.25 South Central Division . * 1, 131. 086 1,091.715 2, 554, 655 05. 00 * 64. 12 63. 31 * 0. 88 North Central Division . * 1. 999, C9S 1,914.210 5, 183, 453 * 75. 52 * 73. 92 75. 60 *1.60 ■Western Division.. . * 290, 085 * 276, 350 623,815 • 73. 68 * 72. 22 73. 10 * 1. 46 North Atlantic Division : 136, 868 1 85. 56 j New Hampshire a . 31. 780 29, 967 61.703 73.73 j 69.77 ! 71. 75 ! 3. 96 Y erment (1891-92) 6 . 33, 993 31,321 65, 314 81. S8 80.38 81.22 i 1.60 391. 745 72.62 ; Ithode Island . c 27, 284 c 26. 411 53. 695 : 58. 82 ! 56. 44 | | 57. 64 ; 2.38 133,237 71.88 ! 1,033.228 71.33 New Jersey . 125, 970 123,618 219! 588 59.33 58. 44 ! 58. 89 0. 89 Pennsylvania . 533, 768 519, 670 1,053, 438 67.86 67.10 67.48 ; 0. 76 South Atlantic Division : Delaware (1891— S2) . . 33, 174 67.* 91 Maryland . . . 199, 402 63. 24 District of Columbia . 18, 723 21. 041 39, 764 57. 94 61.44 59. 76 G. 3.50 Virginia . 176. 104 172, 367 348. 471 59. 36 59. 07 59. 22 0. 20 "W est Y irginia . . 109, G04 98. 613 208. 217 ' 80. 50 74. 05 77. 32 ] 6. 45 North. Carolina . 182, 275 174, 683 356, 958 60. 44 59. 17 59.81 1.27 South Carolina . 111, 663 111,487 223, 150 49. 55 50. 42 49.97 ! G. 0.87 Georgia . 207, 514 208, 133- 415, 647 60. 07 61. 64 60. 84 i G. 1. 57 Florida . 47, 102 48, 095 95, 197 64.53 68.33 65.45 : G. 1.81 South Central Division : Keutuckye . 235,000 ! 220, 000 455, 000 72. 98 69.77 71. 38 3. 21 Tennessee . 238, 280 225, 181 463, 461 75. 75 74.18 75.60 ; 1.57 Alabama (1889-90) . ! 301, 615 55.83 Mississippi . 167,934 166, 989 334, 923 66. 70 68.37 j 67. 52 | G. 1.67 Louisiana . 78,219 , 77, 251 155, 470 38. 83 38. 68 | 38. 75 0. 15 Texas . 278.303 | 274, 968 553, 271 62. 90 63.68 1 63.29 G. 0.78 Arkansas . 137,250 I 127, 326 264. 576 64. 06 61. 21 62. 66 2. 85 Oklahoma . 1 26, 339 57. 79 North Central Division : Ohio . 413, 902 392, 594 806, 496 77.48 75. 25 : 76. 37 2. 23 Indiana . 265. 093 252, 366 517.459 78. 96 ! 76. 52 ■ 77. 75 2.44 Illinois . 418, 263 407, 822 826, 085 j 72.77 . 71. 92 | 72. 40 0. 85 Michigan . . . 455, 598 75. 68 Wisconsin . 188. 807 1S3, 385 372,192 69. 10 68. 14 I 68.63 0. 96 Minnesota, f 1891 -99\ _ _ J 1 - 300, 333 1 74.60 ! Iowa . . . . . . 513, 614 85. 5S Missouri . 312,362 300. 093 612. 455 69. 62 68. 10 68. 85 1.52 North Dakota . 25. 234 22,443 47, 677 72. 77 69. 23 71.03 3. 54 South Dakota . 43,200 38, 411 81. 611 93. 32 86.92 90. 20 6.40 Nebraska . . 133, 043 127. 293 260, 336 77. 05 77. 00 77.02 1 0.05 Kansas . 1 199, 794 189, 803 389, 597 87. 72 86. 68 87.20 1.04 Western Division : Montana . I 23, 550 81.60 Wyoming . 5, 101 4, 832 9.933 54. 01 54. 86 54.44 1 G. 0.95 Colorado . 37, 644 39, 445 77, 089 67. 23 72. 08 69. 63 i G. 4.85 New Mexico . 13, 142 8, 548 21,690 55. 91 37. 96 47. 13 j 17. 95 Arizona . . . 11, 320 58. 50 1 Utah . 28, 523 26, 948 55. 471 71.03 68.73 69.90 2. 30 Nevada . 3, 724 3, 790 7.514 77. 75 81.45 79. 58 G. 3.70 Idaho . . . . 22. 510 77. 72 "Washington . 43, 209 40. 770 83, 979 83.24 82. 40 82.83 0. 84 Oregon . . . 39, 664 38. 594 78. 258 76. 58 76. 10 76. 35 0. 48 California . 119. 078 113, 423 232, 501 76. 33 74. 32 75. 35 2. 01 * This summary includes only the States belonging to the group that are tabulated below in the same column. a Number of pupils attending two weeks or more. 6 Includes only pupils 5 to 20 years of age. c Approximately . 28 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 5. — Average dailg attendance of pupils at various periods and its present relation to the school population and to the enrollment. State or Territory. Average number of pupils in attendance each day. Relation of the average attendance in 1892-93— 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-90. 1892-93. To the school popula¬ tion. To the enroll¬ ment. 1 2 3 4 5 O 7 Per cent. Per cent. United States . 4, 545, 317 6, 144, 143 8, 153, 635 8, 855, 717 45. 29 65.54 1, 627, 208 1, 824, 487 2, 036, 459 2, 152, 930 46. 30 66. 68 South Atlantic Division . '368,' 111 776, 798 1, 126, 683 1, 174, 634 37.18 6ll 17 South Central Division . 535, 632 902. 767 1, 467, 649 1, 605, 920 39. 80 62. 86 North Central Division . 1,911,720 2, 451, 167 3, 188, 732 3, 503, 670 51.10 67. 60 Western Division . 102, 646 188, 924 334, 112 418, 563 49. 04 67. 10 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 100, 392 103, 115 98, 364 a 90, 393 a 56. 52 b 66. 00 New Hampshire . 48, 150 48. 966 41, 526 42, 889 49. 88 69. 52 Vermont . a 44, 100 48, G06 45, 887 6 45, 057 b 56. 04 b 68. 98 Massachusetts . .. . 201, 750 233, 127 273, 910 290, 801 53.90 74. 23 Rhode Island . 22, 485 27, 217 33, 905 35, 969 38. 60 66. 97 62, 683 73, 546 83, 656 86, 255 46. 60 64. 74 New York . 493; 648 573, 089 642, 984 688, 097 45. 32 63. 54 New Jersey . . . 86, 812 115, 194 133, 286 151,273 35. 68 60. 60 Pennsylvania . 567, 188 601, 627 682, 941 722, 196 46. 26 68. 55 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . a 12, 700 17, 439 19, 649 ab 22, 693 ab 46. 47 ab G8. 40 Maryland . 56, 435 85, 778 102, 351 108,611 34. 44 54. 46 District of Columbia . 10, 261 20, 637 28, 184 30, 067 45. 19 75. 62 Virginia . 77, 402 128, 404 198, 290 194,143 33. 00 55. 70 West Virginia . 51, 336 91, 604 121, 700 134, 425 49. 92 64. 57 North Carolina . a 73, 000 170, 100 203, 100 214, 779 35. 98 60. 16 South Carolina . a 44. 700 a 90, 600 147, 799 162, 300 36. 34 72. 73 Georgia . 31, 377 145, 190 240, 791 245, 378 35. 92 59. 03 Florida . a 10, 900 27, 046 64, 819 62, 238 42. 80 65. 39 South Central Division : Kentucky . 120, 866 178,000 225, 739 a 261, 700 a 40. 90 a 57. 29 Tennessee . a 89, 000 208,528 323. 548 330, 978 53. 55 71.40 Alabama . 107, 666 117,978 182. 467 c 182, 467 c 33. 78 c 60. 50 Mississippi . 90, 000 156, 761 207, 704 194, 993 •39. 31 58. 22 Louisiana . a 40, 500 a 54, 800 87, 536 107, 370* 26. 66 69. 07 Texas . a 41, 000 a 132, GOO a 291, 941 364, 835 41. 64 65. 95 Arkansas . a 46, 600 a 54, 700 a 148, 714 a 147, 766 a 35. 00 b 55. 85 Oklahoma . 15, 811 34. 68 60. 01 North Central Division : Ohio . 432, 452 476, 279 549, 269 570, 056 53. 97 70. 68 Indiana . 295, 071 321, 659 342, 275 371, 298 55. 79 71. 75 Illinois . 341, 686 431, 638 538. 310 605, 818 53.05 73. 28 Michigan . , . a 193, 000 a 240, GOO a 282, 000 a 306, 162 a 50. 85 a 67. 19 Wisconsin . a 132, 000 a 156, 000 200, 457 a 231, 942 a 42. 78 a 62. 33 Minnesota . 50, 694 a 78, 400 127 025 173, 786 43. 16 57. 86 Iowa . 211,562 250, 836 306, 300 324, 217 54. 02 63. 13 Missouri . 187, 024 a 281, 000 384, 627 437, 693 49. 20 71. 47 North Dakota . ( n 1 A 4 A Q EQA 5 20, 694 25,823 38. 47 54.16 South Dakota . > ±, U-iU 0, OoU l 48, 327 a 50, 600 a 55. 92 a 62. 00 Nebraska . a 14, 300 60, 156 146, 139 159, 704 47. 25 59. 95 Kansas . 52, 801 137, 669 243, 300 246, 571 55. 19 63. 29 Western Division : Montana . a 1, 100 a 3, 000 10, 596 15, 144 52. 47 64. 30 Wyoming . cl 250 1, 920 a 4, 700 a 6. 360 a 34. 87 a 64. 04 Colorado . 2,611 12, 618 38, 715 cl 48, 211 a, 43. 54 b 62. 54 New Mexico . a 880 3, 150 a 13, 000 14, 158 30. 76 65. 27 Arizona . 0 2, 847 4, 702 6, 921 35. 77 61. 15 Utah . 12, 819 17, 178 20, 967 37. 239 46. 92 67.13 Nevada . a 1, 800 5, 401 5, 064 5, 192 55.00 69. 12 Idaho . a 600 3, 863 a 9, 500 17, J 37 59. 16 76. 12 Washington . cl 3, 300 10, 546 36, 946 54, 680 53. 92 65. 10 Oregon . a 15, 000 27, 435 43, 333 55, 848 54.47 71.35 California . '. . . 64, 286 100, 966 146, 589 157, 673 51.19 67. 80 cl Approximately. b In 1891-92. c In 18S9-90. STATISTICS OF STATE COMMON SCHOOLS, 29 Table 6. — (1) Average length of school term. (2) Aggregate number of days’ schooling given to all pupils; the same compared with the school population and the school enrollment. State or Territory. Average length of school term in days. Aggregate number of days’ school¬ ing given. Average number of days’ schooling given for each child 5 to 18 years of age. Average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled. . 1870-71 1879-80 1889-90 1892-93 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ' S United States . 132. 1 130.3 134.7 136.7 1, 210, 754, 931 61.9 89.6 North Atlantic Division . . . 152.0 159.2 166.6 169.7 365, 226, 295 78.6 113.1 South Atlantic Division. . . . 97.4 92.4 99.9 105. 7 • 124, 176, 795 39.3 64.7 South Central Division . 91.6 79.2 88.2 93.1 149, 499, 549 37.0 58.5 North Central Division . 133.9 139.8 148.0 146. 4 512, 809, 466 74.8 98.9 Western Division . 119.2 129.2 135.0 141.1 59, 042, 826 69.2 94.7 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 98.0 109.0 112.0 a 123. 0 & 11, 118, 339 6 67.9 6 81.2 New Hampshire . 70.0 105.3 117.7 130.2 5, 584, 148 64.9 90.5 Vermont . 115.6 125.5 136.0 a 138. 0 a 6, 215, 847 a 77. 3 a 95. 3 Massachusetts . 169.0 177.0 177.0 173.0 50, 308, 573 93.3 128.4 Rhode Island . 170.0 184.0 188.0 188.0 6, 967, 980 74.8 129.7 Connecticut . 172.4 179.0 182.5 182. 74 15, 762, 239 85.2 118.3 New York . 176.0 178.5 186.5 183.5 123, 531,547 81.4 114.0 New Jersey . 178.0 192.0 192. 0 190.0 28, 741, 870 67.8 115.1 Pennsylvania . 127. 2 133.4 147.6 162.0 116, 995, 752 75.0 111.1 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 132.0 158.0 166. 0 a 5 160.0 a 63, 640,881 a 6 74. 6 a 6 109. 7 Maryland . 183.0 187.0 184.0 184.0 19, 984, 424 63.4 100.2 District of Columbia. . . . 200. 0 193.0 178.0 175.0 5,261,725 79.1 132.3 Virginia . 93.2 112.8 118.2 120.0 23, 297, 160 39.6 66.8 West Virginia . 76.8 90.0 97.0 114.8 15, 431, 990 57.3 74.1 North Carolina . 5 50.0 50.0 59.2 62.6 13, 445, 165 22.5 37.7 South Carolina . 5 100. 0 70.0 69.6 74. 2 12, 042, 660 27.0 54.0 Georgia . 59.0 565.0 83.0 100.0 24, 537, 800 35. 9 59.0 Plorida . . . 5 120. 0 5 105. 0 6 6, 534, 990 6 44.9 6 68.6 South Central Division : Kentucky . 5 110. 0 102.0 94.0 5 107. 0 6 28, 001, 900 6 43.9 6 61.5 Tennessee . 5 77.0 68.0 86.0 86.0 28, 464, 108 46.0 61.4 Alabama . 66.5 81.3 73.5 c 73.5 c 13, 405, 900 c 24. 8 c 44. 4 Mississippi . 110.0 74.5 5 86. 0 87.0 16, 964, 391 34.2 50.6 Louisiana . 5 65.0 78.8 100.6 105.0 11, 270, 063 28. 1 72.5 Texas . 5 140. 0 71.7 100.0 107.4 639, 183, 279 6 44.8 670.8 Arkansas . 5 75. 0 73.0 10, 786, 918 25.6 40.8 Oklahoma . a 5 90. 0 6 1, 422, 990 6 31.2 6 54.0 North Central Division : . Ohio . 165.0 152.0 166.5 165.3 94, 230. 257 89.2 116.8 Indiana . 98.5 136.0 130.0 133.0 49, 382, 634 74.2 95.4 Illinois . 146.7 150.0 155.4 155. 41 94, 153, 076 82.4 113.9 Michigan . 140.0 150.0 156.0 156.0 6 47, 761, 272 6 79.3 6 104. 8 Wisconsin . 155.0 165.0 158.6 c 158. 6 6 36, 714, 631 6 67.7 6 98.7 Minnesota . 5 83.0 94.0 128.0 a 155. 2 6 26,971,587 6 67.0 6 89.8 Iowa . 130.0 148.0 156.0 156.0 50, 577, 852 84. 3 98.5 Missouri . 90.0 5 104. 0 129.4 119. 3 52, 208, 332 58.7 85.3 North Dakota . ( 7a A 7, O A A 5 113.0 a 117.0 6 3, 021, 291 6 45.0 6 63.4 South Dakota . > 0 to. U U DO. U ? 145. 0 a 100. 7 6 5, 095, 420 6 56.3 6 62.4 Nebraska . 72.0 82.0 140. 0 130.0 20, 762, 170 61.4 79.8 Kansas . . 116.0 120.0 135.0 129.5 31, 930, 944 71.5 82.0 Western Division: Montana . 5 80.0 96.0 142.7 a 148. 0 6 2, 241, 312 6 77.7 6 95.2 Wyoming . 5 200. 0 119.0 5 120. 0 5 139. 4 6 886, 129 648.6 6 89.2 Colorado . 92.0 5 132. 0 144.4 170. 0 6 8,195,870 | 6 74.0 6 106. 3 New Mexico . 5 111. 0 111.0 5 67.0 113.3 1, 604, 101 34.8 74.0 Arizona . 109.0 126. 0 195.0 1, 349, 595 69.8 119.2 Utah . 152.0 128.0 133.0 a 153.0 5, 697, 567 71.8 102.7 Nevada . 142.0 143.0 140.0 a 154. 4 6 801, 645 6 84.9 6 106. 7 Idaho . 545.0 94.0 5 69.8 a 86. 4 61,480, 636 6 51. 1 6 65.8 Washington . 580.0 5 91.0 97.2 101.5 5, 550, 020 54.7 66.1 Oregon . 5 90.0 90. 0 118. 2 107.0 5, 975, 736 58.3 76.3 California . 123.0 146.6 157.6 1 160.2 25, 260; 215 81.8 108.6 a In 1891-92. 6 Approximately. c In 1889-90. 30 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 7. — Number and sex of teachers. Per cent of mate teachers. State or Territory. Whole number of different teachers employed. Per cent of ir ale teachers. Males. Females. Total. 1870-71 1879-80 1889-90 1 1892-93 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 .United States . 122. 056 260, 954 383, 010 41.0 42.8 34.5 31.9 North. Atlantic Division . 17, 555 77, 433 94, 988 26.2 28.8 20.0 18. 5 South Atlantic Division . 19, 400 23, 475 42, 875 63.8 62.5 49.1 45.2 South Central Division . 29, 788 23, 627 53, 415 67.5 67.2 57.5 55. 8 North Central Division . 49, 402 122, 618 172, 080 43.2 41.7 32.4 28.7 Western Division . 5, 851 13, 801 19, 652 45.1 40.3 31. 1 29.8 North Atlantic Division : i Maine . a 51, 116 a 66, 570 a 7, 686 6 24.4 6 27.2 616.0 a 6 14. 5 New Hampshire . 283 2, 842 3, 125 15.0 16.8 9.8 9.1 Yermont . a 538 a 3, 813 a 4, 851 16. 5 16.8 12.0 a 12. 4 Massachusetts . 989 10, 244 11, 233 12.7 13.2 9.8 8.8 Kiiode Island . 162 1,358 1,520 6 20.4 20.2 12.6 10.7 Connecticut . 6 417 6 3,349 63,760 6 22.1 6 22.8 613.4 6 31.1 New York . 5, 068 27, 408 32, 476 22.9 26.0 16.9 15.6 New Jersey . . 737 4, 131 4, 868 32.5 28.5 18.4 15.1 Pennsylvania . 8, 245 17, 718 25,963 42.8 45.5 34.2 31.8 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . a 218 a 622 a 840 6 29.9 ! 646.6 6 31.0 a 26.0 Maryland . 1,019 3,190 4,209 45.0 42.6 27.8 24.2 District of Columbia . 112 783 895 6 8.2 7.8 13.0 12.5 Virginia . 2, 961 4, 97 i 7,932 64.5 61.8 41.5 37.3 West Virginia . 3,458 2, 478 5,936 79.0 75.2 63.4 58.2 North Carolina . 3, 921 3,110 7.031 6 73.2 671.3 59.1 55.8 South Carolina . 2, 114 2, 421 4, 535 62.4 59.5 49.6 46. 6 Georgia . . . 4,436 4,383 8, 819 71.4 6 65.2 53.3 50.3 Florida . 1, 161 1.517 2, 678 6 65.7 61.6 48.0 43.3 South Central Division : Kentucky . 6 4, 515 6 4, 047 6 8, 562 6 66.0 64.6 49.8 b §2. 7 Tennessee . 5, 146 3, 666 8, 812 6 75.0 74.4 61.8 58.4 Alabama . c4, 168 c 2, 440 c 6, 608 66.8 63.8 62.9 c63. 1 Mississippi . 3, 654 3,843 7, 497 6 60.8 61.2 49.6 48.7 Louisiana . 1, 299 1,945 3, 244 50.9 46.1 44.7 40.0 Texas . 6, 367 5, 539 11, 906 6 77.3 6 75.0 61.1 53.5 Arkansas . 4,434 1,880 6, 314 ! 6 75. 6 78.4 68.5 70.2 Oklahoma . a 205 a 267 a 472 1 a 43. 4 North Central Division: 1 Ohio . 10, 464 15, 048 25, 512 43.2 47.8 43.1 41.0 Indiana . 6, 523 7, 024 13, 547 60.5 57.5 51.1 48.2 Illinois . 6,553 17, 687 24, 240 43.5 39.7 32.5 27.0 Michigan . 3,300 13,005 16, 305 1 26. 3 29.2 22.3 20.2 Wisconsin . 2, 202 10, 248 12, 450 6 28. 8 28.9 19.8 17.7 Minnesota . . 1, 678 7,262 8, 940 33.7 35.9 23.9 18.8 Iowa . . 4, 837 23,464 28, 301 39.0 33.0 20.6 17.1 Missouri . 5, 497 8,439 13, 936 65.3 58.1 44.4 39.4 North Dakota . 814 1, 904 2, 718 l K H A A Q 5 28.3 29.9 South Dakota . 1,225 3,482 4, 707 > 0 i 4U. O ) 29.0 26.0 Nebraska . 2, 133 7, 221 9, 354 51.9 40.7 27.1 22.8 Kansas . 4, 236 7, 834 12, 070 47.2 45.1 40.8 35.1 Western Division: Montana . 190 573 763 6 60.3 38.5 22.9 24.9 Wyoming . 96 328 424 6 28.6 44. 3 22.4 22.6 Colorado . 6 688 | 6 2, 207 2, 895 48.8 36.4 26.2 6 23. 8 New Mexico . 368 179 547 6 91.7 78.0 6 62.2 67.3 Arizona. . . 87 196 283 47. 5 38.8 30.7 Utah . 427 587 1,014 55.0 54.5 46. 6 42.1 Nevada . 44 233 277 32.4 46. 7 16.3 15.9 Idaho . 260 390 650 6 64.3 57. 4 6 33.4 40.0 Washington . 1,072 2. 014 3, 086 6 46.5 37.4 40.6 34.7 Oregon . 1,385 2, 192 3, 577 6 51.7 48.3 43.3 38.7 California . 1.231 4,902 6, 136 40.0 33.6 21.4 20.1 a In 1891-92. 6 Approximately. cln 1890-91. STATISTICS OF STATE COMMON SCHOOLS, 31 Table 8. — Teachers' salaries. State or Territory. Average monthly salaries of teachers. Males. | Females. United States * $46. 39 * $38. 46 Forth Atlantic Division South Atlantic Division South Central Division. Forth Central Division. W estern Division . 59. 75 40. 25 *32.33 j *31.95 *39.44 *33.65 *46.18 *37.16 *65.31 ; *54.37 Forth Atlantic Division: Maine (1891-92) . Few Hampshire . Vermont (1891-92) . Massachusetts . Bhode Island . Connecticut . Few York . Few Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Delaware (1889-90) . Maryland . District of Columbia (1891-92) Virginia . West Virginia . Forth Carolina . South Carolina (1891-92) . Georgia . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . - - 43.95 ! 25. 02 48. 83 27. 00 38. 40 24.80 140. 73 48. 13 96. 29 49. 44 86.48 40.64 a 69. 70 a 47. 50 79. 99 47. 73' 43.94 ; 33.04 36.60 34. 08 a 56. 60 cl 44. 55 a 110. 70 a 68. 40 33.96 27.49 25.34 22. 61 28. 05 23. 92 6 36. 29 6 29. 65 a 33. 45 a 27. 82 27. 37 26. 60 Louisiana . - . . . . . — . Texas . Arkansas . . Oklahoma (1891-92) . . . 'Forth Central Division : Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . Michigan . . . Wisconsin . . . Minnesota (1S91-92) . Iowa . Missouri . Forth Dakota . . South Dakota . Febraska . . Kansas . . . - . - . . W stern Division : Montana . Wyoming . . . Colorado . Few Mexico . 1 Arizona . I Utah (1891-92) . j Fevada . I Idaho . I. W ashington . Oregon . . . . California . _ . 34.50 31.32 56. 71 46.48 36. 27 32. 80 34.20 32.90 41. 94 36. 47 46. 00 40. 20 60. 90 47.07 48. 89 34.36 48. 28 34. 58 38.73 20. 81 44.11 41.30 44. 75 39. 03 38. 00 33.00 47. 59 38. 06 43.91 35.41 85.00 64. 00 69. 59 49. 93 73. 03 49. 50 87. 50 72. 50 66. 86 42 71 101. 95 63. 78 52.27 ! 45.49' 51.11 41.74 81. 54 I 65. 29 * This summary includes only the States of the group that are tabulated in the sarno column below. a Approximately. 6 Excluding cities. 32 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table Q.—Schoolhouses and value of school property. School property. State or Territory. Whole number of school- houses. Value of all public school property. Value per building. V alue per capita of average attend¬ ance. 1 2 3 4 5 United States . 285, 426 $398, 435, 039 $1,692 $45. 00 North Atlantic Division . 46, 683 i 153, 332, 672 3, 285 71. 22 South Atlantic Division . 34, 700 18, 083, 761 521 15. 40 South Central Division . 42, 760 19, 663, 955 459 12. 25 North Central Division . 100, 208 | 173, 155, 739 1, 728 49.42 Western Division . 11, 075 34, 198, 912 3, 088 81. 70 North Atlantic Division : Maine . . . 4, 401 3, 768, 998 856 41. 63 New Hampshire . 2, 047 3, 081, 406 1.506 71.85 Vermont . a 6 2, 524 cl, 500,000 c d 594 c33. 29 Massachusetts . al, 510 30. 913, 840 d 4, 117 106. 32 Khode Island . 500 3, 592. 565 7, 185 99. 88 Connecticut . . 1.635 7, 508, 536 4,592 87. 04 New York . 12, 015 49, 913, 605 4, 155 72. 52 New Jersey . 1,725 10, 374, 218 6, 014 68. 60 Pennsylvania . . 14, 326 42, 679, 504 2, 979 59. 10 South Atlantic Division : Delaware (1891 92) . . . a 497 904, 426 d 1,820 39. 85 Maryland . 2,312 c 3, 810, 000 cl, 648 c 35. 08 District of Columbia . . 107 c 2. 765, 000 c 25, 840 c91. 96 Virginia . 6, 636 2, 763. 585 416 It. 23 West Virginia . 5,284 3, 547. 815 671 26. 31 North Carolina . 6, 238 6892, 364 6143 64.16 South Carolina . 3, 518 617, 571 176 3. 81 Georgia . - . a 7, 740 c2, 133, 000 c d276 c8. 69 Florida . : . 2, 368 650, 000 275 10.44 South Central Division : Kentucky c . 7, 700 4, 822, 000 626 18. 50 Tennessee . 6, 817 2, 950, 004 433 8.91 Alabama . «6, 495 cl, 120, 000 cd 172 c6. 14 Mississippi . a 5, 590. 1, 511, 069 d 270 7. 74 Louisiana . a 2, 645 c832. 000 cd315 c 7.75 Texas . 8, 380 6,128, 882 732 16. 80 Arkansas . 4. 875 1, 875, 000 385 12. 69 Oklahoma . 6258 425,000 1, 647 26. 88 North Central Division: Ohio . 12, 991 36, 505, 281 2, 811 64. 04 Indiana . 9, 737 16, 777, 504 1, 723 45. 19 Illinois . . . 12, 454 32, 356, 846 2, 598 53. 40 Michigan . 7, 690 15, 757, 921 2, 049 51. 47 Wisconsin (1891-92) . 6. 570 10, 224. 926 1,556 44. 09 Minnesota. . . . 6, 143 10, 158, 637 1,653 58.45 Iowa . . . 13, 433 15, 571, 588 1, 15J9 48. 0.3 Missouri . 9, 660 11, 570, 415 1, 198 26.43 North Dakota . 1. 178 6 2, 423, 286 6 1, 363 693.84 South Dakota . . . 63, 253 2, 596, 779 798 51.31 Nebraska . 6, 499 8, 212, 556 1,264 51.42 Kansas . 10. 000 11, 000, 000 1, 100 44. 62 Western Division: Montana . 408 1, 547, 632 3,793 102. 20 Wyoming . 247 380, 474 1.540 59. 81 Colorado. . 61,375 5, 861. 018 6 4, 254 6121. 60 New Mexico . a 519 c215, 000 c d 414 c 15. 18 Arizona . 133 419, 700 3, 155 60. 63 Utah . a 893 1,973,103 d% 210 52. 99 Nevada . 193 6 292, 214 1, 514 56. 27 Idaho . 520 614, 210 1, 181 35. 84 Washington . 1,654 4, 872, 711 2, 946 89.10 Oregon . 1,787 2,649.080 1,482 47. 42 California . - . 3,343 15, 373, 770 4. 599 97.52 a Number of schools. 6 In 1891-92. c Approximately. d Average value per school. STATISTICS OF STATE COMMON SCHOOLS. 33 Table 10. — Public secondary education. — Private schools. Public secondary education. Private schools, (a) State or Territory. Number of pupils in public high schools, or studying secondary branches, (b) Per cent of the whole public school en¬ rollment. Same per¬ centage in 1889-90. Number of pupils in private schools. Total num¬ ber of pupils in both public and private schools. Per cent of pupils in pri¬ vate schools. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1, 336, 600 14, 847, 319 9. 00 c 527, 900 c 136, 700 3, 756, 716 2, 056, 680 2, 729, 955 5, 626. 153 677, 815 c 14. 05 c 6. 65 cl75, 300 c 442, 700 c 54, 000 c 6. 43 c7. 88 c 7. 96 North Atlantic Division: d 15, 884 e 7, 165 d 2, 425 d 11. 62 10. 95 11. 61 11. 84 8, 254 d 7, 857 69, 957 d 73, 171 454, 095 67, 355 11.80 d 3.71 3. 71 d 10. 74 28', 582 2, 023 7. 30 6. 82 62, 350 13, 660 20, 981 170, 901 49, 167 13.73 3.77 3.32 20. 28 154, 218 1 254. 129 13.60 13. 63 298, 765 16.46 South Atlantic Division : Maryland . . 5, 303 2. 66 2. 43 District of Columbia _ ... 2, 236 e 7, 769 5.62 4. 79 Ttiro-inia, . _ 2. 23 2. 67 ~W est V irginia _ _ _ North Carolina . d 26, 198 d 361, 566 d 7.2c. South Carolina . e 9, 605 4. 30 3. 58 Georgia . . 27, 285 442, 932 6. 16J Florida . South Central Division : Kentucky . . . d 15, 000 d 45, 428 d 404, 860 d 3. 70 Tennessee . /20, 391 4. 40 d 532, 935 d 8. 53 Alabama . Mississippi . . . 22, 859 357, 782 6. 30 Louisiana . Texas . g 37, 758 7.15 6. 89 Arkansas . . Oklahoma, _ _ North Central Division : Ohio . 40, 171 4. 98 4. 58 Indiana . . . Illinois . . 23, 281 2. 82 2. 25 121, 050 41, 717 947, 135 497, 315 12. 78 Michigan . . . 8. 39 "Wisconsin . 12, 275 h 4, 290 3. 30 3. 01 Minnesota . . . 1.43 1. 30 Towa, . . . 27, 454 d 23, 181 541, 068 d 663, 980 5. 07 Missouri _ _ d 3. 49 North Dakota, _ . . _ South Dakota . 1, 879 83, 490 2. 25 Nehra.sk a, _ _ _ 7, 324 2. 81 2. 57 Kansas . 1 . Western Division : Montana, . . . d 1, 014 d 22, 782 d 4. 45 W yoming . . . . Colorado . 3, 081 4. 00 2. 65 3,813 2,849 80, 902 24, 539 4. 71 New Mexico . 11.61 Arizona . 60 0.53 Utah . d 10, 934 d 66, 382 d 16. 47 Nevada . Idaho . Washington . 3, 704 2,500 6, 354 4. 41 4. 52 3, 398 87, 377 83, 436 254, 665 3. 89 Oregon . . _ 3. 19 5, 178 6. 20 California . . . 2. 73 1. 60 22, 164 8.71 a Of elementary and secondary grades. & Included in Tables 3 and 4. c Estimate for all the States of the division. d In 1891-92. ED 93- e Number studying the “ higher branches.” /Number studying either algebra or physiology g Number studying either algebra or geometry! h Includes only high schools under State supervision. 3 34 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 11. — Receipts of school moneys. Income from per¬ manent funds and rent of school lands. From taxation. Total receipts, exclud¬ ing sales of bonds and balance on hand. State or Territory. From State taxes. From local taxes. Total raised by taxation. From all other sources. 1 2 3 4 5 7 United States . $8, 674, 945 $33, 694, 813 $108,425,054 $142,119,SG7 $14, 228, 070 $165, 022, 882 Kortli Atlantic Division . 1, 005, 039 11, 953, 796 38, 270, 584 j 50,224,380 5, 098, 403 56, 327, 822 South Atlantic Division . 436, 426 4, 376, 119 4, 577, 866 ! 8, 953, 985 674, 851 10. 065, 262 South Central Division . 1, 540, 737 6, 815, 991 3, 269, 240 ; 10,085,231 1, 044, 706 12, 670, 674 Hortli Central Division . . 4. 085. 097 7, 489, 999 54, 310, 394 ! 61,800,393 6, 069, 645 72, 855. 135 "Western Division . 707, 646 3, 058, 908 7, 996, 970 | 11,055,878 1,340, 465 13, 103, 9S9 EForth Atlantic Division : Maine (1891 92) . a 98. 845 421, 219 903, 697 I, 324, 826 1 0 1. 423, 671 Hew Hampshire . . 16, 730 79, 136 701, 068 780, 204 63, 325 860, 259 Vermont (1891-92) . a 68, 359 89, 030 540, 634 629, 664 29, 759 727, 782 Massachusetts . 192, 733 0 9, 468, 436 9, 468, 436 2, 738 9, 663, 907 Rhode Tsland . 17, 514 110, 424 953, 533 1, 063, 962 b 152, 316 1, 233, 792 Connecticut . 168, 839 251,713 1, 577. 7S7 1, 829, 500 147, 888 2, 146, 227 new York . 234, 359 3,771, 667 12, 884, 903 16, 656, 570 2, 271, 361 19, 222, 290 Hew Jersey . 147, 660 2. 251, 700 1. 460, 007 3, 711, 707 7, 820 3, 867, 187 Pennsylvania . 0 4. 978, 907 9, 780, 604 14, 759, 511 2, 423, 196 17, 182, 707 South Atlantic Division : Delaware (1889-90) a . 60, 000 c 6, 00O 209, 000 215, 000 0 275, 000 Maryland . 53, 591 587, 087 1, 185, 029 1, 772, 116 305, 137 2, 132, 844 District of Columbia .... 0 d 426, 904 426, 904 853. 808 0 853, 808 Virginia . 43, 152 931, 968 7J96. 131 1, 728, 099 36, 095 1. 807, 346 West Virginia (1891-92).. a 30, 331 a 317, 316 1. 040, 083 1, 357, 399 122, 364 I, 510, 094 north Carolina (1891-92). 0 638, 835 6 36, 588 675, 423 125, 027 800, 450 South Carolina (1891-92). 0 i 454, 976 57, 322 512, 298 7, 614 519, 912 Georgia . 212, 046 919, 364 e 429, 961 1, 349, 325 57, 527 1, 618, 898 Florida . 35, 306 93. 669 396, 848 490, 517 21, 087 546, 910 South Central Division: Kentucky (a) . 144, 636 / 1,462. 208 /897, 311 2, 359, 519 1, 240, 931 150, GOO 2, 654, 155 Tennessee . 124, 884 j 1, 240, 931 (9) 250, 839 1. 616, 654 Alabama (1889-90) . . 143, 938 465, 729 a 290, 000 755, 729 115 899, 782 Mississippi . 79, 592 921, 500 228, 103 1, 149, 603 163, 732 1, 392. 627 Louisiana. . . . 46, 076 275, 223 418, 769 693, 992 231, 877 971, 945 Texas (1891-92) . . a 997, 000 « 1,992, 172 632, 191 2, 624, 363 224, 148 3, 845, 511 Arkansas . 0 454, 509 764, 347 1, 218, 856 15, 655 1, 234, 511 Oklahoma (1891-92) . i 4, 611 d 3, 719 38, 519 42, 238 8, 340 55, 189 north Central Division: j Ohio . 238, 256 1,715, 158 9, 439, 381 11, 154, 539 656. 730 12. 049, 525 Indiana (1891-92) . ..1 635, 327 1. 638, 548 2, 872, 173 4, 510, 721 463, 607 5, 609, 655 Illinois . 1 631, 216 1, 056, 937 12, 717, 415 13, 774, 352 942. 951 15, 348, 519 Michigan . ' 311, 578 686, 117 4, 589, 005 5, 275, 122 432, 981 6, 019, 681 Wisconsin . . | 197. 878 655, 101 3, 717, 582 4, 372, 683 576. 207 5, 146, 768 Minnesota . 1 1, 017, 534 694, 828 2, 781, 535 3, 476, 363 303. 960 4, 797, 857 7, 731, 474 . Iowa . . ! 229, 508 0 6, 578, 532 6, 578, 532 b 923. 434 Missouri . 719, 386 703, 258 3, 731, 875 4.435. 133 443, 422 5. 507, 941 north Dakota (1891-92) .. 38, 906 190,760 570, 514 761, 274 34. 295 834, 475 South Dakota (189.1-92) .. a 75, 649 0 1, 502, 484 1, 502, 484 39, 078 1, 617, 211 3, 858, 174 Heoraska . . 561, 019 149,292 2, 269, 898 2, 419, 190 877, 965 Kansas . a 328, 840 0 3, 540, 000 3, 540, 000 ci 375, 015 4, 243, 855 W estern Division : Montana . 3, 2C9 °- 414, 617 414, 617 188, 529 606, 355 Wyoming . 0 • 0 172, 052 172, 052 14, 898 186, 950 Colorado (1891-92) . 108. 463 0 1,462,109 1,462, 109 753,182 2, 323, 754 new Mexico . 0 0 140, 100 140, 100 62, 215 202, 315 Arizona . . . . 6. 573 178,164 49, 375 227, 539 111 234, 223 Utah . (A) 348,576 j 436, 144 784, 720 68, 356 853, 076 nevada (1891-92) . 79, 412 15,681 ! 104, 765 120, 446 247 200, 105 Idaho (1891-92) . 15, 009 0 ! 260, 785 260, 785 6, 655 282. 449 Washington . 84, 475 0 1, 546, 312 1, 546, 312 39, 114 1, 669, 901 Oregon . 175, 505 0 1, 005, 812 1.005, 812 139, 998 1,321, 315 California . a 235, COO a 2, 510,487 ; 2. 404. 899 4. 921. 386 67, 160 5. 223, 546 a Approximately. c Includes balance on band. b Includes receipts from sale of bonds. / Average for two ‘years. c State appropriation for colored schools. p Not reported; a part, is included in other sources. d From United States. h Included in other sources. STATISTICS OF STATE COMMON SCHOOLS. 35 Table 12. — The school revenue compared ( 1 ) icith the adult male population ( taxpayers ), and (£) with the school population. Percentage analysis of the school revenue. Amount raised pe r taxpayer. ; |4 Per cent of the total reve¬ nue derived from— State or Territory. © X P* X 02 X , X X zz From other sources. © © x - i I =1^ i p • , o © i £ P* , Us 2 *3 O m X j x § | o£ S j Sc Efl X X X 1 Q 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1G 11 United States . $9. 4S $1.88 $6. 05 $0.80 $9.21 $8. 45 Perct. 5. 3 Per ct. 20.4 Perct. 65. 7 Perct. 8.6 Is orth Atlantic Division . . . .19 2.25 7.21 j .96 10.61 12.11 1.8 21. 2 67.9 1 9.1 South Atlantic Division. . . .21 2. 07 2. 17 .31 4.76 3.19 1 4.3 j 43. 5 45. 5 ! 6.7 South Central Division _ .58 2. 55 1.22 .39 j 4. 74 3.14 J 12.2 53.8 25.8 8.2 Horth Central Division _ . 77 1. 15 8. 37 .94 11.23 10. 62 6.8 | 10.3 74.6 8.3 W estern Division . .53 2. 28 5. 96 1.00 j 9.77 15. 35 5.4 j 23.3 61.0 10.3 1\ orth Atlantic Division : Maine (1891-92) . 2. 10 4. 52 .00 7.11 8. 80 a 6. 9 ! 29.6 63.5 .0 Hew Hampshire . .14 . 65 5. 79 .52 7.10 10.00 1.9 9.2 81.5 7.4 ermont (1891-92) . a .69 .89 5.42 .30 7. 30 9.05 a 9.4 i 12.2 74.3 4.1 Massachusetts . .28 .00 13. 51 J 13.79 17. 91 2.0 .0 98.0 Hhode Island . .16 1. 00 8.62 61.37 11. 15 13.24 1.4 9.0 77.3 b 12. 3 Connecticut . .72 LOG 6. 68 .63 9.09 11.59 7.9 i 11.7 73.5 6.9 Hew York . .16 2. 07 7. 07 1.24 10.54 12.66 1. 5 1 19.6 ! 67.0 11.9 Hew Jersey . .32 4. 83 3. 13 .02 8. 30 9. 12 3.8 i 58.2 37.8 . 2 Pennsylvania . .00 3.20 6. 29 1.56 11.05 11. 01 .0 29.0 56.9 LL1 South Atlantic Division : Delaware (1889-90) a .. . i L 26 c .13 4. 39 .00 5.78 5. 79 21.8 ' i c 2. 2 76.0 .0 Maryland . .20 d 2. 10 j 4.24 1.09 | 7.63 6.77 2.6 d 27. 6 55. 5 14.3 District of Columbia. . . .00 ! 5.82 1 5.82 .00 ; ii. 64 | 12.83 .0 1 50.0 j 50. 0 .0 Yirsinia . ! -ii 1 2.37 2.02 1 .09 4.59 3. 07 2.4 | 51.6 i 44.0 ' 2.0 W est Virginia (1891-92) a . 16 a 1. 69 ! 5.52 j . 65 | 8.02 5. 67 a 2.0 a 21.0 68.9 8.1 Horth Carolina (1891-92) .00 1. 83 a. 10 .36 ! 2. 29 1. 37 .0 79.8 p1 __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 151, 533 155, 095 Richmond Va .... _ ............ _ _ _ _ .......................... _ _ 145, 877 Atlanta Oa . .. . . . . . ... _ ...................... . . . 139, 460 61, 854 152, 778 78, 558 Charleston, S. C . . . ... _ ................ _ ..... _ _ It will be seen that the decrease of the division is due principally to the conditions in Baltimore, Washington, and Wilmington. Baltimore spent for building $96,000 more in 1892 than in 1893, and $20,000 more for current expenses other than teachers’ salaries. In W ashington the expenditure for sites and buildings was $220,311 in 1891-92, and only $12,270 in 1892-93. In Wilmington there was a reduction of $5,000 in the amount paid for buildings, and $10,000 in the current expenses. In all three cities more was paid to teachers in the later year than in the earlier. The unusual increases noted in the North, Central, and Western divisions come from unwonted energy in the erection of new buildings. Chicago expended $1,370,000 for that purpose during 1892-93, against $995,000 in 1891-92, and $719,000 in 1890-91. St. Louis spent $565,000 last year, and only $109,038 in 1890-91. Omaha, Nebr., invested $255,000 in sites and buildings in 1892-93, or over twice as much as in the year previous. Salt Lake City, Utah, however, surpasses them all, for with a school attendance of less than 6,000, nearly $360,000 was expended for permanent improvements, thus more than doubling the value of the school property of the city in a single year. Expenditures like these are the best possible evidence of the favor with which the American people regard the public schools. The com¬ placent attitude of school officers and boards of education toward the tendency to heavy expenditures is exemplified in the following extracts: Superintendent A. P. Marble, Worcester, Mass. (Beport of the Worcester Schools, 1893, p. 28), says: The cost per scholar in the day schools has risen from $21.52 last year to $26.28 in 1893. This increase of $1.76 in the cost per scholar is due partly to changes in the course of studies, which require cabinets of specimens in natural history, etc., more apparatus and books of reference, and a large amount of supplementary reading; in part it is due to the improved means of heating and ventilation, which require much more fuel; and in part it is due to the overcrowded condition of some of the school- houses, where four teachers are required to do the work which three might do in suitable rooms. In the two high schools the cost per pupil has arisen from $17.25 in the old and crowded school to $66.90. This increase is due first to the smaller and more reasonable number of pupils to a teacher; and secondly, it is due to the exten¬ sive purchase of books and apparatus. The equipment of these schools is now elaborate and first class, if not unsurpassed. CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 45 Hon. Z. L. White, president of the board of education, Columbus, Ohio (Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City of Colum¬ bus, Ohio, for the school year ending August 31, 1893, p. 29), says: An article in the Evening Dispatch of recent date charges this hoard with extrav¬ agance, affirming that this is the most expensive branch of the public service, cost¬ ing more to maintain it than it costs to conduct the balance of the city government. This proposition is quite new and we think the statement will admit of investiga¬ tion, but, granting that it is true, why should it not be the most expensive? The education given in our public schools constitutes the capital and the stock in trade of three-fourths of our boys and girls, who are thereby equipped for business. They in turn become good citizens, help to build up and enrich the city, so the grade of scholarship given them should be as high as the city can afford. But let us see about this expense. The item of tuition costs now only $1.92 per capita more than it did twelve years ago, when our teachers were poorly paid, and a lower rate of scholarship given. During the transition from 1880 to 1892 there has been a gradual advance in the wages of the teachers, and in the course of study, with the very small advance of 13 per cent in the cost of administration. Is there any extravagance in this? The department of penmanship and calisthenics was also added during this period. The library building is cited as a monument of our extravagance. The fact is, we have here the choicest piece of property owned by the city, the most beautiful front and inside finish, and the best adapted to the uses for which it was designed. This depart¬ ment had grown to such jtroportions that a home, with fire-proof vaults for the records, contracts, and valuable papers, with assembly room, committee rooms, offices, reference rooms, and library hall was indispensable to the successful management of the department. This home, including the lot and the improvements to the build¬ ings, cost $80,000, and because it was built so beautifully and substantially for the money, it stands a monument to economy — a credit to the building committee, to this board, and to the city. Table 1. — Summary of statistics of school systems of cities containing over 8,000 inhabi¬ tants, showing increase or decrease from previous year. [Note. — correct list of cities of a given population can be made in other than census years. The percentages of increase shown below, therefore, are relative only and are intended to be used for no other purpose than comparison with each other.] Enrol Intent : 1891- 92 . 2, 743, 430 1892- 93 . 2, '876, 866 Increase . . . 133, 436 Per cent of increase . 4. 86 Aggregate number of days’ attendance of pupils : 1891- 92 . 378, 389, 408 1892- 93 . . 394,017,038 Increase . 15, 627, 630 Per cent of increase . 4. 13 Average daily attendance : 1891- 92 . - . 1,977,442 1892- 93 . 2, 066, 850 Increase . 89, 408 Per cent of increase . 4. 52 46 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Average length (in day's) of school term : 1891- 92 . . - . — . 101.5 1892- 93 _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ 190.6 Decrease . .- . . - - - --- - - - - - 0.9 Enrollment in private schools (estimated) : 1891- 92 - - - - - 753, 178 1892- 93 - - - - - - - 775,910 Increase . 22, 732 Per cent of increase , . . 3. 02 Number of supervising officers: 1891- 92 . . . - - — - - - 2,721 1892- 93 . . . 2,891 Increase . - . 170 Per cent of increase . 6.24 Number of teachers : 1891- 92 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 057 1892- 93 . . . - _ - - - — - - - - - - 58, 522 Increase . . - . . . . 3, 465 Per cent of increase . . 6. 29 Number of buildings : 1891- 92 . . . . 6,757 1892- 93 . 6, 957 Increase. . . . . . . . 200 Per cent of increase - - - - - '. . 2. 96 Number of sittings or seats : 1891- 92 . . . . . 2,501,694 1892- 93 . . . 2,693,522 Increase . 181,828 Per cent of increase . 7. 27 Value of school property: 1891- 92 . . . $193, 607, 787 1892- 93 . 205, 338, 077 Increase . . . 11, 730, 290 Per cent of increase . 6. 06 Expenditure for teaching and supervision : 1891- 92 . . . . . . $35,372,482 1892- 93 . . . 37, 717, 838 Increase . . . 2, 345, 356 Per cent of increase . 6. 63 Expenditure for all purposes, excepting loans and bonds : 1891- 92 . . . $60,555,120 1892- 93 . 65, 981, 388 Increase . . . . . . 5, 426, 268 Per cent of increase . 8. 96 CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 47 Table 2. — Summary by States of enrollment, attendance , supervising officers, an,\ ,eachers in cities containing over 8,000 inhabitants, (a) Cities of — Num¬ ber of school sys¬ tems. Enroll¬ ment in public day schools. A ggregate number of days’ at¬ tendance of all pupils. Average daily attend¬ ance. Entoll- ment in private and paro¬ chial schools (esti¬ mated). Num¬ ber of 1 super¬ vising' offi- 1 cers. Number of te acliers. Male. Fe¬ male. Total. a 2 3 4 3 6 7 S 9 | 10 United States . . . 473 2, 876, 866 394, 017, 038 2, 066, 850 775,910 2, 894 4,298 54,224 58,522 hT. Atlantic Division . . 195 1, 377, 808 190, 042, 037 981, 290 358, 624 1, 38o 1, 931 26, 549 28, 480 S. Atlantic Division . . . 38 218, 872 28, 840, 197 154, 789 49, 901 166 440 3, 928 4, 368 S. Central Division _ 41 164. 057 21,967,115 119, 229 47, 631 138 361 2, 727 3, 088 U. Central Division . . . 173 959, 591 132, 268, 316 702, 158 295, 681 985 1,342 18, 200 19, 542 Western Division - 26 156, 538 20, 899, 373 109, 3S4 24, 073 220 224 2, 820 3,044 JT. Atlantic Division : Maine . 8 20, 364 2, 756, 341 15, 538 4,729 22 38 512 550 hTew Hampshire. . . 5 11, 691 1, 459, 079 8,421 6, 580 18 21 257 278 Vermont . 2 3, 689 438, 706 2, 438 1, 788 6 4 72 76 Massachusetts .... 42 260, 187 37, 665, 611 195, 420 47, 163 198 583 5, 318 5, 901 Rhode Island . 6 35, 698 4, 166, 558 22, 239 8, 271 47 40 702 742 Connecticut . 14 62, 832 8, 624, 281 43, 390 13, 646 86 96 1, 250 1, 346 JTew York . 50 538, 439 72, 985, 977 376, 942 162, 772 636 568 10, 222 10, 790 hTew Jersey _ 21 122, 053 16, 023, 818 80,700 35, 020 155 7? 2,134 2,209 Pennsylvania . 47 322, 855 45, 921, 666 236, 202 781, 655 217 506 6,082 6, 588 S. Atlantic Division : i 9 622 1, 346, 085 6, 903 2 G 196 202 4 75, 983 9. 763. 364 49, 062 19, 791 34 ! 147 I 1. 395 ! 1, 542 District, of Colum¬ bia . 2 i 39, 764 5, 261, 725 30, 067 b 8, 500 42 92 763 855 Virginia . . 9 30, 884 j 4, 001, 804 22, 146 8, 907 30 75 460 535 West Virginia - 3 9, 733 | 1, 350, 391 7, 248 1, 500 10 16 ! 196 212 hTorth Carolina. _ 6 South Carolina .... 3 8, 846 , 1, 390, 862 7, 471 2, 560 14 18 144 162 Georgia . . 7 27, 463 S, 614, 691 20, 194 4, 383 21 45 476 521 Florida . 3 5,787 4,068 20 104 124 S. Central Division : Kentucky . 9 44, 094 6, 271, 245 31, 713 10, 608 42 73 773 846 Tennessee . . . 6 28,544 | 3, 800, 015 20, 514 4,640 24 85 434 519 Alabama . . . g ! 13, 739 I 1, 882, 866 10,571 42 200 242 Mississippi . 3 4, 887 3, 337 6 95 101 Louisiana . 3 I Texas . 11 34, 270 | 4,054,777 23, 154 7,292 30 106 508 1 614 Arkansas . 4 10, 945 1, 318, 443 7, 522 1,602 9 21 i 149 170 Oklahoma . 0 0 0 0 0 0 "O' 0 0 Indian Territory . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 JT. Central Division : i Ohio . 33 j 194, 282 28, 577, 731 149, 932 331 i 3, 71G 4, 047 Indiana . . 19 70, 465 9, 401, 924 51, 063 21, 771 77 138 1.238 1, 376 Illinois . 24 1 232, 139 32, 856, 964 172, 506 81, 178 293 248 4, 394 1 4, 642 Michigan . . . 24 96, 548 13, 196, 293 69, 980 30, 741 74 105 1, 905 i 1,010 Wisconsin . 20 76, 936 10, 043, 287 54, 089 32, 639 79 124 1, 388 i 1. 512 Minnesota . . 7 55, 600 7. 913, 199 41, 378 15, 090 79 88 1.254 1, 342 Iowa . 15 52, 249 6, 861, 778 37, 056 12, 060 94 64 1, 095 1,159 Missouri . 10 109. 827 14, 169, 861 75, 347 30, 915 79 126 1,928 2, 054 JTorth Dakota . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 South Dakotas _ 1 1, 706 203, 970 1,179 140 1 2 34 36 JTebraska . 9 34, 549 4, 510, 247 23, 558 6,045 36 41 661 702 Kansas . 11 35, 290 4, 523, 061 25,470 4, 654 19 75 587 662 Western Division: Montana b.. . 2 4, 853 591, 545 3, 238 500 6 6 91 97 Wyoming... . 1 1,143 140, 159 869 50 1 0 29 29 Colorado . rj 26, 743 3, 272, 487 17, 923 53 43 466 509 hTew Mexico . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Arizona . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e 0 Utah . 2 12, 198 1, 428, 136 8, 117 2, 563 13 22 175 197 Nevada 6 . . 1 1, 575 231, 800 1,159 253 0 3 27 30 Idaho . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Washington ... _ 3 14, 798 2, 054, 555 10, 612 20 21 289 310 Oregon . . 1 9, 810 1, 399, 179 7,304 1, 238 10 17 187 204 California . 9 85, 418 11, 781, 612 60, 102 13, 204 117 1 112 1, 556 1, 668 a In the preparation of this tahlo omissions and deficiences in the returns of individual cities were supplied from the best sources available. If no accurate information could be had in any particular Case, an estimate based upon the ratios developed in the other cities of the same State was used unless it appeared that the conditions were essentially different in the citv for which precise data were lacking. Blanks indicate that the number of cities which reported the item was not sufficient to justify an estimate to supply the deficiency. b Statistics of 1891-92. 48 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. Table 3. — Summary by States of school property and expenditures in cities containing over 8,000 inhabitants. ( a ) Cities of— Number of buildings. Number of seats or sittings for study. Value of all public prop¬ erty used for school purposes. Expenditure for super¬ vision and teaching. Expenditure for all pur¬ poses except loans and bonds. L 3 3 4 5 <3 United States . 6, 957 2, 693, 522 $205, 338, 077 $37, 717, 838 $65, 981, 388 North Atlantic Division . 3, 323 1, 287, 123 103, 172. 001 18, 104, 963 31, 678, 701 South Atlantic Division . 451 206, 001 10, 048, 445 2, 497, 697 3, 475, 077 South Central Division . 397 150, 270 7, 946, 424 1, 884, 400 2, 579. 273 North Central Division . 2, 362 915, 185 67, 085, 358 12, 600, 751 22, 980. 728 Western Division . 424 134, 943 L7, 085, 849 2, 630, 027 5, 267, 609 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 187 21,835 1, 338, 047 232, 938 389, 749 New Hampshire . 80 12, 439 1, 378, 195 165, 797 252, 568 Vermont . 16 3,190 206, 716 39, 188 75. 969 Massachusetts . 1,011 248, 590 25, 064, 514 3, 996, 991 7, 057, 581 Rhode Island . 133 33, 374 2, 735, 052 477. 213 836, 697 Connecticut . 198 57, 073 5, 130, 987 820, 806 1, 369, 947 New York . 704 500, 515 39, 091, 194 7, 381,385 12, 390. 223 New Jersey . 220 104, 430 5, 712. 262 1, 294, 869 1, 985, 932 Pennsylvania . 774 305, 677 22, 515, 034 3, 695, 776 7, 320, 035 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 25 9, 448 559, 517 106, 391 151, 533 Maryland . 127 72, 570 3, 178, 173 845, 332 1, 176, 242 District of Columbia . 78 b 36, 648 2, 775, 663 617, 105 860, 245 Virginia . 65 26, 822 850, 012 259, 548 323, 633 West Virginia . 23 8, 600 503, 145 99, 388 184, 489 North Carolina . South Carolina . 16 7, 950 219, 635 72, 767 107, 925 Georgia . 64 26, 813 1, 373, 730 337, 254 453, 289 PI orida . 31 93, 170 36, 812 46, 421 South Certi’al Division: Kentucky . 89 2, 184, 685 554, 188 769, 805 Tennessee . 54 21, 021 1, 294, 741 285, 633 423, 530 Alabama . 31 652, 000 137. 602 Mississippi . 9 156, 500 40, 909 57, 950 Louisiana . Texas . 114 29, 216 1, 999, 698 406, 189 605, 617 Arkansas . 33 8, 803 628, 800 105, 410 166, 090 Oklahoma . 0 0 0 0 0 Indian Territory . 0 0 0 0 0 North Central Division : Ohio . 454 14, 917, 026 2, 580, 278 4, 613, 016 Indiana . 198 64, 154 4, 572, 730 795, 150 1, 390, 235 Illinois . . 438 215, 465 15, 973, 588 3, 540, 120 6, 575, 232 Michigan . 270 91, 732 6, 144, 104 1, 102, 033 2, Oil. 588 Wisconsin . 208 73, 011 3, 997, 288 899, 640 1, 563, 174 Minnesota . 142 52, 637 6, 776, 245 951,345 1, 391. 218 Iowa . 177 49, 454 3, 702, 621 640, 997 1, 201, 969 Missouri . . . v . 230 99, 494 6, 304, 061 1, 270, 936 2, 501, 196 North Dakota . 0 0 0 0 0 South Dakota b . 8 1, 520 175, 000 24, 250 48, 271 Nebraska . 113 31, 792 2, 611, 095 464, 761 1, 091, 915 Kansas . 124 33, 495 1, 911, 600 331, 241 592, 914 W estern Division : Montana b . 24 4, 723 837, 430 80, 098 197, 494 Wyoming . 5 1,100 134, 250 22, 679 46, 474 Colorado . 67 22, 624 4, 010, 142 434, 299 1, 101, 611 New Mexico . 0 0 0 0 0 Arizona . 0 0 0 0 0 Utah . 53 1, 058, 186 139, 703 740, 984 Nevada 6 . 6 50, 575 64, 194 Idaho . 0 0 0 0 0 Washington . 46 15, 640 1, 950, 380 270, 293 627, 572 Oregon . 30 10, 000 835, 870 155, 098 222, 526 California . 193 71, 056 8, 209, 016 1, 499, 064 2, 266, 754 a In the preparation of this table omissions and deficiencies in the returns of individual cities were supplied from the best sources available. If no accurate information could he had in any particular case, an estimate based upon the ratios developed in the other cities of the same State was used unless it appeared that the conditions were essentially different in the city for which precise data were lacking. Blanks indicate that the number of cities which reported the item was not sufficient to justify an estimate to supply the deficiency. b Statistics of 1891-92. Table 4. — Comparative statistics of cities containing over 8,000 inhabitants , summarized by States, CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 49 Average daily ex¬ pendi¬ ture per pupil for all pur¬ poses. 14 Cents. 15. 04 1 16. 75 16. 24 16. 67 12. 10 12. 05 11.58 11. 74 16.14 17. 37 22. 95 25. 21 14.14 17. 31 17. 31 18. 74 20. 09 15. 88 16. 98 12. 39 15. 94 11. 26 12. 05 16. 34 8. 09 13. 66 23 Average cost per day of tuition for one pupil. *5 Cents. 8. 79 9. 60 cscsi>o6odoo’cic> ”co in ci Total cost of schools per capita of pupils in aver¬ age at¬ tendance. « $28. 80 31. 92 ssssssssss gg§33£g3g 3S3§§ L- 00 CO CO lllSIlllss t-oaoHooriima xwon^ & £ S 3 S £2 : TJ1 -rti « Average number of seats for each 100 pupils in attend¬ ance. * to CO co o CO ifl (N Cl H « O ^ ^ 00 ^ lat-ClMOLOMTf ^ OOIOHS SSISISISS ssg’SS 106.4 132.8 Average number of teach¬ ers to each su¬ pervising officer. h 20.2 20.2 oociM^-^cooo»a O^OXXOONif ©-^i-*OC(N O) lO X i-t K5 llgggggggg Tt! 00 05 OC t> to CO §32 ; Cities of— wl oi co ^jj^co ojcp^co^co C5C5 C5C5C5C5C5 0.C5C5C5C5 oc fc § § 5c 56 55 oo § : g pj : j if ■ .2 o cs g • .$ i 1 1 I | i j I H-el Ij >-#./!' 1^5 5 ^ 6 5 g < '°3 1 1 1 1 !i fc M 02 fZ5 ^ £ XNUX tli -LALl±CL_I U1V; A/ 1 V 1D1UJL1 . Maine. .* . New Ehmpshire . Veripont, . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . ]JTe w York . N ew Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia . Virginia . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . ED 93 - A Table 4. — Comparative statistics of cities containing over S,000 inhabitants, summarized by States, etc. — Continued. 50 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Average daily ex¬ pendi¬ ture per pupil for all pur¬ poses. 14 12. 27 11.14 7.31 14. 93 12. 60 16.14 14.79 20. 02 15. 25 15. 57 17. 50 17. 52 14. 02 23.17 24. 21 13.11 33.40 33. 15 33. 67 51.90 27. 70 30. 54 15. 90 19. 24 Average cost per day of tuition for one pupil. M T®< 88 oo c— 38 38888888 doc dooococcddoo 11.89 10. 30 7.34 13.23 16. 18 13.27 9. 78 13. 16 11.08 12. 72 Total cost of schools per capita of pupils in aver¬ age at¬ tendance. e* §3388 83 SSSSgggS S3 88888388 •<288 §8388 888 8SSSS 59.13 30. 22 37.71 Cost oi tuition (i. e., su¬ pervision and teach¬ ing) per capita of pupils in average attend¬ ance. 17.48 13. 92 12. 26 17.55 14.01 17. 21 15.57 20. 55 15. 75 16. 63 23.00 17.02 16. 86 20.56 39.72 13.00 24. 75 26.10 24.23 17. 21 25. 52 21.06 24. 94 Value of school property per capita of pupils in aver¬ age attend¬ ance. © 68. 91 63. 11 61.67 46. 90 88 88 88388888 148. 43 ' 110. 82 75. 03 258. 60 354. 53 223. 74 130. 40 43.64 183.65 113.50 136.60 Average number of seats or sit¬ tings to a build¬ ing. © is 18 gllsSli 188 §11 i III 1 Average number of seats for each 100 pupils in attend¬ ance. GSD • lO :§ 126.2 117.0 125.7 124.9 131.1 135.0 127. 2 131.3 132.0 128.9 335.0 130.9 145.9 126. 6 126.2 147.4 135.8 118.2 Average number of teach¬ ers to each su¬ pervising officer. 20.1 21.6 20.5 18.9 17.9 15.8 27.2 19.1 17.0 12.3 26.0 O lO CO HO • i—i 838 .S3 is io co 883 Average number of pupils in attend¬ ance to each teacher. © 37.5 39.5 43.7 33.0 c- . . . Missoiiri . . ■North Dakota . South Dakota a . Nebraska . 1 Kansas . Western Division : Montana a . Wyoming . Colorado . r . Utah . Nevada a . Idaho . . . Washington . Oregon . California . a Statistics of 1891-92. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 51 IT. — Public High Schools and Private Secondary Schools. In Part TV of this report, Tables 4 and 5, ■will be found the names of the 2,812 public high (secondary) schools and the 1,434 private second¬ ary schools reporting to this office for the year ending June 30, 1893. The post-office address of each school is given, and the name of the principal, the two lists being arranged alphabetically by States. In the same line with the name of the institution is given the number of instructors, the number of secondary students, and the number below the secondary grade. The tables also give the number of students in each school preparing for college classical and scientific courses, and the number of graduates. The number of college preparatory students in the class that was graduated in 1893 is also given for each school. The number of colored students in public and private secondary schools is shown. Male and female students are numbered in separate columns in the detail tables. In the following pages are twelve tables in which is summarized by States and divisions all the statistics contained in the two detail tables in Part IY relating to public and private secondary schools. Table 1 shows that in the 2,812 public high schools reporting there were 9,489 teachers, 232,951 students in the secondary grades, and 436,855 pupils below the secondary grades. Of the number in the high school grades 3,227 were pupils in colored schools. Table 2 gives the number of college preparatory students and the number of graduates. In the 2,812 public high schools, 17,572 students were preparing for the college classical course and 16,563 were pre¬ paring for college scientific courses. The total number of graduates in 1893 was 29,410, and of these 8,815 were college preparatory students. Tables 3, 4, and 5 give the number of students pursuing each of the ten leading high school branches. Latin is studied by 100,319 students, Greek by 7,922, French by 14,959, German by 27,760, alge¬ bra by 123,177, geometry by 60,570, trigonometry by 6,348, physics by 54,219, chemistry by 23,285, and history by 78,917. Table 6 gives the number of volumes in the libraries, the value of the equipments, and the income of the public high schools of the coun¬ try. The summary shows that the public high school libraries so far as reported contain 1,211,147 volumes. The aggregate value of build¬ ings and grounds was $51,811,044. The schools received State, county, and municipal aid to the amount of $5,923,800, and received from tui¬ tion fees, $616,350. The amount received for support from all sources was $8,374,104. This total is larger than the sum of the other two items and results from the fact that many schools reported only the total amounts received from all sources. Tables 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 give the summaries of statistics for private secondary schools, corresponding to the same items in the pre¬ ceding six tables for public secondary schools. These tables are 52 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. arranged so that they can be easily compared column by column, Table 1 with Table 7, Table 2 with Table 8, etc. In the 1,434 private secondary schools and academies there were 6,261 teachers, 96,147 secondary students, 64,180 elementary pupils, 15,009 preparing for college classical courses, 10,476 preparing for col¬ lege scientific courses. There were 8,319 graduates from these private high schools. Tables 9, 10, and 11 show that the ten principal high school branches were pursued by the students as follows: Latin by 37,716 students, Greek by 8,278, French 17,756, German 15,025, algebra 41,106, geometry 19,587, trigonometry 5,539, physics 18,998, chemistry 9,554, and history by 31.212 students. Table 12 shows that the libraries of the private high schools contain 1,219,118 volumes and that the value of buildings and grounds aggre¬ gates $44,395,941. The amount of income from State and municipal appropriations was $201,440; from tuition fees, $4,586,530; from pro¬ ductive funds, $1,545,968, making the total sum for support $6,333,938. It should be noted that the information relating to the income of both public and private high schools is far from complete. The aggre¬ gate sums given in the two tables for the support of schools, $8,374,104 for public high schools and $6,333,938 for private high schools, should be much larger. Many schools failed to report on these items and others sent incomplete figures. In the city high schools, particularly, it was difficult to separate the amounts expended for their support from the general school funds. The actual aggregate value of build¬ ings and grounds occupied by secondary schools doubtless exceeds the sums given in Tables 6 and 12. Table 13 summarizes the statistics of public and private secondary schools for the whole country, placing the two classes of institutions in parallel columns and giving grand totals. The percentage of male and female students to the total number of students in each is shown, as well as the percentages in certain studies. To those seeking informa¬ tion in a condensed form relating to secondary schools this table is invaluable. Tables 14 and 15 have been arranged to show the number of private secondary schools controlled or supported by religious denominations. From the first column of Table 14 it will be seen that 824 of the 1,434 private secondary schools are under nonsectarian management. The remainder of that table and Table 15 will show that of the remaining 610 schools 173 are under Bornan Catholic control, 90 Episcopal, 68 Presbyterian, 59 Baptist, 49 Methodist, 45 Congregational, 42 Friends, 28 Southern Methodists, 23 Lutheran, and 33 under the control of other religious denominations. From the tables can also be learned the dis¬ tribution of teachers and students in these denominational schools. Of the 96,147 students in private secondary schools, 55,129 are in the nonsectarian schools. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 53 Table 16 will in some measure illustrate the growth of public and private secondary schools in this country for the past twenty years. The figures are taken from the annual reports of the Commissioner of Education beginning with 1871 when this Bureau collected the first statistics from private high schools and academies. The report of 1876 contains the first detailed information relating to public high schools and the figures were collected exclusively from public high schools m the larger cities. It was not till 1889 that an attempt was made to collect statistics from all the public high schools of the country. In referring to Table 16 it should be noted that the exclusive city high school statistics end with the report of 1888-89 and the statistics for public high schools in general begin with 1889-90. The lack of uniformity in the apparent growth of private secondary schools as dis¬ played in the table should be explained. Where to draw the line between secondary and elementary pupils was long a vexed question. Perhaps one year all pupils who pursued only one secondary study were classed as high school students while the very next year the total would be reduced by excluding all who did not pursue at least two secondary studies. Perhaps greater effort was made to collect statistics one year than was made the next. This may also in a measure account for the falling off in the number of students as shown in several of the annual reports. Taking these discrepancies into consideration and reviewing the whole period from 1871 to 1893 a fairly accurate idea of the relative growth of public and private secondary schools can be gained from an inspection of Table 16. The net gain for the private schools has not been very large in the twenty-two years, but public high schools have had a remarkable growth. 54 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 1. — Summary of statistics of public high schools. SCHOOLS, INSTRUCTORS, AND STUDENTS. State. Number of schools. Secondary instructors. Students in second¬ ary grades. Colored second¬ ary students (included in preceding column). Students below sec¬ ondary grades. o s 6 I o Ph Ts o EH 6 a p! a, wn vp. _ 1 1 23 1 1 1 4 127 Maryland _ _ ........ .. 17 59 840 3 , 14 116 1 j 3 34 ... District of Columbia. . . 6 59 526 i i Virginia _ _ ... .... 34 1 109 ! 1, 532 1 4 32 4 ; 14 144 1 i 2 18 j 2 i 5 86 "West, Virginia . 1 3 50 1 North Carolina . 48 | 155 2, 761 | 1 4 74 i 5 26 278| ! 3 1 10 132 6 14 1 260 2 6 j 107 South Carolina . IS 56 1, 018 4 8 172 ! i •J 75 3 7 [ 176 | Georgia . . . 44 91 1, 619 8 24 501 1 | 1 ! 1 25 3 9 143 Florida . . . 2 10 187 • 1 ! 1 2 36 South Central Division : I | | Kentucky . . . 22 68 1, 017 1 4 46 2 3 69 1 | 5 53 3 14 252 Tennessee ............ 48 147 3,185 4 5 125 1 7 60 r* 6 20 342 22 606 Alabama . . . 29 il 1,396 1 9 100 1 2 49 1 Mississippi _ ... 40 109 2, 650 i 2 6 91 1 1 1 3 8 132 2 i 9 136 T.onisinnn. _ .... 12 39 496 1 1 6 112 1 3 16 r" 1 2 40 1 Texas . 25 91 2, 063 3 17 273 1 4 13 2 25 520 2 1 13 327 Arkansas . 11 29 600 2 94 1 6 72 Indian Territory . 1 5 67 ! 1 __ | 1 r- 140 North Central Division: Ohio . 23 124 3. 390 1 5 155 3 28 239 | Indiana . 5 17 400 1 5 103 4 10 119 1 1 . Illinois _ ! 16 92 1, 824 4 16 179 1 o 100 ! 2 15 216 1 2 j15: 335 Michigan . 1 6 34 727 1 . I 1 5, 33 | 1 2 50 1 Wisconsin . . 4 22 189 4 18 182 1 7I . 129 1 71 .... Minnesota . 1 8 26 576 1 6 187 1 1! 13 162 4 13 240 Iowa . ! 9 47 1, 337 1 140 ! 1 7 50 1 5 145 Missouri . 32 157 2, 510 2 6 82 l\ 4 32 3 12 214: i| 4 ! 151 4 ! 16 479 North Dakota . 1 5 39 South Dakota . !... 1 10 79 1 i! 5 60 1 2 39 Nebraska . 1 8 122 1 7 05 i 10 140 1 7 96 1! 3 131 Kansas . 2 G 136 1 2 10 1 i 6 38 f 1 Western Division. 1 1 i ! Colorado . . 2 23 154 Utah . lj 4 35 1 1 5 33 Washington . 2 63 1 4 101 3 15 126 Oregon . 12 168 o 17 203 ...1 California . 1 82 1 i 911 1 5 1 36 3 18 203 1 1 I lj 3 28 1 ...] 1 68 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. Table 15. — Denominational schools, number of teachers and students. ( Continued from Table 14.) State. Friends. Congrega¬ tional. Itornan Catholic. Presbyterian. Other denomi¬ nations. Schools. Instructors. Students. Schools. m u o o 2 +3 a H Studonts. Schools. Instructors. Students. | Schools. Instructors. Studonts. Schools. 1 Instructors. Students. United States . 42 254 3, S79 45 LG0 i 2, 607 173 698 8, 513 68 249 l 4, 381 33 152 2, 524 North Atlantic Division. . 19 155 2, 028 16 62 1,103 41 183 2, 323 15 73 1, 112 14 79 1, 207 South Atlantic Division. . 3 21 247 1 1 8 19 77 1,142 20 58 873 2 9 159 4 15 232 25 95 1, 100 13 38 629 3 10 140 North Central Division. . . 20 78 1, 604 15 48 741 55 228 3,057 14 59 836 9 31 525 Western Division . 9 34 523 33 115 891 6 21 . 931 5 23 493 North Atlantic Division : 3 14 223 1 3 20 4 16 316 1 3 39 4 340 .... 2 12 148 4 17 210 3 13 185 4 27 446 1 10 150 2 11 224 1 2 14 2 4 60 1 4 23 209 25 113 1, 417 3 9 131 1 7 52 3 9 94 2 4 73 7 ! 44 606 1 5 98 11 113 1, 575 6 35 344 20 375 5 25 424 South Atlantic Division : 5 j Delaware . . 1 5 85 1 3 43 Maryland . 1 14 119 5 28 432 District of Columbia- . . 5 30 479 Virginia . 1 2 2 28 7 ! 26 314 1 4 70 W est \ irginia . 1 1 3 20 1 5 89 North Carolina . 1 2 43 1 1 8 G 15 264 South Carolina . 1 2 50 5 9 143 ftfinrfn'a, _ _ 1 1 2 38 1 5 109 Florida . 1 4 10 95 South Central Division : Kentucky . 1 6 27 259 c 23 389 1 4 65 J j Tennessee . 1 6 67 2 12 128 Alabama . j.... 1 2 43 1 17 Mississippi . ..... 2 5 55 3 8 110 1 4 34 Louisiana . 7 25 328 Texas . . • 7 24 313 2 65 Arkansas . 1 4 101 i 2 1 2 41 Indian Territory . 1 3 21 2 5 65 North Central Division : Ohio . 2 6 114 10 35 508 3 7 84 2 9 74 Indiana . 4 18 307 5 21 385 1 5 76 Illinois . 1 6 196 3 11 229 8 26 600 3 15 217 1 2 47 Michigan . 1 3 61 4 9 126 1 6 53 Wisconsin . . fr 4 32 8 36 364 1 5 60 Minnesota . i 4 36 3 24 157 Iowa . 5 13 228 2 3 54 5 14 285 1 3 43 2 7 116 Missouri . 2 9 155 6 31 363 2 G 119 2 6 153 North Dakota . 1 4 31 South Dakota . 1 4 16 Nebraska . 1 4 8 118 3 19 192 1 8 74 1 3 71 Kansas . 7 34 698 2 ! 9 117 1 5 30 1 4 110 1 4 64 W estera Division : | • Montana . i. . . . 3 4 63 Wyoming . 1 3 37 Colorado . 1 3 134 1 5 77 1 2 62 New Mexico . .... 1 1 1 15 2 4 42 Utah . 2 6 80 1 8 77 3 7 114 3 10 283 Washington . 4 57 3 22 317 Oregon . 1 7 92 5 12 156 1 3 69 California . 1 2 13 145 r I57 122 1 2 | 12 755 1 10 141 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES, 69 Table 16. — Number of students in public and private secondary schools reported to the United States Bureau of Education each year since 1871. Tear reported. Public. Private. Schools. I Students. I Schools. Students. Total. tudents. Schools. Students. 80, 220 80, 220 98, 929 98, 929 118, 570 118, 570 98, 179 98, 179 108, 235 108, 235 106, 647 129, 629 98, 371 123, 296 100, 374 128, 498 108, 734 135, 897 110, 277 136, 886 122, 617 159, 211 138, 384 1,745 177, 965 152, 354 1,854 187, 026 160, 137 1,893 195, 444 151, 050 1,911 221, 291 101, 115 1, 065 181,119 126, 721 1,357 242, 730 146, 561 2, 037 272, 103 94, 931 4, 158 297, 894 98, 400 4. 485 309, 996 100, 739 4, 585 340, 295 96, 147 4, 246 329, 098 1871.. .. 1872.. .. 1873. ... 1874.. .. 1875.. .. 1876.. .. 1877.. .. 1878.. .. 1879.. .. 1880.. .. 1881.... 1882-83. 1SS3-84. 1384-85. 1885- 86. 1886- 87. 1887- 88. 18S8-89. 1889- 90. 1890- 91. 1891- 92. 1892- 93. 263 266 276 471 515 684 *713 2, 526 2, 771 3, 035 2,812 22, 982 24, 925 28, 124 27, 163 26, 609 36, 594 39, 581 34, 672 35, 807 70, 241 80, 004 116, 009 125, 542 202, 963 211,596 239, 556 232, 951 143 229 226 227 236 264 1, 336 1,482 1,588 1,617 1,440 550 673 1, 324 1, 632 1,714 1,550 1, 434 * From 1876 to 1889 the figures given in the public high school columns apply to city high schools, only. From 1890 to 1893, inclusive, all public high schools are included. Table 17. — Ter cent of students pursuing certain studies in the public and private sec¬ ondary schools. Per cent of students studying — Division. Number of s on d ary s dents. Latin. Greek. rd O a £ German. Algebra. Geometry. Trigonom¬ etry. Physics. Chemistry. History. In public high schools in the — North Atlantic Division. . . . 79, 898 41.12 6. 75 13. 38 12. 15 47. 46 26. 34 1. 91 21. 91 10.61 34. 28 South Atlantic Division - 11, 587 60. 68 3.38 5.86 13. 26 65. 58 30. 84 5.44 29. 02 8. 39 49. 08 South Central Division . 13, 861 50. 87 1. 61 2.83 6.02 55. 73 30. 14 7. 24 30. 00 10. 98 43.79 North Central Division .... 115, 806 42. 38 1.42 2. 45 12. 53 54.46 23. 93 2.55 22. 73 9. 38 29. 39 Western Division . 11,799 36. 55 2. 15 3.05 9.96 58. 15 34. 44 1. 96 24. 32 12. 27 48. 58 The United States . 232, 951 43. 06 3.40 6.42 11. 92 52. 88 26. 00 2. 73 23. 27 10. 00 33. 88 In private high schools in the— North Atlantic Division .... 38, 139 43. 88 11.63 28. 21 21. 25 41.02 22. 98 5. 00 19. 08 10. 78 34. 91 South Atlantic Division .... 13, 522 47. 13 6. 09 17. 87 10. 60 48.43 17. 59 5. 06 19.31 8. 56 37. 04 South Central Division .... 17, 243 34.45 5.11 8. 04 4. 98 50. 41 21. 29 8. 33 23. 96 9. 33 30. 12 North Central Division .... 22, 346 31.59 7. 59 10. 48 17. 45 37. 23 17. 07 5. 71 18. 01 10. 00 26. 79 Western Division . 4, 897 32. 82 9.01 17. 38 14. 93 38. 86 19. 60 4.80 19. 46 9.05 34.86 Tho United States . 98,147 39. 23 8.61 18. 47 15. 63 42. 75 20. 37 5. 76 19. 76 9. 94 32.48 In both public and private high schools in the United States . 329, 098 41. 94 4. 92 9. 94 13. CO 49. 92 24. 36 3.61 22. 25 9. 98 33. 46 Y. — Universities and Colleges. (See Part IT, Table 6, for detailed statistics.) The number of coeducational colleges and colleges for men only reporting to the Bureau for the year 1892-93 was 451. This number does not include the purely technical schools, which are entered in a separate table. In order to show the number of coeducational colleges and the number of colleges for men only, together with the number of 70 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93, students attending each of these two classes of institutions in the several States, the following summarized statement has been prepared: Number of colleges for men only, and number of coeducational colleges in the several States. Golleges for males only. Coeducational colleges. States and Territories. dum¬ Male Fum- College students. ber. college students. ber. Male. Female. 141 20, 130 310 S (8 l 27,317 j S) 11, 583 45 * 9,763 4,082 2, 591 3,169 ! 33 8, 155 I 1 . 088 1, 740 512 29 30 South Central Division . ! 26 86 48 168 5 (75) l 2,862 1 1,158 13,411 | 7,178 S (13) 5 515 J 31 I | ( 1, SUl 90a Is orth Atlantic Division : 1 197 2 256 115 1 350 0 0 0 0 0 2 244 65 6 3, 087 0 3 358 216 0 1 501 48 1 122 2 1, 795 63 16 2, 090 1,489 2, 428 7 2, 946 0 624 5 0 0 15 16 2, 055 579 South Atlantic Division : 1 90 0 0 0 Maryland . 6 1,003 105 4 124 252 97 District of Columbia . . . 1 3 04 Virginia . . . . ....... 7 1,090 1 22 18 West Virginia . . ... . 0 0 4 174 79 north Carolina .. . . . 6 854 5 218 111 South Carolina . . . 5 418 4 81 14 Georgia . . . 3 532 5 149 75 Florida . - . . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee _ - . . 0 6 7 0 707 620 4 7 16 68 542 1, 069 84 219 278 Alabama . . . 4 527 3 . 90 68 Mississippi . . . . 2 148 3 212 68 Louisiana . . 4 423 5 211 113 Texas . . . 3 166 8 586 315 Arkansas . Oklahoma . Forth Central Division : Ohio . . . 0 0 6 0 0 393 5 1 32 5 (7 l 152 0 2, 878 1, 191 2,048 1,589 914 5) 99 0 1, 311 Indiana . , . Illinois . Michigan . . Wisconsin . 4 8 1 4 573 613 65 516 11 22 11 6 5S5 1,107 900 349 Minnesota . . . 4 249 8 942 579 Iowa . .... 3 108 21 1,281 1, 192 41 832 Missouri . . . 5 452 24 695 Korth Dakota . . . 0 0 4 19 South Dakota . 0 0 6 109 93 Febraska . 1 36 8 495 350 Kansas . 2 164 15 701 364 W estern Division : Montana . . . Wyoming . . . . Colorado . - . Few Mexico . I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4 1 19 19 5 a ) 122 0 4 9 3) 89 0 Arizona . 0 0 1 17 8 Utah . 0 o 1 71 46 Fevada . 0 0 1 36 23 Idaho . 0 0 1 4 2 Washington . . 1 6 4 138 63 Oregon . 0 0 6 154 129 California . 4 509 10 1,221 587 Under the head of coeducational colleges have been included all institutions in which either the undergraduate department, the graduate department, or both, are open to both men and women. It will be seen from the table that 310 institutions (68.7 per cent of the total number) UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES, 71 are open to women. In 1S90-9I of a total number of 430 institutions only 2S2, or 65.G per cent, were open to women, showing a gain in two years of a little more than 3 per cent. These two years witnessed the admission of women to certain privileges in Yale and Brown universi¬ ties, while Tufts College and Miami University were entirely thrown open to them. Professors and instructors. — The number of professors and instruct¬ ors, male and female, employed in the several departments of univer¬ sities and colleges is shown in the following summary: Universities and colleges for 1S92-03 — Summary of professors and instructors. States aiul Territories. Num¬ ber of in¬ stitu¬ tions. Preparatory departments. Collegiate de- J partments. Professional departments. Total number. Male. Fe¬ male. Male. Fe- ! male, i Male. Fe- | male. : Male. Fe¬ male. United States . 451 1,803 737 5,120 559 2.654 : 2G 8, 883 | 1,364 Nortli Atlantic Division - 78 309 44 1. 648 48 1 937 1 j 2,773 ] 74 South Atlantic Division . 59 212 84 607 52 215 0 953 145 South Central Division . 74 198 117 506 84 262 0 903 235 North Central Division . 204 966 429 2, 022 320 989 24 , 3,590 ] 730 Western Division . 36 118 63 ' 337 55 251 i ! 059 i 120 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 3 0 0 38 0 13 0 50 0 New Hampshire . 1 0 0 34 0 16 i 0 50 0 Vermont . 2 0 0 33 0 22 0 55 0 Massachusetts . 9 29 o 284 3 241 1 549 4 ithode Island . 1 0 0 58 o ! 0 0 53 0 Connecticut . 3 0 0 146 j o i 79 0 232 0 New York . 23 152 13 540 10 301 0 945 | 21 New Jersey . 5 22 4 117 0 5 0 136 | 4 Pennsylvania . 31 106 25 398 35 260 0 60S ; 45 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 1 0 0 13 0 0 0 13 0 Maryland . 10 62 9 161 15 181 20 District of Columbia. . . . 4 31 2 78 2 146 0 284 10 Virginia . S 20 3 98 G 16 0 128 9 West Virginia . 4 a 2 29 4 2 0 33 5 North Carolina . 11 24 19 93 9 26 0 135 29 South Carolina . 9 35 16 63 2 6 0 87 20 Georgia . 8 20 14 58 5 19 0 80 26 Florida . 4 11 19 16 9 0 0 17 26 South Central Division: ( Kentucky . 13 33 12 83 15 21 0 128 29 Tennessee . 23 61 44 169 30 156 0 354 70 Alabama . 7 6 45 1 6 0 j 59 10 Mississippi . 5 15 4 32 6 5 0 48 30 T, on Isi ana . 9 39 22 79 18 51 0 160 53 Texas . 11 29 20 73 7 23 0 120 45 Arkansas . 5 11 8 21 7 29 17 Oklahoma . 1 4 4 :::::::: 5 1 North Central Division : Ohio . 38 195 64 363 51 201 0 : 722 134 Indiana . 15 72 16 173 15 47 1 289 45 Illinois . 28 159 65 369 52 257 19 691 i 118 Michigan . 12 56 27 165 28 55 0 239 73 Wisconsin . 10 34 14 130 15 17 0 163 2t Minnesota . 12 38 13 139 IS 105 o 249 29 Iowa . 24 109 70 177 47 111 2 334 112 Missouri . 29 98 71 223 33 S2 0 421 113 North Dakota . 4 21 11 18 5 3 0 31 13 South Dakota..., . 6 35 23 32 16 0 0 43 42 Nebraska . 9 55 21 84 12 83 0 190 23 Kansas . . 17 94 34 149 25 18 0 213 58 Western Division: Montana . 1 3 1 4 1 W vomin rr 1 6 1 12 1 12 2 Colorado . 4 13 6 40 7 98 0 137 15 New Mexico . 1 3 4 3 4 Arizona . 1 2 0 10 0 30 0 Utah . 1 10 1 12 0 16 1 Nevada. _ 1 4 2 11 0 15 Idaho . 1 4 2 4 2 4 2 Washington . 5 8 17 14 1 0 23 17 Oregon . . 6 15 10 24 8 65 0 99 24 California . 14 50 29 203 23 87 1 1 333 52 I 72 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. The foregoing table shows that the proportion of women professors and instructors remains low; especially is this true of the college and professional departments. The largest proportion of women professors is found in the htorth Central and Western divisions of the country, while fhe smallest proportion is found in the hTorth Atlantic Division. Taking the total number of students enrolled in the collegiate and graduate departments of the universities and colleges of the entire country, we find that the proportion of students to instructors is 10.4 students to 1 instructor. In 1890-91 the total number of professors and instructors in all departments reported by 430 institutions was 8,472, while in 1892-93 the number reported. by 451 institutions was 10,247. Among the insti¬ tutions reporting in the latter year and which were not included in 1890-91 is the University of Chicago, with 135 professors and instructors. UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES, 73 Students . — The number of students enrolled in the several depart¬ ments of tlie universities and colleges, classified according to race and sex, is given in tlie following summarized tables: Universities and colleges for 1892-93 — Summary of students. Preparatory departments. Colleg iate departments. States and Territories. White. Colored. | Total. White. | Colored. Total. Male. Fe¬ male. Male Fe¬ male Male. | Fe¬ male. Male. ! Fe- | male. Male Fe¬ male Male. Fe¬ male. United States . | (73) 28, 519,11, 850 ko?i 1 1, 541 i 5 (73) (30, 590 13, 391 (88) 43, 803 j 11,017 ! ! L £ 563 82 1 5 (88) (44, 368111, 099 North Atlantic Division. . South Atlantic Division . . South Central Division.. | North Central Division. . . W estern Division . | 4, 803 2, 285 (5 3. 894 15, 628 (1 1,909 618 681 6) 1,488 7, 993 7) 1,070 69 1,022 jsoa 107 * 5 1 048 820 721 4,872 619 3,307 1,329 5 (56) } 4. 762 2, 308 15, 735 8, 085 5 (17) > 1, 914| 1,070 16,251; 1,586 4, 581 510 (75) 5, 160| 1.111 15. 607 1 6, 880 (13) 2, 204| 930 153 204 ^ 153 | 52 H 2 31 M! 15; 0 ; 16,404 1,588 4, 7851 541 $ (75) ( 5, 3131 1, 145 15, 659; 6, 895 $ (13) ;( 2, 2051 930 North Atlantic Division: o 0 0 (X 0 0 e 0 • 453 349 244 3, 083 115 0 65 207 39 36 589 0 0 0 0 0 n 1 A FIQ 1 1 £ o 0 0 0 0 349 0 4/4 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 433 o 6 0 o 433 2 I 3. 085 422 j 1,784 4,455 1, 371 4,241 90 780 353 1, 105 172 1, 045 493 679 68 1,244 1, 628 611 332 604 742 5 (7 X 152 DO 207 39 36 s a o 0 0 0 422 0 u n 0 2, 779 229 a 0 0 1,782 2 u A New York . 242 i 0 2, 780 242 4. 453 1, 371 2 u 0 569 0 557 0 22 i 0 230 22 0 0 0 1, 362 348 67 1 1, 429 349 4, 094 90 555 2 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 0 „ 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 13 29 0 0 Maryland . . 597 105 131 71 728 176 767 96 1 97 63 18 79 111 14 75 84 219 273 63 District of Columbia. . . . Virginia . 266 279 4 22 54 0 8 0 320 279 12 22 324 1, 105 172 59 18 JL 4 0 West Virginia . 218 69 1 0 219 69 79 0 105 28 29 0 0 North Carolina . 196 134 358 212 554 346 940 93 38 3 South Carolina . 157 26 401 244 558 270 465 11 Georgia . 370 117 77 113! 447 230 650 70 5 Florida . 202 204 0 o 202 204 68 84 i 0 5 South Central Division : Kentucky . 649 216 76 85' 725 301 1, 235 1, 516 214 9 112! 3 Tennessee _ _ _ _ 1,331 203 547 310 331 1, 641 278 878 261 12 2 Alabama . . . 121 75 104! 225 60S 66 Mississippi 287 580 642! 43 96 9 6 296 49 326 595 58 104 6 4 62 109 315 5) 99 Louisiana. . . 65 28 615 124 9 5 Texas . 340 234 212! 54 0 876 552 738 312 4 3 Arkansas . j Oklahoma . (5 141 61 6) 65 60 ^ 99 0 5 (5 l 240 61 6) 119 60 (7 142 5) 1 96 1. j 10 3 North Central Division: Ohio . 3,185 1,029 2, 662 1, 355 90 69 3, 275 1,424 310 2, 948 1, 709 I 1, 271' 31 2. 979 1, 714 2, 417 1, 573! 1, 383| 1, 119 1, 361 1, 589 41 1,278 562 1,022 859 326 542 806 687 19 94 349 351 4 Indiana, _ 309 1 1 1, 030 562 1, 020 857 5 0 Illinois . 1,150 4S7 6 0 2, 668 967 1,150 487 2, 416 1 2 Michigan . 965 2 0 1, 569 4 2 Wisconsin . 567 198 0 0 587 198 1. 382 1, 119 326 1 0 Minnesota . 668 243 0 0 688 243 541 0 1 e Iowa . . . 1, 582 2, 528! 200 1, 306 1, 342 4 2 1,586 2, 528 1,308 1, 342! 198 284 1. 360 806 687 1 Missouri . 0 0 1. 589 0 0 North Dakota . 198 0 0 200 41 19 0! 0 South Dakota _ 289 769 284 0 0 289 109 94 0 0 0 109 527 Nebraska . 477 1 0 770 477| 524 349 31 Kansas . 1, 184 30 644 31 0 1,187 644 841 348 6 3 847 19 Western Division: Montana . . 31 0 0 30 31 19 18 (1 113 4 0 0| Wvominfir . 16 20 0 0 16 20 9 3) 87 0 0 18 5 (1 l 113 9 Colorado . | Ko.w "Mexico . . . (1 162 7 7) 140 10 \ 1 0 0 0 5 (1 1 163: 7 7) 140 10 } 0 0 3) 87 Arizona . 9 4 0 0 9 17 8 0 0 17 8 Utah . 116 135 0 0 116 135 66 46 0 0 66 46 N evada . . . 45 77 0 0 45 34 28 2 0 0 34 28 Idaho . . . 84 45 0 0 84 45 85 4 0 0 4 2 W ashington . . 164 85 0 0 164 142 62 0 0 142 62 Oregon . 293 236 4 0| 297 236 154 129 0 0! 154 129 California . . 983 287 0 ! 1 983 •to- 1 1,637 555 1 0 1, 638 ! 555 1 1 1 1 74 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93 Universities and colleges for 1802-93. — Summary of students — Continued. Professional departments. Graduate departments. | Kesident. Nonresident. States and Territories. White. ored. Total. White. Col¬ ored. Total. White. Col¬ ored. Total. d 'S % 6 £ 1 6 i Ph ,2 d 1 c <0 ft 6 1 6 £ | d I Ph 6 a © £ d £ 6 1 d & 1 6 !i © C3 s © p-l United States . | (1 17, 950 6) > 718$ 693 10 $ G6) ) \18, 643j726$ 2, 233 390 O 0 2, 235 390 844 04 2 ' 0 1 1 840 i h North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division . . North Central Division . . W est ern Division . ^ 6, 096 1, 70S 2, 207 7,184 (1 755 188 19 3 455 °5lj 40 330 299 24 0 0 2 7 0 1 6,136 2, 038 2, 506 7, 208 5 0 l 755 188 21 10 455 -6) l 52$ 1,163 381 102 498 89 134 1 8 212 35 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1, 163 ! 381 ! 103 499 89 134 1 8 212 35 349 14 37 422 22 18 0 5 71 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 351 14 ' 37 422 22 ! 18 0 5 71 0 North Atlantic Division : 100 ins „ o o 100 108 ISO 1.483 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 | 0 0 o o o 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 188 1,457 o o 9 p 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 o 6 n 75 337 40 112 446 108 119 39 q 0 0 337 40 112 446 108 119 39 23 0 0 0 23 39 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 9 39 21 133 10 123 0 0 0 348 2, 151 38 1, 706 p o 356 2,153 38 0 26 40 0 0 0 26 40 0 1 0 0 1 21 135 1 10 123 1 108 n 2 n 108 0 0 0 15 0 2 2 0 15 p n 0 0 0 0 0 5 99 o 1,728 5 20 0 0 20 0 0 2 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . Marvland . 39 0 18 o 9 o 48 1,185 377 75 228 23 102 o 0 20 0 347 4 0 0 0 347 4 0 District of Columbia. . . 995 377 75 190 2 1 0 0 1 Virginia . ! o o 7 0 0 0 7 0 West Virginia . 1 1 0 o 1 2 0 0 0 2 0 North Carolina . 98 q |130 1 o o 0 17 2 0 0 0 17 2 0 10 4 0 0 0 10 4 0 South Carolina . 22 102 o o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Georgia . 0 o o 0 2 0 ! 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Florida . o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 South Central Division : Kentucky . 341 1,158 42 23 483 1 o o 341 1,367 48 23 521 159 47 1 3 49 5 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 Tennessee . o 209 6 7 3 0 0 49 5 3 0 12 1 0 0 0 12 1 19 3 0 0 Alabama . o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mississippi . o o o 0 8 27 10 0 1 1 0 q 1 4 19 3 5 0 0 0 5 Louisiana . o 33 4 o 0 4 0 0 27 10 0 0 0 0 Texas . 155 o 2 o 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Arkansas . . o 47 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oklahoma . North. Central Division : Ohio . 1,323 377 1,557 1, 273 371 614 865 474 1 14 41 175 12 2 5 o 1 335 14 41 175 109 4 44 20 16 77 25 11 25 1 0 45 27 191 43 52 53 20 16 77 25 11 25 22 8 247 23 13 7 0 0 247 23 1 53 38 13 Indiana . . o ’379 1,562 1,273 372 615 865 474 3 27 191 43 52 53 25 52 0 0 0 0 7 Illinois . o 0 0 53 38 25 19 3 8 16 12 3 0 0 8 Michigan . 109 4 0 o 0 0 0 0 16 Wisconsin . 1 o 0 0 0 0 0 \i 1 12 Minnesota . 25 71 0 0 1 o 25 71 0 0 0 0 3 4 Iowa . o o 22 8 0 0 25 52 4 0 0 Missouri . • 0 o 0 0 3 0 0 0 North Dakota . 3 0 o 0 1 1 0 1 South Dakota . 2 0 0 O Nebraska . 188 129 10 6 o o 198 132 10 O 2 1 0 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 ! 2 0 Kansas . o 9 5 0 0 9 5 s 8 0 0 9 8 Western Division : Montana . . ' l d I Wyoming . . . ! 1 I 1 3 q! 0! 0 0 1 0 ....1 Colorado . New Mexico . . .1 (16) *| 173] 20$ | 0 1 5 (16) I i 173! 21$ 0 1 0 3 1 0 i J ij 0 Arizona . 1 . 1 j Utah . 1 .. 5 0 0 0 0 5 O1 1 1 ! ... Nevada . . 1 2 0 0 2 °] j I ... Idaho _ ; . i 1 j " 1 | Washington . 4, 0 5 0; 4| 0 0 "1! 0 oi 0! 1 O oi 0j 0; Oi 0 Oregon . . 121 o: o! 121I 5 1 1 California . H o1 q! 26 .... 73! 1 0 0 73 1 32 j 1 0 ° 1 1 i\ 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. 75' Universities and colleges for 1S92-93. — Summary of students — Continued. Total number. States and Territories. United States . North Atlantic Division. South Central Division . North Central Division. Western Division . North Atlantic Division : Maine . New Hampshire . Vermont . Massachusetts . Khode Island . Connecticut . New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia. . . . Virginia . "West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama. . . Mississippi Louisiana . . . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma . North Central Division: Ohio . Illinois .... Michigan . . Wisconsin . Minnesota . iowa . Missouri . North Dakota. South Dakota . Nebraska . 1 ivansas W estern Division : Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . New Mexico. Arizona . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . TV ashington . Oregon A . California. . . . White. Colored. Total. Male. J Female. Male. Female. J Male. Female. (V‘ 99, 839 (7 6) | 29, 557 | 4,508 3,373 If (2A ) 104, 347 i -76) 32, 930 29, 808 2, 599 264 3 29,632 2,602 8, S67 1,360 1, 954 1,156 10,921 2, 516 (692) 12,160 | 2,859 | 2,080 2,093 C (692) l 240 | 4, 943 (2, 036) l 204 119 1 C (2. 036) 43, 928 20, 128 > 44,132 20, 247 (4 8) } 6 2 f (48) 5,416 2,820 | t 5, 422 1 2, 622 553 115 0 0 553 115 458 0 0 0 458 0 432 65 o 0 434 65 5, 454 327 8 0 5,462 327 501 48 0 0 501 48 2, 2S6 83 10 0 2, 296 83 10, 065 942 7 0 10, 072 942 1,779 22 1 0 1,780 22 7,840 997 236 3 8,076 1,000 SO 0 0 0 90 0 1,753 206 153 72 1,906 278 1,597 87 387 93 1,984 180 1,719 40 0 0 1,719 40 464 148 1 0 465 148 1,257 227 569 247 1, 826 ! 474 616 37 612 418 1,258 455 1,165 . 319 232 326 1,397 645 276 296 0 0 276 296 2,944 476 85 97 3, 029 573 (145) | 636 473 f (145) 4, 058 847 1 4, 694 1, 320 848 188 109 138 957 326 646 107 106 127 752 234 1,682 204 492 722 2, 174 926 (547) 1.5821 736 | 333 315 C (547) > 1,915 1 1,051 339 23^ 319 221 658 453 61 60 0 “o 61 60 (289) ! | 151 105 f (21 59) 8,447 1 3,862 \ 8, 598 1 3,967 (22) 1 8 1 f (2 2) 3,259 1 1, 149 > 3, 267 1 1, 150 (128) } 12 9 f (128) 8,444 ! 2, 960 ) 8, 456 2, 962 (145) } 8 A f (145) 4, 290 | 1, 987 1 4, 298 1,991 2, 472 I 674 2 0 2,474 674 2, 56S j 961 1 1 2,569 962 (1, 184) } 5 9 f 0,184) 3, 990 2, 413 | l 3, 995 2, 415 5, 097 2, 479 0 0 5, 097 2,479 280 237 0 0 280 237 581 569 0 0 561 569 1,578 978 4 0 1, 582 978 (268) j 13 4 1 f (268) 2,942 ; 1, 859 ! X 2,955 1,863 49 35 ! 0 0 i 49 35 53 54 0 1 53 55 (48) 1 S (48) 657 388 5 1 l 658 i 389 54 54 i 0 0 54 54 26 12 1 0 0 26 . 12 187 181 0 0 187 1 181 81 105 0 o 81 1 105 88 47 0 0 ! 88 47 432 198 0 0 I 432 198 583 525 4 0 587 1 525 3, 206 1,021 1 c 3,207 1,021 76 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Tlie foregoing tables show that the total number of students in attendance upon all the courses of the several institutions was 140,053. Of this number 23.5 per cent were women, and 5.6 per cent were col¬ ored. In the undergraduate departments there were enrolled 55,553 students. Women comprised almost 20 per cent of this number, while the proportion of colored students was small ; only 1.5 per cent of the total number belonging to the colored race. In the preparatory depart¬ ments these two classes of students make a much better showing. Of the 44,054 students enrolled in the preparatory departments, 30.4 per cent were women, and 8.2 per cent were colored. It would natu¬ rally be expected that the proportion of colored students would be considerably, larger in the preparatory departments than in the other departments of the several institutions. The professional departments claimed 19,385 students, of which number 3.7 per cent were women and 3.6 per cent were colored. The diagram shown on p. 77 shows the number of students in attend¬ ance on the undergraduate courses of the universities and colleges as reported to this office for the years 1885-86 to 1892-93, inclusive. The graduate students pursuing advanced liberal studies have been classified as resident and nonresident students. The number of resi¬ dent graduates for the year under consideration was 2,625, while the number of nonresident graduates was 940. Of the former number, 14.9 per cent were women, while of the latter number but 10 per cent were women. The greatest number of nonresident graduates is found in the Horth Central Division of the country. In this section as well as in the north Atlantic Division there are several institutions in which the nonresident graduate departments are important features of the insti¬ tutions. The growth of graduate work in the United States from 1871-72 to 1892-93 is set forth in the diagram shown on p. 78. In this diagram are included only such graduate students as are pur¬ suing what are generally known as liberal studies, graduate students pursuing professional courses of study being excluded. UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES 77 undergraduate students in universities and colleges from 1885-S6 to 1892-93. 1885-86 \ 1886-87 \ 1887-88 1888-89 1889- 90 1890- 91 ©j cn 05 C5 1 1 a 8 $ $ 55,000 5 0,0 GO 45,000 40,000 35,000 / / / ! / i / / ] ! / ! ! / i “I 1 / i I / i 1 / i 1 / i / i 7 1 1 | i n ~7H 1 i / i / i / 1/ / I | / 1 / 1 / / / / / i I 1 y / / / 1 30.000 i ~z! 78 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Graduate students in universities and colleges from 1S71-72 to 1892-03. UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. 79 The following tabic sliows tlie percentage of college students in tlie several degree courses reported by 381 universities and colleges: Universities and colleges for ISO 2-03. UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN DEGREE COURSES. States and Territories. United States . North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division.. North Central Division.. Western Division . North Atlantic Division : Maine . New Hampshire . Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia Virginia . AVest A7irginia . . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . North Central Division: Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . . North Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . . . Kansas . Western Division: Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . Arizona . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . AVashington . . Oregon . California . Num¬ ber of Per cent cf students in decree courses pursuing courses of study leading to — insu iu- tions report¬ ing classifi¬ cation of stu¬ dents . Number of stu¬ dents in degree courses. A. B. degree. Ph.B. degree. B. L. degree. B. S. degree. | B.C.E.I degree. I Other first de¬ grees. 361 41, 978 55. 70 1 9. 21 7. 16 20. 93 2. 66 4. 34 68 15, 970 61. 97 8.12 2.88 15.00 4.54 7. 49 45 3,279 79.44 3.63 2. 35 10. 95 2.44 1. 19 50 3,813 50. 72 2. 86 8.71 34. 09 1.68 1.94 165 16, 639 46. 00 12. 54 11. 85 25.45 1. 39 2,77 33 2, 277 56. 79 11. 15 7. 29 21. 91 .66 2.20 3 547 100. 00 1 320 55. 00 18.44 24. 06 2. 50 2 295 47.46 16. 95 14. 91 13. 56 7. 12 8 3. 054 87. 66 .69 9. 56 2. 09 1 '297 65. 99 29. 29 0 0 4. 72 0 3 1 811 67. 59 29. 76 .05 2. 60 21 4, 554 37. 66 7. 53 7. 44 19. 32 6.00 22. 05 3 1, 160 63. 80 22. 50 11. 72 1.98 26 3, 932 63. 12 6.54 1. 55 20.19 4.81 3.79 1 85 60. 00 4. 71 23. 53 11. 76 8 526 91. 25 .19 2. 28 6. 28 4 284 81.69 8.45 6. 69 3. 17 4 559 99. 64 . 36 3 80 50. CO 6. 25 22. 50 13. 75 7.50 7 670 61.94 11.64 4. 48 18. 66 1.49 1.79 7 388 85. 05 2. 84 12. 11 608 77. 80 4.77 14. 14 3. 29 4 79 34. 18 37.97 27. 85 526 47. 53 3.80 15. 78 32. 13 .76 17 1,106 48.46 3.80 2.44 37. 97 3. 62 3.71 7 581 59. 04 6.71 3. 27 27. 19 3.27 .52 3 292 40. 75 1.03 58. 22 0 689 54.57 .58 8. 27 32. 22 4. 36 7 619 50. 08 .16 23. 59 26. 01 .16 31 3,224 51. 30 14. 45 12. 19 13. 74 2. 33 5. 99 12 1,991 54. 49 14.42 4. 82 24. 91 1. 36 26 2, 963 41.41 10. 56 9. 42 38. 37 .24 6 1,647 29. 87 19.31 18. 64 31. 27 .91 9 1,487 ’ 33. 56 2. 29 36. 31 14. 66 3.83 9. 35 9 916 37. 55 22. 05 27.51 3. 06 9. S3 • 21 1,760 35. 91 28. 24 2. 39 30. 79 2. 50 .17 22 1, 348 60. 83 7. 79 3.49 26. 86 .07 .96 3 49 55. 10 2. 04 4. 08 38. 78 6 199 57. 29 7. 54 4. 52 30. 65 7 208 49. 52 1. 92 9. 14 39. 42 13 847 77. 57 5. 55 4. 13 12. 75 :::::::: 1 23 13. 04 86. 96 1 27 14. 81 25. 93 25. 93 33. 33 4 142 35. 21 23. 24 16. £0 24. 65 1 22 100. 00 1 49 12. 25 8. 16 48. 98 80. 61 1 GO 63. 33 36. 67 1 6 83. 33 16. 67 4 GO 50. GO 1. 11 48. 89 6 185 69.73 7. 57 22. 70 13 1,673 60. 85 13.21 6. 93 17. 81 .84 .36 For a number of years tlie percentage of students in the classical or A, B. course has been decreasing, wliilo the percentage of students in courses leading to the science degrees has been increasing. Preparation of students. — Another attempt was made during the year to ascertain the kinds of schools in which the several freshmen students 80 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. of tlie year were prepared for college. Not much success has attended the efforts of the Bureau in this direction, as answers to this inquiry were received from but 216 of the 451 institutions to which the inquiry was directed. The results of this investigation have been incorporated in the following table: Universities and colleges for 1892-93. PREPARATION OE ERESHMEN. States and Territories. No. of institu¬ tions re¬ porting. No. of fresh¬ men. Per cent of freshmen prepared in i prepara- j tory depart¬ ments of | colleges. Per cent of freshmen prepared in private secondary schools. Per cent of freshmen prepared in public high schools. Per cent of freshmen prepared by private study. United States . 216 8, 273 39. 28 21.59 36. 26 2.87 North Atlantic Division . 42 2, 784 17. 96 35. 31 42. 49 4.24 South Atlantic Division . 28 582 51. 03 32. 82 13.74 2. 41 South Central Division . 26 847 57. 97 21. 37 16. 41 4.25 North Central Division . 99 3, 359 52. 28 11.13 35. 04 1. 55 W estern Division . 21 701 29. 39 8. 13 60. 06 2. 42 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 3 169 10. 65 28. 99 44.97 15. 39 N ew Hampshire . 1 168 1.19 27. 38 70. 24 1. 19 Vermont . 2 100 0 19. 00 79. 00 2. 00 Massachusetts . 4 520 3. 65 '51. 16 44. 04 1.15 1 118 6. 78 52. 54 40. 68 Connecticut . 1 90 3. 33 63. 34 30. 00 3. 33 New York . 13 826 18. 28 25. 91 53. 87 1.94 New Jersey . 1 93 23. 66 27. 96 46. 23 2. 15 Pennsylvania . 16 700 39. 57 34. 86 16. 86 8. 71 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 1 27 3.70 44.45 29. 63 22. 22 Maryland . 5 103 61.17 7. 77 26.21 4.85 District of Columbia . 2 28 78. 57 17. 86 0 3.57 Virginia _ _ _ _ 3 43 100. 00 West, Virginia _ __ 2 14 100. 00 North Carolina . 5 178 35.39 48.88 14.61 1.12 South Carolina . 5 73 43. 83 30. 14 26. U3 Georgia . 4 114 50. CO 50. 00 El or id a . 1 2 100. 00 South Central Division : Kentucky . 5 175 55. 43 19.43 12. 57 12. 57 Tennessee . 8 238 51. 68 31. 09 15. 55 1.68 Alabama _ _ 1 5 100. 00 - Mississippi . . . 3 157 58. 60 32. 48 8. 92 Louisiana. ...... _ _ _ _ _ 4 101 64. 36 20. 79 14. 85 Texas . 5 171 63! 74 '.59 29! 82 5.85 North Central Division: Ohio . 14 493 46. 45 7. 10 44. 22 2. 23 Indiana . 8 410 37. 56 5. 37 52. 68 4. 39 Illinois . 21 1,091 51.15 17. 41 30.34 1. 10 Michigan . . . a 127 59.84 40. 16 Wisconsin . 5 95 78. 95 6. 32 12. 63 2. 10 Minnesota . 5 101 50. 50 8. 91 40. 59 Iowa . 11 334 43.11 12. 88 43.41 .60 Missouri . 15 380 64. 21 11.84 23.42 .53 North Dakota . 2 25 56. 00 12. 00 16. 00 16. 00 South Dakota 3 109 71. 56 10. 09 18. 35 Nebraska, . . . 4 57 61. 40 38. 60 Kansas . 137 71.53 7. 30 20. 44 .73 Western Division : Montana _ . 1 12 100. 00 Wyoming _ 1 17 100. 00 Colorado _ 2 24 45. 83 16. 67 37. 50 Arizona . . 1 » 38 28. 95 57. 90 13. 15 Utah 1 16 100. 00 Nevada . 1 29 17. 24 3.45 68. 97 10.34 Idaho 1 6 66. 67 33. 33 W a shin rrtnn 3 40 100. 00 Oregon 4 33 100. 00 California . 6 486 11.73 10.70 75. 72 1.85 Degrees. — The number of different degrees, excluding purely profes¬ sional degrees, conferred on examination or in course by the several universities and colleges is given in the following table : DEGREES CONFERRED (EXCLUDING PROFESSIONAL DEGREES). UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. 81 a R V 1 S CM • | jS •j§y -a : 3 O CM CO CM rH CO - * R 'snR ^ * || a -snR 1 * a Cl 50 CO •a -p^a L- - •paa R CM - IM paa *a 3 •ooia -a j ~ •wina -a O o 50 •o -a 1 N H y-{ CO ■s -a 1,153 345 61 172 527 .JLi 3^3 •R 'Y 1 §°sl“ ^ G> CM CM SO ! •a ’y 4,001 1SS3* States and Territories- United States . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . North Central Division . Western Division . North Atlantic Division: Maine . 1 I 1 Ifc Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . . qnou+oouuoy New York . New .Torsev . !1 • p 1 G i pH South Atlantic Division : Delaware _ _ i| District, of Columbia . . l ;•? !1 !> n North Carolina . . . 1 II ij !a ( !eor J- 2 t ii - : "f ; M ii i 1 ii h N • e H ii 3 C % - 5 y i 5-i li 3 ii Si '• p • o if, Ill er cent in the Western Division. Degrees in pedagogy were conferred in but 6 States in the North Central and Western divisions. In many of the institutions offering courses in pedagogy or the science and art of teaching, such courses are counted towards fulfilling the requirements for degrees in arts and science. The total number of honorary degrees conferred in 1892-93 was 886. Of this number, 396 were A. M., 121 LL, D., and 277 D. D. In all there were conferred 458 honorary doctorates, of which number 32 were doctors of philosophy. The number of honorary degrees, by States, is given in the following table: 84 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. 85 I .2aS .i_|g5|S -co s-iiiiiimii 86 EDUCATION REPORT, 18S2-S3. Property. — The following table gives in a summarized form the num¬ ber of volumes in libraries, the value of scientific apparatus, the value of grounds and buildings, the amount of productive funds, and the amount of benefactions received during the year: Universities and colleges for 1892-93. SUMMARY OF PROPERTY. States and Territories. Libraries. Value of scientific apparatus and libraries. Value of grounds and buildings. I Amount of productive funds. Benefac¬ tions. Bound volumes. Pam¬ phlets. United States . 5, 319, 602 1, 148, 567 I $13,532,419 $95, 545, 681 $94, 500, 758 | $6, 532, 157 North Atlantic Division - 2, 460, 673 638. 431 6, 997, 916 36, 193, 760 52, 801, 159 I 2. 460, 662 South Atlantic Division. . . . 567, 561 97, 056 1, 020, 956 9, 384. "50 7, 280, 781 294, 905 Soulli Central Division . 385, 695 72, 715 698, 589 8, 234, .25 6, 845, 608 365, 417 North Central Division . 1, 696. 858 301, 120 3, 977, 335 31, 725, 296 24, 330, 354 3, 210, 708 W estern Division . 208, 815 39, 245 837, 623 10, 007, 250 3, 242, 856 199, 465 North Atlantic Division : 91, 803 114, 397 678, 936 1, 332, 933 151, 600 73, 500 100, 000 250, 000 1, ICO, 000 Vermont . . 65, 461 . 1.150 135, 000 450, 000 630, 000 116, 800 Massachusetts . 643, 650 320, 050 1, 353, 283 7, 062, 500 13, 652, 923 729, 133 Rhode Island . 80, 000 20, 000 538, 200 1. 250, 000 1, 130, 369 66, GOO Connecticut . 275, 000 23, 000 767, 200 4, 640, 000 5, 501, 912 228, 086 New York . 678, 195 86. 322 2, 307, 416 11, 859, 587 21, 528, 434 698, 415 137, 928 30, 020 565, 800 1, 980, 000 2, 700, 000 Pennsylvania . 415,138 157, 889 1, 116, 640 8, 022, 737 5, 224, 588 470, 628 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 6, 007 4, 589 35. 000 80 000 83, 000 Maryland . 114, 520 41, 870 230, 700 1, 762, 000 3,013, 500 12, 310 District of Columbia. .. 92, 782 10, 172 150. 000 2, 200, 000 425, 000 4. 239 Virginia . 137’, 000 16, 200 344, 900 1. 694, 000 1, 775, 816 85, 110 West Virginia . 9,446 575 20, 200 345, 000 114, 640 6, 071 North Carolina . 61, 906 13, 850 113, 000 1, 110, COO 521, 027 1, 000 South Carolina . 59, 200 4, 000 8. 100 776, 000 252, 000 21. 805 Georgia . 45, 800 4, 500 109. 056 1, 156, 750 919, 798 43, 469 Florida . . . 7, 900 1,300 10, 000 261, 000 146, COO 120, 901 South Central Division : Kentucky . 50, 713 8, 151 64, 000 1, 072, 000 1,166,233 32, 956 Tennessee . 130, 344 22, 964 279, 556 3, 140, 870 2, 163. 000 76, 388 Alabama . 27, 600 5, 700 98. 350 704, 500 353, 000 7, 000 Mississippi . 23, 000 6, 900 67, 300 455, 000 708, 061 1.000 Louisiana . 116, 800 20, 800 103, 683 1, 437, 255 1, 701, 814 212. 520 Texas . 27, 438 5, 900 72, 900 1. 125, COO 738, 000 36, 553 Arkansas 9. 200 2, 300 12, 500 255, 000 15, 500 Oklahoma '600 300 45, 000 North Central Division : Ohio . 320, 837 90, 675 877, 389 6. 133, 304 6, 525, 165 293, 594 Indiana . 180. 900 26, 150 447, 144 2,335,304 2, 044, 368 104, 292 Illinois . 434, 584 43. 292 572, 893 5, 993, 700 5, 743, 239 2, 136, 048 Michigan . 172, 734 55, 334 671, 306 1, 792, 415 1, 685, 731 63, 466 Wisconsin . 101, 900 11, GOO 263, 500 2, 159, 000 1, 318, 500 116, 575 Minnesota . 72, 525 4, 245 183, 378 2, 853, 232 1, 634, 554 25, 202 ’ Iowa . 126. 151 14, 750 213. 500 2, 270, 341 1, 473, 291 103, 609 Missouri . 146, 503 32, 325 186, 000 3, 931, 700 2, 797, 729 107, 861 North Dakota . 7,740 4, 100 37, 500 290, 000 25, 000 5, 800 South Dakota . 11, 525 2, 574 22, 025 372, 650 85, 000 118, 468 Nebraska . 41, 559 6. 525 203, 400 1. 988, 650 434, 777 32, 377 Kansas . . 79, 900 9. 550 299, 300 1, 602, 000 563, 000 103, 418 W estern Division : Montana . 1,200 200 7,000 50, 000 . 0 22. 000 Wvoming . 2, 650 1, 700 2,500 100, 000 0 Colorado . 22, 500 3, 300 62, 800 786,300 387,728 103. 000 New Mexico 500 250 750 35, 000 Arizona . 26, 475 66, 700 Utah 10, 500 2, 500 30, 000 280, 000 Nevada . 3| 468 2, 300 36, ICO 81, 350 0 0 Idaho 1, 585 4, 000 4, 498 40, 000 Washington . lo! 232 4^ 600 15, 300 529, 000 4, 000 18, 900 Oregon . . 17, 730 7, 425 22, 600 455, 000 328, 000 10. 840 California . 138, 450 12, 970 629, COO 7, 533, 900 2, 523, 128 44, 725 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. 87 The total number of volumes in libraries in 1892-93 was 5,319,602, an increase of a little more than 700,000 over the number reported in 1891- 92. Besides these bound volumes there were reported 1,148,567 pamphlets. The North Atlantic Division seems to be especially favored in the number of books possessed by its universities and colleges. While this division contains but 17.3 per cent of the total number of institutions, it has 46.2 per cent of the total number of books reported, and 55.6 per cent of the total number of pamphlets. The total amount of the value of grounds, buildings, and apparatus, together with the amount of invested funds, forms an equipment worth $203,578,858. Of this total amount we again find that about 47.2 per cent is possessed by the institutions in the North Atlantic Division. While the institutions in this division have but 37.9 per cent of the total amount of the value of grounds and buildings, they have almost 50 per cent of the scientific apparatus and 55.9 per cent of the total amount of productive funds. These figures are very significant when it is remembered how small a proportion of the institutions are located in this division. As to the amount of benefactions received during the year, the North Central Division has the advantage, having received almost 50 per cent of the total amount reported. Of the $3,210,708 reported by the institutions of this division, the University of Chicago reported $1,950,000. Income. — The income of universities and colleges is derived from tuition fees, from productive funds, State or municipal appropriations, appropriations from the General Government and from miscellaneous sources. The total income reported by the universities and colleges in 1892- 93 was $14,601,034. Of this amount, $5,466,810, or 37.4 percent, was derived from tuition fees, thus showing the comparatively small proportion of the cost of an education that is borne by the students. Of the remainder, 34.9 per cent is the income from invested funds ; 11.5 per cent was appropriated by the several States and cities ; 4.7 per cent was appropriated by the General Government, while the balance was received from miscellaneous sources. The following summary gives the statistics concerning the income by States: 88 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Universities and colleges for 1S92-93. INCOME. States and Territories. From tuition fees. From productive funds. From State or municipal appro¬ priations. From U. S. Gov¬ ernment. From other sources. Total income. United States . $5, 466, 810 $5, 099, 859 $1, 679, 051 $682, 292 $1, 423, 022 $14, G01, 034 North Atlantic Division .... 2, 872, 798 2, 586, 337 228, 945 131, 075 542, 442 5, 861, 597 South Atlantic Division - 484. 375 378, 453 162, 052 187, 144 196, 171 1, 408, 195 South Central Division . 491, 258 444, 284 26, GOO 56, 728 106, 489 1, 125, 359 North Central Division . 1, 941, 246 1, 492, 577 879, 656 167, 023 531, 667 5, 012, 169 W estern Division . 177, 133 198, 208 381, 798 140, 322 46, 253 1, 193, 714 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 42, 380 59, 827 0 0 0 102, 207 New Hampshire . 18, 000 60, 000 0 18, 000 0 96, 000 Vermont . 10, 612 32, 198 6, 000 26, 130 8,581 83, 521 604, 429 658, 548 143, 026 1, 404, 003 63,' 250 66^ 334 2, 945 132, 529 323j 872 243, 975 18, 000 140, 611 726, 458 New York . 733; 205 1, 058, 169 151, 163 33, 000 153, 727 2, 129, 264 New Jersey . 50, 720 150, 150 0 33, 000 20, 000 253, 870 Pennsvivania . 526. 330 259, 136 71, 782 0 76, 497 933, 745 South Atlantic Division : 4, 980 14, 4C0 2, 108 21, 488 Maryland . 187, 400 119, 700 17, 700 0 33, 270 358, 070 District of Columbia . . . 94, G02 21, 084 0 90, 500 20, 371 226, 557 Virginia . 74, 372 99, 071 40, 000 0 66, 442 279, 885 West Virginia . 10, 538 6, 389 49. 982 30, 000 5, 803 102, 712 North Carolina . 5S, 553 34, 537 20, 000 1,500 32, 662 147, 252 South Carolina . 21, 354 24, 525 33, 270 38, 744 14, 000 131, 893 Georgia . 23, 416 60, 132 1,100 12, COO 18, 289 114,937 Florida . 14, 140 8,035 0 0 3, 226 25, 401 South Central Division : Kentucky . 67, 020 67, 008 0 0 3, 157 137, 185 Tennessee . 157, 089 127, 880 950 33, 000 55, 379 374, 298 Alabama . 72; 914 27, 000 1.200 0 1, 000 102, 114 Mississippi . 21, 344 42, 983 400 0 1, 600 66, 327 Louisiana . 77, 148 108, 505 13. 450 23, 728 23, 409 246, 240 Texas . 79, 476 69, 378 5,000 0 12, 144 165, 998 Arkansas . 18. 200 1,530 0 0 9, 800 27, 530 Okl akoma . 67 5, 600 5. 667 North Central Division: Ohio . 275. 785 412, 880 67, 292 18, COO 94, 588 868, 545 Indiana . 281, 182 110, 182 40, 000 0 6, 892 438, 256 Illinois . 426, 691 335, 626 63, 533 33, 000 178, 403 1, 037, 253 Michigan . 199, 704 110, 959 181, 000 0 36, 918 528, 581 Wisconsin . 54, 140 70, 976 168, 000 33, 000 61, 459 387, 575 Minnesota . 72, 185 80, 250 69, 500 33, 000 38, 476 293, 411 Iowa . 193, 151 92, 931 67, 000 0 21, 423 377, 505 Missouri . 303, 439 186, 505 1, 331 17, 023 27, 636 535, 934 North Dakota . 7, 450 1, 500 37. 000 0 7, 000 52, 950 South Dakota . 16, 810 4, 300 28, 500 0 5, 085 54, 695 Nebraska . 29, 511 56, 868 70, 000 33, 000 25, 087 214, 466 Kansas . 78, 198 29, 600 86, 500 0 28, 700 222, 998 Western Division : Montana 7,500 7, 500 Wyoming . 293 36, 559 22, 322 59, 174 Colorado . 20, 218 21, 185 70, COO 0 11, 427 122, 830 New Mexico . 0 0 12, 500 0 0 12, 500 Arizona . 0 0 12, 000 18, 000 190 30, 190 TTtnli 1, 543 45, GOO 46, 543 Nevada . 0 0 25, 000 34, 000 0 59. 000 Idaho 1, 349 15, 164 33, 000 49, 513 Washington . 14, 800 400 25, 000 0 4, 700 44, 90C Oregon . 14, 296 28, 091 25, 000 0 14, 624 82, 011 California . 118, 483 147, 183 115, 575 33, 000 15, 312 679, 553 YI. — Colleges for Women. (See Part IT, Tables 7 and 8, for detailed statistics.) Tlie total number of colleges for women reported for the year 1892-93 was 143. Of this number 16 were placed in a division by themselves as representing a class of institutions similar to the coeducational col¬ leges and to the colleges for men. The number of institutions in this division was increased over the number in the preceding year by the C0LLEC4ES for avomen 89 addition of Rockford College, Rockford, Ill., and the H. Sophie Hew- comb Memorial College, Hew Orleans, La. During tlie year informa¬ tion was received of tlie closing of Ingliam University, Le Roy, H. Y. Hew institutions that will undoubtedly be classed in this division for the year 1893-91 are the Marietta College for Women, at Marietta, Ohio, and the Randolph-Macon Woman’s College at Lynchburg, Ya. The summarized statistics of the 16 institutions, included in Division A of the table of colleges for women, are given in the following tables: Colleges for icomen — Division A. SOniAEY OF STATISTICS FOE, 1802-03. Professors and instructors. Students. States. United States north Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division., north Central Division. . W estern Division . north Atlantic Division : Massachusetts . new York . new Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Maryland . South Central Division : Louisiana . north Central Division : Ohio . Illinois . Western Division: California . 01 Bound volumes i library. Prepara¬ tory depart¬ ment. Colle¬ giate depart¬ ment. Total number. ! ■ g Js I ; c -is Td-S o Total number. o S 1 ; 6 • 1 i 16 i 22 i 1 199 235 5 (3 \< 205 j) 28s} j 358 3,108 90 4, 023 123, 324 11 5 179 201 | 179 206 1 2,901 i 86 3, 042 111. 824 1 (3 3) 303 2, 000 1 ! i 8 4 i 1 5 i 12 58 j 70 4 i 193 ! 2 6 15 18 16 24 193 115 308 5, 000 ! i 3 1 9 5 23 | 59 | 22 177 4, 500 | 4 0 0 98 123 98 123 0 1,912 39 1, 951 70, 600 1 5 0 1 45 62 45 63 ; 40 787 12 i 839 27, 024 1 4 16 5 16 9 1 15 35 50 2, 700 1 0 0 20 11 20 11 0 167 I 35 j 202 11, 500 1 (3 3) 303 2, 000 1 1 8 4 1 5 12 58 70 4 193 1 0 0 15 4 15 4 0 85 0 85 1 6 14 1 20 I 193 30 223 5, 000 ! i 3 1 9 5 23 | 50 22 1 177 4,500 Colleges for women — Division A. SUMMAEY OF STATISTICS FOE 1892-93. States. Value of scien¬ tific ap¬ paratus. Value of grounds and build¬ ings. Amount of pro¬ ductive ; funds. . Income. From produc- tive funds. From From tuition other fees. sources. Bene- Total. tions. United States . $494, 982 $4, 755, 442 $2, 965, 965 $200, 657 $5 92, 292 $250, 391 $1,059, 340 $327, 435 north AtlanlicDivision. 384,982 3.850,442 j 2,683,965 184, 728 477, 739 249, 964 928,431, 127,435 South Atlantic Division . 345. 000 170, 000 8, 500 80, 000 . 88, 500- . north Central Division. 100, 000 160: 000 37. 000 2. 429 34. 553 427 37, 409 . Western Division . 10, 000! 400, 000 75, 0C0 5, 000 50, 000 . 55, 000 . north Atlantic Division : Massachusetts . 168, 562 1, 963, 638 780, 420 79, 209 356, 539 28, 986 464, 734; 30, 855 new York . 181. 420 1, 240, 804 1,303,545 65, 519 102, 100 163, 580 331, 199; 62, 680 new Jersey . 16 000 Pennsylvania . 35, 000 646, C00 600, 000 40, 000 19, 100| 57, 398 116, 49S 33,900 South Atlantic Division : 1 Maryland . 345, 000 170, 000 a 8, 500 a 30 000 a 38, 500 north Central Division : Illinois . 100, 000 160, 000 37, 000 2,429 34, 553 427 37, 409' . Western Division: California . 10, OCO 400, 000 75, 000 5, 000 50, 000 . 55, OCO . a Estimated. 90 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. Colleges for women — Division A. STUDENTS IN DEGREE COURSES IN 1892-93. Number of insti¬ tutions reporting classifi¬ cation of students. Number of stu¬ dents in degree courses. Per cent of students in degree courses pursuing courses leading to — States. A. E. degree. B. L. degree. E. S. degree. Other first de¬ grees. United States . 13 2; 435 62. 71 18. 89 i 17. 58 0. 82 North Atlantic Division . . 11 2, 392 22 62. 79 18. 48 17. 89 .84 0 North Central Division . 1 100. CO 0 0 A'festern Division . . 1 21 9. 52 90. 48 0 0 Nortli Atlantic Division : Massachusetts . . . . . 4 1, 589 620 49. 78 20. 31 23. 91 0 New York . 5 85. 30 3. 84 7.67 0 3. 19 New Jersey. . . 1 13 100. 00 0 0 Pennsylvania . . 1 164 100. 00 0 0 0 North Central Division : Illinois . . . . - _ .... 1 22 100. 00 0 o 0 Western Division : California . . 1 I 21 9. 52 90. 48 ! 0 0 Colleges for uiomen — Division A. PREPARATION OF FRESHMEN OF 1832-93. Number of insti¬ tutions report¬ ing. Per cent of freshmen prepared by — States. Number of freshmen. Prepara¬ tory depart¬ ments of colleges. Private prepara¬ tory schools. Public high schools. Private study. United States . 8 509 6.' 68 44. 20 46.76 2. 30 Nortli Atlantic Division - - 6 494 6. 07 45. 34 46. 16 2.43 North Central Division . . 1 9 44. 44 11.11 44. 45 0 Western Division . 1 6 0 0 100. 00 0 North Atlantic Division : Massachusetts . . . 1 1 221 0 46. 15 53. 85 0 New York . o 208 11. 54 37. 50 49. 04 1. 92 New Jersey _ _ _ _ i 5 40. 00 0 40. 00 20. 00 Pennsylvania . . i 60 6. 67 73. 33 S. 33 11.67 North Central Division : Illinois . i 9 4-4.44 11. 11 44. 45 0 Western Division: California . . . . i 6 G 0 100. 00 0 As will be seen from these tables, 11 of the 16 institutions are found in the North Atlantic Division. The large proportion of these institu¬ tions in this division is due probably to the fact that in this division coeducation of the sexes has made the least progress. In nearly all of the Western States the State universities and other leading educa¬ tional institutions have, from the first, been open to women, thus ren¬ dering unnecessary the founding of any large number of institutions for the education of women only. While the North Atlantic Division has 68.75 per cent of the institu¬ tions, it has 93.31 per cent of the college students, 95.55 per cent of the graduate students, and but 15.45 per cent of the preparatory students. It has 90.68 per cent of the books reported, 77,78 per cent of the scien¬ tific apparatus, 80.97 per cent of the grounds and buildings, and 90.5 per cent of the productive funds, wrhile all of the benefactions reported COLLEGES FOR WOMEN. 91 were received by institutions in this division. It maybe well to state, however, that the financial statistics of the Cleveland College for Women and of the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College were not reported separately from those of the institutions with which they are connected, viz, the Western Reserve University and Tulane University. Only 13 of the 16 institutions reported the classification of students in degree courses. Of the 2,435 students classified, 62.71 per cent were pursuing courses of study leading to the A. B. degree. This propor¬ tion is greater by 7 per cent than the proportion of students in the coeducational colleges and colleges for men that pursue courses of study leading to the same degree. One reason, if not the principal one, for the greater proportion in the colleges for women may be found in the fact that in this class of institutions there are no technical courses like the courses in civil, mechanical, electrical, and mining engineering to claim the attention of the students. The summarized statistics of the 127 institutions included in Division B of the table of colleges for women are given in the following tables: Colleges for women, Division B, for 1892-93. States. 5 33 2 1^5! • t. •— 1 z Professors and instructors. Students. m 2 oo c 'o > Benefactions. ! © o 73 Z Primary. u g "5 Academic. 1 Collegiate. Graduate. Total number. United States . 127j 1 32* jl, 287 1,683 3, 043 2, 704 8, 966 ; | 136 IS, 926 190,015 i $55, 546 North. Atlantic Division - 13 44 196 103 423 856 702 16 2,451 | 46,881 3, 446 South. Atlantic Division - 43 I 143 399 485 | 987 416 3, 980 53 6, 4C5 ! 46, 589 26, 200 South Central Division . 47 81 419 948 1. 029 805 3, 185 51 6,861 55. 233 1, 200 North Central Division. ... 22 55 238 101 574 590 1 078 13 3, 075 34. 312 | 24,700 Western Division . 2 i 35 46 : 30 37 1 21 ' 134 | 7, 000 North Atlantic Division: 1 Maine . 2 10 13 58 335 ■ 26 419 11, 000 1. 200 New Hampshire . 1 4 8 273 2, 000 246 Massachusetts . 1 10 23 0 8 68 0 182 1, 900 New York . 1 6 48 44 ! 275 306 i 128 3 756 5,020 1,000 New Jersey . 1 13 8 1 6 8 ] 12 34 1, 061 Pennsylvania . 7 14 91. 51 i 76 207 ; ; 468 1 13 ' 787 25,900 1,000 South Atlantic Division: ! Marvland . 3 13 29 3 55 ' 256 11 325 5, 055 Virginia . ! 14 39 ; 137 180 287 182 1, 175 17 I 1,869 9. 260 3,450 West Virginia . 1 2 20 i 17 3 40 300 North Carolina . 8 25 67 55 ! 228 39 1 | 483 L- 979 i 8, 450 525 South Carolina . 7 38 61 18 199 109 | 758 j 22 1,169 8, 082 2, 000 Georgia . 10 28 103 212 253 31 1,305 3 ! 2,023 ! 15,442 20, 225 South Central Division : Kentuckv . 12 20 100 339 355 167 852 ; is 1,736 j 15,600 Tennessee . 13 32 136 216 265 156 1,027 l j 2,071 ! 14,500 200 Alabama . 6 5 74 83 118 88 1 1 508 16 850 | 11, 633 Mississippi . 10 10 67 192 166 328 415 1 lg 1,258 9. 300 Louisiana . . . 2 4 10 32 19 32 17 310 800 Texas . 4 10 32 86 106 34 ! 363 636 3, 400 1, 000 North Central Division: Ohio . 7 15 93 75 j 155 ! 309 8 1,004 11,100 21, 000 Illinois . 3 14 34 j 20 68 137 107 500 4, 800 Wisconsin . 1 11 24 14 49 2, 000 Minnesota . 1 2 6 44 10 54 1,500 Missouri . 8 23 72 38 276 | 269 514 5 | 1,194 ! 10,412 3, 000 Kansas . . 2 1 26 ! 43 102 5 1 124 274 4, 500 700 W estern Division : California . o t 1 35 40 30 37 | 21 3 134 7, 000 92 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Colleges for women, Division B, for 1S92-93. States. Value of scien¬ tific ap¬ paratus. Value of grounds and building's. United States. $230, 138 North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . . North Central Division. . Western Division . North Atlantic Division : Maine . New Hampshire . Massachusetts . New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Maryland . Virginia . "West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . . South Central Division: Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . . . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . North Central Division : Ohio . Illinois . Wisconsin . Minnesota . Missouri . Kansas . W estern Division : California . I $8,314,139 $028,982 ,$38,091 j$l,640,508 $53,165 #221,412 $2,011,170 73, 566 50, 022 53, 800 37, 750 15, 000 14, 000 6, 000 2, 500 20, 560 2, 000 28, 500 8, 500 9, 000 1, 355, 639 2, 844, 900 2, 044, 600 1, 821, 000 248, 00C 3, 400 10, 500 18, 622 8, 750 14. 000 9, 850 13, 550 150 7, 500 7,000 6, 300 2, 000 2. 000 9, 850 10, 600 15, 000 207, 000 75, 000 135, 000 218, 639 35, 000 685,000 225, 000 , 135, 000 8, 000 403, 000 315, 000 758, 900 300, 000 608, 000 488, 000 304, 600 50, 000 294, 000 685, COO 260, 000 25, 000 50, 000 410, 000 391, 000 248, 000 Amount of pro¬ ductive funds. Income. Prom pro¬ ductive funds. Prom tuition fees. Prom State or mu¬ nicipal appro¬ pria¬ tions. From other sources. 151, 350 133, 500 52, 000 292, 132 121. 000 30, 350 0 0 9, 321 7, 680 3, 120 17, 970 6, 600 2, 721 0 0 35, 000 5, 000 0 7, 500 1,000 85, 000 1, 800 300 0 500 80 5, 000 35, 000 0 17, 000 109, 132 0 75, 000 26, 000 80, 000 2,000 2.100 0 1, 020 5,250 0 4. 500 1, 570 6, 500 150 314, 000 550, 607 416. 550 356, 601 2, 750 8, 500 7, 000 75, 000 80, 000 4, 000 139, 500 47, 000 185, 517 900 118, 300 74, 000 124, 890 81, 900 152, 720 76, 250 42, 180 4, 000 59, 500 131,833 71,000 6, 500 5, 000 110, 500 31,768 2, 750 23, 060 30, 105 160 22, 900 0 25, 805 4, 000 300 72, 281 40, 881 62, 500 45, 750 TotaL 500 11, 281 60, 500 5, 000 4, 901 0 2, 180 23, 000 5, 800 26, 600 17, 700 14, 100 1,700 2, 400 11, 000 23, 000 2, 000 1,000 8,000 750 395, 602 622, 228 512, 275 420, 321 60, 750 15, 600 21,002 75, 000 80, 000 4, 000 200, 000 53, 800 190, 718 900 120, 980 97, 240 158, 590 108, 500 172, 520 90, 350 70, 705 8, 000 62, 200 148, 083 94, 000 13, 000 7, 570 125, 000 32, 668 60, 750 The equipment of the institutions in the several divisions may be shown by comparing the proportion of institutions with the* proportion of property reported by the institutions. The following summarized statement gives such proportion by divisions: Proportion of — Divisions. Institu- i tions. | Volumes in libra¬ ries. | Scien¬ tific ap¬ paratus. Grounds and build¬ ings. Produc¬ tive funds. North Atlantic . Per cent. 10. 24 Per cent. 24. 67 Per cent, 31.97 Per cent. 16. 31 Per cent. 24. 06 South Atlantic . . 33. 86 24. 52 21. 73 34. 22 21.22 South Central . 37. 01 29. 07 23. 38 24. 59 8. 27 North Central . 17. 32 18. 06 16.40 21.90 46.45 Western . 1.57 3. 68 6. 52 2. 98 0 VII. — Colleges of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts. (See Part IV, Tables 9-11, for full statistics.) The statistics concerning the colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts endowed by the act of Congress of July 2, 1862, and further endowed by the act of Congress of August 30, 1890, are given in three AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGES. 93 tables in Part TV of this report, the first two of which include the colleges for white students and those in which no distinction as to race and color is made in the admission of students, while the third table includes the institutions for students of the colored race. The acts on which these institutions depend mainly for their support have been printed a number of times in former reports of this office and it is therefore not deemed necessary to again insert them. It may, however, be of interest to state that in accordance with the provisions of the act of July 2, 1862, and of the acts admitting several of the newer States, 10,400,000 acres of land have been given by the General Government to the several States for the endowment of agricultural and mechanical colleges. In some of the States the land was disposed of advantageously, while in a large number of the States the amounts realized from the sale of the lands are very small when compared with the number of acres received. In a few of the newer States the land can not, accord¬ ing to law, be sold for less than $10 per acre. This wise provision of law can not but prove of great benefit to the institutions of these States, as the amounts realized from the sale of the lands will be con¬ siderably greater than the amounts realized by States that received four or five times as much land. The number of acres received by the several States, together with the income derived therefrom for the year 1892-93, as reported by the institutions, is as follows: States. number of acres granted for agricul¬ tural and mechanical colleges. Income for 1892-93 de¬ rived from proceeds of the sale of lands. United States . . . . . . . 10, 400, 000 $632, 677. 80 north Atlantic Division . . . 3, 150, 000 94, 906. 71 99, 577. 52 99, 328. 94 South Atlantic Division . 1, 560, 000 South Central Division . 1, 620, 000 8, 140, 000 930, 000 !North Central Division . 273, 977. 65 Western Division . 64, 886. 98 north Atlantic Division: Maine . 210, 000 150, 000 150, 000 6, 275. 00 4, 800. 00 new Hampshire . Vermont . 8, 130. 00 12, 739. 50 3, 024. 00 4, 468. 21 18, COO. 00 6, 960. 00 30, 510. 00 4, 980. 00 Massachusetts . 360, 000 120, 000 180, 000 990, 000 210, 000 780, 000 90, 000 210, 000 Rhode Island . Connecticut . new York ,v . new Jersey . Pennsvlvania . . . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . Maryland . 6, 142. 30 30, 998. 08 6, 388. 00 Virginia . 300, 000 150, 000 270, 000 West Virginia . north Carolina . . . 7, 500. 00 11, 508. 00 22, 954. 14 9, 107. 00 South Carolina . - . 380, 000 270, 000 90, 000 330, 000 300, 000 240, 000 Georgia . Florida . South Central Division : Kentucky . 9, 900. 00 23, 760. 00 20, 280. 00 11, 593. 25 9, 115. 69 14, 280. 00 10, 400. 00 Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . 210, 000 210, 000 180,000 1 150, 000 Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . . . . 94 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-S3. States. number of ' acres granted for agricul¬ tural and mechanical colleges. Income for 1892-93 de- rixed from proceeds of the sale of lands. Uorth Central Dixision : Ohio . . . 630,000 : 390,000 j 480,000 240, 000 ! 240,000 | 120, 000 240. 000 330; 000 130, 000 160,000 90, 000 90, 000 140, 000 90, 000 90, 000 90, 000 90, 000 190, 000 90. 000 150. COO 1 $29, 849. 43 17, 000. 00 26. 082. 38 36, 000. 00 16, 961. 95 14, 977. 00 44. 417. 73 15, 850. 00 Miclii o-an . . . - . . . . . . . .......... VV isconsin - ... _ _ _ _ _ ....... _ _ _ _ _ .... Minnesota ......... _ .... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Iowa . . . ...... _ _ _ .......... _ ...... . . . . . Missouri . . --- _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ .... _ .... _ ....... north Dakota . . - . . . ...... _ _ _ _ South Dakota - ----- _ ...... _ _ _ _ ...... _ _ _ _ .... . Xebraska . . . . . . 42, 652. 12 30, 187. 04 Kansas . ....... _ ..................... .............. _ ... Western Dixision: Montana _ . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ........ _ .... _ _ AY v jxnin psota Iowa . Missouri 4, 000 14, 000 0 0 0 0 0 10, 000 North Tta.knta, South Dakota Nebraska 12, 000 TTans.ns 8, 000 20, 000 0 0 0 0 Western Division: Montana, _ _ _ "Wyoming _ _ _ Colorado .... 35, 000 20, 000 New Mevien Arizona . U tab . Nevada . Idaho . 1 "Washington 0 8, 480 800 43, 880 48, 000 45, 500 0 10, 100 75, 000 0 2, 000 0 Oreo-on California . 8, 362 0 0 0 NORMAL SCHOOLS. 109 Table G. — Normal students in universities and colleges. Institu¬ tions. Male students. J Female ! students. Male and female not reported separately. White. Colored. * Total. United States . 155 585 828 3,819 4, 505 727 5,232 14 180 341 341 550 550 South Atlantic Division . 19 146 240 336 489 233 722 South Central Division . 43 188 432 870 1, 039 451 1,490 North Central Division . 66 71 103 1, 863 1, 994 43 2, 037 13 24 409 433 433 North Atlantic Division: 1 8 8 8 2 3 21 24 24 3 199 199 199 8 177 142 319 319 South Atlantic Division : 2 146 6 146 6 152 ] 6 6 6 1 . 4 4 4 1 60 60 60 North Carolina .......... 3 28 25 53 53 South Carolina . 3 6 94 6 94 100 Georgia ........... _ _ 7 206 135 2C8 133 341 Florida . 1 6 6 6 South Central Division : Kentucky . 9 267 78 341 4 345 Tennessee . 15 40 40 403 309 174 483 Alabama . 3 14 179 43 150 193 Mississippi . 5 19 104 13 103 33 136 Louisiana . . 3 124 85 124 85 209 Texas . ! 6 5 . . < 62 69 5 74 Arkansas . 2 50 50 50 Oklahoma . . . 1 Indian Territorv . ■ . ! . North Central Division : . Ohio . ! 10 12 8 313 290 43 333 Indiana . 4 115 115 115 Illinois . .* . 8 40 90 115 245 245 Michigan . ! 5 100 100 100 Wisconsin. . ! 2 4 13 17 17 Minnesota . ■ 3 9 28 37 37 Iowa . | 10 10 535 505 565 Missouri . 9 248 248 248 North Dakota . . . 1 28 28 28 South Dakota . 4 148 148 148 Nebraska . ,1 4 72 72 72 Kansas . ■ 6 1 128 12S 129 Western Division: Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . 1 4 4 4 New Mexico . 1 63 63 1 63 Arizona . Utah . 1 j . 203 1 203 1 203 Nevada . 1 40 40 1 40 Idaho . Washington . 3 j . 33 33 33 Oregon . 3 1 38 38 38 California . 3 1 24 28 52 52 1 1 1 110 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. Table 7. — Normal students in public and private secondary schools. State. In public high schools. In private high schools. Schools. Male stu¬ dents. Fe- male stu¬ dents. Total all | white | Schools. I Male' stu- j dents. Fe¬ male stu¬ dents. White. Col- j ored. ' Total. United States . 264 1,209 3, 594 4, 803 289 3, 030 3, 731 6,277 4S4 | 6, 761 North Atlantic Division . . . '90 247 1,646 1, 893 67 447 | 932 1, 379 1, 379 South. Atlantic Division . . . 15 75 105 , 180 56 503 j 429 718 214 | 932 South Central Division .... 39 228 292 520 83 1,107 1, 135 1, 972 270 ! 2. 242 North Central Division - 110 641 1,408 2, 049 66 825 1, 095 1,920 . 1, 920 W estern Division . 10 18 143 161 17 148 149 288 288 North Atlantic Division : 1 " ! 9 1. 23 24 6 47 117 164 164 New Hampshire . 1 5 ! 5 2 24 24 24 3 14 37 51 2 5 14 19 19 2 10 10 4 1 21 j 22 22 1 2 ~2 2 . . 1 i . 1 174 789 963 28 119 j 308 427 427 6 10 64 74 2 20 15 35 35 21 48 718 1 766 22 255 431 686 | 686 South Atlantic Division: _ « . 1 2 1 3 3 4 28 47 j 75 4 9 1 8 17 17 1 100 100 100 Virginia . 6 20 32 52 10 28 - 68 47 49. 96 "West Virginia I 30 27 57 57 North Carolina . 19 147 173 251 69 320 South Carolina . 56 51 33 74 107 Georgia . 4 23 12 35 11 103 88 169 22 191 [Florida . 1 4 14 18 2 28 13 41 41 South Central Division : Kentucky . . . g 53 78 131 11 j 195 222 417 417 Tennessee _ _ 4 18 22 40 22 292 193 485 485 Alabama . 3 7 20 27 4 26 2S 39 1 15 54 Mississippi . 6 47 68 115 18 272 332 557 37 604 Louisiana . 5 6 1 24 21 9 30, Texas . 14 86 86 I 172 14 215 224 266 173 439 Arkansas . 4 17 18 35 8 98 92 154 36 190 Oklahoma . Indian Territorv . . 1 . 3 20 23 23 [North Central Division : Ohio . . 26 243 290 533 9 i in 137 248 248 Indiana . . . 2 10 10 4 1 86 | 88 174 | . 174 Illinois . . 8 57 78 135 5 48 89 137 137 [Michigan . 10 25 79 104 1 32 45 77 77 "Wisconsin . > 18 95 182 277 6 39 31 70 70 Minnesota . 1 4 10 58 68 2 30 25 55 55 Iowa . i 16 41 198 239 8 132 184 316 316 Missouri . 12 54 283 337 15 202 243 445 ! . 445 [North Dakota . . ' 1 12 18 30 1 30 South Dakota . 1 2 . 6 6 3 46 79 1 125 125 Nebraska . 8 | 64 133 197 6 34 63 97 . | 97 Kansas 4 52 91 j 143 6 53 93 146 146 Western Division : Montana .... 1 4 4 4 Wyoming . Colorado . 2 "'5' 5 1 I 3 3 3 New Mexico . j Arizona . . . . U tab . 2 40 35 | 75 75 Nevada 2 8 22 30 Idaho . 1 3 3 Washington . 1 7 10 17 3 15 I 27 42 j 42 Oregon . 2 3 7 10 4 8 ! 50 58 I 58 California . 2 90 96 1 6 1 85 j 1 21 106 106 NORMAL SCHOOLS. Ill Table 8. — Total number of normal students in universities and colleges, public and private high schools. I State. Insti¬ tutions. Male students. Female students. Male and female not reported separately. White. 1 Colored. Total. United States . 708 4, 817 8, 146 3,833 15, .585 1,211 16, 796 171 874 2, 607 341 3, 822 3, 822 South Atlantic Division . 90 724 774 336 1,387 447 1 1,834 South Central Division . 165 1,516 1, 852 884 3, 531 721 4, 252 North Central Division . 242 1, 537 2, 606 1,863 5, 963 43 1 6, 006 "Western Division . 40 166 307 409 882 882 North. Atlantic Division : - 9 48 148 196 196 3 29 29 29 19 51 70 70 8 4 52 56 56 1 2 2 2 86 293 1, 097 199 1, 589 1, 589 8 30 79 109 109 51 480 1,149 142 1, 771 1,771 South Atlantic Division : 1 2 1 a 3 Maryland . 10 183 55 6 238 6 244 2 100 6 106 104 Virginia . 17 48 100 4 103 49 152 West Virginia . 2 30 27 60 117 117 North Carolina . 22 147 201 25 304 69 373 South Carolina . 10 56 57 94 39 168 207 Georgia . 22 126 306 135 412 155 567 Florida . 4 32 27 6 65 65 South Central Division: Kentucky . 28 248 567 78 889 4 893 Tennessee . 41 350 255 403 565 174 1, 008 Alabama . 10 33 62 179 109 165 274 Mississippi . 29 338 504 13 785 i 70 855 Douisiana . 8 130 24 85 145 94 239 Texas . 34 306 317 62 507 178 685 Arkansas . 14 108 103 64 239 36 275 Oklahoma . Indian Territory . 1 3 20 23 23 North Central Division : Ohio . 45 366 435 313 1, 071 43 1, 114 Indiana . 16 86 98 115 299 299 Illinois . 21 145 257 115 517 517 Michigan . ]6 57 124 100 281 281 Wisconsin 26 334 217 13 364 364 Minnesota . 9 49 83 28 160 160 Iowa ... . 34 183 382 555 1, 120 1, 120 Missouri . ■ . 36 256 526 248 1, 030 1,030 North Dakota . 2 12 18 28 58 58 South Dakota . 9 46 85 148 279 279 N ebraska . 18 98 196 72 366 366 Kansas . 16 105 185 128 418 418 W estern Division : Montana . . 1 4 4 4 Wyoming . 1 . Colorado . 4 8 4 12 12 New Mexico . 1 63 63 63 Arizona ... . _ - Utah 5 40 35 203 278 278 Nevada . 3 8 22 40 70 70 Idaho . 1 3 3 3 Washington. . 22 37 33 92 92 Oregon 9 11 38 106 106 California . 11 85 141 28 254 254 _ Table 9. — Appropriations for normal schools from States, counties, and cities for five years. i 112 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. NORMAL SCHOOLS. 113 CHAPTER II. ILLITEKACY IK THE UNITED STATES.1 (See tables, pp. 125-144.) The three principal elements composing the x>op ulation of the United States are the native whites, the foreign-born whites, and the blacks. In discussing the statistics of illiteracy it seems important to deal with these elements separately and then to inquire what influence one element may have upon each of the others or upon the other two combined. The total population of the country in 1890 was G2, 622,250. The native- born whites numbered 45,862,023, or 73.24 per cent; the foreign-born whites numbered 9,121,867, or 74.57 per cent, and the colored population was 7,638,360, or 12.19 per cent oi the whole. It is found that the smallest per cent of illiteracy belongs to the native white population and the greatest to the colored population. The foreign-born whites occupy an intermediate position on the scale. The illiteracy tables have been arranged so that the 1890, 1880, and 1S70 statistics can be easily compared. Seven of these comparative tables are given on as many pages, compiled from the census reports. To facilitate a comparative study of the facts made prominent by the three censuses the tables have been rearranged by the statistician of this Bureau and in some cases new computations made. The seven tables now show for 1890, for 1880, and for 1870 the total population 10 years of age and over, the number of illiterates, and the per cent of illiterates to the population 10 years of age and above for each of the States and Territories, giving these numbers and* percent¬ ages for the total, for males, females, native whites, foreign-born whites, total whites-, and for the colored population. The figures are arranged by divisions, so that the five great sections of the United States can be compared or contrasted with each other or with the country as a whole. In the first column of Table 1 is given the population 10 years of age and over for each State and Territory, for each of the five sections, and for the United States in 1890. The second column shows the number of illiterates and the third column gives the per cent of illiterates to the population 10 years of age and over. The next three columns on the same page give the corresponding items for 1880 and the remaining three show the corresponding figures for 1870. 1 By Alex. Summers statistician of the Bureau. 115 116 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. In 1890, of a total population of 02,622,250, tlie number 10 years of age and over was 47,413,559. Of this number 6,324,702 could not read and write. These illiterates comprised 13.3 per cent of the population 10 years of age and above. A comparison of these figures with the corresponding figures of 1880 will show a most gratifying decrease in the percentage of illiteracy. Of the total population of 50,155,783 in 1880 the number 10 years of age and over was 36,761,607 and the number of illiterates was 6,239,958. Then -the per cent of illiterates was 17. While the total population of the country increased 12,466,467, or almost 25 per cent, the number of illiterates increased only 84,744, or about 1 J per cent. So the actual rate of illiteracy fell from 17 per cent in 1880 to 13.3 per cent in 1890, a difference of 3.7 in the rates, an actual reduction of nearly 22 per cent in the percentage. Had the same rate obtained for 1890 as for 1880 the number of illiterates in 1890 would have been 8,060,305 rather than 6,324,702, and the actual gain in numbers would have been 1,820,347 rather than 84,744. These figures will give some idea of the progress in elementary educa¬ tion which the United States must have made in the ten years in order to make so marked a reduction in the per cent and in the comparative number of illiterates. This fact is illustrated by diagram 1, which is a graphic comparison of the statistics of 1890, 1880, and 1870. A further examination of Table 1, under the 1890 column, will show the relative standing of the States and sections in regard to illiteracy. The percentage of illiteracy is smallest in the North Central Division and greatest in the South Atlantic, being 5.7 for the former and 30.9 for the latter. In the South Central Division the per cent of illiterates is 29.7, in the North Atlantic 6.2, and in the Western Division 8.3. The State having the smallest percentage of illiteracy is Nebraska, with 3.1, and that having the largest Louisiana, with 45.8. The accompanying chart will indicate the relative density of illiteracy in the States and Territories. A glance at Table 14 will find the relative rank or standing of the States arid Territories for the years 1890, 1880, and 1870, those States showing the smallest per cents of illiteracy standing at the tops of the columns. Diagram 2 shows graphically the relative standing of the five divi¬ sions in 1890, 1880, and 1870. Diagram 4 shows the rank of each State in 1890 according to the percentages of illiteracy. The most interesting study of Table 1 is that which will reveal the relative progress made by the several States and sections between 1880 and 1890. The North Atlantic Division shows no change in the per cent of illiterates. While the rate remained at 6.2 the actual number of illiterates had increased from 699,369 to 859,989. In the North Cen¬ tral Division the per cent of illiteracy dropped from 6.7 to 5.7, but the number increased from 853,020 to 964,268, and in the Western Division the rate fell from 11.3 to 8.3, while the number of illiterates increased ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 117 from 155,150 to 199, G8G. Only in tlie two Southern sections was there actual decrease in the number of illiterates. As a consequence the decrease in the percentage of illiteracy was very great. In the South Atlantic Division the number decreased from 2,129,830 in 1880 to 1,981,888 in 1890, and the per cent fell from 40.3 to 30.9. In the South Central Division the improvement was quite as marked, the number falling from 2,402,589 to 2,318,871 and the per cent from 39.5 to 29.7. Between 1880 and 1890 all the Southern States actually decreased their numbers of illiterates, as well as the percentages, excepting Ala¬ bama, Louisiana, and Arkansas. In the other divisions the States of Indiana and Missouri and the Territories of New Mexico and Utah alone show decrease in the actual number of illiterates. For purposes of comparison Missouri should be classed with the Southern States, but in the census classification it is in the North Central Division where the geographical position of the State properly places it. In the United States nine States and one Territory increased their rates of illiteracy between 1880 and 1890, four in the North Atlantic Division, three in the North Central, and three in the Western Division. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New Jersey, Michigan, Wisconsin, North Dakota, Montana, Arizona, and Nevada increased not only their number of illiterates, but their rates as well. Injustice to North Dakota it should be noted that the rate of illiter¬ acy in 1890 is compared with the percentage for the entire Territory of Dakota in 1880. This comparison may show a higher rate of increase for North Dakota and a greater rate of decrease in the per cent of illiterates for South Dakota than is equitable. Table 11 is a comparison of the rates of illiteracy in all the States for the census years 1890 and 1880 for all classes. Table 12 shows the differences between the percentages of illiteracy for the several States in 1880 and 1890 for all classes. Those whose rates of illiteracy increased are marked with the -f sign and those whose rates were less in 1890 than in 1880 are marked with the — sign. Table 13 is derived from 11 and 12 and shows for each State and division the per cent of decrease or increase in the percentage of illiterates between 1880 and 1890. These rates are computed for each element of population and are the figures which indicate the relative progress made in the ten years in overcoming the mass of illiteracy which existed in 1880. In the table the — sign indicates decrease in the percentage of illiteracy, and the + sign denotes increase in the rate. A glance at the first column will show that in ten States there was increase in the rates. For the whole country there was a decrease in the rate from 17.0 in 1880 to 13.3 in 1890, or a 21.8 per cent decrease in the percentage. This figure, 21.8, is a measure of the actual progress made in reducing the relative ratio of illiteracy to the total population. Diagram 5 sliowi the rank of each State in 1890, graded according to the rate of progress or retrogression made by each in the preceding 118 EDUCATION REPOST, 1892-93. decade. The open lines mark the States which decreased their rates of illiteracy, and the dark lines are placed opposite the States which retrograded or increased their per cents of illiterates. An idea of the relative progress made by the several States may be obtained by a study of this diagram in connection with the first column of Table 13, which it graphically illustrates. Washington stands at the head of the list on the diagram marked with 38.6 per cent. This is the per cent of difference between Washington’s rates of illiteracy in 1880 and 1890. This means that Washington overcame a greater per cent of the illiteracy of the State than any other State or Territory. i Chart showing the relative density of illiteracy in the & Hales in 1890. ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 119 120 EDUCATION BEPOET, 1892-93. Diagram 1. — Showing relative number illiterates to population. ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 121 Diagram 2. — Shotting proportion of illiterates to number 10 years of age and over in each division f or 1S90, 1S80, and 1870. NORTH ATLANTIC. SOUTH ATLANTIC. SOUTH CENTRAL. N. CEN. IVES TERN DIVISION. i NORTH ATLANTIC. .SOUTH ATLANTIC. SOUTH CENTRAL. NORTH CENTRAL. WESTERN DIVISION. 1880 . * NORTH ATLANTIC. SOUTH A TLA NT/ C. SOUTH CENTRAL., NORTH CENTRAL. 1870 . WESTERN DIVISION 122 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Diagram 3. — Showing relative number illiterates in three classes of population, 10 years of age and over. 78BQ, POPULA T/ ON, VO YEARS OF A GE AND OVER, 4-7, 4/3, SS9. tL LITER A TES, 6,324 , 702. A/A 77 VE VJ HI TES , /O Y'RS OF A GE AND OVER, 33, 144, 137. !L LITER A TES, 2, 065, 003 . FOREIGN PYRITES, /O YRS OF AGE AND OVER, 8,786,887. ILLITERATES, 1,147,571. COLORED, /O YEARS OF AGE AND OVER, 5,482,485. ILLITERATES, 3,1 12,128. 7880 . COLORED, U U 4, 60/, 207. a 3,220,878. 1870 . ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES, 123 Diagram 4. — Showing the rank of each State according to the rates of illiteracy in 1890. Neb., - - 3.1 Wyo., - - 3.4 Iowa, - - 3.6 Kans., - - 4.0 Oregon, - 4.1 S. Dak., - 4.2 Wash.., - 4.3 Idaho, - - 5.1 Colo., - - 5.2 m., - - - 5.2 Ohio, - - 5.2 Conn., - - 5.3 Okla., - - 5.4 He., - 5.5 Mont., - 5.5 N. Y., - - 5.5 Utah, - - 5.6 Mich., - - 5.9 Minn., - - 6.0 N. Dak., - 6.0 Mass., - - 6.2 Ind., - 6.3 N. J., - - 6.5 Vt., - - - 6.7 Wis., - 6.7 N.H, - - 6.8 Pa., - - - 6.8 Cal., - - 7.7 Mo., - - 9.1 B. I., - - 9.8 Nev., - - 12.8 D. C., - - 13.2 Del., - - 14.3 W. Ya., - 14.4 Md., , - - 15.7 Texas, - 19.7 Hy., - - 21.6 Ariz., - - 23.4 Ark., - - 26.6 Tenn., - 26.6 Pla. - - 27.8 Ya., - - 30.2 N. C., - - 35.7 Oa., - 38.9 Miss., - 40.0 Ala., - - 41.0 N. Hex., - 44.5 S. C., - - 45.0 La., “ 45.8 124 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. Diagram 5.— Showing the rank of each State according to the per cent of decrease or increase of the rates of illiteracy hehveen 1880 and 1890. ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES, 125 Table 1. — Population 10 years of age and over. 1890. 1880. 1870. States and Terri- Illiterates. Illitei’ates. Illiterates. tories. Total. Number. Per , cent. Total. Number. Per cent. Total. Number. Per cent. United States. 47, 413, 559 6, 324, 702 13.3 36, 761, 607 6, 239, 958 17.0 28, 228, 945 5, 658, 144 20.0 North Atlantic Di- 13, 888, 377 859, 989 6.2 11, 270, 090 699, 389 6.2 9, 430, 802 712, 277 7.6 South Atlantic Di- 6, 415, 921 1, 981, 888 30.9 5, 286, 645 2, 129, 830 40.3 4, 207, 398 1, 943, 166 46.2 South Central Di- 7, 799, 487 2, 318, 871 29.7 6, 076, 243 2, 402, 589 39.5 4, 548, 220 2, 024, 395 44.5 North Central Di- 16, 909,613 2, 400, 161 964, 268 199, 686 5. 7 12, 760, 841 1, 367, 788 853, 020 155, 150 6.7 9, 292, 434 750, 101 865, 917 112, 389 9.3 Western Division. 8.3 11.3 15.0 North Atlantic Di- vision : Maine . 541, 662 29, 587 5. 5 519, 669 286, 188 22, 170 14, 302 4.3 493, 847 260, 426 19, 052 9, 926 3.9 New Hampshire. 315, 497 21, 476 6.8 5.0 3.8 271, 173 18, 154 6. 7 264, 052 15,837 92, 980 6. 0 258, 751 17, 706 97, 742 6.8 Massachusetts . . 1, 839, 607 114, 468 6.2 1, 432, 183 6.5 1, 160, 666 8.4 Ehode Island. . . . 281, 959 27, 525 9.8 220, 461 24, 793 11.2 173, 751 21, 921 12.6 Connecticut . 609, 830 32, 194 5.3 497, 303 28, 424 5.7 425, 896 29, 616 7.0 NewYork . 4, 822, 392 266, 911 5. 5 3, 981,428 209, 600 5.5 3, 378, 959 239, 271 7.1 New Jersey . 1, 143,123 74, 321 6. 5 865, 591 53, 249 6.2 680, 687 54, 687 8.0 ^ Pennsylvania . . . South Atlantic Di- 4, 063, 134 275,353 6.8 3, 203, 215 228, 014 7.1 2, 597, 809 222, 356 8.6 vision : Delaware . 131, 967 18, 878 14.3 110. 856 19, 414 17.5 92, 586 23, 100 25.0 Maryland . District of Co¬ 798, 605 125, 376 15.7 695, 364 134, 448 19.3 575, 439 135, 499 23.6 lumbia . 188, 567 24, 884 13.2 136, 907 25, 778 18.8 100, 453 28, 719 28.6 Virginia . 1, 211, 934 365. 738 30.2 1, 059, 034 430, 352 40.6 890, 056 445, 893 50.1 West Virginia. .. 549, 538 79, 180 14.4 428, 587 85, 376 19.9 308, 424 81, 490 26.4 North Carolina. . 1, 147, 446 409, 703 35.7 959, 951 463, 975 48.3 709, 629 397, 690 51.7 South Carolina.. 802, 406 360, 705 45. 0 667, 456 1, 043,840 184, 650 369, 848 55. 4 503, 763 290, 379 57.6 Georgia . 1, 302, 208 283, 250 518, 706 78, 720 39. 8 520, 416 80, 183 49.9 835, 929 131, 119 468, 593 71, 803 56.1 Plorida . 27.8 43.4 54.8 South Central Di¬ vision : Kentucky . 1, 360, 031 294, 381 21.6 1, 163, 498 348, 392 29.9 930, 136 332, 176 35. 7 Tennessee . ! 1, 276, 631 340, 140 26.6 1, 062, 130 410, 722 38.7 890, 872 364, 697 40.9 Alabama . 1, 069, 545 438, 535 41.0 851, 780 433, 447 50.9 706, 802 383, 012 54.2 Mississippi . 902, 028 360, 613 40.0 753, 693 373, 201 49.5 581, 206 313, 310 53.9 Louisiana . 794, 683 364, 184 45.8 649, 070 318, 380 49. 1 526,392 276, 158 52.5 Texas . 1, 564, 755 308, 873 19.7 1, 064, 196 316, 432 29.7 571, 075 221, 703 38.8 t Arkansas . Oklahoma . ! 787, 113 44, 701 209, 745 2,400 26.6 5.4 531, 876 • 202, 015 38.0 341, 737 133, 339 39.0 North Central Di¬ vision : Ohio . 2, 858, 659 149, 843 5.2 2, 399, 367 131,847 5.5 1, 953, 374 173, 172 8.9 Indiana _ _ 1. 674, 028 105, 829 6.3 1, 468, 095 110, 761 7.5 1,197,936 127, 124 10.6 Illinois . 2, 907,671 152, 634 5.2 2, 269, 315 145, 397 6.4 1, 809, 606 133, 584 53, 127 7.4 Michigan . 1, 619, 035 95, 914 5.9 1,236, 686 63, 723 5.2 873, 763 6.1 Wisconsin . 1, 258. 390 84, 745 6.7 965, 712 55, 558 5.8 751, 704 55, 441 7.4 Minnesota . 962, 350 58, 057 6.0 559, 977 34, 546 6. 2 305,568 24, 413 8.0 Iowa . 1,441,308 52, 061 3.6 1, 181, 641 46, 609 3.9 837, 959 45, 671 5.5 Missouri 1, 995, 638 181, 3(d8 7, 743 9, 974 9. 1 1, 557, 631 £ 99, 849 208, 754 4, 821 13.4 1, 205, 568 10, 640 222, 411 1, 563 18.5 North Dakota. . . South Dakota. . . 129, 452 236, 208 e!o 4.2 4.8 14.7 Nebraska . 771, 659 -24, 021 3.1 318, 271 11,528 3.6 88, 265 4, 861 5.5 Kansas . W estern Division : 1, C55, 215 42, 079 4.0 704, 297 39, 476 5. 6 258, 051 24, 550 9.5 Montana . 107, 811 5, 884 5. 5 31, 989 1,707 5.3 18,170 918 5.1 Wyoming . 47, 755 1,630 3.4 16, 479 158, 220 556 3.4 8, 059 602 7.5 Colorado . 327, 896 17,180 5.2 10, 474 0.6 30, 349 6, 823 22.5 New Mexico. . . . 112, 541 50, 070 44.5 87, 966 57,156 65.0 66,464 52, 220 78.6 Arizona . 46, 076 147, 227 10, 785 8, 232 23. 4 32. 922 5, 842 8, 826 17.7 8, 237 2, 753 32.4 Utah . 5. 6 97i 194 9.1 56, 515 7, 363 13.0 Nevada . 38, 225 62, 721 4, 897 3, 225 12. 8 50, 666 25, 005 55, 720 4, 069 1, 778 8.0 36,655 13, 189 872 2.4 Idaho . 5. "1 7.1 3, 388 25.7 Washington . 275, 639 11, 778 4.3 3, 889 7.0 17, 334 1,307 7.5 Oregon...^ . 244, 374 10, 103 4.1 130, 5G5 7,423 5.7 64, 085 4, 427 6.8 California . 989, 896 1 75, 902 7.7 681, 062 53, 430 7.8 430, 444 31, 716 7.4 126 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 2. — Male population 10 years of age and over. States and Territories. 1890. 1880. Total. Illiterates. Total. Hlitera tes. 1 number. Per cent. number. Per cent. United States . 24, 352, 659 3, 008, 222 12.4 18,735, 980 2, 966, 421 15.8 Korth Atlantic Division . 6, 904, 566 407, 186 5. 9 5, 527, 160 299, 431 5.4 South Atlantic Division . 3, 178, 769 926, 095 29.1 2, 588, 035 1, 003, 565 38.8 South Central Division . 3, 977, 614 1,098, 755 27.6 3, 069, 756 1, 160, 624 37.8 Korth Central Division . 8, 828, 083 457, 793 5.2 6, 684, 105 415. 572 6.2 Western Division . 1, 463, 627 118, 392 8.1 866, 924 87, 229 10.1 Korth Atlantic Division : Maine . 271, 787 15, 932 5.9 258, 587 11, 676 4. 5 Kew Hampshire . 155, 928 11, 643 7. 5 139, 807 7,077 5.1 Vermont . 137, 899 10, 230 7.4 132, 036 8, 500 6.4 Massachusetts . 887, 063 47, 348 5.3 • 681, 786 t 36. 262 5.3 Rhode Island . 135, 955 12, 240 9.0 104, 986 10, 237 9.8 Connecticut . 300, 675 15, 233 5.1 242. 392 12, 039 5.0 Kew York . 2, 385, 622 124, 443 5.2 1, 950, 059 95, 551 4.9 New Jersey . 568, 585 35, 413 6.2 426, 451 23, 857 5. 6 Pennsylvania . 2, 061, 052 134, 704 6.5 1, 591, 056 94, 232 5.9 South Atlantic Division : 67 309 .1 9, 294 13. 8 56. 003 9 394 16. 8 392, 485 'l 59’ 526 15.2 34l' 621 63,’ 504 18. 6 Distri'tof Columbia . 88, 703 9,821 11.1 63’ 429 10, 048 15.8 Virginia 598 677 177 043 29. 6 207. 562 40. 2 West Virginia . j 28l! 576 37, 579 13! 3 ,vlU, OUU 217, 650 ~40i 2S0 18.5 Horth Carolina . 559, 764 184, 506 33.0 465, 268 213, 196 45.8 South Carolina . . 395, 466 167, 120 42.3 324, 364 173,807 53.6 Georgia . 647, 922 244, 944 37.8 509, 830 247, 339 48.5 Florida . 146, 807 36,283 24.7 93, 475 38, 435 41.1 South Central Division : Kentucky . 689, 572 141, 999 20.6 586, 424 169, 029 28.8 Tennessee . 640, 677 155, 869 24. 3 524, 559 191, 641 36.5 Alabama . 531, 941 206, 362 38.8 414, 095 205, 243 49.6 Mississippi . 451, 788 170,761 37.8 375, 561 180, 526 48.1 Louisiana . 394, 815 172, 847 43.8 322, 004 154, 535 48.0 Texas . 830, 783 151, 852 18.3 568, 928 161, 047 28.3 Arkansas . 412, 227 97, 779 23.7 | 278, 185 98, 603 35.4 Oklahoma . 25, 811 j ! 1, 286 5. 0 Korth Central Division: i . Ohio . 1,442,430 ! 69, 924 4.8 j | 1,209,435 61, 754 5.1 “Indiana . 855, 368 49, 505 5.8 1 752, 405 52, 033 6.9 Illinois . 1, 507, 159 70, 548 .4.7 | 1, 178, 131 69, 940 5.9 Michigan . 851, 163 51, 522 6.1 659, 101 35, 211 5.3 Wisconsin . . 657, 968 39, 517 6.0 503, 434 26, 381 5.2 Minnesota . . . , . 523, 342 25, 993 5.0 307, 449 16,129 5.2 Iowa . 755, 134 24, 125 3.2 623, 675 22, 519 3.6 Missouri. . 1. 037, 994 86, 530 8.3 816, 962 103, 172 12.6 Korth Dakota . 74, 442 3,650 4.9 ( /*i 040 O O 0 n South Dakota . 133, 252 4, 816 3.6 £ 04, i, oiy o. y Kebraska . 426, 815 11, 753 2.8 181,022 5, 927 3.3 Kansas . 563,016 19, 910 3.5 388, 148 19, 987 ! 5.1 W estern Division : ' Montana . 75, 596 4, 330 5. 7 24, 558 1, 125 I 4.6 Wyoming . 32, 675 1,070 3. 3 11. 950 336 2.8 Colorado . 202, 719 9. 808 4.8 110, 896 5, 345 4.8 new Mexico . 61. 885 20. 969 33.9 48, 266 26, 103 54.1 Arizona . - . 29, 736 6, 027 20.3 21, 267 3,511 14.5 Utah . 79, 747 3, 778 4.7 50, 580 4,156 8.2 nevada . 35, 370 3, 127 12.3 36, 211 2, 760 7.6 Idaho . 40, 276 2, 336 5.8 17, 910 1. 392 7.8 Washington . 179, 965 7,639 4.2 36, 085 2, 360 6. 5 Oregon . . 146, 406 6, 634 4. 5 81. 031 5. 154 6.4 California . 589, 252 52, 674 8.9 425. 170 34, 987 8.2 ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 127 Table 3. — Female population 10 years of age and over. States and Territories. 1890. 1880. Total. Illiterates. Total. I Illiterates. j Humber. Per cent. Humber. Per cent. United States . . 23, 060, 900 3, 316, 480 14.4 18, 025, 627 3, 273, 497 18.2 Kortk Atlantic Division . 6, 983, 811 452, 803 6.5 5, 742, 930 399, 938 7.0 South Atlantic Division . 3, 237. 152 1, 055, 792 32.6 2, 698, 610 1, 126, 265 41.7 South Central Division . 3, 821, 873 1, 220, 116 31.9 3, 006, 487 1, 241. 925 41.3 Hortli Central Division . 8, 081, 530 506, 475 6.3 6, 076, 736 437, 448 7. 2 W estern Division . 936, 534 81, 294 8.7 500, 864 67, 921 13! 6 ISTorth Atlantic Division : Maine . 269, 875 13, 655 5.1 261, 082 10.494 4.0 Hew Hampshire . 159, 569 9, 833 0.2 146, 381 7,225 4.9 Vermont — . 133, 274 7, 924 5.9 132, 016 7,337 5. 6 Massachusetts . 952, 544 67, 120 7.0 750, 397 56,718 7.6 Rhode Island . 146, 004 15, 285 10.5 115, 475 14, 556 12.6 Connecticut . . . — 309, 155 16, 981 5.5 254, 911 16.385 d.4 New York . . - 2, 436, 770 142, 468 5.8 2, 031, 369 124,049 G.l Hew Jersey . . 574, 538 38,. 908 6.8 439, 140 29,392 6.7 Pennsylvania . 2, 002, 082 140, 649 7.0 1, 612, 159 133,782 8.3 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 64, 658 9,604 14..9 54, 853 10, 020 ! 18. 3 Maryland . 406, 120 65, 850 16.2 353, 743 70, 984 j 20.1 District of Columbia . 99, 864 15,063 15.1 73, 478 15, 730 21.4 Virginia . . C13, 257 188,693 30.8 542, 639 222, 790 41.1 “West Virginia . 267, 962 41. 601 15. 5 210, 937 45, 096 21.4 Kortk Carolina . 587, 682 225, 197 38.3 494, 683 250, 779 50.7 South Carolina . . — 406, 940 193, 585 47.6 343. 092 196, 041 57.1 Georgia . . 654. 286 273,762 41.8 534, 010 273, 077 j 51. 1 Florida . 136, 383 42, 437 31.1 91, 175 41,748 45.8 South Central Division : Kentucky . 670. 459 152,382 22. 7 577, 074 179, 363 31.1 Tennessee . 635, 954 184, 271 29! 0 537, 571 219. 081 40.8 Alabama . 537, 604 232, 173 43.2 437, 685 228, 204 52.1 Mississippi — . 450, 240 189, 852 42. 2 378, 132 192. 635 50.9 Louisiana . 399, 868 191, 337 4L 9 327, 066 163, 845 50.1 Texas . . . . 733, 972 157, 021 21. 4 495, 268 155, 385 31.4 Arkansas . . 374, 886 111, 966 29.9 253, 691 103, 412. 40.8 Oklahoma . 18, 890 1, 114 5. 9 Forth Central Division : Ohio . 1 I 1,416,229 79, 919 5; 6 1, 189, 932 70, 093 5.9 Indiana . 818, 660 56, 324 6,9 715, 690 58, 728 8.2 Illinois . 1, 400, 512 82,086 5.9 1, 091,184 75, 457 6.9 Michigan . 767, 872 44, 392 5.8 577, 585 28, 512 4.9 Wisconsin . 600, 422 ' 45, 228 7. 5 462, 278 29, 177 6.3 Minnesota . 439, 00S 32, 064 7.3 252, 528 18, 417 7.3 Iowa . 686. 174 27, 936 4.1 557, 966 24, 090 4.3 Missouri . 957, 644 94, 838 9.9 740, 669 105, 585 14.3 Forth Dakota . 55, 010 4, 093 7.4 1 f or: rnA a ^ South Dakota - - - - 102, 956 5,158 5.0 v uO j DUO Z, OUi 0. 0 Kebraska . 344, 844 12, 268 3.6 137, 249 5, 601 4.1 Kansas . — . .... 492, 199 22,169 4. 5 316. 149 19, 489 6.2 Western Division : Montana . ; 32, 215 1, 554 4.8 7,431 582 7.8 Wyoming . 15, 080 560 3.7 4, 529 220 j 4.9 Colorado . 125, 177 7,372 5.9 47, 324 5,129 10.8 Hew Mexico . 50, 656 29, 101 57.4 39, 700 31,053 78.2 Arizona . 16, 340 4, 758 29.1 8, 655 2,331 26.9 Utah . 07, 480 4, 454 6.6 46, 614 4, 610 1 10.0 Kevada . 12, 855 1.770 13.8 14, 455 1,309 I 9.1 Idaho. . . 22,445 889 4.0 7, 095 386 5. 4 Washington . 95, 674 4, 139 4. 3 19, 635 1, 529 | 7.8 Oregon . . . 97, 968 3, 469 3.5 49, 534 2, 269 ! 4.6 California . . 400, 644 23, 228 5.8 255. 892 18,443 j 7. 2 128 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 4. — Native white population 10 years of age and over . States and Terri¬ tories. United States - Nor tli Atlantic Di¬ vision . South Atlantic Di¬ vision . South Central Di¬ vision . North Central Di¬ vision . "Western Division. North Atlantic Di¬ vision : Maine' . . New Hampshire - "Vermont . Massachusetts . . Rhode Island. . . . Connecticut . Hew York . Hew Jersey . Pennsylvania . . . South Atlantic Di¬ vision : Delaware. . . Maryland . District of Co¬ lumbia . Virginia . West Virginia .. Uorth Carolina.. South Carolina.. Georgia . Florida . South Central Di¬ vision : Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . . Arkansas . Oklahoma. ...... Korth Central Di¬ vision : Ohio . Indiana . .... Illinois.. . Michigan . Wisconsin . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . North Dakota... South Dakota... Nebraska . Kansas . Western Division: Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . New Mexico _ Arizona . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . Washington .... Oregon . California . 1890. 1880. 1870. Total. Illiterates. Total. Illiterates. Total. Illiterates. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. 33, 144, 187 2, 065, 003 6.2 25, 785, 789 2, 255, 400 8.7 19, 347, 967. 2, 081, 233 10.8 9, 937, 918 229, 897 2.3 8, 351, 065 234, 576 2.8 6, 815, 773 218, 962 3.2 3, 912, 815 571, 899 14.6 3, 144, 714 630, 062 20. 0 2, 490, 168 603, 310 24.2 5, 039, 641 754, 935 15.0 3, 806, 063 836, 489 22. 0 2, 788, 841 668, 972 24.0 12, G52, 374 436, 328 3.4 9, 646, 617 482, 103 5.0 6, 824, 774 521, 381 7.6 1, 601, 439 71, 944 4.5 837, 330 72, 230 8.6 428, 411 68, 608 16.0 466, 835 11, 443 2.5 463, 158 8, 775 1.9 444, 226 7, 808 1.8 247, 824 3, 679 1.5 242, 811 2, 710 1.1 230, 885 1,897 .8 228, 689 7,211 3.2 224, 861 5, 354 2.4 211,781 3, 780 1.8 1, 193,469 9, 727 .8 990, 160 6, 933 . 7 802, 832 5,750 .7 175, 065 4, 087 2.3 144, 596 4,261 2.9 115, 191 3, 552 3.1 422, 986 4, 300 1.0 361, 733 3J28 1.0 306, 440 3, 975 1.3 3, 248, 761 57, 362 1.8 2, 742, 847 59, 516 2.2 2, 220, 640 59, 870 2.7 788, 401 21, 351 2.7 618, 941 20, 093 3.2 * 471, 823 21, 425 4.5 3, 165, 888 110, 737 3.5 2, 562, 458 123, 206 4.8 2, Oil, 955 110, 905 5. 5 97, 732 6, 068 6.2 82,318 462, 697 6, 630 8. 1. 66, 971 8, 811 13.2 546, 290 32, 105 5.9 36, 027 7.8 365, 155 38, 201 10.5 109, 262 1,803 1.7 75, 025 1, 950 2.6 50, 532 2, 658 5.3 738, 476 103, 265 14. 0 616, 314 113, 915 18.5 513, 819 122, 269 23.8 506, 434 65, 420 12.9 392, 242 72,826 i 18.6 278, 599 68, 392 24.5 751, 302 173, 545 23. 1 605, 244 191,913 31. 7 491, 133 166, 280 33.7 326, 125 59, 063 18.1 265, 356 59. 415 22.4 205, 802 54, 514 26.5 689, 969 113, 945 16.5 553, 769 128, 362 23.2 451, 703 123, 849 27.4 147, 225 16, 685 11.3 91, 749 19,024 20.7 63, 454 18, 336 28.9 1, 104, 044 178, 159 16.1 914, 311 208,796 22.3 712, 158 193, 846 27.2 947, 445 170, 318 18.0 774, 411 214, 994 27.8 646, 653 176, 985 27.4 576, 154 106, 235 18.4 443, 327 111,040 25.0 368, 304 91, 189 24.8 377, 466 44, 987 11.9 319, 385 52, 910 16. G 265,292 47, 217 17.8 354, 293 72, 013 20.3 268, 600 53, 261 19.8 204, 130 43, 406 21.3 1, 084, 587 89, 829 8.3 701,969 97, 498 13.9 340, 596 52, 526 15.4 555, 873 92, 052 16.6 384, 060 97, 990 25.5 251, 708 63, 803 25.3 39, 779 1, 342 3.4 2, 343, 936 82, 673 3.5 1, 952. 858 83, 183 4.3 1, 515, 177 j 113, 313 7.3 1,495,302 78, 638 5.3 1,297,159 87, 786 6.8 1, 042, 562 104. 822 10.1 2, 051, 323 64, 380 3.1 1, 666, 214 88, 519 5.3 1,288,434 80, 635 6.3 1, 086, 481 27, 016 2.5 854, 925 19, 981 2.3 601,555 18, 069 3.0 752, 678 15, 613 2.1 566, 745 11, 494 2.0 395, 617 13, 517 3.4 508, 615 7,112 1.4 300, 747 5, 671 1.9 148,542 5, 086 3.4 1,118, 475 20, 649 1.8 918, 723 23, 660 2.6 635, 150 23, 453 3.7 1, 651, 622 112, 938 6.8 1, 244, 738 137, 949 11.1 906, 579 146, 179 16.1 52, 933 148, 819 929 1,811 1.8 1.2 | 51, 229 933 1.8 5,095 109 2.1 568, 041 7, 412 1.3 224, 899 5.102 2.3 57, 736 . 3, 321 5.8 874, 149 17,157 2.0 568, 380 17,825 3.1 198, 327 12, 877 6.5 64, 089 1, 020 1.6 19, 628 272 1.4 10, 016 248 2.5 32, 546 427 1.3 10,458 177 1.7 4,406 179 4. 1 241, 084 9, 235 3.8 117, 132 8, 373 7.1 23, 359 6, 309 27.0 93, 625 40, 065 42.8 72, 219 46, 329 64.2 59, 716 48, 231 80.8 26, 139 2, 056 7.9 15, 200 1,225 8.1 2, 497 243 9.7 94, 925 2, 219 2.3 53, 944 3,183 5.9 26, 176 3,283 12.5 20, 456 173 .8 22, 660 240 1.1 17, 839 77 .4 45, 339 867 1.9 15, 011 443 3.0 .5, 300 108 2.0 184, 860 2, 467 1.3 37, 278 895 2.4 11, 179 320 2.9 186, 599 3, 302 1.8 99, 028 3,433 3.5 52, 741 2,795 5.3 611,777 10, 113 1.7 374, 772 7, 660 2.0 215, 182 6,815 3.2 ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 129 Table 5. — Foreign-born white population 10 years of age and over. 1890. 1880. 1870. States and Terri Illiterates. Illiterates. Illiterates. tories. Total. Number. Per cent. Total. Number. Per cent. Total. Number. Per cent. United States. . . . 8, 786, 887 1,147,571 13.1 6,374,611 763,620 12.0 5, 369, 903 770,678 14.4 North Atlantic Di- vision . 3, 720. 601 580, 194 15.6 2. 735, 039 420,241 15.4 | 2,470,039 453,115 18.3 South Atlantic Di- vision . South Central Divi- 196, 454 24, 053 12.2 168, 206 17, 023 10.1 165,165 20,076 12.2 sion . 307, 458 62. 096 20.2 262, 727 40, 855 15.6 225,932 36,658 16.2 North Central Divi- sion . 3, 908, 466 413. 515 10.6 2. 819. 948 249,701 8.9 2, 263. 277 229,252 I 10.1 'Western Division... 653, 908 67. 713 10.4 388,691 35,800 9.2 245.490 31,577 12.9 North Atlantic Di- vision : Maine . 73, 322 17. 665 24.3 54, 853 12.938 23.7 47, 902 11. 066 23.1 New Hampshire. . . 67, 089 17, 661 26.3 42.783 ! 11, 498 26.9 29. 019 7,934 ! 27.3 Vermont . 41, 696 10. 775 25.8 38.884 i 10, 327 26.6 46,212 13, 804 i 29.9 Massachusetts - 626.543 101. 715 16.2 426,607 83.725 i 19.6 346.158 89.828 i 25.9 Eliode Island . 100, 564 22, 268 22.1 70.562 19. 283 i 27.3 54,288 17. 477 32.2 Connecticut . 176, 360 26, 236 14.9 126,047 23, 035 18.3 111, 364 23,938 21.5 New York . 1, 511, 521 198, 136 13.1 1,184,756 1 148. 659 1 12.5 1, 115, 558 168. 554 ! ! 15.1 New -Jersey . 315, 385 41, 812 13.3 216.444 i 23. 956 11.1 185, 149 24, 961 13.5 Pennsvlvania . South Atlantic Di- 808,121 143, 926 17.8 574,103 86, 775 1 15.1 534,389 95, 553 17.9 vision : Delaware . 12, 627 2. 118 16.8 9, 293 1, 716 18.5 9, 045 2,469 27.3 Maryland . District of Colum¬ 91, 209 12, 548 13.8 81, 389 8, 289 j 10.2 82, 576 8,591 10.4 bia . 18.264 | 1, 692 9.3 16, 847 2, 038 12.1 1 16, 088 2,218 13.8 Virginia . . 17, 776 1. 793 10.1 14, 270 777 j 5. 4 13, 613 1. 269 9.3 West Virginia . 18,367 2. 768 15.1 17. 899 2, 411 13.5 16, 920 3, 101 18.3 North Carolina - 3, 555 177 5. 0 3, 562 119 ; 3.3 2, 999 117 3.9 South Carolina .... 6. 049 380 6.3 7, 350 362 4.9 7, 992 653 8.2 Georgia . 11,616 16, 991 746 6.4 10. 208 572 5. 6 11, 015 1, 090 568 9.9 VI nri rl ft 1, 831 10.8 7, 388 739 ] 10.0 4, 917 11.6 South Central Divi¬ sion : Kentucky . . 58, 298 5, 692 9. 8 58, 964 16, 333 5, 701 9. 7 61, 495 7, 231 ] 11.8 Tennessee . 19.386 1,851 9. 5 1,233 7. 5 18, 737 1, 742 9.3 Alabama . 13,961 1, 100 768 7.9 9, 395 727 7 7 9, 663 870 . 9. 0 Mississippi . 7,633 10. 1 8, 911 538 1 6! 0 10, 840 59. 903 811 7. 5 Louisiana . 47, 748 ! 8, 926 18. 7 52, 317 5, 690 , 26, 414 10.9 7, 343 18. 369 12.3 Texas . 144,014 42, 560 29.6 106,902 24. 7 60, 514 30.4 Arkansas . 13,786 1 1. 038 161 7. 5 9, 845 552 ! 5. 6 4, 780 292 6.1 Oklahoma . 2,632 6.1 North Central Divi¬ sion: Ohio . 445.543 49, 571 | 11.1 386,670 j 32, 308 8.4 361, 317 , 39. 070 10.8 Indiana . 143.032 15, 696 11.0 141, 796 12. 612 8.9 137, 230 13, 939 10.2 Illinois . 810.348 75, 839 9.4 568,264 ! 43, 907 1 7. 7 499, 741 42 B9 1 8.6 Michigan . 515,993 j 64, 060 12.4 364,981 j 38, 951 10! 7 259. 968 i 30, 580 ! 11.8 "Wisconsin . 500,916 67,371 13.4 394,688 ! 42. 739 1 10.8 353. 564 41, 328 | 11.7 Minnesota . 449,047 49,854 1 1 11.1 256,436 27, 835 10.9 155. 876 ! 18, 855 12.1 Iowa . 314. 374 29, 179 | 9.3 255,340 20.677 8.1 198,548 j 20, 692 10.4 Missouri . 229. 856 20. 868 ! 9.1 208, 500 14,561 7.0 215, 596 15, 584 7.2 North Dakota . | South Dakota . 76, 065 86,160 6. 599 7, 753 1 8.7 9.0 ^ 47, 119 3, 224 6.8 4, 671 805 17.0 Nebraska . 194,103 , 14,163 i 7.3 91.413 5, 824 6.4 29, 826 1,309 4.4 Kansas . Western Division: ; 143,029 ; 12, 562 8.8 104,741 7, 063 6.7 46, 940 4, 101 ! 8.7 Montana . ! 39,175 3,212 8.2 9,358 359 3.8 5,909 395 6.7 Wvoming . I 13,890 1 981 ! 7-1 4, 782 197 4.1 3, 303 302 9.1 Colorado . ! 79,975 i 6, 239 7.8 38, 324 1, 533 4.0 6. 460 255 i 3.9 New Mexico . ! 10,478 | 3,200 30. 5 7, 548 3, 268 1 43.3 5, 508 2,909 i 52.8 Arizona . 16,343 6, 900 42.2 j 13, 434 3. 599 : 26.8 5, 673 2,486 1 43.8 Utah . 50,512 5,188 10.3 41, 932 4, 954 11.8 29, 652 3, 814 12.9 Nevada . 11,833 1,183 10.0 19. 935 1. 675 8.4 15, 336 5<6 ! 3.8 Idaho . 15,107 1,252 8.3 6, 470 341 5.3 3. 539 378 1 10.7 Washington . 82.887 5,794 i 7.0 11, 991 534 4.5 4, 694 503 ! 10.7 Oregon . 46.326 1 3, 644 i 7.9 20. 454 910 4.4 8,105 616 j 7.6 California . 287,382 , 30,120 i 10.5 214. 463 18, 430 8.6 157, 311 19, 343 12.3 ED 93- ■9 130 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 6. — White population 10 years of age and over. 1891. 1880. 1870. States and Terri- Illiterates. Dliterates. Illiterates. tories. Total. Number. Per cent. Total. Number. Per cent. Total. Number. j Per cent. United States . 41, 931, 074 3, 212, 574 7. 7 32, 160, 400 3, 019, 080 9.4 24,717,870 2,851,911 11. 5 North AtlanticDi- 13, 658, 519 810, 091 5. 9 11, 086. 104 654, 817 5.9 9,285,812 672,077 7. 2 South Atlantic Di- 4, 109, 269 595, 952 14.5 3, 312, 920 647, 085 19.5 2,655,333 623,386 , 23.5 South Central Di- 5, 347, 099 817, 031 15. 3 4, 068, 790 877,344 21.6 3.014,773 | 705,630 j 23.4 North Central Di- vision . 16. 560. 840 849, 843 5. 1 12 466, 565 731,804 5. 9 ! 9, 088, 051 750,633 ! 8.3 "Western Division . 2, 255, 347 139, 657 6.2 1, 226, 021 108,030 | 8.8 | 673, 901 100,185 j 14.9 North Atlantic Di- I vision : 540, 157 314, 913 29, 108 21, 340 5.4 518, 011 21,758 14, 208 4.2 492,128 259, 904 18, 874 - 9.831 J. 8 3.8 Ne w Hampshire . 6.8 285, 594 5. 0 Vermont . 270, 385 17, 986 6. 7 263. 245 15, 681 6.0 257, 993 17,584 | 6.8 Massachusetts . . 1.820, 012 111, 442 6.1 1, 416, 767 90,658 6.4 1 1,148,990 95,578 8.3 Ehode Island . . . 275, 629 26, 355 9.6 215, 158 23, 544 ! 10.9 169, 479 21,029 12.4 Connecticut . 599. 346 30, 536 5.1 ; 487.780 26,763 5. 5 417, 804 27,913 6.7 New York . 4, 760, 282 255. 498 5.4 3,927.603 | 208,175 5. 3 3, 336, 198 228, 424 ! 6.8 New Jersey . 1. 103, 786 63. 163 5.7 835, 385 44.049 5. 3 656, 972 46,386 ! 7.1 Pennsylvania — South Atlantic Di- 3, 974, 009 254, 663 6.4 3,136,561 209,981 1 G’7 2, 546, 344 206, 458 8.1 1 ' vision : Delaware . 110, 359 8,126 7.4 91,611 8,346 9.1 76, 016 11,280 i 14.8 Maryland . District of Co¬ 637,499 44,653 7.0 544, 086 44,316 j 8.1 447, 731 46, 792 10.4 lumbia . 127,526 3, 495 2. 7 91, 872 3.9S8 ! 4.3 66, 620 4, 876 7.3 Virginia . 756. 252 105, 058 ; 13! 9 630, 584 114,692 18.2 527, 432 i 123, 538 23.4 W est Virginia . . 524, SOI 68, 188 13.0 410, 141 75.237 1 18.3 295, 519 71, 493 24.2 North Carolina.. 754, 857 173, 722 | 23.0 608, 806 192,032 i 31.5 497, 132 166,397 33.5 South Carolina.. 332, 174 59, 443 17.9 272, 706 59. 777 1 21.9 213, 794 55, 167 25. 8 Georgia . 701, 585 114. 691 i 16. 3 563, 977 128, 934 22.9 462, 718 124, 939 27. 0 Florida . 164, 216 18, 516 11.3 99, 137 19, 763 19.9 68, 371 18, 904 27.6 South Central Di¬ vision : Kentucky . 1, 162, 342 183, 851 1 15. 8 973, 275 ! 214, 497 ; 22.0 773, 653 201, 077 26.0 Tennessee . 966, 831 172, 169 1 17.8 790, 744 216, 227 ! 27.3 665. 390 178, 727 26.9 Alabama . 590, 115 385, 099 402, 041 107, 335 1 18.2 452, 722 111, 767 1 24.7 377, 967 276, 132 92, 059 24.4 Mississippi . 45, 755 i 11.9 328,296 320. 917 53, 448 i 16.3 48, 028 17.4 Louisiana . 80, 939 i 20.1 58, 951 ; 18.4 264, 033 50, 749 19.2 Texas . . 1, 228, 601 ! 132, 389 93, 090 1, 503 10.8 803, 931 123, 912 , 15.3 401, 110 70, 895 17.7 Arkansas _ _ 569, 659 42. 411 16.3 393, 905 98, 542 i 25.0 256, 488 64, C95 25.0 Oklahoma . 3.5 North Central Di¬ | vision : Ohio . 1 2,789,479 I 132, 244 4.7 2, 339, 528 115, 491 4.9 | 1.906,494 152, 383 8.0 Indiana . 1,638,334 94, 334 5. 8 1, 438, 955 100, 398 : 7.0 1,179,792 | 118,761 10.1 .Illinois . | 2,861,671 140, 219 ; 4.9 2, 234, 478 132. 426 . 5. 9 1, 788, 175 ! 123,624 6.9 Michigan . | 1,602,474 91, 076 i 5.7 1, 219. 908 58, 932 1 4.8 861, 523 48, 649 5.6 Wisconsin . 1 1, 253. 594 82, 984 ! 6.6 981, 433 54, 233 i 5.6 749, 181 54, 845 7.3 Minnesota . 957, 662 58, 966 5.9 557, 183 33, 506 6.0 304, 418 23. 941 7.9 Iowa . ! 1,432,849 49, 828 3.5 1, 174, 063 44, 337 i 3.8 833, 698 1, 122, 175 44, 145 5. 3 Missouri . 1, 881.478 133, 806 7, 528 9, 564 7.1 1, 453, 238 152, 510 : 10.5 161, 763 14.4 North Dakota . . . South Dakota . . . 128, 998 234, 979 5.8 4.1 l 98, 348 4, 157 4.2 9, 766 914 9.4 Nebraska . 762, 144 21, 578 2.8 316, 312 10, 926 3.5 87, 562 4, 630 5.3 Kansas . 1, 017, 178 29, 719 2.9 673, 121 24, 888 3.7 245, 267 16, 978 6.9 W estern Division . I lVr nntflnn, 103, 264 4, 232 1, 408 4. 1 28, 986 631 2.2 15, 925 643 4.0 W voming ... - 46, 436 3.0 15, 240 374 2.5 7, 709 481 6.2 Colorado . 321, 059 15. 474 4.8 155, 456 9, 906 6.4 29, 819 6, 564 22.0 New Mexico 104, 103 43, 265 41.6 79, 767 49, 547 62.2 65, 224 51, 140 i 78.4 Arizona . . . 42, 482 8, 956 21. 1 28, 634 4, 824 8,137 16.8 8,170 2,729 1 33.3 Utah . 145, 437 ! 7, 407 5. 1 95, 876 8.5 55, 828 7, 097 ! 12.7 Nevada . 32, 289 1, 356 4.2 42, 595 1,915 4.5 33, 175 653 ; 2.0 Idaho . 60, 446 267, 747 2. 119 3. 5 21. 481 784 3.6 8, 839 486 5.5 Washington . 8, 261 3.1 49, 269 1,429 2.9 15, 873 823 i 5_ 2 Oregon . 232, 925 899, 159 6, 94G 40, 233 1 3. 0 119, 482 4, 343 3.6 60, 846 3,411 ; 5! 6 California . 4. 5 589, 235 26, 090 4.4 372, 493 26, 158 j 7.0 ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES, 131 Table 7. — Colored population 10 years of aye and over 1890. 1880. 1870. States and Terri¬ tories. Total. Illiterates, j Total. ! Illiterates. Total, j Illitera Number. Per 1 cent. Number. Per cent. Number. United States - 5, 4S2, 485 3, 112, 128 56.8 4, 601, 207 j 3,220,878 70.0 3,511,075 2, 806, 233 North Atlantic Di¬ vision . 229, 858 49, 898 21.7 183,986 j 44,552 ! 24. 2 144, 980 40, 200 Soul h Atlantic Di- vision . 2. 306, 652 1, 385, 936 60.1 1,973,725 j 1, 482, 745 75. 1 1,552,085 1, 319, 780 South Central Di- vision . 2, 452, 388 1. 501, 840 61.2 2,007,453 1,525,245 76.0 1,533,447 1, 318, 765 North Central Di- vision . 348, 773 114,425 32.8 294. 276 121,216 41.2 204, 383 115, 284 W estern Division . 144, 814 60, 029 41.5 141.767 47,120 33.2 76, 200 12, 204 North Atlantic Di¬ vision : Maine . 1, 505 479 31.8 1,658 412 ' 24.8 1,719 178 New Hampshire. 584 136 23.3 594 94 15.8 522 95 Vermont . 788 168 21.3 807 156 19.3 758 122 Massachusetts .. 19. 595 3, 026 15.4 15, 416 2, 322 15.1 11. 676 2,164 Rhode Island. . . . 6, 330 1,170 1,658 18.5 5, 303 1,249 23.0 4,272 892 Connecticut . 10, 484 15. 8 9, 523 1,661 17.4 8. 092 1. 703 New York . 62, 110 11, 413 18.4 53, 825 11.425 1 21. 2 42, 761 10, 847 New Jersey . 39, 337 11, 158 28.4 30, 206 9. 200 ; 30. 5 23,715 8. 301 Pennsylvania ... 89, 125 20, 690 23.2 66, 654 j 18, 033 | 27.1 51, 465 15, 898 South Atlantic Di¬ vision : Delaware . 21.608 10, 692 49. 5 19,245 11,068 57. 5 16, 570 11,820 161. 106 80, 723 21, 389 50. 1 151, 278 90, 172 59. 6 127, 708 8S, 707 District of Co¬ lumbia . 61, 041 ! 35.0 45. 036 21. 790 r 48.4 33, 833 23, 843 Virginia . 455, 682 260, 678 : 57.2 428,450 ! 315, 060 73.2 j 362, 624 1 322, 355 West Virginia .. 24, 737 10, 992 44.4 18, 446 10. 139 i 55. 0 12, 905 9, 997 North Carolina.. 392. 589 i 235. 981 60.1 351.145 i 271.943 77.4 272. 497 231,293 South Carolina.. 470, 232 i 301, 262 64. 1 394,750 j 310. 071 78. 5 289. 969 ! 235, 212 Georgia . . . . 600, 623 404, 015 67.3 479, 863 1 391, 482 81.6 373, 211 j 343. 654 Florida . . 119. 034 60, 204 50.6 85,513 60, 420 , 70.7 62, 748 52, 899 South Central Di¬ vision : Kentucky . 197, 689 110. 530 55. 9 l 190,223 133, 895 70.4 156, 483 131. 099 Tennessee . j 309, 800 167, 971 54. 2 271,386 1 194, 495 71.7 225, 482 185, 970 Alabama . 479, 430 331, 260 69.1 399,058 ! 321, 680 | 80.6 328. 835 290, 953 Mississippi . 516, 929 314. 858 60.9 425,397 1 | 319. 753 75.2 305, 074 265, 282 Louisiana . 392, 612 283. 245 72.1 328,153 j 259, 429 79.1 262. 359 225, 409 Texas . 336, 154 176, 484 52.5 255. 265 192, 520 75. 4 169. 965 150, 80S Arkansas . 217. 454 116, 655 ; 53.6 137,971 103, 473 j 75. 0 85, 249 69, 244 Oklahoma . 2, 290 897 1 39.2 North Central Di¬ vision : Ohio . 69. 180 17, 599 25.4 59,839 16, 350 27.3 4*6, 880 20, 789 Indiana . 35, 694 11,495’ 32.2 ! 29, 140 - 10, 363 : 35. 6 18, 144 8, 363 Illinois . 46, 000 12, 415 27.0 34,837 12, 971 : 37.2 21, 431 9, 960 Michigan . 16, 561 i 4, 838 29. 2 16,780 4. 791 28.5 12, 240 4,478 Wisconsin . 4, 796 1, 761 36.7 4, 279 1,325 i 31.0 2. 523 596 Minnesota . 4. 688 1,091 23.3 2, 794 1,040 37.2 1, 150 472 Iowa . 8, 459 2. 233 26.4 7, 578 2. 272 | 30.0 4, 261 1,526 Missouri . 114, 160 47. 562 41.7 104, 393 56, 244 j 53.9 83, 393 60, 648 North Dakota South Dakota 454 1,229 215 410 47.4 33.4 j- 1, 501 664 j 44.2 874 619 Nebraska . 9. 515 2. 446 25.7 1. 959 602 30. 7 703 231 Kansas . 38,037 12, 360 32.5 31, 176 14, 588 , 46.8 12,784 7, 572 Western Division: Montana . 4, 547 1, 652 36.3 3.003 1.076 35. 8 2,245 275 Wvoming . 1,319 • 222 j 16.8 1,239 182 14.7 350 121 • Colorado . 6. 837 1.706 1 25.0 2, 764 568 I 20.5 530 259 New Mexico . 8, 438 6. 805 1 80.6 8,199 7, 559 92. 2 1,240 1, 080 Arizona . 3, 594 1,829 50.9 4,288 1, 018 2A 7 67 24- Utah . 1,790 825 46.1 1,318 689 ! 52.3 687 266 Nevada . 5, 936 3, 541 59. 7 8,071 2, 154 I 26. 7 3, 480 219 Idaho . 2, 275 1, 106 48. 6 3, 524 904 1 28.2 4, 350 2, 902 Washington . 7, 892 3, 517 44.6 6, 451 2, 460 38.1 1, 461 484 Oregon . 11, 449 3,157 27.6 11,083 3, 080 1 27.8 3,839 1,016 California . 90, 737 35, 669 39.3 91,827 27, 340 j 29.8 57, 951 5,558 cent. 16.0 10.3 18.2 16.1 18.5 20.9 21.0 25.4 35.4 30.9 71. 3 69.5 70. 5 88. 9 77.4 81.8 81.1 92.1 84.1 83.8 82.4 88.1 87.0 85. 9 88.7 81.2 44.3 46. 1 46. 5 36.6 23.6 41.0 35.8 72. 7 74.3 32.9 59.1 12. 2 3L6 48.9 87.1 35.8 38.7 6.3 66.7 33.1 26.5 9.6 132 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 8. — The three elements of population in 1890. States and Territories. Total population. Native white. Per cent. Foreign- born white. Per cent. Colored, j Per cent. TJnited States . 62, 622, 250 45, 862, 023 73.24 9, 121, 867 14. 57 1 7,638,360 1 12. 19 North Atlantic Division . 17, 401, 545 13, 247, 115 76.13 3, 874, 866 22. 27 279, 564 1. 60 South Atlantic Division . 8, 857, 920 5, 389, 833 60. 85 202, 316 2. 28 3, 265, 77J 36. 87 South Central Division . 10, 972, 893 7, 168, 997 65. 33 318, 579 2. 91 3, 485, 317 31.76 North Central Division . 22, 362, 279 17, 858. 470 79. 86 4, 053, 457 18. 13 450, 352 2.01 Western Division . 3, 027, 613 2, 197, 608 72. 59 672, 649 22. 22 157, 356 5. 19 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 661, 086 580, 568 87. 82 78, 695 11.90 1, 823 .28 New Hampshire . 376, 530 303, 644 80. 64 72,196 19.17 690 .19 Vermont . 332, 422 287, 394 86. 46 44, 024 13. 24 1, 004 . 30 Massachusetts . 2, 238, 943 1, 561, 870 69. 76 653, 503 29.19 23, 570 1.05 Rhode Island . 345, 506 231,832 67. 10 106, 027 30. 69 7, 647 2. 21 Connecticut . 746, 258 550, 283 73. 74 183, 155 24.54 12, 820 1. 72 New York . 5, 997, 853 4, 358, 260 72. 67 1, 565, 692 26.10 73, 901 1. 23 New Jersey . 1, 444, 933 1, 068, 596 73. 95 327, 985 22. 70 48, 352 3.35 Pennsylvania . 5, 258, 014 4, 304, 668 81.87 843, 589 16. 04 109, 757 2. 09 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 168, 493 126, 970 75. 36 13, 096 7.77 28, 427 16. 87 Maryland . 1, 042, 390 732, 706 70. 29 93, 787 9. 00 215, 897 20. 71 District of Columbia . 230, 392 136, 178 59.11 18, 517 8.04 75, 697 32. 85 Virginia . 1. 655, 980 1, 001, 933 60. 50 18, 189 1.10 635, 858 38. 40 West Virginia . 762, 794 711, 225 93.24 18, 852 2. 47 32, 717 4. 29 North Carolina . 1, 617, 947 1, 051, 720 65.00 3, 662 .23 562, 565 34. 77 South Carolina . 1, 151,149 455, 865 39. 60 6, 143 .53 689,141 59. 87 Georgia . 1, 837, 353 966, 465 52. 60 11, 892 .65 858, 996 46. 75 Florida . 391, 422 206, 771 52. 83 18, 178 4. 64 166, 473 42. 53 South Central Division : Kentucky . 1, 858, 635 1, 531, 222 82. 38 59, 240 3.19 268, 173 14.43 Tennessee . 1, 767, 518 1, 316, 738 74. 50 19, 899 1.12 430, 881 24. 38 Alabama . 1, 513, 017 819, 114 54. 14 14, 604 .97 679, 299 44. 89 Mississippi . 1, 289, 600 537, 127 41. 65 7,724 .60 744, 749 57. 75 Louisiana . . 1, 118, 587 509, 555 45. 55 48, 840 4. 37 560, 192 50. 08 Texas . 2, 235, 523 1, 594, 466 71.32 151, 469 6. 78 489, 588 21. 90 Arkansas . 1, 128, 179 804, 658 71. 32 14, 094 1. 25 309, 427 27. 43 Oklahoma . 61, 834 56, 117 90.75 2, 709 4. 38 3, 008 4. 87 North Central Division: Ohio . 3, 672, 316 3, 126, 252 85. 13 458, 553 12. 49 87,511 2. 38 Indiana . 2, 192, 404 2, 000, 733 91.26 146, 003 6. 66 45, 668 2. 08 Illinois . 3, 826, 351 2, 927, 497 76. 51 840, 975 21. 98 57, 879 1.51 Michigan. . . 2, 093, 889 1, 531, 283 73. 13 541, 601 25.87 21, 005 1. 00 Wisconsin . . 1, 686, 880 1, 161, 484 68. 85 518, 989 30. 77 6, 407 .38 Minnesota . 1, 301,826 829,102 63. 69 467, 057 35. 88 5, 667 .43 Iowa . 1,911,896 1, 577, 154 82. 49 323, 932 16.94 10,810 .57 Missouri . 2, 679, 184 2, 294, 176 85. 63 234, 282 8. 74 150, 726 5. 63 Nor th Dakota . 182. 719 100, 775 55.15 81, 348 44. 52 596 .33 South Dakota . 328, 808 236, 447 71.91 90, 843 27. 63 1,518 .46 Nebraska . 1, 058, 910 844, 644 79. 77 202, 244 19. 1*0 12, 022 1. 13 Kansas . . 3,427, 096 1, 228, 923 86. 11 147, 630 10. 34 50, 543 3.55 Western Division: 4, 888 3. 69 Montana . 132, 159 86, 941 65. 79 40, 330 30. 52 Wyoming . 60, 705 44, 845 73. 87 14, 330 23. 77 1, 430 2. 36 Colorado . 412, 198 321, 962 78. 11 82, 506 20. 02 7, 730 1. 87 New Mexico . 153, 593 131, 859 85. 85 10, 860 7. 07 10, 874 7.08 Arizona . 59, 620 38, 117 63. 93 17, 463 29. 29 4, 040 6. 78 Utah . 207, 905 153, 766 73.96 52, 133 25. 08 2, 006 .96 Nevada . 45, 761 27, 190 59. 42 11, 894 25. 99 6, 667 14.59 Idaho . 84, 385 66, 554 78. 87 15, 464 18. 33 2, 367 2. 80 Washington . 349, 390 254, 319 72. 79 86, 194 24. 67 8, 877 2. 54 Oregon . 313, 767 253, 936 80. 93 47, 822 15. 24 12, 009 3. 83 California . 1, 208, 130 818, 119 67. 72 293, 553 24. 30 96, 458 7. 98 ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES, 133 Table 9. — The three elements of population in 1SS0. States and Territories. 'Total population. Native white. j Per cent. Foreign white. Per¬ cent. Colored. Per cent. 50, 155, 783 36, 843, 291 73. 46 6,559,679 13. 08 6,752,813 13.46 14, 507, 407 7, 597, 197 8, 919, 371 17, 364, 111 1, 767, 697 11, 465, 448 4, 483, 144 5, 630, 217 14,049,225 j 1,215,257 i 79. 03 2, 808, 396 170, 968 271, 098 2, 912, 198 397, 019 19. 36 233,563 2,943,085 3, 018, 056 j 402,688 | 155,421 1. 61 59. 01 2. 25 38. 74 63. 12 3. 04 33. 84 80. 91 16. 77 i 2. 32 68.75 22.46 8. 79 Is or tli Atlantic Division : 648, 936 346, 991 588,193 ! 299,995 290, 281 1, 321. 844 196, 108 481, 060 90. 64 58, 659 46, 234 40, 937 441, 938 9.04 i 2,084 ! .32 86. 46 13. 32 762 j . 22 332 286 87. 36 12. 32 1,068 19,303 6,592 11,931 66, 849 .32 1, 783, 085 276, 531 622, 700 74. 13 24. 79 1. 08 Rhode Island . 70. 92 77. 25 73, 831 129, 709 26. 70 20. 83 2. 38 1.92 5, 082. 871 1, 131, 116 4, 282, 891 146, 608 934, 943 177, 624 3. 807, 317 : 870, 697 74. 90 1. 208, 705 221. 320 23. 78 1.32 76.98 19.57 1 39,099 i 3.45 Pennsylvania . Sonth Atlantic Division : 3,609,953 110, 720 642,165 101,026 866, 248 574,309 863, 550 383, 651 806,573 134, 902 1, 317, 725 j 1, 122, 236 652, 664 470, 403 402, 177 84. 29 75. 52 587, 063 9, 440 82, 528 16, 980 14, 610 18, 228 3, 692 7,454 10,333 7,703 59, 454 13.71 | 6.44 j 85, 875 i 26,448 2. 00 18. 04 68.68 8.83 9.56 210, 250 22. 49 56. 88 59. 618 1 33. 56 1, 512, 565 57. 27 .97 ! 631, 707 41. 76 618. 457 92. 86 2.95 i 1 25, 920 4. 19 .North Carolina . Sonth Carolina . Georgia . Florida . Sonth Central Division : Kentucky . 1, 399, 750 995,577 I, 542, 180 269, 493 J , 648, 690 1, 542, 359 1, 262, 505 1, 131, 597 939, 946 61. 69 38. 53 52. 30 50. 06 j 79. 93 • .26 . 75 • 67 2.86 3.61 532, 508 604, 472 725, 274 126, 888 271,511 38. 05 60: 72 47. 03 47. 08 16. 46 Tennessee . . . 72. 76 16, 595 1. 08 403, 528 26. 16 A la, ham a . ... . . . 1 51. 70 9. 521 | 8, 995 52, 777 . 75 600. 320 47. 55 Mississippi . : Louisiana . j 41. 57 42.79 .79 5.61 652, 199 484, 992 57. 64 51. 60 Texas . 1, 591, 749 802, 525 j 1. 083, 656 j 581, 356 68.08 113, 581 7. 14 394, 512 24. 78 Arkansas . _ _ ........ 72. 44 10, 175 1.27 210, 994 26. 29 Oklahoma . North Central Division : Ohio . . . . 3, 198, 062 1, 978, 301 3. 077, 871 1 2, 723, 582 1, 794, 764 85. 16 394, 338 144, 093 12. 33 80, 142 39, 503 46, 720 2. 51 Indiana . | 90. 72 7. 28 2. 00 Illinois . 2, 448, 172 [ 79. 54 582, 979 18. 94 1. 52 Michigan . 1. 636, 937 1, 228, 127 75.03 386. 433 23. 61 22, 377 1. 36 Wisconsin . 1, 315, 497 904,300 509, 373 1, 353. 046 1, 811,467 81, 770 68. 74 405. 318 30. 81 5, 879 .45 Minnesota . 780, 773 65. 24 267, 511 261, 554 211, 359 34. 26 3, 889 . 50 Iowa . - . 1. 624, 615 1, 168, 380 ^ 135, 177 83. 28 16. 10 10, 015 . 62 Missouri . 83.54 60. 49 9. 75 145, 554 6. 71 1.50 North Dakota . South Dakota . 51, 377 38. 01 2, 030 Nebraska . . . 452, 402 996, 096 39, 159 20, 789 194, 327 119, 565 40, 440 143, 963 62, 266 32, 610 352, 413 77. 90 97, 351 21.52 2, 638 .58 Kansas . . . 842, 211 84. 55 109, 944 9,487 11. 04 43, 941 4. 41 W estern Division : Montana . . 25, 898 66. 14 24. 22 3, 774 9. 64 Wyoming . 14, 509 151, 978 69. 79 4, 928 23. 71 1, 352 6. 50 Colorado . 78. 21 39, 148 7, 948 14, 351 43, 465 20. 15 3, 201 1. 64 New Mexico . i . 100, 773 20, 809 j 98, 958 84. 28 6. 65 10, 844 5,280 1, 540 9. 07 Arizona . 51. 46 35. 49 13.05 Utah . 68. 74 30. 19 1.07 Nevada . 33, 350 22, 414 53. 56 20, 206 32. 45 8, 710 13.99 Idaho . 68. 73 6, 599 20.24 3,597 i 11. 03 Washington . 75. 116 54, 896 142,143 549, 529 73. 08 12, 303 20, 932 217, 652 16. 38 7,917 ' 10. 54 Oregon . 174, 768 81. 33 11. 98 11, 693 97, 513 6. 69 California . . . 864, 694 | 63. 55 25. 17 11. 28 134 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 10. — The three elements of population in 1870. States and Territories. Total population. native white. Per cent. Foreign white. Per cent. Colored. Per cent. 38, 558, 371 28, 085, 402 72.84 5, 503, 975 14. 27 4, 968, 994 12. 89 Horth Atlantic Division . 12, 298, 730 9, 596, 821 78. 03 2,520,448 20.49 181,461 1.48 South Atlantic Division . 5,853,610 3, 468, 405 59. 25 168, 833 2.85 2, 218,372 37. 90 South Central Division . 6, 434, 410 3, 995, 051 62. 09 232, 920 3. 62 2, 206, 439 34.29 12, 981,111 990, 510 10, 365, 228 659, 897 79. 85 2, 333, 275 250, 499 17. 97 282, 608 80,114 2. 18 68. 62 25. 29 8. 09 north Atlantic Division : Maine . 626, 915 575, 929 91.87 48, 880 7.80 2, 106 .33 new Hampshire . 318, 300 288, 086 90. 51 29, 611 9.30 603 .19 Vermont . 330, 551 282, 458 85. 45 47, 155 14. 27 938 .28 Massachusetts . 1, 457, 351 217, 353 1, 089, 934 156, 823 413, 912 74. 79 353, 222 55, 396 24. 24 14, 195 . 97 Rhode Island . 72. 15 25. 49 5, 134 f 2. 36 537, 454 77. 01 113, 637 1, 138, 324 188, 928 21. 15 9, 905 j 1. 84 4. 382, 759 ' 906, 096 3, 521, 951 3, 191, 886 686, 479 2,911,314 72. 82 25. 98 52, 549 1. 20 75. 76 20. 85 * 30, 689 65, 342 3. 39 Pennsylvania . 82. 66 545, 295 15. 48 1. 86 South Atlantic Division : 125, 015 93,085 522, 087 74. 46 9, 136 7. 31 22, 794 175, 397 43, 422 18. 36 780, 894 66. 86 83, 410 16, 251 10.68 22. 46 District of Columbia . 131,700 72, 027 54. 69 12. 34 32.97 1, 225, 163 442, 014 698, 339 57. 00 13, 750 17, 091 1. 12 513, 074 41.88 West Virginia . 406. 942 92. 07 3.86 17, 981 4. 07 north Carolina . 1,071,361 675, 441 63. 05 3, 029 .28 392, 891 36. 67 South Carolina . 705, 606 281,594 39. 91 8, 073 1.14 415, 939 58.95 Georgia . 1, 184, 109 187, 748 627, 800 91, 090 53.02 11,126 4, 967 .94 545, 183 91, 691 46. 04 Florida . 48.52 2.64 48. 84 South Central Division : Kentucky . . . 1,321,011 1, 258, 520 996, 992 1, 035, 295 916, 803 511,422 371, 721 78. 37 63, 397 19, 316 9,962 11,175 4. 80 222, 319 16. 83 Tennessee . 72. 85 1.53 322, 401 25. 62 Alabama . 51. 30 1.00 475, 608 47.70 Mississippi . 827,922 44. 90 1.35 445, 026 53. 75 Douisiana . . . 726, 915 818, 579 484,471 300, 309 502, 314 357, 187 .41. 31 61. 36 61, 756 8. 50 361, 850 253. 879 50. 19 Tptss 62, 386 7. 62 31.02 Arkansas . Oklahoma 73.73 4, 928 1. 01 122, 356 25. 26 north Central Division : Ohio . 2, 665, 260 . 1,680,637 2, 229, 454 1, 514, 363 83. 65 372, 492 141, 474 13. 97 63,314 2. 38 Indiana . 90.31 8. 42 24, 800 1.47 Illinois . 2,539,891 1, 995, 899 78. 58 515, 197 20. 28 28, 795 1. 14 Michigan . 1, 184, 059 1,054,670 439,706 899, 274 686, 852 75. 95 268, 008 364, 499 160, 697 22. 63 16, 777 1. 42 Wisconsin . 65. 13 34. 56 3,319 .31 Minnesota . 277, 560 63. 12 36. 55 1,449 .33 Iowa . . . 1, 194, 020 983,518 82, 37 204, 689 j 17. 14 5,813 .49 Missouri . 1, 721, 295 ^ 14, 181 1,380,882 8, 072 80.23 222 264 j 12. 91 118, 149 6. 86 north Dakota . South Dakota . 56. 92 4,815 33. 95 1,294 9. 13, Hebraska . 122, 993 91,369 74.29 30, 748 25. 00 876 .71 Kansas . 364, 399 297,985 i 81.77 48, 392 i 13. 28 18, 022 4. 95 Western Division : Montana . 20, 595 12,276 59. 61 6, 030 3, 370 ■ 29. 28 2, 289 11.11 W voming . 9, 118 5,356 | 58. 74 36. 96 392 4. 30 Colorado . . 39, 864 32,629 ! 81.85 6, 592 1 16. 54 643 1.61 Ketv Mexico . 91,874 9, 658 84,773 1 92. 27 5. 620 6.12 1,481 1.61 Arizona . 3,792 1 39. 26 5, 789 30, 257 59. 94 77 .80 Utah . 86, 786 55,787 64. 28 j 34. 87 742 . 85 Hevada . . 42, 491 23,310 7,007 | 54. 86 15, 649 36. 83 3,532 8.31 Idaho . 14, 999 23, 955 46. 72 3, 611 ! 24. 07 4, 381 29. 21 W ashingfon . : 17,405 i 78,659 1 72. 66 4, 790 ! 20. 00 1, 760 7.34 Oregon . 90, 923 86. 51 8, 270 9. 10 3, 994 4. 39 California . . 560, 247 338,903 i 60.49 160, 521 28. 65 60, 823 10.86 ILLITERACY IX THE UNITED STATES. 135 Taiae 11. — Percentage of illiterates to population 10 years of age and over in 1S00 and 1S80. Total. Males. Females. Total whites. ; Native j whites. Foreign av bites. Colored. States and Territories. 1890. 1SS0. 1890. 1880. 1820. 1S30. 1890. 1S80. 1S90. 18S0. 1890. 18S0. 1890. 1880. 1 .> 3 4 j 5 G 7 S D SO is its S3 14 "United States . 13.8 17.0 12.4 15.8 14.4 | 18.2 7.7 9.4 G. 2 j 8.7 ! 13.1 12.0 1 56.8 ; 70.0 North Atlantic Division.. G. 2 G. 2 5.9 5. 4 G. 5 7. 0 5. 9 5. 9 2.3 2.8 15. 6 15.4 21.7 24.2 South Atlantic Division. . 30.9 40.3 29. 2 38. 8 32. G 41. 7 14.5 19.5 14.6 20.0 12.2 ! 10.1 GO. 1 75. 1 South Central Division . . . 29. 7 39.5 27. G 37. 8 31.9 41.3 15.3 21.6 15.0 : 22.0 20. J 15. G ; gi. 2 : 76.0 2s orth Central Division . . . 0. V G. 7 5.2 6.2 ! G. 3 7.2 5. 1 5.9 3.4 5. 0 10.6 ! 8.9 32.8' 41.2 Western Division . 8.3 11.3 8.1 10. 1 8.7 13. G G. 2 j 8.8 4. 5 8.6 10.4 9.2 41. 5 33.2 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 575 4.3 5. 9 4. 5 5. 1 4.0 5. 4 4.2 2.5 1.9 24.1 ' 23.7 31.8 ! 24.8 New ILunpshire . G. 8 5.0 7. 5 5.1 6.2 4.9 6.8 5. 0 1.5 1.1 2G.3 ! 26.9 23.3 15.8 Vermont . G. 7 G. 0 7.4 G. 4 , 5. 9 1 5. G ] 6.7 G.O 3.2 2.4 25.8 26.6 21.3 19.3 Massachusetts . - . . 6. 2 G. 5 5.3 5.3 7.0 ! 7.6 G.l G. 4 .8 . 7 j 16.2 19.6 15.4 :! 15.1 Khode Island . 9.8 11.2 9.0 9.8 10.5 j 12.6 9.6 10.9 2.3 2.9 22.1 , 27.3 IS. 5 ■! 23.6 Connecticut . 5. 8 5. 7 5. 1 5. 0 | 5. 5 ! G. 4 ! 5. 1 5. 5 1.0 1.0 14.9 18.3 15.8 ; 17.4 New York . 5. 5 D. O 5.2 4. 9 i 5. 8 ; G.l 5. 4 5. 3 1.8 2. 2 13.1 1 12.5 IS. 4 21. 2 New Jersey . 6. 5 6.2 6.2 5.6 G. 8 G. 7 5. 7 5.3 2. 7 3* 2 i 13.3 11.1 1 28.4 3o" 5 Pennsylvania . G. 8 7. 1 6.5 5. 9 7.0 ' 8.3 6.4 6.7 3! 5 4. S 17.8 15.1 23.2 ; 27.1 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . . 24.3 17.5 13.8 16.8 ’ 14.9 18.3 7.4 9.1 6.2 8.1 16.8 ! 18.5 49.5 57. 5 Maryland . 15. 7 19.3 15.2 18. 6 16.2 20.1 7.0 8.1 5.9 7. 8 13.8 j 10.2 , 50.1 59. (1 District of Columbia. . 13.2 18.8 11.1 15.8 15. 1 ! 21.4 2. 7 ! 4.3 1. 7 2,6 9.3 ' 12.1 35. 0 48.4 Virginia . ! 30.2 : 40.6 29. G 40.2 30.8 ! 41.1 13! 9 18.2 14.0 18.5 20. 1 j 5.4 j 57.2 73. 2r West Virginia . 14.4 i 19.9 13. 3' 18.5 ; 15. 5 | 21.4 13.0 18.3 : 12.9 18. G 15. 1 13.5 44.4 55. 0 North Carolina . 85. 7 ! 48.3 33.0 45. 8 : 38.3 ! 50.7 23.0 31. 5 23.1 31.7 5. 0 3.3 GO. 1 77.4 South Carolina . 45. 0 i 55. 4 42. 3: 53.6 j 47.6 1 57. 1 17.9 21.9 18.1; 22.4 G. 3 ; 4.9 64.1 ! 78.5 Georgia . 1 39.8 49.9 37.8 48.5 41.8 51. 1 16.3 22.9 18. 5j 23. 2 G. 4 5. 6 67. 3 81.6 Florida . ! 27.8 43.4 24. 7 41.1 1 31.1 45. 8 1 11.3 19.9 11.3 20*7 10.8 10.0 50. G 70.7 South 'Central Division : Kentucky . 21.6 29.9 20.6 28.8 22. 7 31.1 ! 15.8 ' 22,0 16.1 22. 81 9.8 9.7 55. 9 ’ 70.4 Tennessee . 26. 6 08. 7 24.3 36.5 29! 0 40.8 17.8 27. 3 18. U 27.8 9. 5 7. 5 ! 54.2 71.7 Alabama . I 41.0 50.9 38.8 49.6 43.2 ; 52.1 ! 18.2 24.7 18.4 25. 0: 7.9 7. 7 ; G9.i 80.6 Mississippi . 1 40.0 49.5 ! 37. 8 48.1 42,2 50. 9 ! 11.9 16. 3 ! 11.9 16.6 10.1 g!o ; 60.9 75.2 Louisiana . I 45.8 49.1 43.8 48.0 47.9 5Q.1 i 20.1 18. 4 20.3 19.8 1'. 7 10.9 72.1 79.1 Texas . . 19.7 29.7 18.3 28.3 21. 4 31.4 j 10.8 15.3 8. 3 13.9 29.6 24.7 52.5 75.4 Arkansas . Oklahoma . North. Central Division : 26. 6 5. 4 38.0 2 }. 7 5.0; 35.4 29.9 5.9 ; 40.8 16.3 3.5 25. 0 . 1 16.6 3. 4 25. 5; 7. 5 6.1 5.6 i 53.6 ' 39.2 75. 0 Ohio . 5.2 5. 5 4.8 5.1 5. 6 5. 9 4.7 4.9 3.5 4.3 11.1 8.4 25.4 27.3 Indiana . . G. 3 7. 5 5. 8 6.9 G.9 8. 2! : 5. 8 7.0 5. 3 6.8 11.0 8.9 32.2 I 35. 6 Illinois . 5. 2 6.4 4. 7 5.9 5.9 ! 6. 9 4.9 5. 9 3. 1 5. 3, 9.4 ! 7. 7 27.0 37.2 Michigan . ! 5. 9 5. 2 G.l 5.3 5.8 4.9 5. 7 4.8 2.5 2.3 12.4 10.7 29. 2 ! 28.5 Wisconsin . 6. 7 5. 8 G.O 5. 2i 7. 5 G. 3 G.G 5. 6 2.1 2.0 13.4 10. 8j 36. 7 31.0 Minnesota . G. 0 0.2 5. 0 5.2 7.3 ! 7.3 5. 9 6.0 1. 4 1.9 11.1 10.9 23. 3 37.2 3. 6 3.9 3.2' 3. 6, 4.1 4.3 3. 5 3. 8 1.8' 2.6 9.3 8.1 26.4 S 30.0 Missouri . { 9.1 13.4 8.3 12.6 9.9 14.3] 7. 11 10. 5 6.8 11. 1 9.1 7.0| 41. 7 53. 9 North Dakota . I 6. 0 / A Q S 4. 9 £ q q $ 7-4 \l a -J k 5. s > , 0 S 1.8/ , c ( 8.7 ? « o V47. 47 , , ,, South Dakota . ! 4. 2 ) 3.6S 3’9 ) 5.0 \l 4.1 S } 1.2; £ x.o \ 9.0 3 ’ | >33. 4 if*’" Nebraska . ! 3. 1 3. G 2.8 3.3; ' 3.6 4. 1 ' 2.8 3. 5 1.31 ' 2.3. 7.3 G. 4 25. 7 30.7 Kansas . 4.0 5. 6 3. 5 5.1 4. 5 6. 2 2.9 3.7, 2.0 3. 1 8.8 6. 7; 32. 5 ! 46.8 Western Division: Montana . 5. 5. 5. 3 5. 7 4. G 4.8 7.81 4.1 2. 2 1. 6 1.4 8. 2 3.8! 36. 3 35.8 Wyoming . 3. 4| 3.4' 3. 3 2.8 3. 7 4. Dj 3.0 2.5 1.3l 1. 7 7.1! 4. 1 16.8 14.7 Colorado." . 1 5.2 6. 6 4. 8 4.8 5. 9 10. 8 4.8 6. 4 3.8 7. 1 7. 8' 4.0 25.0 20.5 New Mexico . | 44. 5 65. 0 33.9, 54. 1 57. 4 78.2; 41. G 62. 2 42.8 64. 2 30. 5 43.3 80.6 92.2 Arizona . ‘>3 4! 17. 7 20. 3 14. 5 29.1 6.6; 26. 9! 10. 0 21. 1 5. 1 16. 8 8. 5 7. 9; 8.1 5.9 42. 2; 26.8 11.8 50.9 46. 1 23. 7 Utah . 5. 6 9. 1 4. 7 8. 2 2.3 10. 3 52! 3 Nevada . 12.8 8. 0 12.3 7. 0 13.8 9. 1 4.2 4. 5 .8 1.1 10.0 8.4 59. 7 2G. 7 Idaho . I 5. li 7. 1 5.8 7. 8. 4.0; 5. 4 3. 5 3.6 1.9 3.0 8.3 5. 3 48.6 23. 2 Washington . 4. 3 7. 0 4.2 6. 5j 4.3! 7.8 3. 1 2.9; 1. 3 2.4 7.0 4. 5 44. G! 38.1 Oregon . 4. 1 5. 7 4. 5 6.4; 3.5 4.6! 3. 0 3.6 1.8 3.5 7. 9 4.4 27. Gi 27.8 California . j 7. 7 7.8 8.9 8.2 5.8 7. 2! 4. 5; 4.4 1.7 2.0 10.5 8.6 39.3 29.8 136 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 12. — Differences between percentages of 1880 and 1890, the ~{- sign indicating increase and the — sign denoting decrease. Differences between the percentages of illiterates. Differences between the percentages of population. States and. Territories. Total. Male. Fe¬ male. Total white. Native white. ! For¬ eign white. Col¬ ored. Native white. For¬ eign white. Col- i ored. 1 3 3 4 5 6 ! 7 8 9 10 United States . — 3.7 — 3.4 — 3.8 — 1.7 -2.5 + 1.1 —13. 2 — .22 + 1.43 — 1. 27 North Atlantic Division.. 0 + • 5 — .5 .0 !— .5 + • 2 | — 2.5 — 2.90 + 2.-91 — .01 South Atlantic Division.. -9.4 — 9.7 — 9. 1 — 5. 0 — 5. 4 1+ 2.1 —15.0 + 1.84 + .03 —1.87 South Central Division. . . — 9. 8 —10.2 — 9.4 — 6.3 — 7.0 + 4.6 —14.8 + 2.21 — .13 —2. 08 North Central Division. . . — 1.0 — 1.0 — .9 — .8 — 1.6 + 3.7 — 8.4 — 1.05 If 1.36 — .31 AY estern Division . — 3.0 — 2.0 — 4.9 -2.6 |- 4.1 + 1.2 + 8.3 + 3.84 - .24 —3. 60 North Atlantic Division : Maine . + 1.2 + 1.4 + 1.1 W 1. 2 ! + .o + • ^ + 7.0 — 2.82 + 2.86 — .04 New Hampshire . + 1.8 + 2.4 + I- 3 + 1.8 + -4 h -6 i + 7.5 — 5. 82 + 5. 85 — .03 Vermont . + -7 + 1.0 + -3 + -7 + .8 - .8 + 2.0 — .90 + -92 — .02 Massachusetts . - .3 0 — .6 | — -3 + -1 — 3.4 + • 3 — 4.37 |+ 4.40 — .03 Hhode Island . -1.4 — .8 - 2.1 j — 1.3 | — .6 | — 5.2 — 5.1 — 3.82 + 3.99 —.17 Connecticut . — .4 + .1 - .9 | !— .4 0 — 3.4 — 1.6 — 3.51 + 3.71 — .20 New York . 0 + -3 - .3 + -1 — -4 + • 6 — 2.8 — 2.23 + 2.32 — .09 New Jersey . + • 3 + -6 + .1 + -4 | — .5 + 2.2 — 2.1 — 3.03 + 3.13 — .10 Pennsylvania . — .3 + -6 -1.3 — .3 — 1.3 + 2. 7 — 3.9 — 2.42 + 2.33 + .09 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . — 3.2 — 3.0 — 3.4 — 1.7 — 1.9 — 1.7 — 8.0 — .16 + 1.33 — 1. 17 Maryland . — 3.6 — 3.4 — 3.9 — 1.1 — 1.9 + 3.6 — 9.5 + 1.61 + -17 — 1.78 District of Columbia. — 5.6 — 4. 7 — 6.3 — 1.6 - .9 | — 2.8 —13. 4 + 2.23 — 1.52 — .71 Virginia — 10. 4 —10. 6 —10.3 — 4. 3 — 4. 5 + 4.7 + 1-6 —16.0 + 3.23 + .13 —3. 36 AYest Virginia . — 5. 5 — 5.2 — 5. 9 — 5. 3 — 5.7 j —10.6 + .38 — .48 + . 10 North Carolina . -12.6 —12.8 —12. 4 i — 8. 5 - 8.6 | + 1.7 —17.3 + 3.31 — .03 —3.28 South Carolina . —10.4 —11.3 — 9. 5 J - 4.0 1- 4.3 + 1-4 -14.4 + 1.07 — .22 — . 85 Georgia . —10.1 —10.7 — 9. 3 — 6. 6 |— 6. 7 + -8 —14.3 + .30 - .02 — .28 Florida . — 15. 6 —16.4 —14.7 — 8.6 — 9.4 + -8 —20. 1 + 2. 77 + 1.78 — 4. 55 South Central Division : Kentucky — 8. 3 — 8. 2 — 8.4 — 6. 2 — 6. 7 + .1 —14. 5 + 2.45 + 1.74 + .42 —2. 03 Tennessee . —12.1 —12.2 —11.8 - 9.5 — 9.8 + 2.0 - — 17. 5 + .04 — 1. 78 Alabama . — 9.9 —10.8 — 8.9 — 6. 5 — 6.6 + -2 —11.5 + 2.44 + .22 —2.66 Mississippi . — 9. 5 —10.3 — 8.7 — 4.4 — 4. 7 + 4. 1 —14.3 + .08 — .19 + .11 Louisiana . -3.3 — 4.2 — 2.2 + 1.7 + -5 + 7.8 — 7.0 + 2.76 — 1.24 — 1. 52 Texas . —10.0 —10.0 —10.0 — 4. 5 — 5.6 + 4.9 —22.9 + 3.24 — .36 —2. 88 Arkansas . —11.4 —11.7 —10.9 ! 1— 8.7 . — 8.9 + 1.9 —21.4 — 1.12 — . .02 +1. 14 North Central Division : Ohio . — .3 — .3 — .3 1 — .2 — -8 + 2.7 — 1.9 — .03 + .16 — .13 Indiana . — 1.2 — 1.1 — 1.3 — 1.2 — 1. 5 + 2.1 — 3.4 + -54 - .62 + .08 Illinois . „ . — 1.2 — 1.2 — 1.0 — 1.0 - 2. 2 + 1-7 —10.2 — 3. 03 + 3.04 — .01 Michigan . + • 7 + .8 + -9 ;+ .9 + . + 3.7 + .7 — 1. 90 + 2.26 — .36 AYisconsin . + .9 + -8 + 1.2 + i.o + .1 + 2.6 — 5.7 + Ml — .04 — .07 Minnesota — .2 — .2 0 — .1 — . 5 + -2 —13. 9 — 1. 55 + 1.62 — .07 Iowa . — .3 — .4 — .2 — .3 — .8 + 1.2 — 3.6 — .79 + .84 — . 05 Missouri . — 4.3 — 4.3 — 4.4 — 3.4 — 4. 3 + 2.1 —12.2 + 2.09 — 1.01 —1.08 UnrMi PaVntn. + 1.2 — .6 + 1.0 + -9 + 1.6 0 + 1.9 + 3.2 —10.8 — 5. 34 + 6.51 —1. 17 South Dakota . — .3 — 1.5 - -1 — .6 + 2.2 + 11.42 —10. 38 — 1. 04 'Nebraska . .5 — .5 — .5 — .7 — 1.0 + -9 — 5.0 + 1.87 — 2. 42 + . 55 Kansas . — 1.6 — 1.6 — 1.7 — .8 — 1.1 + 2.1 —14.3 + 1.56 — .70 — .86 Western Division: AT rm t.n n a, + -2 0 + 1. 1 — 3.0 + 1-9 + • 5 + -2 + 4.4 + • 5 + 2.1 — . 35 + 6.30 —5. 95 Wyoming . + • 5 — 1.2 — .4 + 3.0 + 4.08 + .06 —4. 14 Colorado . — 1.4 1 o — 4.9 - 1.6 — 3.3 + 3.8 + 4.5 — .10 — .13 + .23 New Mexico . —20.5 —20. 2 —20.8 —20. 6 —21.4 —12. 8 —11.6 + 1.57 + . 42 —1.99 Arizona + 5. 7 1+ 5.8 + 2.2 |+ 4.3 — .2 +15.4 — 1.5 +27.2 — 6.2 +12. 47 + 5.22 - 6.20 —6. 27 Utah . — 3.5 — 3.5 — 3.4 — 3.4 — 3.6 — 5.11 — .11 Nevada . + 4.8 + 4.7 + 4.7 — .3 — .3 + 1.6 +33.0 + 5.86 — 6.46 + .60 Idaho . — 2. 0 — 2.0 — 1.4 — .1 — 1.1 + 3.0 +20.4 + 10. 14 — 1.91 —8. 23 Washington . — 2.7 !— 2.3 — 3. 5 + -2 — 1.1 + 2.5 + 6.5 — .29 + 8.29 —8.00 Oregon . — 1.6 j— 1.9 — 1.1 — .6 — 1.7 + 3.5 — . 2 — .40 + 3.26 —2. 86 California . l+ " — 1.4 + -I — .3 + 1.9 + 9.5 + 4.17 — .87 —3. 30 ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 137 Table 13. — Showing per cent of decrease or increase in the percentage of illiterates between 1880 and 1890, the -f- sign indicating increase and the — sign denoting decrease. States and Territories. 1 Total. Native white. Foreign white. ' Total j white. Colored. United States . —21.8 -28.7 + 9.2 -18.1 ■ — 18.9 North Atlantic Division . 0 I —17. 9 + 1.3 0 — 10.3 —23. 3 _ 27. 0 + 20.8 + 29.5 —25.6 —29.2 — 20.0 — 19.5 South Central Division . —24.8 -31.8 —14. 8 —32. 0 + 19.1 + 13.0 _ 13. 6 — 20.4 + 25.0 Western Division . —26. 5 —47.7 —29.5 North Atlantic Division : Maine . ! +27.9 +31.6 + 1.7 +28. 6 + 28.2 New Hampshire . ! +36.0 + 36.4 - 2.2 +36.0 + 47. 5 Vermont . +11.7 +33.3 — 3. 0 +11.7 + 10.4 Massachusetts . — 4. 6 +14.3 — 17. 3 - 4.7 + 2.0 Hhode Island . —12.5 —20.7 — 19. 0 -11.9 — 21.6 Connecticut . — 7. 0 0 — 18. 6 — 7.3 - 9.2 New York . 0 —18. 2 + 4.8 + 1.9' — 13.2 New Jersey . + 4.8 —15. 6 + 19.8 + 7. 5 — 6.9 Pennsylvania . — 4.2 —27.1 + 17.9 — 4.5 ! - 14.4 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . —18. 3 —23.5 — 9.2 -18.7 — 13.9 —18. 7 —24. 4 + 35. 3 —13. 6 — 16. 0 District of Columbia . -29.8 -34. 6 — 23.1 —37. 2 — 27.7 Virginia . —25.6 —24.3 + 87. 0 ! —23.6 — 21.9 West Virginia . —27.6 —30.6 + 11.9 —29.0 — 19.3 North Carolina . —26.1 —27.1 + 51. 5 —27.0 — 22. 4 South Carolina . —18.8 —19.2 .+ 28.6 —18.3 — 18.3 Georgia . —20.2 —28.9 + 14.3 —28. 8 — 17.5 Florida . —35.9 —45. 4 + 8.0 —43.2 — 28.4 South Central Division : Kentucky . —27.8 —29.4 4- 1.0 —28.2 — 20.6 Tennessee . —31.3 —35.3 + 26.7 —34.8 — 24.4 Alabama -- . . —19.4 —19. 2 —26.4 — 2S. 3 4- 2. 6 —26. 3 — 14.3 Mississippi . 4- 68.3 —27. 0 — 19.0 Louisiana . : . — 6.7 + 2.5 + 71.6 + 9.2 — 8.8 Texas . —33.7 —40.3 + 19.8 —29.4 — 30.4 Arkansas . —30.0 —34.9 + 33.9 —34.8 • 28.5 North Central Division : Ohio . — 5. 5 —18.6 + 32.1 — 4.1 — 7.0 Indiana . —16.0 —22. 1 + 23.6 —17. 1 — 9.6 Illinois . —18.8 —41.5 + 22.1 —16.9 — 27.4 Michigan . +13.5 + 8.7 + 15.9 +18.8 + 2.5 Wisconsin . + 15.5 + 5.0 + 24.1 +17.9 — 18.4 Minnesota . — 3.2 —26.3 + 1.8 —16.7 — 37.4 Iowa . — 7.7 —30.8 + 14.8 — 7.9 — 12. 0 Missouri —32.1 +25. 0 —38. 7 + 30.0 + 27.9 _ 32. 4 — 22.6 + 7.2 North Dakota . 'o +38.1 South Dakota . —12.5 —33.3 + 32.4 — 2.4 — 24. 5 Nebraska . 1 -13.9 —43.5 + 14.1 —20.0 — 16.3 Kansas . —28.6 —35.5 + 31. 3 —21.6 — 30. 6 Western Division: Montana . + 3.8 + 14.3 1 +115.8 +86.4 + 1.4 Wyoming . 0 —23.5 + 73. 2 +20. 0 , j. +14.3 Colorado . New Mexico . 21.2 —31.5 —46. 5 —33.3 + 95.0 — 29.6 —25.0 —33.1 + 22.0 — 12.6 Arizona . +32.2 — 2.5 + 57. 5 1 +25.6 +114.8 Utah . . . —38. 5 —61. 0 — 12.7 —40.0 — 11. 9 Nevada . + 60.0 —27.3 + 19.0 — 6.7 +123. 6 Idaho . _ 28.2 —36. 7 + 56. 6 — 2.8 + 72.3 Washington . —38.6 —45.8 + 55. 6 + 6.9 + 17.1 Oregon . _ 28. 1 _ 48. 6 + 79.5 —16.7 — . 7 California . — 1.3 —15.0 + 22.1 + 2, 3 + 31.9 1 138 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 14. — -Showing the rank of each State in percentage of illiteracy to total populations 10 years of aye and over. 1S90. 1880. 1870. Rank. States an Idaho . 2. 0 8 1.4 ! 7 <1.8 8 Dakota . 2. 1 9 8 1. 9 9 Montana 2. 5 10 1. 6 9 1. 9 10 New V ork . 2. 7 11 California . . . 1.7 10 California . 1 2.0 11 Washington . 2. 9 12 11 2. 0 12 Michigan . 3. 0 bia . 1.7 12 New York . j 2 2 : 13 Rhode Island . 3.1 13 1. 8 j 13 2.3 14 California . 3.2 14 1 8 14 2. 3 15 TMinnesota 3 4 15 1. 8 15 2 4 16 AVisconsin . 3. 4 16 1 8 16 2.4 17 Iowa 3. 7 17 Idaho 1. 9 17 District of Colum- | IS AVyomin fr 4. 1 18 Kansas . 2. 0 ! bia . ] 2. 6 10 Ne w J ers ev . 4. 5 19 Wisconsin . 2.1 IS Iowa . . ! 2.6 20 District < f Colum¬ 20 .Rhode Island . 2.5 19 Rhode Island . ’ 2.9 bia . . 5.3 21 Utah . 2. 3 | 20 Idaho . ! 3. 0 21 Oregon . 1 5.3 Maine . ; 2.5 21 Kansas . ! 3.1 92 Pennsylvania . 5. 5 2'j Michigan . 2.5 i 1 22 New Jersej* . j 3.2 23 Nebraska . . 5.8 24 New jersey . 2. 7 23 Oregon . 3.5 i 24 Illinois . ; 6.3 25 Illinois . 3. 1 i 24 Ohio . ! 95 i Kansas . 6. 5 26 Vermont . 3.2 I 25 Pennsylvania . ! 4.8 26 1 Ohio . . 7. 3 27 Oklahoma . ; 3.4 26 1 Illinois . 5.3 27 i Arizona . 9.7 28 Ohio . ] 3. 5 27 | Utah . 5. 9 28 Indiana . 10.1 29 Pennsylvania . ! 3.5 28 Indiana . 6.8 29 : Maryland . 10.5 30 Colorado . I 3. 8 i 29 | Colorado . 7.1 30 ! Utah . 12. 5 31 Indiana . - _ 5.3 30 1 Maryland . 7.8 31 Delaware . 13. 2 32 Maryland. . . . 5.9 31 Arizona . 8. 1 32 Texas . 15.4 33 Delaware . 6. 2 32 1 Delaware . 8.1 | 33 Missouri . 16. 1 34 Missouri . 6. 8 j 33 1 Missouri 11. 1 34 Mississippi _ 17. 8 35 : Arizona . 7. 9 : 34 j Texas _ _ _ _ _ i 13. 9 Louisiana 21. 3 36 Texas . 8.3 | 35 Mississippi . : 16.6 38 Virginia . 23.8 37 Florida 11.3 36 Vi r o-i 1 1 i a 1 18. 5 37 West, Virginia 24. 5 38 Mississippi . 11.9 37 West Virginia. .. . ! 18.6 38 Alabama . . 24.8 39 West Virginia. . . . 12.9 38 I Louisiana . [ 19.8 39 Arkansas . 25. 3 40 Virginia . 14.0 39 Florida . | 20.7 40 South Carolina . . . 26. 5 41 Kentucky . 16. 1 . 40 South Carolina ... i 22. 4 41 Colorado . ; 27.0 42 Georgia . 16. 5 41 i Kentucky. . ...... 22. 8 42 i Kent.ne.kv 27. 2 43 Arkansas . 16.6 42 i Georgia . 23.2 43 | Georgia ! . 1 2?’. 4 44 Tennessee . 18.0 43 Alabama . 25.0 44 ! Tennessee . 27.4 45 South Carolina _ 18. 1 44 j Arkansas . 25. 5 45 ! Florida ! 28.9 46 Alabama . : 18.4 45 Tennessee . 27.8 46 North Carolina . . . ' 53. 7 47 Louisiana . 20.3 46 North Carolina. . . 31. 7 47 New Mexico . 80.8 4S N orth Carolina . . . ! 23.1 47 New Mexico . 64.2 49 New Mexico . 42.8 140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 16. — Showing the rank of each State in percentage of illiteracy to the foreign white population 10 years of age and over. 1890. 1880. 1870. Rank. States and Terri¬ tories. Per cent. Rank. States and Terri¬ tories. Per cent. Rank. States and Terri- ! tories. Per cent. 1 Korth Carolina . . . 5. 0 1 Korth Carolina . . . 3.3 1 Kevada . 3.8 9 6. 1 2 3. 8 2 Colorado 3. 9 8 South Carolina . . . 6.3 3 Colorado . 4.0 3 Korth Carolina . . . 3.9 4 6.4 4 4. 1 4 Kebraska, 4. 4 5 7. 0 5 4. 4 5 A rka/nsas 6. 1 6 7. 1 6 4. 5 6 Montana . 6. 7 7 7. 3 4. 9 7 Missouri . 7. 2 8 8 5. 3 8 Mississippi . 7. 5 9 7. 8 9 5. 4 9 Oregon . 7. 6 10 7. 9 10 5. 6 10 South Carolina .... 8. 2 11 7. 9 11 5. 6 11 Illinois . 8. 6 12 8. 2 12 6. 0 12 Kansas _ . 8. 7 18 8.3 13 6. 4 13 Alabama, _ 9. 0 14 8.7 14 6.7 14 W voming . 9. 1 15 8. 8 15 Tennessee . 9.3 16 9. 0 j 15 l 6. 8 16 Virginia . 9.3 17 Missouri . 9. 1 1 16 Missouri _ 7. 0 17 Georgia . . 9. 9 18 District of Colum- i 17 Tennessee . 7. 5 18 Indiana . t 10. 2 bia . 1 9. 3 18 Alabama 7. 7 19 Tmva _ 10.4 19 Tmva _ 9. 3 19 Illinois 7. 7 20 Maryland . . 10. 4 20 Illinois . 9. 4 20 Iowa . 8. 1 21 Idaho . . 10.7 21 Tennessee . 9. 5 21 Kevada . 8. 4 22 Washington . 10. 7 22 Kentucky . . | 9. 8 1 22 Ohio . . . 8. 4 23 Ohio . 10.8 23 K evada . 1 f io. o ! 23 California 8. 6 24 1 Florida, . 11. 6 24 Mississippi . 10. 1 I 24 Indiana . - _ 8. 9 25 Wisconsin . 11.7 25 Virginia . 10.1 25 Kentucky . 9.7 26 Kentucky . 11.8 26 Utah. . 10. 3 26 Florida . 10. 0 27 [ Michigan . . 11.8 27 1 California . . 1 10.5 27 Maryland . 10. 2 28 Minnesota . 12.1 28 | Florida . 1 10.8 i 28 Michigan . j 10.7 29 I California. . . 12. 3 29 Indiana... . 11. 0 | 29 Wisconsin . . 10. 8 30 Louisiana . 12.3 30 i Minnesota . 11. 1 j 30 Louisiana . ! io. 9 31 Utah . 12. 9 31 Ohio . 11.1 1 31 Minnesota . 10.9 32 Kew Jersey . 13.5 32 Michigan . 12. 4 32 Hew Jersey . 11. 1 I 33 District of Colum¬ 33 Kew York . 1 13. 1 33 Utah 11. 8 bia . 13. 8 34 Kew Jersey . 13. 3 34 District of Colum¬ 34 Kew York . 15.1 35 Wisconsin . 1 13.4 bia _ 12.1 35 Dakota . 17. 0 36 I Maryland . 13.8 35 Kew York 12. 5 36 Pennsylvania. _ _ 17. 9 37 Connecticut . 14.9 36 West Virginia. . . . 13.5 37 West Virginia.... 18.3 38 j \V est Virginia. .. . 15. 1 37 P pn n syl van i a 15. 1 38 (Tonnectient, _ : 21. 5 39 Massachusetts. 16.2 38 Connecticut . 18.3 39 Maine . i 23.1 40 Delaware . 16. 8 39 Delaware . 18. 5 40 Massachusetts. . . . 25.9 41 Pennsylvania . 17.8 40 Massachusetts. . . . 19.6. 41 Delaware . . 27. 3 42 Louisiana . 18. 7 41 Maine 23. 7 42 Kew Hampshire.. 27. 3 43 i Rhode Island _ _ 22.1 42 Texas . 24.7 43 Vermont . 29.9 44 Maine . 24. i 43 Vermont . 26.6 44 Texas . 30.4 45 1 Vermont . 25.8 44 Arizona . 26.8 45 Rhode Island . 32.2 46 | Kew Hampshire. . 26. 3 45 Kew Hampshire.. 26.9 46 I Arizona . 43.8 47 Texas . 1 29. 6 46 Rhode Island ... . 27.3 47 i Kew Mexico . 52.8 48 j Kew Mexico . 1 30. 5 47 1 Kew Mexico . 43.3 49 Arizona . | 42.2 1 1 1 ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES, 141 Table 17. — Shotting the rank of each State in percentage of illiteracy to the total white population 10 years of age and over. 1880. 1870. Rank. i States and Terri¬ tories. Per cent. Rank. States and Terri¬ tories. Per cent. 1890 Rank. States and Terri¬ tories. Per cent. 1 District of Colum¬ bia . 2.7 2 Nebraska . 2.8 3 Kansas . 2.9 4 Oregon . 3.0 5 Wyoming . 3.0 6 Washington . 3.1 7 Idaho . 3.5 8 Iowa . 3.5 9 Oklahoma . 3. 5 10 Montana . 4.1 11 Soutli Dakota . 4.1 12 Nevada . 4.2 13 California . 4. 5 14 Ohio . 4.7 15 Colorado . 4.8 16 Illinois . 4.9 17 Connecticut . 5.1 18 5. 1 19 ! Maine . 5. 4 20 ! New York . 5. 4 21 Michigan . 5.7 22 New Jersey . 5.7 23 Indiana...". . ] 5. 8 24 North Dakota . 5.8 25 Minnesota . 1 5.9 26 Massachusetts. . . . i 6-1 27 Pennsylvania . 0.4 28 Wisconsin . 6.6 29 Vermont . 6.7 1 30 New Hampshire.. 6.8 ! 31 Maryland . 7.0 ! 32 Missouri . 7. l : 33 Delaware . 7.4 1 34 Rhode Island . 9.6 35 Texas . 10.8 36 Florida . 11.3 37 Mississippi . 11.9 38 West Virginia. 13.0 39 Virginia . 13.9 40 Kentucky . 15.8 1 41 Arkansas - 16.3 42 Georgia . Tennessee . 16.3 43 17.8 44 South Carolina. . . . 17.9 45 Alabama . 18. 2 46 Louisiana . 20.1 47 Arizona . 21.1 48 North Carolina ... I 23.0 49 ! New Mexico . 41.6 1 Montana . 2,2 2 Wyoming . 2.5 3 Washington . 1 2.9 4 Nebraska . 3. 5 5 Idaho . 3.6 6 Oregon . 3.6 7 Kansas . 3.7 8 Iowa . 3.8 9 Maine . 4.2 1 c\ (North Dakota . U 2 A4.2 JLU /South Dakota . li District of Colum¬ bia . 4.3 12 California . 4.4 ■ 13 Nevada . 4. 5 14 Michigan . 4. 8 15 Ohio . 1 4.9 16 New Hampshire.. ! 5. 0 17 New Jersey . j 5.3 18 New York". . 5.3 19 Connecticut . 5.5 20 Wisconsin . 5.6 21 Illinois . 5.9 22 Minnesota . 6.0 23 Vermont . 6.0 24 Colorado . 6.4 25 Massachusetts.... 6.4 26 Pennsylvania . 6.7 1 27 Indiana . 7.0 28 Maryland . 8.1 29 Utah . 8. 5 30 Delaware . 9.1 31 Missouri . 10.5 32 Rhode Island . 10.9 33 Texas . lo. 3 34 Mississippi . 16.3 35 Arizona . . . . . 16.8 i 36 Virginia . 18.2 37 West Virginia. . . . 18.3 38 Louisiana . 18.4 39 1 Florida . 19.9 40 South Carolina. . . . 21.9 ! 41 Kentucky . 22.0 1 42 , Georgia . 22.9 1 43 Alabama . 24.7 44 Arkansas . 25.0 45 Tennessee . 27.3 46 ! North Carolina . . . 31.5 47 New Mexico . 62.2 1 Nevada . 2.0 2 Maine . 3.8 3 j New Hampshire. . 3.8 4 Montana . 4.0 5 Washington . 5.2 6 Iowa . 5.3 7 Nebraska . 5.3 8 Idaho . 5.5 9 Michigan . 5.6 10 Oregon . 5.6 11 Wyoming . 6.2 12 Connecticut . 6.7 13 New York . 6.8 14 Vermont . 6.8 15 Illinois . . 6.9 16 Kansas . 6.9 17 California . 7.0 18 New Jersey . 7.1 19 District of Colum¬ bia . 7. 3 20 Wisconsin . 7.3 21 Minnesota . 7 9 22 ! Ohio . 8.0 23 ; Pennsylvania . 8.1 24 Massachusetts . . . . 8.3 25 Dakota . 9.4 26 Indiana . 10.1 27 Maryland . 10.4 28 Rhode Island . 12.4 29 Utah . 12.7 30 Missouri . 14.4 31 Delaware . 14.8 32 Mississippi . 17.4 33 Texas . 1 17.7 34 Louisiana . 19.2 35 Colorado . 22.0 36 Virginia . 23.4 37 West V irginia 24.2 38 Alabama . 24.4 39 Arkansas . 25. 0 40 South Carolina. 25.8 41 Kentucky . 26.0 42 Tennessee . 26.9 43 Georgia . j 27.0 44 Florida . 27.6 45 Arizona . ' 33.3 46 North Carolina 33. 5 New Mexico . 78.4 1 142 EDUCATION REPORT, 1-892-93. Table 18. — Showing ihc rani ; of each State in percentage of illiteracy to the colored population - 10 years of age and over. 1890. 1880. 1870. Hank. States and Terri¬ tories. Per cent. Rank. States and Terri- j tories. Per cent. Rank. ! States and Terri¬ tories. Per cent. 1 Massachusetts. . . . 15.4 1 Wyoming . * 14.7 1 I Herada . 6.3 2 Connecticut . 15.8 2 Massachusetts. . . . 15.1 2 California . 9.6 3 Wyoming . 16.8 3 Hew Hampshire .. 15.8 3 ! Maine . 10.3 4 IS. 4 4 17.4 4 Montana 12. 2 18. 5 I 19. 3 5 | Vermont 16. 1 G Vermont . 21. 3 6 Colorado . . 20.5 i G ( Hew Hampshire . . 18.2 7 Pennsylvania- - 24.2 7 Hew York . 21. 2 7 j Massachusetts.... 18.5 8 Minnesota . 23.3 8 Rhode Island . 23.6 j 8 Rhode Island _ 1 20.9 9 Hew Hampshire . . 23.3 j 9 Arizona . 23.7 9 Connecticut . 21.0 10 25. 0 10 24. 8 10 Wisconsin . . 23. 6 11 25 4 11 26. 7 H 1 Hew York . ... 25. 4 12 25 7 12 27. 1 12 Oregon 26. 5 13 26.4 13 Ohio. ‘ . 27.3 13 Pennsylvania . 31). 9 14 27. 0 14 27. 8 14 1 Xebraska . 32.9 15 27. 6 28. 2 j 15 1 Washington . 33. 1 16 Hew Jersey . 28.4 16 Michigan . > . 28.5 16 Wyoming . 34.6 17 Michigan . 29.2 17 i California . 29.8 17 Hew Jersey . 35. 4 18 Maine . 31. 8 18 ! Iowa 30. 0 18 i Arizona . 35. 8 19 Indiana . 32. 2 19 j Hew Jersey . 30.5 19 i Iowa . 35. 8 20 Kansas . 3T5 20 | Xebraska . 30.7 ; 20 I Michigan . 36. '6 21 South Dakota .... 33.4 21 ! Wisconsin . 31.0 21 Utah . . 38.7 22 District of Colum¬ 22 1 Indiana . 35. 6 j 22 Minnesota. . . . 41. 0 bia . 35. 0 23 J ! Montana . 35 8 23 Ohio . 44. 3 23 Montana . 1 36. 3 24 Illinois _ _ 37.2 24 Indiana. . . . 46. 1 24 Wisconsin .... 36. 7 25 Minnesota _ 37.2 25 Illinois . . 46. 5 25 California 39. 3 26 4Y a sh i n °"ton 38. 1 26 Colorado . . 48. 9 26 ; [Missouri 41 7 27 Dakota 44. 2 27 Kansas .. 59. 1 27 West Virginia. . . . 44. -t ! 28 Kansas ........... 46. 8 28 Idaho 66. 7 28 ! Washington . 44. 6 29 District of Colum¬ 29 Maryland . 63.5 29 Utah 46. 1 bia ....... _ 48. 4 30 District of Colum¬ 30 1 Hor tli Dakota _ _ 47. 4 } 30 Utah 52.3 bia . 70. 5 31 Tilahn 48. 6 31 [Missouri . . 53.9 31 Delaware . 71.3 32 1 Delaware . . 49.5 i 32 West Virginia. . . . 55.0 i 32 Missouri . i 72.7 33 ! Maryland . 50.1 33 Delaware . 57.5 33 Dakota . : 74.3 34 [Florida . 50. 6 34 Maryland . 59.6 34 West Virginia. . . . 77.4 35 1 Arizona . 50. 9 35 Kentucky . 70. 4 35 South Carolina _ ! 81. 1 36 | Texas 52. 5 f 36 P 1 ori rl :l 70. 7 36 Arkansas . -. . 81.2 37 i Virginia. . . 52.7 i 37 Tennessee . 71. 7 37 Tennessee . 82.4 38 Arkansas . 53.6 ! 38 Virginia 73. 2 38 Kentucky . 83.8 39 i Tennessee . 54.2 1 39 | Arkansas . 75.0 89 Florida . 84.1 40 1 Kentucky . 55. 9 40 I Mississippi . 75.2 40 Hort k Carolina 84.8 41 Virginia . 57.2 41 Texas . 75. 4 41 Louisiana . 85.9 42 ! Hevada 59. 7 42 Xorth Carolina.. . 77. 4 42 Mississippi . 87. 0 43 1 Xorth Carolina... 60.1 | 43 South Carolina . . . 78. 5 43 Hew Mexico . 87.1 44 1 Mississippi . 60.9 ! 44 Louisiana . 79.1 44 | Alabama . <83.1 45 South Carolina 64.1 45 A lfihnmn 80.6 45 Texas . - . . 88.7 46 i Georgia 67.3 j 1 46 Georgia . 81.6 46 Virginia . 88.9 Tr- 47 Alabama _ _ _ 69.1 47 Hew Mexico . 92.2 47 Georgia . 92.1 43 Louisiana . 72.1 49 Hew Mexico . I 80.6 [ 143 ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. Table 19. — School and certain oilier statistics of 1S90. States and Territories. tc *3 © 02 .3 © U Population per square mile. . Persons of school age. Public common school enrollment. Per cent of enrollment | to total population. 'V c3 © © 4^ !co u c © sx > © * m 4) 72 o o 73 m Square miles to each schoolhouse. _ ____ _ . I Per cent of illiterates. I 1 United States . 2, DCS, 380 2L31 22, 447, 392 12, 704, 487 20. 29 136 226, 884 13.0 13.3 USTox'tli Atlantic Division . . 1G8, G65 107. 37 5, 481, 205 3,103,266 17. 83 168 45, 845 3.7 6.2 South Atlantic Division . . . 282, 535 32, 98 3,581,513 ; 1,751,225 19.77 100 33, 024 8.0 30.9 South Central Division. . . . 588, 890 18. 94 4, 523, 731 2,326,258 21.20 95 40,838 13. 5 29.7 North Central Division. . . 765, 855 29. 68 7, 949, 333 5,008,577 22. 40 147 97, 615 7.8 5.7 Western Division . 1,187,435 2.58 911, 610 515. 161 17. 02 134 9, 562 124.2 8. 3 North Atlantic Division : ! Maine . 33, 040 22. 11 201,851 139, 679 21. 13 105 4, 2C9 7.8 5. 5 New Hampshire. . 9, 305 41. 81 106, 611 59, 813 15. 89 119 2, 075 4. 5 I 6.8 Vermont . 9, 565 36. 39 101,457 65, 608 19. 74 137 1 2, 424 3.9 6.7 Massachusetts . 8, 315 278. 48 650, 870 371, 492 16. 59 169 J 7, 239 1.1 6.2 Rhode Island . 1, 250 318. 44 105, 534 52, 774 15. 27 188 491 2. 5 9. 8 Connecticut . 4, 990 154. 03 221, 245 126, 505 16. 95 182 1,650 3.0 5.3 New York . 49, 170 125. 95 1, 836, 935 1,042,160 17. 38 186 | 12,072 4.1 5. 5 New Jersey . 7,815 193. 82 464, 992 234, 072 16. 20 192 1,663 4. 7 6.5 Pennsylvania . 45,215 116. 88 1, 791,710 1, Oil, 163 19. 23 155 14,022 3.2 6.8 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 2, 050 85. 97 57, 496 31, 434 18. 66 166 452 4. 5 14.3 Maryland . 12.210 105. 72 370, 892 184, 251 17. 68 184 : 2, 236 5.5 15.7 District of Columbia.. 70 3,839.87 74, 176 36, 906 16. 02 179 98 .7 13. 2 Virginia . 42, 450 41.27 671.779 342, 269 20. 67 116 6, 509 6. 5 30.2 W est V irginia . 24, 780 30. 95 305,669 193, 293 25. 34 96 5,011 4.9 14.4 North Carolina . 52, 250 33. 30 673, 405 325, 861 20. 14 60 | 5, 813 9.0 35.7 South Carolina . 30, 570 38. 16 501, 393 203, 461 17. 67 70 3, 510 8. 7 45.0 Georgia . 59. 475 31.15 771, 027 312, 562 i 18.64 83 7, 047 8.4 39. 8 Florida . 58, 680 7. 22 155, 676 91, 188 23.30 120 2, 348 25.0 27.8 South Central Division : Kentucky . 1 40, 400 46. 47 727, 061 408, 966 22. 00 100 7, 485 5.4 21.6 Tennessee . ; 42, 050 42. 34 720, 872 455, 732 25. 78 96 6, 629 6.3 26.6 Alabama . 1 52, 250 29. 36 639, 494 302,949 20. 02 74 6, 495 8.0 41.0 Mississippi . ! 46, 810 27. 83 559, 101 334,168 25.91 85 6, 071 7.7 40.0 Louisiana . | 48, 720 24. 63 455, 234 124, 372 1 11.12 101 1 2,501 19.5 45. 8 Texas . 1 265, 780 8. 52 924, 142 476, 421 1 21.31 116 9, 065 1 29. 3 19. 7 Arkansas . 53, 850 21. 27 476, 185 223, 071 l 19.77 75 2,592 [ 20.8 26.6 Oklahoma . 39, 030 1.59 21, 642 579 10. 85 5. 4 North Central Division : Ohio . 41, 060 90. 10 1, 271, 031 797, 439 21.71 160 12,814 3.2 5.2 Indiana . 36, 350 61. 05 785, 172 505, 516 23.06 130 9, 907 3.7 6.3 Illinois . 56, 650 68.33 1, 323, 030 778, 319 20. 34 155 12, 313 4.6 5.2 Michigan . 58, 915 36. 46 703, 684 427, 032 20. 39 154 7,616 7. 7 5.9 Wisconsin . 56, 040 30. 98 603, 846 351, 723 20. 85 159 6, 476 8.7 6.7 Minnesota . 83,365 16. 44 454, 804 281, 859 21. 65 128 6,035 13.8 j 6.0 Iowa . 56, 025 34.46 701, 182 493, 267 25. 80 156 13, 129 4. 3 3. 6 Missouri . . 69,415 38. 98 1, 008, 935 620, 314 23. 15 126 9, 711 7.1 9.1 North Dakota . 70, 795 2.60 59, 324 35, 543 19. 45 113 1,483 47.7 6. 0 South Dakota . 77, 650 4. 28 113, 900 77, 943 23. 70 145 3, 153 24.6 4.2 Nebraska . 77, 510 13. 78 384, 255 240, 300 22. 69 139 5,937 13.1 3.1 Kansas . 82, 080 17.47 540, 170 399, 322 27. 98 128 9, 041 9.1 4.0 W estern Division : Montana . 146, 080 .91 30, 240 16, 980 12. 85 156 385 379.4 5. 5 Wyoming . . 97, 890 .62 16, 291 7, 875 12. 97 120 223 439. 0 3.4 Colorado . 103, 925 3. 98 113,150 65, 490 15. 89 144 1,190 87. 3 5.2 New Mexico . 122, 580 1. 25 52,543 18, 215 11. 86 70 452 271.2 44.5 Arizona . 113, 020 .53 18, 284 7,989 13. 40 126 219 516.1 23.4 Utah . 84, 970 2. 53 79, 937 36. 372 17.49 130 618 137. 5 5.6 Nevada . . 110. 700 .42 ' 12, 391 7, 387 16. 14 140 151 733.1 12.8 Idaho . 84, 800 l. 00 27, 257 14, 311 16. 96 70 315 269. 2 5. 1 Washington . 1 _ 69,180 5.22 97, 863 55, 432 15. 87 102 1, 275 54.3 4.3 Oregon . 96, 030 3.32 103, 365 63, 354 20. 19 118 1,613 59. 5 4.1 California . 158, 360 7. 75 360, 289 221, 756 18. 36 158 3, 121 50.7 7.7 144 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table 20. — Showing percentage of illiteracy in the countries of Europe. Group. Countries (or States). Per¬ cent¬ age. Date. Category of population. How found. Sources of infor¬ mation. Per ct. Teutonic na- G errnan Empire . .24 1894 Male . Army recruits.. Imperial bureau of tions. statistics, Berlin. Prussia . .37 1894 . rlo _ do Do. Bavaria . .03 1894 . do _ do Do. Saxony . . 04 1894 . do _ _ do Do. Wiirtemberg . . 01 1894 . do _ . . do Do. Baden . .03 1894 . do . . _ . . do Do. Hesse . . 04 1894 . do _ _ -do Do Mecklenburg- .12 1894 . do _ . do. . Do! Schwerin. Saxe-'Weimar . .00 1894 . do _ . do . Do Mecklenburg- . 00 1894 . do _ . do _ Do. Strelitz. Oldenburg . .00 1894 . do - . do . Do. Brunswick . .00 1894 . do _ do Do. Saxe-Meiningen .. .08 1894 . do . . . . . do . Do. Saxe-Altenburg .. .12 1894 . do _ . do . Do. Saxe-Coburg- .00 1894 ..... do _ . do . Do. Gotha. Anhalt . . 00 1894 . do _ _ ... . do Do. Sch w ar zburg- Son- .00 1894 . do . Do. dershausen. Schwarzburg-Bu- .00 1894 . do _ _ ; . do . Do. dolstadt. W aldeck . .00 1894 . do _ do Do. Beuss, senior line. . 00 1894 . do _ . do . . . Do. Beuss, junior line. . 18 1894 . do _ . do 1)0. Schaumburg- . 00 1894 . do _ .... do Do. Lippe. Lippe . .00 1894 . do _ . do - . Do. Lubeck . .00 1S94 . do _ .. do Do. Bremen . . 13 ! 1894 . do .... Do. Hamburg . .00 j 1894 . do _ _ do . Do. Alsace-Lorraine . . .14 1894 . do _ . do . Do. Sweden and Norway.. .12 1890 . do . Hubner’s Annual Tables. Denmark . . 54 ! 1891 . do _ do Do. Finland . 1. 62 1892 Male and Census Do. female over 10 years. Mixed Teu¬ Switzerland . . - 2.10 | 1 1890 Male Army recruits.. Sch w eizerische tonic. Lehrerzeitung. Scotland . 5.17 1891 Male and Sign in g mar¬ Statesman’s Year¬ female. riage certifi¬ book. cates. Netherlands . 6. 50 1891 Male... Army recruits. . Hubner’s Annual Tables. England . 7.00 1 1891 Male and Signing mar¬ Statesman’s Year¬ female. riage certifi¬ book. cates. Eoma n ic France . . 7.40 j 1891 Ma'e . Army recruits • . Levasseur’s Sta- Teutonic, tistique. M agy aric Belgium . 14.80 1892 . do _ . do . 1 _ Hubner’s Annual mixture. Tables. Austria. . . . 15.40 1 1892 . do _ _ | _ . .do . Army Beturns. Ireland . 19.40 1891 Male and Signing mar¬ Statesman’s Year¬ female. | riage certifi¬ book. cates. Hungary . 31.50 1892 Male . Army recruits.. Army Beturns. Italy . 40.30 1885 . do _ . do . Hubner’s Annual Tables. Portugal . 62.60 j 1878 Male and Census . . . . Mischler’s Sum¬ female. maries. Spain . . 62.66 1877 Male . . do . Do. Slavic na - Bussia . 70.80 1882 . do _ Army recruits.. Hubner’s Annual tions. Tables. Servia . 79.31 1 1882 . do _ . do . Do. B.mimania . 79.60 1882 . do _ 1 . do . Mischler’s Sum¬ maries. ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES, 145 New Mexico occupies the sixth place, credited with 31.5 per cent of decrease. New York holds the thirty-seventh place in the list and is marked 0, for the reason that the rates in 1880 and 1890 were the same. It is true that New Mexico had greater room for improvement than New York, the percentage of illiteracy for the former standing at G5 in 1880, which was reduced to 14.5 in 1890, while New York’s rate was only 5.5 at the two periods indicated. While it is undoubtedly true that New York was performing immeasurably greater work for higher and secondary education and better work in elementary education per¬ haps, New Mexico deserves the credit of having accomplished rela¬ tively more in the foundation work. While New Mexico stood at the very bottom of the list in literacy in 1880 and was only two places removed from that unenviable distinction in 1890, that Territory must have the credit of having made a wider gap between her two positions than any other State or Territory. The 9 States and 1 Territory standing at the foot of the list, marked + in Diagram 5, actually retrograded, as has already been shown. While several of these States undoubtedly made great progress in secondary and higher education, and in most cases improved their systems of elementary education, the fact remains that the rates of illiteracy in these Commonwealths were higher in 1890 than ten years before. An examination of the second column of Table 13, in which the States have been graded according to the progress made by the native Avhite population alone, will reveal the fact that the retrogres¬ sion of several States was due to the influx of an illiterate foreign element. This cause will be noticed latter on. Table 14 indicates the rank of each State in literacy in 1890, 1880, and 1870, the States having the smaller per cents of illiterate popula¬ tion standing at the heads of the lists. It may be interesting to note how States changed places in the twenty years. Thus in 1870 Wyo¬ ming held the sixteenth place in 1880 it appeared at the top, while in 1890 it occupied the second place. In 1870 New Hampshire was the second State, in 1880 the sixth, and in 1890 the twenty-sixth. Table 15 ranks the States with reference to the illiteracy of the native white population, Table 16 with reference to the foreign white, Table 17 to the total white, and Table 18 with reference to the illiter¬ acy of the colored population. These tables not only show the rank of each State, but also the per cent of illiterates in each. Table 2 gives the male population 10 years of age and over, the num¬ ber of illiterate males, and the per cent of illiterate males to the male population 10 years of age and over for each of the States and Terri¬ tories for 1890, 1880, and 1870. A comparison of the percentages will show that the rate fell from 15.8 in 1880 to 12.4 in 1890, both rates being lower than the per cents of illiteracy to the male and female population combined. In the North Atlantic Division the rate of illit¬ eracy to the male population increased from 5.4 per cent to 5.9. In all ed 93 - 10 146 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tlie other divisions there was decrease in the rate, and in the South this decrease was very marked, being even greater than the general decrease of illiteracy in that section. The increase in the North At¬ lantic States was probably due to the increase in the proportion of illiterate foreign-born males, while the decrease in the South can be attributed in part to the fact that among the blacks more males than females learned to read and write. A comparison of Table 2 with the succeeding table will further emphasize the fact that the decrease in the relative number of illiterates was greater among the males than among the females. Fourteen States and one Territory show increase in the per cent of illiterates among males, all in the North Atlantic, North Central, and Western divisions. In addition to the 9 States and 1 Territory already mentioned as having increased their rates of illiteracy to the general population, the States of Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Wyo¬ ming, and California show increase in their rates of illiteracy to the male population. The rate of illiteracy for males in Massachusetts stood at the same figure in 1890 and 1880. Ehode Island was the only State in the North Atlantic Division which decreased the rate of illiteracy among the males between 1880 and 1890, the rate in 1880 being 9.8 and 9 in 1890. In column 2 of Table 12 are shown the differences between the 1880 and 1890 rates of illiteracy to the male population for each of the States. Those marked + show actual increase in their per cents of illiteracy, and those marked — showing decrease. An examination of Table 3 and the third column of Table 12 will show that, with one exception, all the States in which there was a decrease in illiteracy compared to the general population there was also decrease in the rates of illiteracy to the female population. The single exception is the State of Minnesota, in which the general rate of illit¬ eracy was somewhat smaller, while the per cent to the female popula¬ tion remains the same. New York, which made no change in the general rate between 1880 and 1890, shows an increase in the rate of illiteracy of the male population and a corresponding decrease in the percentage to the female population. By a comparison between the second and third columns of Table 12 it will be seen that in the North Atlantic Division there was a small increase in the rate of illiteracy to the male population and a corre¬ sponding decrease in the per cent to the female population. In the South Atlantic and South Central divisions the decrease in illiteracy among the males was considerably greater than the decrease of the rate among the females, as already noted. In the North Central Divi¬ sion the improvement is somewhat greater in the male population, while in the Western Division the difference is decidedly in favor of the female population. The decrease of illiteracy for the male population in that division was from 10.1 to 8.1, while the decrease for the female population was from 13. G to 8.7. For the whole country the rate of ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 147 improvement was in favor of the female population by a small fraction of 1 per cent. A comparison of Tables 2 ancl 3, or more conveniently columns 3 and 5 of Table 11, will show the relative rates of illiteracy to the male and female population 10 years of age and over. For the year 1890 the per cent of illiterates to the male population was 12.4, and to the female population 14.4. In the North Atlantic Division the rates were, for males 5.9, for females 6.5; South Atlantic, males 29.1, females 32.6; South Central, males 27.6, females 31.9; North Central, males 5.2, females 6.3; Western Division, males 8.1, females 8.7. Table 4 presents the illiteracy statistics of the native white popnla tion in 1890, 18S0, and 1870. It is most gratifying to trace the steady progress made by the native white race through the two decades. In 1870 the per cent of illiterates to the native white population 10 years of age and over was 10.8, and in 1880 it was 8.7. In that decade there had been improvement in each of the five divisions of the country. In the North Atlantic Division the per cent of illiterates had fallen from 3.2 to 2.8 ; in the South Atlantic from 24.2 to 20 ; in the South Central from 24 to 22; in the North Central from 7.6 to 5, and in the Western Division from 16 to 8.6. In the ten years from 1880 to 1890 the advancement of the native white population was even greater. The number of illiterates had decreased from 2,255,400 in 1880 *to 2,065,003 in 1890, notwithstanding the increase of 24.5 per cent in the number of the native whites. The per cent of illiteracy had fallen from 8.7 in a population of 25,785,789 to 6.2 in native white population of 33,144,187, ten years of age and over. In each of the five divisions there had also been an actual decrease in the number of native white illiterates, as well as in the rates, tn the North Atlantic the rate was reduced from 2.8 to 2.3, in the South Atlantic from 20 to 14.6, in the South Central from 22 to 15, in the North Central from 5 to 3.4, and in the Western Division from 8.6 to 4.5. In a greater number of States the actual number of native white illiterates had decreased from 1880 to 1890. In 8 of the States — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Louisiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Montana — there was a slight increase in the x>er cent of native white illiterates, but in no case did this increase exceed the fraction of 1 per cent. The fifth column of Table 12 will show the differences between the rates in 1S90 and 1880 for each State, those marked + having increased their rates as indicated. Col¬ umns 9 and 10 of Table 11 give a comparison of the rates for the two years. The second column of Table 13 gives the percentage of decrease or increase in the rates of illiteracy in each State, showing the relative progress of the native whites in each State during the decade. The native white population of the United States increased about 24.5 per cent ironi 1880 to 1890, the colored population about 13 per 148 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. cent, while tlie foreign-born white population increased more than 39 per cent. In other words, in 1880, the colored population comprised 13.5 per cent of the whole, while in 1890 it was only 12.2 per cent. In 1880 the foreign-born white population was 13.1 per cent of the whole, but in 1890 the per cent had risen to 14.6. During the decade immi¬ gration was increasing our foreign population more rapidly than the birth-rate could increase our native population. Table 8 gives the total population for 1890 by States and Territories, and also the native white, foreign white, and colored population, and the per cent of each to the total. Tables 9 and 10 give the like statistics for 1880 and 1870. A study of these tables will prove interesting in connection with the examination of the statistics of illiteracy among the three elements of our population. In the first place, it will be noted that the foreign-born whites num¬ bered 9,121,867, or 14.6 per cent of the entire population in 1890, an increase from 6,559,679 in 1880, when the per cent to the whole popula¬ tion was less than 13.1. In the North Atlantic Division in 1890 there were 3,874,866 foreigners, or 22.3 per cent of the population of that sec¬ tion. In 1880 the per cent was only 19.4. In the North Central Divi¬ sion in 1890 there were 4,053,457 foreigners, or 18.1 per cent of the population of that section. In 1880 the per ceut was only 16.8. In the Western Division the foreign-born whites numbered 672,649, or 22.2 per cent. Although this was a very large increase from 397,019, the number of foreign whites in that division in 1880, the per cent to the total remained about the same. In the South Atlantic Division in 1890 the foreign-born whites num¬ bered only 202,316, the per cent to the total population being only 2.3, or about the same as in 1890. In the South Central Division the percent¬ age of foreigners fell from 3 in 1880 to 2.9 in 1890, when the number was only 318,579. The ninth column of Table 12 will show in which States the per cent of foreign population increased or decreased between 1880 and 1890. The tenth column indicates the same for the colored population, and the eighth column shows where there was increase or decrease in the. per cent of native white population. The figures marked + indicate increase in the percentages, and those marked — show where there has been decrease in the per cents. These figures are the differences between the rates in corresponding columns of Tables 8 and 9, and are used only to more plainly mark the States in which the three elements of population have made gains or losses in their ratio to the whole population of a State. Table 5 shows what was the foreign-born white population in 1890, 10 years of age and over, the number who could not read and write, and the per cent of illiterates to this foreign population. The correspond¬ ing figures are given for 1880 and for 1870 on the same page. The for- ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 149 eign-born population 10 years of age and over in 1890 was 8,786,887, and of this number 1,117,571 were illiterates. The number of illiterates had increased from 763,620 in 1880, or from 12 per cent to 13.1. In each of the five divisions of the country the increase in the per cent of illiteracy of the foreign wdiite population is marked. This increase is maintained in all the States save 9. In Hew Hampshire, Vermont, Ehode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Hew Mexico, and Utah there was more or less decrease in the rate of illiteracy among the foreign-born whites. More than three-fourths of the illiterate foreigners of the Horth Atlan¬ tic Division are in the States of Massachusetts, Hew York, and Penn¬ sylvania. In the South Atlantic more than half the foreign illiterates are in Maryland, and in the South Central Division more than two-thirds - of them are in Texas, and a large portion of the remainder will be found in Louisiana. In the Horth Central Division they are more evenly dis¬ tributed, though Illinois has more than any other State. In the West¬ ern Division nearly one-half the illiterate foreigners are in California. In the States mentioned are the large cities of Boston^ Hew York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Hew Orleans, Chicago, and San Francisco. Of the foreign illiterates in the South Central Division nearly 9,000 are in Louisiana, or Hew Orleans, and over 12,000 in Texas. Most of the latter are Mexicans. The presence of Mexicans in Hew Mexico and Arizona raises the per cent of illiterates to the foreign white popula¬ tion to 30 and 12, respectively, which are higher than the rates for the foreign whites in any other part of the country. It is important to note that of the native white population 72.3 per cent is 10 years of age and over, while 96.3 per cent of the foreign-born white population exceeds that age. Of the colored population 71.8 per cent is 10 years of age and over. Of the foreign illiterates a much larger proportion is beyond the reach of schools than of the native illiterates. In Table 11, columns 11 and 12, will be found a comparison of the rates of illiteracy for the foreign-born white population for 1890 and 1880. In Table 12, column 6, will be seen the differences between the 1880 and 1890 rates for each State and Territory, only the 7 marked — showing decrease in the percentage. Diagram 3 is a graphic illustration of the relative number of illiter¬ ates in the three classes of population. To what extent does the presence of foreign-born illiterates increase the rate of illiteracy to the whole population of the United States? The influence of this foreign element may be inferred from the facts made prominent in the table below. The third column shows the per cent of illiterates to the native white population 10 years of age and over in 1890 for the whole country and for each division. The fourth column gives the per cent of illiterates to the foreign white population, 150 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. while the fifth shows the rate for the two combined, or for the entire white population. Total. Native 1 white. Foreign white. Total j white. | Colored. United States . 13.3 ! 6.2 13.1 7. 7 56.8 North Atlantic Division . 6.2 2.3 15. 6 5.9 21.7 South Atlantic Division . 30.9 i 14.6 12.2 14.5 60.1 South Central Division. . . 29.7 35.0 20.2 15.3 61.2 North Central Division . 5. 7 3.4 30.6 5.1 : 32.8 Western Division . 8.3 4.5 10.4 6.2 41. 5 The per cent of illiteracy for the native white population is 6.2. This represents 2,065,003 native-born whites who can not read and write. The per cent of illiteracy to the foreign-born white population is 13.1, representing 1,117,571 foreign-born whites who can notread and write. The addition of this foreign element raises the rate of illiteracy for the total white population 10 years of age and over to 7.7 for the whole country. A comparison of columns 3, 4, and 5 in the above table will reveal the extent of this influence in the several sections. The influence is greatest in the North Atlantic Division, where it changes a native white illiteracy of 2.3 per cent to a combined white illiteracy of 5.9 per cent. Nearly two- thirds of the white illiterates in that division are foreigners. In the North Central Division, where nearly one-half of the white illiterates are foreigners, the 3.4 per cent of native white illiteracy is raised to 5.1 for the combined white population. In the Western Division less than half the white illiterates are foreigners, but their presence increases the rate from 4.5 for the native whites to 6.2 for the combined white population. In the two Southern divisions the number of foreigners is so small that their presence has but little influ¬ ence in raising or lowering the general rate of illiteracy. What is the effect of the great mass of colored illiterates in the South¬ ern States upon the per cent of illiteracy to the combined population of the three elements? Compare columns 2, 5, and 6, in the foregoing table. Of the 6,324,702 illiterates in the United States 3,112,128, or nearly one-half, are colored. This element, constituting 56.8 per cent of the colored population 10 years of age and over, raises the per cent of illiteracy from 7.7 for the white population to 13.3 for the whole popu¬ lation of the country. This influence is, of course, most strongly felt in the two Southern divisions, where the rate of illiteracy for the entire population is double that for the white population alone. This is easily understood when it is noted that more than 30 per cent of the popula¬ tion of the two Southern divisions is colored, and that the rate of illit¬ eracy to the colored population is over 60 per cent in the South. But the presence of colored illiterates is also felt in other divisions. In the North Atlantic the illiteracy of the small colored population raises the rate of 5.9 for the white population to 6.2 for the whole. In the North Central the rate is raised from 5.1 to 5.7 and in the Western Division ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 151 from 0.2 to 8.3 by reason of the presence of colored illiterates. A more careful study of the comparative rates as shown in Tables 11 and 12 will give an idea of the influence of an illiterate colored population in each State in raising the general rate of illiteracy. Before examining in detail the illiteracy statistics of the colored pop¬ ulation it may be well to combine the other two elements of our popu¬ lation so that the statistics of the whites and blacks may be studied in contrast or by comparison. Table G gives the total white population 10 years of age and over for the whole country for each State and section in 1890, 1880, and 1S70, the number of illiterates, and the percentage of illiteracy. This table includes the native whites and foreign whites, and excludes the negroes, Chinese, Japanese, and Indians. The relative standing of the white population in regard to illiteracy for the years 1830 and 1880 will be shown by a glance at columns 7 and 8 of Table 11. The rate of illiteracy for each of the three years is given for each State and Territory. Column 1 of Table 12 will show which States have made gains and which losses in their rates of illiteracy to the white population from 1880 to 1890. In 1880 the rate of illiteracy among the whites was 9.1, and in 1890 it had fallen to 7.7. In the North Atlantic Division the rate stood the same for both years, 5.9. In the South Atlantic the difference between the rates in 1S80 and 1890 was 5* in the South Central, 6.3; in the North Central, 0.8; and in the Western Division, 2.G. The difference between the rates for the entire country was 1.7. In the column relating to the total whites the 11 States and Territories marked + show increase in the per cents of illiterates to the white population, and all the others marked — show, decrease in the rates of illiteracy. Table 7 presents the illiteracy statistics of the colored population of the United States from 1870 to 1890. In 1890 the colored population of the country 10 years of age and over was 5,182,185. Of this number 3,112,128, or 5G.8 per cent, could not read and write. Although the col¬ ored people composed less than one-eightli the entire population, nearly one-half the illiterates of the country were colored. In the North Atlantic Division, where there is but a small negro population, only 229,858 ten years of age and over in the 9 States, the percentage of illiterates is smallest, or only 21.7. In the North Central Division the colored rate of illiteracy is 32.8. In the Western Division the percent¬ age of illiteracy to the colored population is 41.5. It should be remarked that the 60,029 colored illiterates in that division are nearly all Chinese Japanese, and Indians. In the South Atlantic Division the per cent of illiterates to the col¬ ored population is 60.1, and in the South Central Division the rate is 61.2. In these two Southern divisions there are 4,759,040 blacks 10 years of age and over, of whom 2,8S7,776 cannot read and write. The State in that section having the highest rate of illiteracy is Louisiana, 152 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. with 72.1 per cent, and that with the lowest is West Virginia, with 44.4 per cent. In the District of Columbia, which belongs to the South Atlantic Division, the per cent is 35. On account of its geographical position Missouri has not been included with either of the two South¬ ern divisions. That State has 47,562 colored illiterates, comprising 41.7 per cent of its colored population 10 years of age and above. A study of the first three columns of Table 7 and a glance at the chart in the first part of this chapter will show how the dark cloud of illiteracy overshadows the Southern part of the country. In this section, includ¬ ing all the former slave States save one, more than 60 per cent of the blacks are illiterates. Dark as this picture may appear now, it was darker in 1880, and still darker in 1870. In 1880, of a colored population of 4,601,207 ten years of age and over, there were 3,220,878, or 70 per cent, who could not read and write. In 1870, of a colored population of 3,511,075 above the 10-year age, there were 2,806,223 illiterates, or 79.9 per cent. There was marked progress from 1870 to 1880, but from 1880 to 1S90 the improve¬ ment was wonderful. Hot only was the number of illiterates decreased from 3,220,878 to 3,112,128 in the face of a 13 per cent increase in the total colored population, but the rate of illiteracy fell from 70 in 1880 to 56.8 in 1890. In the South Atlantic Division the rate was reduced from 75.1 in 1880 to 60.1 in 1890, and in the South Central it was reduced from 76 in 1880 to 61.2 in the same period. In the Horth Atlantic Division the rate was only decreased from 24.2 to 21.7. It is a fact that in Maine, Hew Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts, where the proportion of colored people is very small, there was actual increase in the per cent of colored illiteracy. This will be seen by a glance at the top of column 7 of Table 12 and a comparison of the rates in Table 11. In Michigan and Horth Dakota increase is shown in the rate of illiteracy among the colored population. In the Western Division there was a pronounced increase in the illiteracy of this class. This is shown in all the States and Territories of that division excepting Hew Mexico, Utah, and Oregon. As before explained, this retrogression is due to the presence of illiterate Chinese and Indians. In the last column of Table 13 will be found for each State and Ter¬ ritory and division the per cent of decrease or increase in the percent¬ age of illiterates between 1880 and 1890. For the whole United States the rate of illiteracy to the colored population in 1880 was 70; in 1890 it was 56.8. There was thus a decrease of 18.9 per cent in the per¬ centage in the ten years. This figure (18.9) represents the rate of prog¬ ress made by the blacks between 1880 and 1890 in overcoming their mass of illiterates. In like manner it will be clear that 10.3 per cent is a mark of the progress made by the colored people in the Horth Atlantic Division, 20 per cent in the South Atlantic, 19.5 in the South Central, and 20.4 in the Horth Central divisions in overcoming their percentages of illiteracy. The Western Division shows a retrogression of 25 per cent. ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 153 In the Southern divisions the greatest relative progress made by the blacks was in Texas, where the decrease between the rates in 1880 and 1890 was 30.4 per cent. The Southern State standing next in the list is Arkansas, with a per cent of 28.5. Florida stands next, with 28.4 per cent. Louisiana stands at the bottom of the list in the South, having reduced the former percentage of colored illiteracy only 8.8 per cent. In this connection an examination of columns 13 and 14 of Table 11 and column 7 of Table 12 may prove interesting to those who care to make further comparisons of the progress of the blacks in the several States between 1880 and 1890. Table 18 shows the rank of each State in 1890, 1880, and 1870 with reference to the illiteracy of its colored population. The State stand¬ ing at the head of each column had the smallest per cent of illiteracy to its colored population in the year indicated. Nevada held the first place in 1870, the eleventh place in 1880, and the forty- second place in 1890. An inspection of the table will reveal the changes of position made by other States. The table which follows shows in parallel columns the rank of six¬ teen Southern States and the District of Columbia with reference to the rates of illiteracy to the colored population in each in 1890, 1880, and 1870. The table not only indicates the rank of each State, but the per cent of colored illiterates in each is given for the three census years. In 1870 Texas occupied the fifteenth place, with a percentage of 88.7. In 1880 that State was twelfth in the list, with a percentage of 75.4, and in 1890 it had reached the seventh place and had reduced the rate to 52.5. 1890. 1880. 1870. Hank. States, etc. Per cent. States, etc. Per cent. States, etc. Per cent. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 District of Columbia... Missouri . West Virginia . Delaware . Maryland . Florida . Texas . Virginia . 35.0 41.7 44.4 49.5 50. 1 50. 6 52.5 52.7 Arkansas 53. 6 Tennessee . 54.2 Kentucky . Nor tli Cai’olina Mississippi. South Carolina 55.9 60.1 60.9 64. 1 15 Georgia .. 16 Alabama . 17 Louisiana 67. 3 69. 1 72. 1 District of Columbia. ... Missouri . West Virginia . Delaware . Maryland . Kentucky . Florida . Tennessee . Virginia . Arkansas . Mississippi . Texas . North Carolina . South Carolina . Louisiana . Alabama . Georgia . 48.4 53.9 55.0 57.5 59.6 70.4 70.7 71.7 73.2 75. 0 75.2 75.4 77.4 78.5 79.1 80. 6 81.6 Maryland . District of Columbia. . Delaware . Missouri . West Virginia . South Carolina . Arkansas . Tennessee . Kentucky . Florida . North Carolina . Louisiana . Mississippi . Alabama . Texas . Virginia . Georgia . 69.5 70.5 71.3 72.7 77.4 81. 1 81.2 82. 4 83.8 84.1 81.8 85.9 87.0 88. 1 88.7 88.9 92.1 Whether the remarkable progress made by the blacks of the South in the last tweuty years is due more to the aid of the whites who pay the school taxes than to the efforts of the negroes themselves is not a question for discussion here. It would be more important to know how 154 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892*93. far above mere reading and writing tlieir education extends and wliat use they are making of their newly acquired knowledge. Future inquiries of the Bureau of Education will from year to year bring out information on these questions. The rate of illiteracy is greater among the colored females of the South than among the colored males. In many of the larger towns and cities large numbers of blacks of the voting age attend night schools to prepare themselves for the exercise of one of the privileges of citi¬ zenship. Becent ballot laws which make it necessary that the voter should be able to read and mark his own ticket are undoubtedly acting as an educational stimulant to the colored men. At least a surmise as to the extent of the influence of this force in elementary education may be gained from an examination of the colored illiteracy statistics, in which are shown separately the number of male and female illiter¬ ates, and the number of each between certain ages. It is claimed that much of the decrease in the rate of illiteracy among the blacks is due to the fact that the old illiterate ex- slaves are rapidly dying off and that the per cent of decrease in the number of illiterates somewhat exaggerates the real progress made by the race. To what extent this is true may be inferred from a comparison of the rates of illiteracy to the adult population for the three census years. But the figures can not rob the blacks of the credit of having made steady and certain progress in the last two decades. Table 19 is a table of miscellaneous statistics which may have some relation to the statistics of illiteracy. The table gives for each State the area, population per square mile, number of persons of school age in 1S90, the public common-school enrollment, per cent of enrollment to population, the average length of school term, the number of school- houses, number of square miles to each schoolhouse, and the per cent of illiterates. The curious may find instruction in tracing the supposed relation of enrollment, number of schoolhouses, or length of school term to the per cent of illiteracy. This chapter may be appropriately concluded with a reference to the illiteracy statistics of other countries. Table 20, compiled by Dr. L. B. Klemm, shows the percentages of illiteracy in the countries of Europe. In Germany the per cent of illiteracy to the male population, taking the census of army recruits, is 0.24, or less than one-quarter of 1 per cent. In Sweden and Norway the rate is 0.12, and in Denmark 0,54, as found from a like source. In Finland, according to a census of 1S92, the per cent of illiterates to the male and female population 10 years of age and over was 1.62. From various sources the rates for other countries are given as follows : Per cent. Switzerland . 2.10 Scotland . 5.15 Netherlands . 6.50 England . 7.00 ILLITERACY IN THE UNITED STATES. 155 Per cent. France . 7.40 Belgium . 14. 80 Austria . 15. 40 Ireland . 19.40 Hungary . 31.53 Italy . 40.30 Portugal . 62.60 Spain . 62.66 Russia . 70. 80 Servia . 79. 31 Koumania . 79. 60 These rates of illiteracy will be compared by the reader with 13.3, the per cent of illiterates in the United States to the total population 10 years of age and over. CHAPTER JII. SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 1. Official reports of the Minister of the Interior and of Public Instruction , i. e., BapporU Triennaux sur la situation de V enseignement superieur, 1886-1887-1888; 1889-1890- 1891. De V enseignement moyen , 1885-1886-1887 ; 1888-1889-1890. Del’ enseignement primaire , 1885-1886-1887 ; 1888-1889-1890. 2. Laics relative to public instruction. 3. Annuaire statistique de la Belgique, 1891, 4. Becensement general du 31 decembre 1890. 5. Bulletins du Ministere de V instruction publique. 6. Becueil des lois et arretes relatifs a V enseignement superieur, Ministere de V instruction publique. 7. L’ enseignement public en Belgique, par Emile Drey son. 8. U enseignement special en Belgique, gar H. Bertiaux. 9. Code administrate de V enseignement primaire, lois et reglements, par A. Stasse. 10. Files of the Bevue Pedagogique Beige. 11. Files of the Bevue Universitaire. TOPICAL OUTLINE. Political organization of the Kingdom — System of public instruction : General view ; sum¬ marised statistics — Elementary instruction : Historic antecedents; initial measures; law of 1842 organizing primary instruction ; law of 1879 ; reactionary measures , 1884 — Statistics, 1890: School attendance; duration of school period ; programmes maintained; the teaching force: Number, salaries, conferences, pensions — Normal schools — Inspectors: Classification, salaries, services — Finances — Effects of changing policies — Auxiliary agencies. Intermediate instruction : Classification of State schools, number of schools, and enroll¬ ment in the same; support and control — Teachers: Classification and salaries — Communal schools — Examination and diplomas — Clerical schools — Special courses for professors — Curricula and programmes — Finances — Superior instruction: The uni¬ versities — Origin and constitution of State universities ; professors ; officers of admin¬ istration ; students; fees; lessons and courses; scholarships and prizes ; number and distribution of students 1890-91 ; buildings and equipments ; income and expendi¬ tures — Degree conferring authorities ; orders of degrees and: conditions far obtaining; admission of women to degrees — Academies of science and literature — Libraries — Uni¬ versity extension — Technical and industrial schools: Establishment, classification, and general characteristics — Typical exhibits at the Antwerp Exposition — Official statistics. Appendix: (A) Citation from “ L’ Instruction du People,” by Emile de Laveleye. (B) Obligatory programme of primary studies and official directions relative thereto — Law of 1879. ( C) Law of September 20, 1884, relative to primary instruction. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE KINGDOM. Belgium, constitutional monarchy; the executive and legislative powers vested in. hereditary king, Senate and Chamber of Representatives; senators of two classes — 1 Prepared by A. Tolman Smith. 157 158 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. first class, in number equal to half the number of representatives, elected directly by the voters ; second class, elected by provincial councils, their number being pro¬ portioned to the population of the respective provinces. Representatives elected directly by the voters, number proportioned to the population, but may not exceed 1 for every 40,000 inhabitants. Every citizen over 25 years of age, domiciled for not less than oue year in the same commune and not legally disqualified, has a vote. (Law of September 7, 1893.) A supplementary vote is allowed to every citizen over 35 years of age, married or widower, with legitimate issue and paying at least 5 francs ($1) a year in house tax; also to every citizen over 25 years of age owning real estate to the value of 2,000 francs ($400) or having a corresponding income from such property, or who for two years has derived at least 100 francs a year from Belgian funds either directly or through the savings bank. Two supplementary votes are given to citizens over 25 years of age who have received a diploma or certificate of higher instruction or who fill or have filled office or engaged in private professional practice, implying at least average higher instruc¬ tion. (Statesman’s Year Book, 1894, pp. 376, 377.) Under the law of September 7, 1893, amending the constitution, the number of electors is raised to 1,200,000 as against 135,000 under the former conditions (Con¬ stitution 1831, and law of March 17, 1848), which allowed the franchise only to male citizens paying a direct annual tax of at least 42.32 francs ($8.40). The divisions of the Kingdom for local government are provinces (9) and com¬ munes (2,596, census of 1890), both of which enjoy a large measure of autonomy. The affairs of the former are administered by a governor appointed by the King, a provincial council (elected), and a iiermanent deputation, consisting of the gov¬ ernor and six members of the council chosen by that body. Three distinct authorities participate also in the administration of the commune: an elected council, a burgomaster appointed by the King from the members of the council, and a body of aldermen (college dclievinal), consisting of the burgomaster and from 2 to 5 members of the council chosen by that body. The council, which represents the people directly, is the principal source of authority in communal affairs (Law regulating provincial and communal organization, March 30, 1836, and modifying laws, 1838, 1842, 1848, 1860, 1865; also Les ministres dans les principaux pays d’Europe et d’Amerique, par L. Dupriez, tome 1, pp. 262-266). The provinces are also divided into arrondissements and these again into cantons. These divisions are intended to facilitate the control of the central authority, and are not strictly speaking divisions for local government. In three provinces lying along the border of France, i. e., Hainault, Luxembourg, and Namur, and also in Liege, a central province, French or Walloon is the prevailing language. In Antwerp, Brabant, East and West Flanders, and Limbourg, the Flem¬ ish or Dutch. The population of Belgium, as shown by the census of 1890, was 6,069,321, comprised in an area of 11,373 squafe miles. Further analysis gives 2,894,694 as the population of communes of 5,000 inhabitants or more, and 3,174,627 for communes of less than 5,000 inhabitants. The census by sex gives men 3,026,954; women, 3,042,367. It appears, moreover, that about 36 per cent of the males (1,079,035) and 40 per cent of the females (1,204,647), or 38 per cent of the entire population, are unable to read and write. In 1866 illiter¬ ates formed 53 per cent and in 1880 42 per cent of the entire population. Belgium is preeminently a Catholic country. Protestants number only about 10,000 and Jews 4,000. The census of 1890 gives 30,098 — men 4,775, women 25,323 — members of religious orders in the Kingdom, of whom 24,585 are native Belgians. The executive affairs of the Government are administered through seven depart¬ ments. The educational interests are intrusted to the minister of the iuterior and of public instruction.1 1 The present incumbent is M. J. de Burlet. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 159 SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. General view. — The educational system of Belgium, like that of France, preserves many features of the Imperial University, estab¬ lished by Napoleon.1 In Belgium, however, there is the form without the spirit of centralization, local freedom, especially in the department of elementary education, being the ruling principle. All grades of instruction receive State support, and all institutions sharing in the public funds are subject in some measure to State inspec¬ tion. Schools, colleges, and universities are maintained by public and private, central and local agencies. The central administration, like the ministry of public instruction in France, is organized in three departments, corresponding to the three commonly recognized grades of instruction, i. e., primary, secondary, and superior. The chief educational officials under the minister of the interior and of public instruction, are two general directors, one for primary instruction, the other for secondary and superior. The minister also maintains a supervision over secondary and pri¬ mary instruction, as in France, by the agency of inspectors, i. e., for secondary instruction (enseignement moyen), one general inspector and two ordinary inspectors, one for the humanities, the other for mathe¬ matics and the sciences ; and for primary instruction one or more prin¬ cipal inspectors in each of the nine provinces of the Kingdom, and sub¬ ordinate cantonal inspectors. The Belgian State universities, like the French Facultes, are not only teaching bodies, but constitute also part of the machinery for the public administration of superior instruction. In the Belgian system there is nothing exactly corresponding to the superior council of public instruction or to the academic and departmental councils which are important features of the French organization. These are suggested, however, by the deliberative councils (conseils de perfectionnement), one for each of the three departments of the Belgian system. These councils, which are formed by appointment from the official and pro¬ fessional bodies, deliberate upon scholastic affairs submitted to them by the minister, but have not the judicial functions of the French councils. In Belgium, as in France, the appointment of professors for the public secondary and superior institutions and the regulations of their pro¬ grammes are prerogatives of the central authority, while the appoint¬ ment of primary teachers rests with local authorities. A further resemblance to the French organization is noticeable in the union of State, provincial, and communal agencies and resources for the direction and maintenance of education. But with these external features, the resemblance ends; in spirit the two systems are radically different; in the Republic there is a high degree of centralization, in the Kingdom everything tends to decentralization. In both countries 1 Form 1794 to 1814 Belgium was under Frencli rule. 160 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. the three orders of education have their distinct origin and history, and although now coordinated into organic systems are still managed as separate departments of those systems. STATISTICS, 1890. The following table shows the status of schools and universities in Belgium with respect to enrollment and teaching force and the expend¬ iture for public education, according to the latest official report, which covers the triennial period 1887-1890: Pupils or students. Teachers or pro¬ fessors. Current expenditure. Male, Fe¬ male. Total. Male.; Fe¬ male. Total.] From private funds, a From public j funds. 1 Total. Infant schools (ficoles gar- diennes) [ages 3 to 6 years] : State intermediate (ficoles moyennes) — Public . 68, 718 44, 454 ?w& 1, 292 660 1, 292 660 Total . 113, 172 1, 952 1, 950 $13,918 $399, 095 $413, 013 Primary schools [ages 6 to 14 years] : Public . 266, 502 68, 537 174, 144 106, 858 440, 646 175, 395 ! 5.438 1,189 ! 3,153 2,015 8, 591 I 3, 204 Subsidized private . Total _ _ 335, 039; 281,002 616, 041 6,627 5,168 11,795 153, 533 3, 717, 344 63, 870, 877 Primary normal schools : State schools and sec¬ tions . 345 720 366 1, 085 711 1,805 1 . 132, 670 254, 366 387, 036 Private _ _ _ r Total 1, 065 1, 451 2, 516 Schools for adults : Public . ===== 48, 362 3, 652 13, 797 1, 864 62. 159 5, 516 2. 076 146 622 42 2, 698 Subsidized private ... _ i 188 Total . j Secondary schools : Poyfll athenees 52, 014 15, 661 67, 675 2 222 664 2, 886 1, 127 | 194, 414 195, 541 5, 726 cl2, 475 5,726 | 18,196 ^ 3,283 P 1,223 63, 757 557, 742 (33, 770 522, 092 (46, 652 8, 325 412, 940 321, 701 144, 309 74, 679 20, 039 11, 673 476. 697 379. 443 178, 079 96, 771 66, 691 19, 998 * For bovs . I For girls . . . | (d) 5, 721 (e) 1, 237 223 . . Subsidized communal— I For boys . For girls _ _ _ _ 2, 046 . Communal . ] i,: Total . 28, 428 232, 338 985, 341 fl. 217, 679 Secondary normal schools. . . Superior instruction : State universities — Ghent ((land) .. . ... .. 113 250 363 788 1, 383 1,693 1,800 9 % 120 M38, 456 j 155, 123 Pi eve ^ * - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Private universities — Brussels . . . 1 T. on vain ! . 1 1 a Chiefly tuition fees. 6Xot including costs of administration, which pertain to the entire elementary department and are home by the State exclusively, amount $115,885; excluding also costs of new buildings, repairs, etc., $527,090! c 7,231 preparatory. (73,973 preparatory. e533 preparatory. /Includes repair of buildings and equipment, hut does not include expenses of administration, inspection, etc. (/Also 44 officers of administration. /(Ordinary i. e., material, $26,740; salaries, $111,716; in addition extraordinary, i. e., new buildings, etc.. $85,677. i Also, 68 officers of administration. ^Ordinary, i. e., material, 35,296; salaries, $119,827; in addition, extraordinary, $71,302. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 161 ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. Detailed view. — Tlie system of elementary instruction in Belgium lias special interest for tlie student of public policies. Its history illustrates in a striking manner the opposite tendencies of national and of local authority and the adverse influence of party politics as a factor in pop¬ ular education. Moreover it affords valuable lessons with respect to a problem of deep and widespread interest, namely, that of religious instruction in public schools. The development and present status of the system will be best under¬ stood in the light of its origin and of the successive laws which have controlled its operations. j Historic antecedents. — The history of the modern Kingdom of Belgium begins with its separation from the Netherlands in 1830. The principal provinces comprised within the new Kingdom had long been distin¬ guished by their generous support of the arts and sciences, not only so, but popular education had been fostered in their midst by both church and secular agencies. It is a matter of record that as early as 1192 the citizens of Gand (Ghent) had secured from the court of Flanders a stipulation that “whoever had the will, capacity, and means” should be permitted to open a school in Gand, without opposition. Similar concessions were obtained by other towns, notably Ypres, Antwerp,, and Brussels. Thus, in continental Europe, as we have seen formerly in Scotland,1 the rise of popular education can be traced back to the awakening of the sense of civic responsibility, antedating in truth the Protestant Beformation which is often regarded as its source. Evidently, then, for a full understanding of this interest as it is main¬ tained to-day in Belgium or elsewhere, it is necessary to know the his¬ tory of civic life and growth, the origin and spread and concentration of the arts and industries which have bound men together in industrial brotherhoods and communities, emancipated human thought, and quick¬ ened and multiplied human activities. It is necessary, moreover, to know the history of scholastic institutions, the ancient prototypes of existing schools and universities, a study for which Belgium affords rich and varied material, illustrating the spirit of every power that has contended for supremacy in western Europe from the days of Charle¬ magne to the modern era.2 No such study is here contemplated $ it must suffice to note that the Kingdom began its existence when popular education had become a subject of national interest in all the adjacent States. In Holland, during the period of the final union with Belgium (1815-1830), attention had been specially directed to details of school management and con¬ trol. The law passed just prior to the union (1806) had imparted to the ^ept. of Commissioner of Education, 1889-90, vol. 1, pp. 212-236. 2For a brief summary of tliis bistory see citation from “ L’lnstruction du Peuple/* by Emile de Laveleye, pp. 192-194. ED 93 - 11 162 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. schools of the northern division a certain form of organization by the system of inspection which it provided, and higher standards by requir¬ ing all primary teachers to secure a professional diploma. Although during the union Belgium resisted the efforts of the Government to modify its own institutions, the influence of this law was felt after the separation. The influence of Protestant Holland fostered also the spirit of local independence which is deeply inwrought into Belgium politics. Initial measures. — The subject of popular instruction was earnestly discussed in the National Congress that framed the constitution of Belgium (adopted February 7, 1831), and the conflict of opposite par¬ ties was allayed for the time by a provision that gave equal recognition to all. “ Instruction,” says article 17 of the constitution, “is free, all prohibitory measures are forbidden ; the suppression of abuses is regu¬ lated solely by law. Public instruction given at the cost of the State is equally regulated by law.’7 From 1830 to 1842 primary education was left to the free initiative of individuals and communes. Between party contentions and local apa¬ thy the cause languished, and the need of a specific law on the subject became apparent. Law organizing primary instruction , 1842.- — The movement that was going on in France under the guidance of Guizot, Cousin, Rendu, and others was followed with deep interest by Belgian statesmen, and in 1842 a law organizing primary instruction was secured similar in its principal provisions to “Guizot’s law of 1833,” which laid the founda¬ tion of the present system of primary instruction in France. The Bel¬ gian law, an analysis of which will be found in a citation from de Laveleye (pp. 192-4), made provision for the elementary instruction of all children in inspected schools, either public or private, and the gratuitous instruc¬ tion of poor children, specified the branches of a limited obligatory pro¬ gramme, authorized inspection by the state and the church, the former confined to secular matters, fixed a minimum salary for teachers (200 francs per annum), and emphasized the importance of their training by the xmovisions as to normal schools. On the whole, the law favored the ascendency of the clergy ; they not only had the rights of inspection, but religious instruction, which was inscribed at the head of the programmes, was to be given under their auspices. Rights of conscience were, however, secured by the exemption of children from the religious lessons, who did not belong to the communion of the majority. The law was regarded as a compromise between the Liberal party, who desired a system of secular instruction under State control, and the clericals, who were opposed to all State interference in scholastic . matters. The motives which lead to its adoption are set forth in the exposition by M. de Laveleye already referred to. They reduce in fact to this, that the clergy were in possession of nearly all the agencies PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 163 for education existing at tlie time tlie measure was adopted. As a com¬ promise, the law was subject to repeated attacks from botli parties, but it remained in force till 1878, when tlie Liberal party gained the ascend¬ ancy in the two houses. Law of 1879. — One of the first acts of the new legislature was the creation (August 19, 1878) of a ministry of public instruction. A law reorganizing the system of primary instruction followed July 1, 1879. The particulars in which it departed radically from the previous law were as follows: Every commune was obliged to maintain at least one public school, the actual number to be determined in each case by the Government. (As under the previous law, however, two or more com¬ munes might be authorized to unite together for the maintenance of a single school.) Moreover the State could oblige the commune to establish also an infant school and a school for adults. The ecclesiastical inspection of schools was abolished $ teachers must be native Belgians and furnished either with the diploma of a teacher or of a professor in the lower order of secondary schools. It was for¬ bidden to employ as teachers members of a religious order. The pro¬ gramme1 of obligatory subjects was greatly extended and religious instruction was excluded. This was to be left to the care of the family and the churches, excepting that ministers might be allowed the use of !a room in the school building to give religious instruction to the chil¬ dren of their respective communions attending the school, before or after the school session. For cantonal inspectors appointed by the Government under advice of the provincial authorities, and serving without salary, the law sub¬ stituted two classes of inspectors, i. e., provincial inspectors appointed by the King and subordinate inspectors appointed by the central author¬ ity ; all salaried officials responsible directly to the minister or to his rep¬ resentative. The right of the communes to control their own schools was respected by the new law. It determined, however, the manner in which this control should be exercised. Moreover, it created a special agency, school committees (comites scolaires), to keep watch over the schools. The members of these bodies were to be appointed by the com¬ munal council, excepting where several communes had united to main¬ tain a school, when the appointment went to the minister of public instruction. The minimum salary of teachers was raised to 1,000 francs — the number of State normal schools was raised from 6 to 12. In brief, the Liberal programme called for a system of secular schools under the surveillance of the State. The measure was heartily approved in the chief cities, which were the stronghold of the Liberal party, but excited intense opposition from the Catholic clergy, whose influence was supreme in the rural regions. Subsequent decrees, especially those of December, 1883, determining the amount which each commune must For full programme and official directions pertaining to the same, see pp. 194-8. 164 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. raise for tlie support of public schools, increased the opposition, and the clerical party having recovered control of the Government in 1884, almost their first concern was to change the system of public instruction. Reactionary measures— As a preliminary measure, the ministry of public instruction was abolished and the duties of the same restored to the ministry of the interior, whose chief assumed the double title, i. e., minister of the interior and of public instruction. The law of 1879 was annulled and a new law passed (September 20, 1884), which is still in force. The law is a return, substantially, to the policy of 1842, but with modifications which show that some permanent changes had been wrought in popular sentiment by the measures adopted under the Lib¬ eral party. The chief provisions of the law will be found in full in the appendix to this article.1 Here are noted only the particulars in which it. differs essentially from the previous laws or by which its spirit is most clearly illustrated, together with the statistical evidence of their enforcement. As regards schools, the law gives equal recognition to public (com¬ munal) and subsidized private schools (articles 1 and 9). The powers of the communes with respect to the establishment and direction of schools are more explicitly stated than in the previous laws, and the establishment of infant and adult schools made optional (article 2). Statistics show that at the close of 1890 there were 4,097 communal primary schools and 1,576 subsidized under State inspection. During the triennial period 1887-1890 the privilege of adopting schools had been sought by 250 communes, and 9 had obtained permission to unite with other communes in the support of a school. Of infant schools there were 686 communal and 456 subsidized private, and of schools for adults 1,603 communal and 142 subsidized. The obligatory programme is much abridged as compared with that of 1879, although not reduced to the meager limits of the earliest law. Religion is not included, but the communes are authorized to inscribe it at the head of the programme, children of dissenters being allowed to withdraw from the exercise. If upon the demand of twenty heads of families having children of school age the commune refuse to include religion in the programme, the Government, at the request of the parents, may adopt one or more private schools which afford the instruction and fulfill specified conditions (article 4). Since the passage of the law 26 schools have been thus adopted, of which 22 were still maintained at the close of 1890. These schools received about $23,000, as an annual allowance from the State for the instruction of indigent children. The appointment and control of teachers is confided to the communal council, which determines also the amount of the salary (article 17). Naturalized as well as native Belgians may be appointed (article 8). State inspection can not extend to religious instruction, and the local 1 Pages 199-201 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 165 school committees created by the law of 1870 are discontinued (arti¬ cle 10). The law of 1812 called for 2 normal schools to be founded and main¬ tained by the State, and normal departments in the 5 State high schools (ecoles primaires superieures de PlStat) (Sec. IV, article 35). By a law of May 29, 1866, 1 new State normal schools (2 for each sex) were authorized. Private normal schools also from the first received official recognition. The law of 1879 raised the number of State normal schools from 6 to 12 (Sec. IV, article 11). The law of 1881 simply authorizes the State, the provinces, and the communes to establish normal schools (article 11), leaving the number to be determined by circumstances. It is provided further that private normal schools may receive subsi¬ dies from public funds provided that they submit to State inspection (article 13). At the close of the last biennial period there were 13 State normal schools and departments (i. e., 7 for men, 6 for women) and 31 subsi¬ dized private normal schools (11 for men, 23 for women). The right of the communes to manage their own schools has never been questioned. As a legal provision, it antedates all school legisla¬ tion in Belgium since the law of March 30, 1836, organizing the com¬ munes, confided the right u to administer, direct, and supervise all communal institutions to the college des bourgmestre et echevins ” (a body resembling somewhat a board of aldermen in our own cities). Public education, however, has another aspect than the narrow com¬ munal one 5 it is a matter also of national concern. This fact was recognized in the law of 1842 by the provision of State funds for the work, and of State inspection for all schools participating in the same. It was by increasing the authority of the central administration that the Liberals sought to raise the level and to deepen the results of pri¬ mary education even in the most apathetic communes. They failed in their broad purpose. Nevertheless, in the chief cities, which are the strongholds of their party, their work endures by virtue of the inde¬ pendence of the communes, which the law of 1884 does not abridge. Moreover, the obligatory progrannne introduced by the Liberals1 raised an ideal of popular education not easily destroyed in progressive com¬ munities. Undoubtedly, too, it had the effect of keeping the obligatory programme of 1884 above the level of that of 1842. Under present conditions the Central Government simply maintains an inspection with reference to the very easy conditions required for obtaining the public appropriation. These are sufficient school accom¬ modation, approved buildings, and the maintenance of the obligatory programme. The reports show, however, as we shall see, that the last condition is not strictly enforced. Primarily the commune must bear the cost of elementary education. The State and the province grant subsidies only when the commune has contributed a sum equal at least 166 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. to tlie proceeds of 4 centimes additional to tlie direct tax. Since, how¬ ever, the poorest communes may receive extra assistance, the Govern¬ ment appropriation is seldom forfeited. Practically, at present, the control of the schools, excepting in the chief cities, rests with the Catholic clergy. Official statistics, which in accordance with the requirements of the three laws here reviewed have been elaborately compiled from the date of the organization of the system, afford abundant data as to its gen¬ eral workings. The following particulars are from the latest report, which brings the record to 1891: School attendance. — On the 30th of December, 1890, the communal primary schools (for children G to 13 years of age) were attended by 440,646 pupils, and the subsidized primaries by 175,395, or a total attend¬ ance of 616,041, about 10 per cent of the population (census 1890). The attendance upon infant schools, 113,172 j upon schools for special classes (i. e., deaf mutes and blind, orphans, etc.), in charge of the min¬ ister of justice, 7,407 $ adult schools, 67,675, and the elementary depart¬ ments of secondary schools, 11,737, raises the above total to 816,032, or 13 per cent of the population in attendance upon elementary instruc¬ tion. Of the pupils in communal elementary schools 90 per cent (396,235) received free instruction, and of those in subsidized private schools 80 per cent (141,532), or, combining the two classes, 87 per cent of pupils in elementary schools under free instruction. On behalf of these, payment is made by the boards of charity at a rate determined by the provincial authorities (permanent deputation) subject to the approval of the King. The amount contributed from this source in 1890 was $89,810 • the amount received iu tuition fees on behalf of paying pupils was $132,103. The fee per pupil ranges from $1.18 to $4.70 per annum. Duration of school period. — In accordance with the official regula¬ tions the primary schools should be in session 240 days in the year. Asa general rule a school day is from 4J to 6 hours, including the intermis¬ sion between morning and afternoon classes. In 1890 the communal primary schools were open on an average 235 days and the subsidized schools 236. The average number of days’ attendance for each pupil was, in the public schools, 178 days for the free pupils and 188 for the pay, and in the subsidized schools 184 and 196 days, respectively. Complaints are made by the inspector of these low averages, which are attributed in the main, to the inability of the teachers to interest pupils or to the indifference of parents in the matter. The early age at which pupils leave school is another evil upon which the inspectors dwell. Of 81,166 pupils who left the communal schools in 1889-90 without intending to return, only 17,268, or 21.28 per cent, had completed the course of study. In the subsidized schools the pro¬ portion was still lower, i. e., 19.07 per cent (5,816 upon a total of 30,491). It is noted also that the number leaving was very nearly 18 per cent of tlie entire attendance upon the schools. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 167 Programme maintained. — The new programme includes seven ele¬ mentary subjects besides the three Ws. The number of schools omit¬ ting any of these subjects is carefully reported each year. In 1890 the showing on a total of 5,673 public and subsidized schools was as follows : Number of schools omitting — Geography . - . 3 History of Belgium . 7 Elements of drawing . 11 Singing . - . 130 Gymnastics . Ill Needlework for girls . 243 Notions of agriculture (rural communes) . 55 In this particular there has been noticeable improvement since 1887. A fair proportion of schools maintain optional branches in addition to the full obligatory programme. These are called schools with developed programmes (ecoles primaires a programme developpe). Their number and the optional branches they offered in 1890 are as follows : Primary schools affording instruction in — Elements of natural sciences . 1,041 Geometric forms and surveying . 1, 457 Language other than the mother tongue . . 1, 927 Notions of constitutional law and political economy (schools for hoys and mixed schools) . 285 Notions of hygiene . 817 Bookkeeping . . . * . 195 Vocal music . 985 Domestic economy (schools for girls and mixed schools) . . 547 Manual work ( schools for boys and mixed schools) . 55 An annual public examination (concours) of the higher classes of primary schools is held, in which all communal and subsidized primary schools must participate (article 10 of the school law). The number of pupils taking part in the exercise increases a little year by year, reaching a total of 16,763 in 1890. Of these, 12,371 were from public, 2,759 from subsidized private, and 1,650 from uninspected private schools. The proportions of pupils from the three classes of schools securing the certificate of capacity were, respectively, 71.76, 56.30, and 78,36 per cent. Teachers. — The teaching force of public primary schools, as reported December 31, 1890, numbered 5,438 men and 3,153 women, or a total of 8,591. The corresponding totals for the subsidized primaries were, men, 1,189; women, 2,015; or altogether, 3,204. In the schools for both sexes men and women teachers are employed without distinction. The former, however, are more numerous. Only women are employed in girls’ schools, as is the case also in infant schools. Of the teachers in the public primary schools only 3.83 per cent were without diplomas, and of those in the subsidized primaries 33.46 per cent. The average salaries in the public schools were, for masters, $323; for 168 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. assistant masters, $305 ; for mistresses, $314.94 ; for assistants, $289. The averages have declined slightly during the triennial period. Of the public school masters 718 pursued some additional calling, and of those in subsidized schools 303. It should be added that communal teachers are generally provided with lodging or its equivalent at the cost of the commune. The substitution of parochial for public schools allowed under the present law has left many teachers without positions (en dispouibilite). Teachers thus deprived of service are allowed a salary not less than one-half the salary withdrawn, nor in any case less than 750 francs ($150). The communal councils determine the amount and duration of this allowance (traitement d’attente) ; the time counts in calculating pensions. Teachers absent from their post by reason of sickness also receive a portion of their salaries. The statistics show that on December 31, 1890, under the first provi¬ sion, 752 teachers were receiving salaries to the total annual amount of $161,053, and 76 teachers unable to attend to their duties, a total amount of $21,518. Pedagogical conferences are held every quar¬ ter in each canton and under the direction of the cantonal inspector, attendance upon the same being obligatory for all communal teachers; teachers in the subsidized schools are free to attend or not, and the same freedom is accorded the teachers of all infant schools. In 1890, the number of conferences reported was 1,503 (i. e., for masters, 790; for mistresses, £>89; for infant school teachers, 124). As there are 319 cantons it appears that inspectors even exceed the requirements of the law in respect to this part of their duties. The attendances upon the conferences for teachers of communal schools were 5,059, 2,874, and 1,178, respectively. The correspond* mg figures for the subsidized schools are 223, 259, and 7, respectively The Government also maintains normal courses corresponding to our teachers’ institutes. These are in session during the long vacations. The influence of these conferences and summer courses is increased in many places by the pedagogical museums. These afford suitable halls for the conferences, while the collections of illustrative material add greatly to the effect of the practical teaching exercises that are a feature of the proceedings. Three such museums are maintained at Brussels (Province of Brabant) and two in each of the eight remain¬ ing provinces. Teachers also liave the benefits of the National School Museum (Musee Scolaire National) at Brussels, an institution similar in its objects to the Musee Pedagogique at Paris. Models of school furni¬ ture and school apparatus and a fine library are included in the collec¬ tions of the national museum. All the material is admirably classified and arranged in the new buildings, first occupied in 1890. Exhibition of school work are made here annually, lectures delivered, and confer¬ ences maintained on subjects of interest to teachers. In this connection mention should be made of the Belgian teachers PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 169 association (Federation generate des instituteurs beiges). It was organized in 1869, and has been a powerful means of stimulating zeal and extending professional knowledge among tlie Belgian public school teachers. The civic decorations for teachers, instituted July 21, 1867, are an incentive to efficient and continuous service. These awards are of four classes — the civic cross, first and second class, and civic medal, first and second class. Altogether 56 decorations were conferred in 1890. Pensions . — Teachers have the right to a pension upon the same terms as persons in other branches of the civil service. The amount of the pension is calculated at the rate of one fifty-fifth of the average salary for the last five years of actual service. Upon this calculation the pension ranges from $200 to $400 annually. The State, the communes, and the provinces bear the expense, the first two contributing each two- fifths, the last one-fifth of the amount. The number of teachers on the pension list December 31, 1890, was 1,644, and their combined pensions 1,725,170 francs (about $345,034). A fund is also maintained by the State, provinces, and communes for the widows and orphans of communal teachers, to which fund teachers desiring its benefits for their families must contribute annually 3 or 4 per cent of their salaries. In 1890 the amount paid from this fund was 525,704 francs ($105,141). Normal schools. — In 1890 the 13 State normal schools and depart¬ ments 1 were attended by 711 students and employed a teaching force of 205 teachers and officers. The 34 subsidized private normals were attended by 1,805 students. With few exceptions the normal schools have boarding departments. Promising students, whose parents are too poor to meet the charges, may obtain the aid of the scholarships maintained by the State, the provinces, and the communes. In 1890 the number of scholarships provided in the State schools was 1,130, representing a money value of $23,845, and in the subsidized normals 1,536, having a money value of $29,634. The course of the State normal schools is arranged for three years, and includes the folic wing obligatory branches: Moral precepts, elemen¬ tary notions of the constitutional and administrative institutions of the country, and also of primary school legislation, theory and practice of education; the mother tongue (grammar and literature), a second language (French, Flemish, or German, according to local demands); arithmetic, theoretic and practical, together with the complete system of legal weights and measures; geography, and particularly that of Bel¬ gium; outlines of general history and the detailed history of Belgium, notions of agriculture in the schools for men, and needlework in those 1 The State normal schools for men are Gand, Lierre? Mons? Nivelles, Verviers? the normal departments Couvin? Huy. For women the schools are Bruges? Liege? and Tournai ; departments? Andenne? Arlon? and Brussels. 170 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. for women; writing, drawing, vocal music, gymnastics. All tlie above enumerated branches are included in the examination for a Government diploma. There are besides optional branches, as follows: In the schools for men, algebra, geometry, natural sciences, natural history, physics and chemistry, elements of hygiene, bookkeeping. In the schools for women, geometric forms, elements of natural science, natural history and physics, elements of hygiene, bookkeeping, elements of domestic economy and gardening. A third language may be taken in any of the schools. In State normal schools the training is eminently professional, theory is supplemented by practice, for which purpose 11 of the normals have attached to them model elementary schools (ecoles duplication). Pupils are not admitted to training under 16 years of age nor above 23. They must pledge themselves to teach in the public schools three years after graduation. The internal conduct of the schools, the staff¬ ing, examinations, etc., are regulated by the minister. Teachers’ libraries are also maintained in several communes either wholly or in part by public funds. It appears from the report that at the date, December 31, 1890, there were 191 of these libraries, compris¬ ing 130,357 volumes. The number of volumes taken for home reading during the triennial period 1887-1890 was 25,669, and the number of teachers borrowing books 9,781. Complaint is made that so few teach¬ ers appreciate the advantages thus offered, but improvement is noticed in this respect. State inspection. — For the service of State inspection there are 18 principal inspectors and 80 cantonal inspectors. The former receive salaries varying from $1,000 to $1,500; the latter from $600 to $900; traveling expenses are also allowed. The majority of district inspectors are chosen from the ranks of successful teachers ; the principal inspec¬ tors are either promoted from the district inspectorship or were formerly professors in normal or secondary schools. From the report it appears that the district inspectors are careful to meet the requirements of an annual visit to each school in their respective districts. In 1890, on a total of 5,673 schools, 4,128 had been visited more than once, and 1,454 once only. In addition 1,102 infant schools had been visited out of a total of 1,146, and 750 adult schools on a total of 1,749. The number of conferences conducted by these officials has already been given. The chief duties of the principal inspectors are advisory and the preparation of reports which are based upon those of the subordinate inspectors. The number of visits made by them to individual schools in 1890 was 2,480, at which rate they would fully meet the requirement of a visit to each school once in two years. Finances. — The cost of maintaining the entire system of elementary instruction, including ordinary and extraordinary expenditures, in 1890, was 28,898,679 francs, or about $5,779,000. Of this amount the communes contributed 44.2 per cent; the provinces, 6 per cent; the PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 171 State, 41 per cent; school fees, 5 per cent; boards of charity, 2 per cent. The small remainder came from donations, balances, etc. Effects of changing policies. — A school system left so largely to local influences as that of Belgium will necessarily present widely different degrees of efficiency and development in different localities. These differences, which exist in all countries, have presumably been intensi¬ fied in Belgium, where elementary education, as we have seen, has been particularly subject to political influences. The changes from national to local supremacy and from secular to sectarian management have not been accomplished without great ex¬ citement and bitter party recriminations. While the law of 1879 was in force the Clericals accused their oppo¬ nents of forcing communes to support schools which they did not want. The Liberals now retort that the people are kept from attending the schools they prefer by threats of excommunication and appeals to superstitious fears. Certain it is that under the law of 1879 Clerical schools had to live in spite of the Government, and equally certain that under the law of 18S4 large numbers of public communal schools have been closed and their teachers deprived of employment. Official sta¬ tistics, which have been systematically reported since 183G, confirm these statements. For comparison, it suffices to select the years which mark, respectively, the close of the period under the law of 1842, and that under the Liberal law (i. e., 1878, 1883), and also 1890, the latest year of report. The changes from period to period are indicated in the statistics of enrollment in communal and adopted schools (private schools have not been included in the returns since 1878), percentage of clerical teachers, aud the proportion of income derived from each contributing source. These items are as follows : Year. Enrollment. Teach¬ ers, per cent of clerical. Income (per cent) from — Sub- I scrip- tions, bal- ! ances, etc. Com¬ munal. , Adopted. Total. Per cent of popu¬ lation. State. Prov¬ inces. Com¬ munes. Tuition fees from — Par¬ ents. Char¬ itable funds. 1878 . 527,417 70, 796 598. 213 10.8 17.2 47 2.2 36.6 8.48 3. 35 2. 37 1883 . 345,687 325 : 346.012 5.9 . 2 50. 5 2 35.6 2. 58 2. 84 6. 48 1890 . 440, 646 175, 395 616,041 10 14.’ 8 39 6.6 ' 47 3. 47 2. 38 1. 57 The fluctuation in the teaching body is the most significant fact brought out in the above showing. Under the law of 1879 the teachers belonging to religious denominations were practically eliminated from the communal schools. They were free, however, to continue their work in the church schools, which received nothing from public funds. That this was their course is apparent from the decline in public school enrollment, for it is scarcely to be supposed that the children withdrawn from these left school altogether. Under the new law the religious teachers are being rapidly restored and church schools adopted in the 172 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. place of a on sectarian communal schools, which are consequently sup¬ pressed. The extent of these changes is indicated by the following statistics, quoted by M. Bara in the Chamber of Bepresentatives during the discussion of the educational appropriations for 1894. Said this member : You have suppressed 877 primary schools, 228 infant schools (€coles gardiennes), and 1,079 schools for adults, a total of 2,184 public schools, with 44,987 scholars. You have struck the teachers in a manner incredible: 1,047 teachers have been placed on the roll of those awaiting engagements at a reduced salary; 1,500 received nothing. You have decreased the salary of 3,316 teachers. I cite this from official returns. To-day it is proposed to give a part of the appropriation to private education. Consider the situation of France, which has six times as many inhabitants as Belgium. There are in France 66,340 primary public schools. We have but 5,000 schools, one-thirteenth the number in France. The schools of the latter are attended by 4,400,000 scholars, ours by 433,000, not even one-tenth. Belgium has an appropria¬ tion of 7,400,000 francs; France has twenty-two times as much for a population which is only six times as large as ours. In future we shall pay for this inferiority of our population as compared with that of France. Where suffrage is universal it is necessary that everybody should be educated. We may add that actually, after ten years waiting, there are more than 580 teach¬ ers without employment because their places have been declared vacant (en dis- ponibilit6). It should be noted that the school attendance quoted above is in public schools only and the funds specified are the State appropriations. The attendance in adopted or subsidized schools ra ises the total attend¬ ance to 616,041, and local appropriations (provincial and communal) raise the public funds devoted to primary education to a total of 19,840,280 francs ($3,870,877). That these changes in the school system have interfered with the true purposes of elementary education seems evident also from the degree of illiteracy prevailing in Belgium. The census of 1890 gives 38 per cent as the proportion of illiterates in the entire Kingdom, or by sex, 36 per cent of men and 40 per cent of women. In the discussion of a table showing the distribution of illiterates by sex and age, the reporter says : In examining this ta.ble it is impossible to ignore the fact that among the children 8 to 15 years of age nearly 22i per cent are still illiterate. The proportion was 25 per cent in 1880 and fell then to 20 per cent for those from 15 to 25 years. To-day the latter show only 15 per cent of illiterates. The actual gain in the proportion of persons between 15 and 25 years of age able to read and write has thus been per cent during the last ten years.1 It is among the persons of this age that instruc¬ tion is most diffused. For those above 25 years of age the statistics show a con¬ stant decrease in the number of literates. This is true both of the census of 1880 and of 1890. The diminution varies from 3 to 4 per cent for each quinquennial period. (Census 1890, vol. 1, pp. XLII, XLIII.) ’The tables show an increase of 17.3 per cent in the total population 15 to 25 years of age in the decade 1880-1890, and an increase of 25 per cent in the proportion ablq to read and write, or a gain in the latter of 7.5 per cent. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 173 Auxiliary agencies. — Belgium is par excellence a country of benefici¬ ary associations and of public charities, and it naturally follows that the needs of poor children are carefully looked after. The boards of charity, which are organized on a legal basis in each commune, help, as we have seen, in defraying the cost of elementary education. In a great many places they also give assistance to desti¬ tute families. There are very few vagrant children in the Kingdom. The school savings bank has been fostered as a means of inculcating thrift, but at the present time the general sentiment of teachers seems to be opposed to the system. The official report states that — The savings hank is not fostered in the subsidized schools for adults and for infants, and has little development in the subsidized primary schools. As to com¬ munal or public schools, the savings bank works well in the primary grades, but has little success in the infant schools and schools for adults. The total investments made by pupils of the primary schools in 1890 amounted to $721,856, of which $45,227 only were from pupils of the subsidized schools. School colonies or vacation schools for the poor children, which origi¬ nated in Zurich in 1876, flourish in Brussels and several other cities of Belgium. Their purpose is to afford the poorest children of the great cities a brief sojourn in the country during the heated season, with the chance for useful and healthful training at the same time. The first experiment in this direction in Belgium was made in 1886 by Dr. Kops, communal councilor at Brussels. He endeavored at the outset to form a private society, composed of Catholics and Liberals, for the sup¬ port of the undertaking. Failing in this he appealed to the munici¬ pal authorities for aid. The response was immediate. From that time school colonies made rapid progress in Belgium. Brussels, the capital, took the lead; the cities of Liege, Yerviers, Anvers, and Gandwere not far behind. Two large philanthropic societies of Brussels, the Progres and the Marcunvins, have sustained the work with great zeal — the first, since 1888; the second, since 1892. They are aided in their generous efforts by private initiative, and by subsidies from the city itself. The latter also every year organizes colonies on its own account. The following statistics summarize the work at Brussels: Number of impils. Tear. Brussels. Progres. j 'Marcunvins. Total. Boys. Girls. Boys. | Girls. Boys. 1 Girls. 1886 . . . . . . . 30 30 1887 . 60 30 90 1888 . 60 60 30 150 1889 . 75 30 70 175 1890 . . 63 65 r-- 7o 203 1891 . 55 120 64 239 1892 . 90 94 80 264 1893 . . 30 90 80 94 294 174 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. INTERMEDIATE INSTRUCTION. Intermediate instruction (enseignement moyen) is the term applied in Belgium to that part of instruction which lies between the primary schools, whose age limit is 14 years, and university education, upon which students enter at 18 or 19 years of age. Historically the insti¬ tutions for intermediate instruction are distinct from the primary schools, and the distinction is maintained in their public administra¬ tion. Between the two classes of institutions, however, a relation is established by means of public and private scholarships awarded gen¬ erally upon competitive examination. Glassification of State schools. — The public intermediate schools are of two classes, those supported by the Government and those maintained by the communes. The Government schools are of two grades — the royal atlienees or higher intermediate schools, whose courses comprise seven years, and the lower intermediate schools of three years. The latter include what were formerly termed superior primary schools, and also the industrial and commercial schools. The royal atlienees are for boys only; the lower intermediate include schools for boys and also for girls. Number of schools and enrollment in the same. — By the law of Sep¬ tember 20,1884, the number of atlienees is fixed at 20. The province of Hainaut has 5, Brabant and Liege each 3, Anvers, occidental Flanders, and Limbourg each 2, and the remaining provinces, i. e., oriental Flanders, Luxembourg, and Namur, 1 each. As shown in the table (p. 160), the atlienees were attended in 1890 by 5,726 pupils. Of these, 1,751 were admitted gratuitously and 1,109 at a reduced fee. The full fee differs in the several atlienees and also in the different sections of each, the lowest fee being 20 francs ($4) and the highest 120 francs ($24) per annum. Lower intermediate schools (ecoles moyennes inferieures) can not exceed 100 for boys and 50 for girls. (Law of September 20, 1884.-) Actually in 1890 there were 79 schools of this class for boys, attended by 12,475 pupils, of whom 4,537 were admitted gratuitously and 3,487 at reduced rates. The annual fee varies in these schools also, the highest being 72 francs ($14.40) per annum and the lowest (pre¬ paratory section) 6 francs ($1.20). The number of this class of schools for girls in 1890 was 36, attended by 5,721 pupils, 1,367 under free instruction and 1,528 at reduced rates, and the remainder paying full fees, which ranged from 14 francs ($2.80) to 120 francs ($24) per annum. Support and control. — The towns in which these State schools are situated generally give the buildings, and the State appropriation cov¬ ers the excess of the current expenditure above the receipts from fees. Both grades of schools are controlled by the Government in accord¬ ance with the law of June 1, 1850, subsequent modifying laws, and royal decrees. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 175 Teachers — classification and salaries. — The teaching force in the athe- nees consists of a prefect of studies, professors, and masters (surveil- lants); in the lower intermediate schools of a director (in schools for girls a directress), regents, and teachers. The prefects, professors, directors, and regents are appointed by the King, the masters and teachers by the minister. The prefects and professors of the athenees must have a doctor’s degree. The regents and teachers of the lower schools must have the diploma of a professor agrege, which is obtained by a rigid examination before a special committee, or for the lowest positions the diploma of a primary teacher. A special diploma (diplome d’institutrice) is instituted for the directresses and teachers of the sec¬ ondary schools for girls. The salaries are fixed as follows : Salaries. A thenee-s. Inspector of studies (prefet des 6tudes) . . . . . Professor of third class . Professor of second class . . Professor of first class . Master (surveiilant) of second class . Master (surveiilant) of first class . .* . State intermediate schools for boys. Director .TV . . . . Master (regent) of second class . . Master (regent) of first class . Teacher (instituteur) of second class . Teacher (instituteur) of first class... . . State intermediate schools for girls. Directress . Mistress (regente) of second class . Mistress (r6gente) of first class . . Teacher (institutrice) of second class . Teacher (institutrice) of first class . Professor having diploma of capacity for teaching drawing, music, or gymnastics. . . | Mini- Maxi- j mum. mum. $840 $920 520 580 640 680 740 820 440 480 520 560 560 660 400 440 460 500 320 360 400 440 560 660 400 440 460 500 320 360 400 440 180 220 The professors of the State secondary schools have the right to a pension. Communal schools — The communal schools either receive a subsidy from the Government, in return for which they must admit a certain number of free students, or are maintained wholly by the communes. Of the former there are eight for boys and four for girls. They must conform to Government regulations in respect to programmes, text¬ books, and the appointment of professors. The attendance upon the communal schools, subsidized and exclu¬ sively communal, raises the total number of students in public inter¬ mediate schools to 28,428, of whom 11,737 were in preparatory classes. Examinations and diplomas. — The athenees occupy about the same position in the Belgian system of education as the lycees do in the French system or the gymnasia in the German. Students who com¬ plete the course and pass the final examinations before a committee 176 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. appointed by the Government receive a diploma (diplome de sortie) which admits them to the universities. Students who complete the courses in the lower intermediate schools for either boys or girls and pass a final examination also receive a diploma. Annual competitive examinations (concours generaux) for distinctions (i. e., honorable men¬ tion and prizes) are held in which the students of the various classes of secondary schools participate. Special courses for professors. — -In 1817 the Government created spe¬ cial pedagogical courses to prepare professors for the athenees, i. e.? courses of humanities at Liege, and of science at Ghent. In 1852 these courses were organized as special normal schools and so con¬ tinued until 1890, when they were merged into the universities — the former into the faculty of philosophy and letters, University of Liege; the latter into the faculties of science, University of Ghent. There still remain the normal courses for teachers of the lower secondary schools of the State, i. e., for teachers of boys7 schools at Ghent and Mvelles, and for teachers of girls7 schools at Brussels and Liege. Clerical schools. — Parallel with the public provision for intermediate or secondary education are the clerical schools, which are more numerous than the public schools. It is stated officially that salaries are higher in the former than in the latter, with the result of attracting the best teachers to the clerical schools. Curricula and programmes. — In Belgium, as in other countries, the question of classical versus scientific training has been earnestly dis¬ cussed ever since the organization of intermediate instruction (law of 1850). On account of the freer spirit of the Belgian system the move¬ ment in favor of science and modern languages has had less opposition than in adjoining countries. A peculiar complication, however, has affected the movement in Belgium. Here the period of secondary study is shorter than in either France or Germany, i. e., five or six years, 1 as against nine or ten. This has made it difficult for students to reach the standard in classical studies that prevails on the conti¬ nent, and has operated also to the disadvantage of Belgian universi¬ ties. The difficulties have necessarily been increased by the endeavor to provide for additional studies. Without entering into the details of the various adjustments attempted from time to time, it must suffice to present here the present organization and programmes of the royal athenees, the typical secondary schools of Belgium, as established by royal decree of August 5, 1888. The athenees are divided into three sections, as follows : Latin and Greek humanities. Latin humanities. Modern humanities. In each section the number of classes or years of study is seven. ]As determined by the requirements for admission to the degree examinations. See page 185. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 177 The programme of the section of Latin and Greek humanities com¬ prises the following subjects: Religion, Latin, Greek, French, Flemish, German, English, History , Geography, Mathematics, Natural sciences, Drawing, Writing, Music, Gymnastics, Notions of the constitutional and administrative institutions of the country. The programme of the section of the Latin humanities is the same as the foregoing, with the exception that Greek is replaced by extra mathe¬ matics and science. The course in modern humanities is also the same, with the exception of Latin and Greek and the addition of commercial sciences. The last- named section is composed of a lower division, comprising four years7 study, and of two higher divisions, the scientific and the commercial and industrial, each composed of three classes. In the adaptation of these programmes to the different sections of Belgium, i. e., the French or Walloon, and the Flemish or Dutch, only the courses in modern language are varied. The following schemes show the number of hours a week assigned to each study in the athenees of the Walloon districts: [Figures in parentheses indicate number of hours for optional studies.] Classes. Studies. Religion . . Latin . Greek . . French . Flemish or German (obligatory) . German or Flemish (optional)". . . English . History . Geography . . Mathematics . . Natural sciences . Drawing . Music (optional) . - Gymnastics (two recreation) . - . Total hours of obligatory les¬ sons . hours during: j Sev- ! enth. Sixth. 2 2 0 7 7 6 5 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 2 (1) (1) Fifth. 2 (1) Fourth. Third. Second. First. 2 8 5 3 3 (2) (2) 2 1 3 2 (2) (1) 2 8 5 3 3 (2) (2) 2 1 3 2 (2) (1) 2 8 5 3 3 (2) (2) 2 3 2 (2) (1) Total. 14 53 25 28 20 (8) (8) 14 7 21 8 6+(8) (7) 23 28 29 29 29 29 29 LATIX HUMANITIES. Religion . Latin . French . Flemish or German (obligatory) . German or Flemish (optional) English . . History . Geography . . Mathematics a . . Natural sciences a . . Drawing . . Music (optional) . Gymnastics (two hours during recreation) . Total hours of obligatory les¬ sons . . 2 (1) 2 (1) (1) 8 3 3 (2) (2) 2 1 6 3 3 2 (1) 2 8 3 3 (2) (2) 2 1 6 3 2 6 4 2 U) 3 3 (2) (2) 2 1 8 3 23 28 30 Ti 29 28 64 2 (1) 14 53 28 20 (8) (8) 14 7 34 23 9 15 14 (7) 29 28 a After the third class (troisieme) for mathematics and the second class for natural sciences, there is a bifurcation, and students may choose between the two series indicated in the programme. 6’Not including manipulations/ ED 93- -12 178 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. MODERN HUMANITIES. [Figures in parentheses indicate number of hours for optional studies.] Classes. Studies. Sev¬ enth. Sixth. Fifth. Fourth. Third. Second. First. Total. Scientific. Commercial. Scientific. Commercial. Scientific. Commercial. Scien¬ tific. Com¬ mer¬ cial. Religion . 2 2 2 2 < 2 2 2 1 4 French . 8 8 8 i S j 3 \ 46 Flemish or English (prin¬ cipal language) . 6 6 3 3 3 3 3 27 German or English (addi¬ tional lnijo'nA.o'fi) . . 2 4 3 3 ) 3 is English . (2) 1 2 (3)! 1 3 (3) * 1 3 (2) | f 2 nm i 10 History . 2 2 2 2 2 > 2 14 Geography . 1 1 1 1 : L 1 L 1 Mathematics . 3 3 4 1 G 1 3 G \ 3 8 ' 3 34 23 Natural sciences . 2 2 3 2 a 4 a 4 9 15 Commercial sciences . 3 1 3 1 4 4 3 14 Drawing . 2 2 2 2 2 (2) ’*3* (2) "s (2) 16 8+ (6) Music (optional) . (1) (1) 0) (1) 0 L) (1 l) (1) f 7) Gymnastics (two hours during recreation) . Total hours of oblig¬ ■ atory lessons . 21 26 28 28 30 27 ! | 28 27 30 28 30 a After troisieme for mathematics and the second class for natural sciences, there is a bifurcation, and students may choose between the two series indicated in the programme. The organization decreed In 1881, which is replaced by that of 1887, also comprised two distinct sections, i. e., section of humanities and the professional (industrial and commercial). The former included three parallel courses, one based upon Greek and Latin, the other two upon Latin without Greek. Of the two Latin courses, one was adapted to students who gave preference to mathematics and physics, the other to those who desired natural science, especially, as a preparation for the medical faculty. This attempt at extreme specialization is now abandoned. The apparent division of the classical course into two parallel courses is in reality nothing more than making Greek optional, students being allowed to substitute for this study extra mathematics and science. The new name given to the section which omits the classics, i. e„ modern humanities, in place of professional, emphasizes the tendency to make it more truly a culture course than a technical course. The lower intermediate schools have been regarded both as schools preparatory to the athenees and as finishing schools for students obliged to enter early upon practical pursuits. Recent modifications have resulted in a programme more especially adapted to the latter purpose tlmn heretofore. It is, however, permitted to the directors to modify the model course by introducing Latin for students who intend to enter the classical section of an athenee. The model course is as follows : PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 179 Subjects of study and the time assigned to each in the lower intermediate schools of the State ( Ecoles moyennes de Veiat) for boys. Subjects. Third class, or first year. Second class, or second year. First class, or third year. o n 2 French . . . . . . . . . 8 7 6 Flemish (obligatory in Flemish districts) . Flemish or German (obligatory in Walloon districts) . 1} « 0 ! 6 First optional study. German (Flemish districts) ; Flemish or German (Walloon districts) . Second optional study English ....... _ _ _ ... _ _ _ _ _ 1 1 a 3 \ 2 ! a 3 History ...... _ .................................. _ ... _ ....... 2 1 2 Geography _ _ _ ....... _ ................ _ ............. 1 5 1 MofjiPTnfltiffi _ _ .............. _ _ ......... _ .............. _ .... 4 1 G Natural sciences . - .... . . . . . . .... b 2 b 2 b 2 Bookkeeping and elements ot'commercial law... . 1 { 2 Drawing . Music (optional) . - - - . . Gymnastics (three hours during recreation) . 2 a 1 o 1 a 1 2 a 1 Total obligatory hours . 27 28 j 29 a Optional. b Not including field and laboratory exercises. Subjects of instruction and number of hours a week assigned to each in State intermediate school for girls. Subjects. Third ! class, or first year. Second j class, or second | year. First class, or third year. Religion . French . Flemish (in obligatory Flemish districts) . Flemish or German (in obligatory Walloon districts) . First optional language, Flemish (Flemish districts) : Flemish or Ger¬ man (Walloon districts) ; second optional language, English . History . . . 9 G !! 1 O | 9 6 5 (3) | 2 2 6 5 (3) 2 1 2 Geography . - . 1 ! 1 Natural sciences and notions of liyaione _ _ _ 9 2 Commercial sciences . 1 2 Mathematics . . . 3 3 3 Manual work, notions of domestic economy . . . - . 2 2 Drawin0- . - . 2 2 2 1 1 1 Gymnastics (two hours during recreations) . . . Total number of hours for obligatory lessons . j 27 27 28 Finances . — By reference to tlie table, page 160, it will be seen that tlie current expenditure for intermediate schools amounted in 1890 to $1,217,679. The income from all sources was $1,270,731, a slight excess over the current expenditure. Of this income the State furnished 53 per cent, the communes 26 per cent, the provinces 0.7 per cent, and tuition fees 16.7 per cent, The small balance was from property, gifts, etc. The appropriation from the public treasury for administration and inspection services, for prizes, scholarships, training and examina¬ tions of professors, etc., not included in the above, amounted to about $81,000. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. Tlie universities and their origin. — The establishments for superior instruction in Belgium are the two State universities, Ghent in the Flemish section, and Liege in the French; the Independent University 180 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. of Brussels and tlie Catliolic University of Louvain. The last named is the oldest seat of learning in Belgium, having been founded in 1426 by Jean IV, Duke of Brabant, Like the ancient universities of France, it was suppressed during the revolutionary period (October 25, 1T97). It was temporarily reorganized in 1816, and finally in 1835. The faculties established at Brussels under the control of the Imperial University (1806) may be regarded as the beginning of the University of Brussels, although the university, as such, was not created until 1834. In 1816, or the year following the union with the Netherlands, universities were founded at Ghent and Liege. The Government which was established in 1830 recognized, provi¬ sionally, the three universities existing at the time, i. e., Ghent, Liege, and Louvain. By a law of 1835 the two former were constituted State universities, their organization, conduct, and courses of study to be determined and their maintenance provided by the Government. The same law instituted examining juries, to be appointed by the King and the two chambers, for conferring academic degrees. From that time until 1876 the degree-conferring function remained detached from the universities. Constitution of State universities. — As constituted by the law of 1835 each of the State universities comprises four faculties, i. e., of philosophy and letters, of science (mathematics, physics, and natural sciences), of law, and of medicine. In pursuance of the iiro vision that the faculty of sciences at Ghent should offer the instruction necessary for the arts and manufactures, civil architecture, construction of roads and bridges, and the same faculty at Liege the instruction required for the arts and manufactures and mining industries, a school of civil engineers was attached to the former and a mining school to the latter. (Regulation of September 27, 1836.) From the promulgation of the law of 1835, the Government was actively engaged in the work of organizing and developing the State universities. In 1849 a second law was passed defining more specifically the organic character and the standards of these institutions. Subse¬ quent laws, especially that of 1890, have increased the authority of the universities by according them a representation in the examining juries, but their constitution and scholastic functions remain substan¬ tially as determined by the law of 1849. Professors. — The teaching corps comprises professors, ordinary and extraordinary, appointed by the King. They must have a doctor’s degree and must devote themselves exclusively to their university duties. These duties, as also the privileges which professors enjoy, and the penalties to which they are subject, are prescribed by the law or by royal decrees. The annual salaries are 7,000 francs ($1,400) for extraordinary professors and 5,000 francs ($1,000) for ordinary, with a possible augmentation of from 1,000 to 3,000 francs ($200 to $600). Pro¬ fessors are retired as emerite, with an annual pension equal to the aver- PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 181 age salary of the last five years of service, when they reach their seventieth year, or if disabled by serious and permanent infirmity. The law allows for each university 13 professors in the sciences, 12 in philosophy, 10 in medicine, and 7 in law. In case of necessity one or two additional profe sors may be appointed in each faculty. (Law of July 15, 1819, art. 10, modified by laws of May 22, 1882, and May 22, 1892.) In 1891 Ghent had a staff of 67 professors in the four faculties and 21 professors and teachers in the special schools; Liege, 68 pro¬ fessors in the faculties and 17 professors and teachers in the special schools. Special professors called agreges are also assigned to each university in such numbers and for such courses as circumstances may demand. The conditions of the service have been the subject of many decrees. At present, aspirants must have a doctor’s degree and also a special diploma indicating high attainments in some distinct department of knowledge. The courses which the agreges give are additional to the regular courses; they have no salaries, but may receive fees, and may be engaged in other pursuits, as law, medicine, etc. The agreges, natu¬ rally, become candidates for vacant chairs, so that the service is in a sense a preparation for full professorships. There are also assistants for laboratory exercises and clinics. The professors and assistants, with the officers of administration, raised the personnel of the Univer¬ sity of Ghent to a total of 161 in 1891, and that of Liege to 188. Officers of administration. — The official authorities of each university are the rector, the secretary, the deans of faculties, the academic council and the college d’assesseurs. The rector is appointed by the King for a term of three years. He is the executive head of the university and has general charge of all its affairs. He may at his will convoke the college d’assesseurs for advice. This body consists of the secretary of the academic council and the deans of faculties. The latter, as also the secretaries, are chosen by the professors themselves and are thus their direct representatives. The academic council consists of all the professors of a university who, in their collective capacity, determine the conduct of the scholastic affairs as the management of courses, time¬ tables. etc. Through these advisory functions the professors have really a voice in the administration of the universities. Their chief importance in this respect, however, lies in the fact that they are represented in the conseil de perfectionnement of superior instruction, which the minister must convoke at least once a month. The constitution of this council is as follows: Eight professors (one from each faculty of the universi¬ ties), the two rectors, the two Government inspectors (administrateurs- inspecteurs), and other members of the teaching profession chosen by the minister. This council gives advice upon all matters pertaining to superior instruction. It should be added that, while the rectors have 182 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. general charge of students, the professors exercise disciplinary authority over those of their respective classes, and may even suspend a disor¬ derly student. Fees for students. — Students are received and enrolled by the rector, the fee for enrollment being 15 francs ($3). After this formality is completed, the student takes out a ticket for the studies of the courses he proposes to follow. The fee for the ticket is 250 francs ($50) in philosophy, literature, and law, and 200 francs ($40) in the other facul¬ ties. There are also fees for the use of laboratories, for clinics, etc., and extra fees for special lessons or courses. Lessons and courses. — Instruction is given in the French language, except by special dispensation from the minister. A lesson occupies at least an hour. Courses must be so arranged that the student has not less than three hours of lessons each day, not comprising clinics and laboratory exercises. The minimum duration of the course is determined by the require¬ ments for degrees, which will be considered hereafter. Attendance upon the lessons is obligatory, and every three months the professors report to the rector students who fail in this obligation. Scholarships and prizes. — Students of ability who can not afford the expenses of university education may be assisted by scholarships (bourses), of which the State maintains 120, of the annual value of $80 each. Study in foreign countries is promoted by traveling scholarships, 21 in number, of the annual value of $400 each and available for two years. Competitive examination for the latter is open only to persons who have received the degree of doctor, of pharmacist, or of engineer. Annual competitive examinations (concours uuiversitaire) are held, at which the successful contestants receive medals, accompanied with prizes of books or money amounting to $80 each. The universities of Brussels and Louvain have each the four faculties of the same order as those of the State universities, to which Louvain adds the faculty of theology. As shown in the table (p. 160), the com¬ bined attendance upon the four universities in 1800-91 was 5,664, dis¬ tributed as follows : 1 Universities. Faculties. Total of fac¬ ulties. Faculty of the¬ ology. Special (schools. Total 1 facul¬ ties and special schools. Philos¬ ophy and let¬ ters. Law. | Sci¬ ences. Medi¬ cine. fltient _ 75 186 165 187 613 175 788 l.ip.o’p, _ _ 223 338 305 j 282 1, 148 235 1, 383 Brussels .......................... 147 3G7 477 557 1. 548 115 1, 6G3 Louvain . 210 391 317 445 1, 363 40 397 1, 800 Total . 655 1,282 1 1,264 1 1,471 4, 672 40 922 5, 634 Buildings and equipments. — Under the law of 1835 the task of furnish¬ ing suitable buildings for the State universities was left to the cities PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 183 in wliicli they were located. This obligation, willingly undertaken, in time proved too great a drain upon the resources of the cities. Their inability to bear the burden alone was particularly manifest after the passage of the law of 187G, which greatly extended the scientific work of the universities. An official inquiry with respect to buildings and equipments resulted, in a special State appropriation for these pur¬ poses amounting to $900,000, i. e., $550,000 for Liege, and the balance for Ghent. With this assistance the work of erecting new buildings and of reconstructing or enlarging the old has been pushed with vigor. Among the most important of the new structures are the Institute of Sciences for the University of Ghent, completed in 1889, and the Insti¬ tute of Chemistry, University of Liege.1 The triennial report, 1889-1891, which brings the statement to the end of the period, shows a total expenditure for the new constructions of $1,782,070, of which $293,445 had been expended during the three years specified. Current income and expenditures. — The State appropriation for supe¬ rior education amounted in 1891 to $435,154, upon which there was an expenditure of $427,374. This includes costs of administration and examinations, current expenditures, and the extraordinary expendi¬ tures, i. e., for buildings and equipments. The expenditure for salaries and for material for the two universities in 1S91 was as follows: Salaries. Material. Ghent . . . $121,915 127, 691 29, 919 L,ie°-e . . . . 89, 552 In addition to the State appropriations the two universities received about $4,400 from communal and provincial funds, of which a little more than half was for scholar ships. The University of Brussels receives an annual allowance from the city and also from the Province of Brabant. The former amounted in 1891 to $12,320, and the latter to $4,000. Pees, which are the chief source of income for Brussels and Louvain, are the same as at the State universities. Degrees. — Until a recent date the distinctive feature of superior instruction in Belgium was the separation of the scholastic and the degree conferring functions. It is true that the law of 1835 authorized * the universities to confer certain diplomas. They were, however, dis¬ tinctions merely, and carried no rights in the Kingdom. ‘For description of the new buildings see report of the minister upon superior instruction, 1889-1891, Chap. II, pp. 34-46. See also an interesting monograph, “Esquisse Histoi'ique snr les Batiments Universitaires,” published by a committee of the students’ association of the University of Liege. 184 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. As defined in a regulation of October 12, 1838, the university diplo¬ mas are of two orders — an honorary diploma delivered to persons (native or foreign) possessed of a doctor’s degree, and who shall have given proof of superior ability, and a scientific diploma conferred upon examination. Subsequently (1853) a special scientific diploma carry¬ ing the degree of doctor was created in the interest of persons who, after having obtained the legal diploma of doctor, should apply them selves successfully to some scientific specialty. Subsequent legislation has not affected these diplomas. The authority to confer the legal degrees, without which no one can enter upon professional life in Belgium, was relegated, as we have seen, to a jury constituted by the legislative bodies, and necessarily subject to political and official influences. The separation was emphasized in 1857, when the provisions relative to the examinations for degrees were detached from the law controlling superior instruction, and embodied in a distinct law. (Law May 17, 1857. )J This policy has detracted from the honors and dignities of the universities, and in the opinion of many has prevented that disinterested pursuit of knowledge which is essen¬ tial to the highest results of university training. The advocates of a different policy gained a concession in 187 6, when a tentative law was passed authorizing the universities (both State and free) to hold exam¬ inations for, and to confer degrees in like manner as the central jury, the decisions in all cases to be subject to confimation by a State com¬ mittee (commission d’enterinement). (Law of May 10, 1876.) Three years later (1879) a special inquiry was instituted to determine the manner in which the universities fulfilled the trust thus reposed in them. The investigation was maintained for four years and meanwhile the experiment authorized in 1876 was prolonged. The report of the investigation was so satisfactory that in 1886 a bill was submitted to the Chamber of Deputies by M. Thonissen, minister of the interior and of public instruction, with a view to giving permanent effect to the ten¬ tative essay of 1876. After prolonged examination and discussion, the project was adopted February 27, 1890. Henceforth the degree-confer¬ ring authorities are the four universities and a central jury iu which the State universities and the free universities have equal representation. The degrees specified in the law are of two orders, called, respectively, candidate and doctor. The seven degrees of the inferior order are candidate in philosophy and letters ; in law; in physical sciences ; in medicine, surgery, and midwifery; notary; engineer. To each of the first five degrees enumer¬ ated corresponds a doctor’s degree. Of the same order are the degree of pharmacist, civil engineer of mines, civil engineer. The degree of candidate in philosophy and ietters, corresponding very nearly to the !See Recueil des lois et arretes relatifs a Penseignement sup&rieur, pp. 145-159. L’enseignement public en Belgique, Histoire et expose de la Legislation par Emile Greyson, I. Enseignement sup4rieur, p. 29. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 185 bachelor’s degree in this countiy, is a prerequisite for the degree of candidate in law, and the degree of candidate in natural sciences, for that of candidate in medicine, surgery, and midwifery. Moreover no one can be admitted to the examinations for the lower degree in phi¬ losophy and letters or in natural sciences unless he produces the cer¬ tificate of intermediate studies, showing that he has pursued in the one case a course of classical study for at least six years, in the other case the modern secondary course for at least five years. In the absence of such certificates the aspirant must submit to a preliminary examina¬ tion. In general, the degree of candidate is a prerequisite for that ot doctor of the same order. The law fixes the conditions of admission to the examinations and the mode of conducting the same. A university may confer degrees only upon its own students. Before the degree conferred either by a university or the central jury can have any practical effect it must be confirmed by the special committee (commission d’enterinement), con¬ sisting of two councilors of the court of appeal (eours de cassation), two members of the Royal Academy of Medicine, two members of the section of sciences in the Royal Academy of Sciences, and two mem¬ bers of the section of fine arts, all appointed annually by royal decree. The provisions of the new law as to the minimum number of years of study required of candidates for the several degrees, the number of examinations for each, and the subjects to be covered by each examina¬ tion are a significant index of the standards of liberal and professional training in Belgium. The full consideration of these particulars be¬ longs, however, rather to a discussion of higher education in and of itself considered than to a mere outline of the general system of edu¬ cation, such as is here attempted. The following tabulated particu¬ lars1 complete the survey of the formal requirements for degrees: Degrees. Minimum number of years of study. Number of examina¬ tions. Fee for each ex- i animation. Candidate in philosophy and letters . Doctor of philosophy and letters . 2 2 2 1 or 2 i a $10 or $20 10 or h 20 Candidate in law . 1 1 20 Doctor of law . 2 2 or 3 3 20 Candidate notary . 3 20 Candidate in physical sciences and mathematics . 2 1 or 2 30 or 20 Doctor of physical sciences and mathematics . 2 1 or 2 10 or 20 Candidate in natural sciences . cl or 2 1 or 2 10 or d 20 Doctor of natural sciences . 2 1 or 2 19 or b2 ) Candidate in medicine, surgery, and midwifery . 2 2 10 or 2J Doctor of medicine, surgery, and midwifery . 3 3 10 Pharmacist . . . . 2 3 10 Candidate engineer . 2 2 20 Cii'il engineer of mines . 3 3 20 Civil engineer . 3 3 20 a $10 for aspirants for the doctors’ degree; $20 for aspirants for the legal degrees. &For the single examination. cFor candidates who propose a subsequent course in medicine, one year of study required. Aspir¬ ants for the decree of doctor of natural sciences or degree ot\ pharmacist must take two years’ study. d Aspirants for medical degrees. Compiled from L’Enseignement superieur, par Emile Greyson, pp. 194-214, 226-228. 186 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. It is interesting to note that under the law of 1890 women are admitted to all academic degrees. By a provision of the previous law (May 20, 187G) the Government was authorized to determine the condi¬ tions under which women might practice medicine and pharmacy. They are, however, still denied admission to the bar. Scientific and literary academies , libraries , etc. — The interests of higher education are promoted by the great number of learned societies in which Belgium abounds. Among these are the Boyal Medical Academy at Brussels, which receives an annual grant of 81,000 from the State, the Boyal Academy of Science, Literature, and Art, also at Brussels, which receives annually $8,000 from the State, and the Boyal Museum at Brussels for the State collections in natural history. Belgium has also many public libraries, the chief of which is the Boyal Library at Brussels. The public libraries of Ghent, Liege, and Louvain are con¬ nected with the respective universities. These libraries are adminis¬ tered in a very liberal spirit : they are open daily for consultation and as a rule volumes are lent at the discretion of the librarians. The spirit and the conditions under which education is fostered in Belgium seem naturally to favor a movement like that of university extension. The University of Ghent has the credit of being the first in the Continent of Europe to enter into this movement. Liege and Brus¬ sels were not slow to follow, and the work is now maintained by an association in which all three of the universities are represented. TECHNICAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. The survey of the educational provision of Belgium would be incom¬ plete without some notice of the special schools of art and industry (enseignement special) for which Belgium is justly distinguished. Pro vision for this order of training antedates the present Government, and became the subject of debate and legislation soon after its organization. Industrial and technical schools are generally established by com¬ munal authorities or by private societies, but if subsidized by the State are under the general supervision of the minister of agriculture, of industry, and of public works. They are classified as follows: Superior school of commerce at Antwerp (founded 1852) ; provincial school of Hainaut at Mons (1837); industrial schools: apprenticeship schools (ateliers d’apprentissage); professional schools and courses; schools of domestic economy, and housework for girls. The names of the first two and the last in the list sufficiently indicate their purpose. The industrial schools are characterized in official reports as schools intended “to give the workman scientific instruction which he is unable to obtain in the workshop; to xirocure for him the means of improv¬ ing his material condition and of develoxnng his intelligence; to lead him gradually away from the tyranny of routine, and to increase the economic value of his labor, and thus to enable him to contribute to increased induction for his own good and for the national benefit.” PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 187 These schools are supported mainly by Government and municipal grants. Tuition is free. The sessions are held generally in the even¬ ing and oil Sunday morning, although several have also week day ses¬ sions. The courses are not uniform, being determined on the technical side by the requirements of local industries. The general course com¬ prises the French or Flemish language according to the geographical location of the schools; mathematics in its applications to industry; physics, theoretical and applied ; chemistry, general and applied; me¬ chanics, hygiene, industrial economy, and drawing. The last named is the basis of the instruction. Pupils are admitted generally at 14 years of age (12 years at least). They must know how to read and write and the four rules of arithmetic. Apprenticeship schools (ateliers d’apprentissage) had their origin in Ghent, the first, established in 1817, having been intended for the benefit of indigent artisans. Founded at the time when the introduction of machinery was transforming all branches of the linen industry, the chief interest of the province, the new institution suggested the means of pre¬ paring artisans for the changed condition of their work. As the result of a special investigation authorized by the Government in 1810, appren¬ ticeship schools were recognized as a legitimate object of communal and State support. They were brought under State inspection in 1819. It is in the Flemish provinces that this particular class of schools abounds, all but 1 of the 37 in operation in 1889 being distributed in these two divisions, i. e., 27 in West and 9 in East Flanders. The professional (technical) schools and courses include a number of highly developed apprenticeship schools of weaving in the Flemish provinces, and similar schools established in other provinces in the interest of specific industries, as telegraphy, printing, tailoring, car¬ pentry, etc. Technical schools for the benefit of young women have been established at Brussels, Antwerp, Moms, Terriers, and Ghent, and courses less extensive in a few small communes. These schools and courses combine an advanced course of instruction in the studies of the elementary schools, with special training in drawing and in some industry adapted to women, as decorative art, artificial flower work, cutting and fitting, etc. The schools of household industry for young girls are intended especially to prepare the daughters of workmen to manage their homes with thrift, order, and a due regard for sanitary requirements. The first establishment of the kind was founded in 1872 by private initia¬ tive. The example was rapidly followed and the beneficial effects of the schools became so manifest that in 1S87 the minister of public instruc¬ tion adopted measures for the introduction of domestic economy and household work into the courses of all elementary schools for girls. An official circular was issued presenting a carefully elaborated pro¬ gramme for the guidance of elementary teachers in this part of their duties. This measure, it may be observed, is a deviation from the 188 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. general educational policy of Belgium. Although special stress is placed upon industrial and technical training, the tendency is to keep this distinct from general instruction. With the exception of the practical courses in housework and sewing for girls, and elementary lessons in agriculture and practical applica¬ tions in rural schools for boys, drawing is the only form of manual training included in the programme of elementary schools. The recent modifications in the modern course of the intermediate schools are all in the interests of general rather than of business or technical training. These are treated as specialties belonging to the period subsequent to school life. Moreover, the introduction of general courses of instruction into the industrial and technical schools emphasizes the importance which is attached to intellectual development and attainment as an equipment for ordinary life. Possibly the explanation is to be found in the desire* to reduce the rate of illiteracy prevailing in Belgium rather than in educational con¬ victions. Naturally this department of practical instruction forms a character¬ istic feature of the exposition at Antwerp,1 now in progress. The fol¬ lowing particulars of this exhibit, together with the official statistics, are from the report of the special agent of this Bureau.2 They show very clearly the variety and scope of industrial training fostered by public agencies. TYPICAL EXHIBITS OE SUBSIDIZED INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS AT THE ANTWERP EXPOSITION. Under the minister of agriculture, of industry, and of public works, industrial schools and special trade schools are maintained. A collect¬ ive exhibit of work from these institutions formed much the greater part of the whole of the educational exhibition. In the industrial schools for boys much attention is given to drawing and to simple operations in the working of wood and metals. In the industrial schools for girls great attention is given to the household arts, such as cooking, cleaning, knitting, sewing, and mending. In the trade schools attention is concentrated upon a single trade, although two or three allied trades may be taught in the same school. For boys, there are schools for clock and watch making, instrument making, machine construction, architecture and building, seamanship, fisheries, and tailoring. For girls, schools for millinery, flower making and dress¬ making. The following details indicate the work carried on in individual schools : Elementary school rue Everaerts (Antwerp) — Course in household economy. — In a space about 40 feet long and 30 feet wide a working August, 1891. 2 Prof. Wellman Parks. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 189 exhibit of this course was shown. It is to be taken as a sample of the 200 similar courses which are maintained in Belgium at an annual expense of about $50,000, and which give instruction to about 10,000 pupils. The room was fitted with cooking, laundry, and sewing appliances, and all classes of work were carried on by pupils from the school. On the walls of the room were cabinets containing samples of food ele¬ ments, medicinal and other herbs, and useful articles, such as soaps and powders. The rest of the wall space was covered with charts showing methods of preparing food and of performing all household duties. Instruction is given in the selection, preparation, and cooking of foods so that the pupils learn the relative value of the different foods, the best methods for using them, and how they should be combined to produce good and economical meals. The examples shown were of two dinners, each consisting of soup, meat, and two vegetables. One, which was for father, mother, and 5 children, cost 1.75 francs, or about 5 cents for each person. The other, which was for father, mother, and 8 children, cost 2.05 francs, or about 4 cents for each person. In the class in cleaning are taught the best ways to clean wood, paint, tin, iron, silver, and clothing. The ironing class practices upon plain and fancy clothing and curtains ironed with and without starch. The quality of this work seems to be much better than that done by the regular laundresses of the country. In sewing and mending much attention is given to plain sewing, patching, and darning. Some of the darning was exceptionally well done. It is said that not enough time is devoted to these subjects to affect in any way the amount of work done in the ordinary subjects, unless by arousing the interest of the pupil it may cause her to carry on her other work more easily and successfully. School of seamanship. — This institution is one in which much atten¬ tion is given to the design, construction, and handling of vessels ; also to the construction of harbors. The exhibit consisted principally of models of boats and ship details, of drawings, and of maps showing the location of the lights and channels of the North Sea and the ports on its borders. BLANKENBERGH. Fisheries trade school. — Of all the trade schools subsidized by the Government this one seemed most novel. Its exhibit consisted of charts and relief maps showing the shoals and fishing grounds of the North Sea, of models of fishing boats, and of examples of the various imple¬ ments used in the fisheries for catching and curing fish. The course of instruction covers seamanship, the natural history of fish, their haunts, the methods of catching and preserving fish, and the uses which can be made of them. 190 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. BRUSSELS. St. Luke’s School , a cliurcli trade school, made an extensive exhibit of free-hand and mechanical drawings. The subjects pertained chiefly to church building and decoration. State trade schools. — The school for the clock and watch making trade made an exhibit of models used in the school and of pupils7 work. Among the most interesting models were four showing the principal escapements used m watch construction. A silver watch made by a second-year pupil and valued at $10, also a gold watch by a third-year pupil and valued at about $240 were the most attractive examples of pupils7 work. Trade schools for girls. — The institutions at Brussels for millinery, flower making, lace making, and dressmaking had large, well arranged, and attractive exhibits. The work from the lace-makers7 school was of the greatest interest and consisted of very beautiful handkerchiefs and lace trimmings. The work from the flower-makers7 school was installed in a case with mirrors below and on two sides. The few bunches of lilacs, hyacinths, and jonquils, which were placed in this case, produced a pleasing effect. The work from the embroidery and dressmaking schools was very good. GHENT. St. Luke’s School , like that of Brussels, is a trade school. Its large and comprehensive exhibit included furniture and furniture desigus, free-hand drawing, illuminated work, modeling, lithographing, wmod and stone carving, and decorative iron forging. As might be expected, the church work was better than the lay work. The free-hand draw¬ ing of church decoration showed more strength whether the subject were figure or architectural detail than that pertaining to domestic life or dwelling houses. MONS. Lace trade school. — The exhibit from this school was beside the exhibit from the lace school of Brussels, and it was difficult to decide which was the finest, as every piece of lace shown by either seemed to be practically perfect. Mons exhibited more lace for dress trimmings, excellent both as regards design and execution. The exhibit of these schools was composed largely of drawings, except as described above, under Antwerp, Blankenbeigh, Brussels, and Mons. These drawings were arranged by years, and one could easily see the effect of the instruction and practice, as the quality of the work improved very rapidly in the progress from the lower to the upper classes. One piece of work from Schaerbeek attracted attention by its pecul¬ iar excellence. It was an exercise in the adaptation of natural forms to industrial decoration, and consisted of a series of designs in which the sycamore leaf was the only element. These desigus were for painted and carved friezes, ceramics, plates, tiles, hinges, and roof crests. Each one was simple and strong. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM, 191 BROTHERS OF CHARITY. This organization, which maintains institutions in Belgium, Canada, England, and the United States, filled a large space with exhibits sent from its various institutions. Among other things were maps and books used in instructing the blind, photographs showing the deaf- mute classes, charts used in the fishery trade school, and work done in the industrial schools. Statistics of industrial courses and schools for hoys , 1S92 . [A franc = 19.3 cents, or approximately 5 francs to $1.] Subsidy by — Cities. Pupils. State. Province. Commune. Other income. Antwerp . j 417 1 Arlon . . i Atb . Bruges . Brussels . . 564 Charleroi . 998 | Chatelet . . .*. . . 886 1 Courtrai . . 504 ; Curlxhem, Anderlecht . 261 | Fontaine l’Eveque . . . 227 Fumes . . 107 Ghent . . . 1, 531 Gosselies . 309 Hasselt . . . 150 Houdeng . . . . 298 Huy . . 194 Jemmapes . 337 Jumet . LaLouviere . 319 Liege . 633 1 Lmivain . . 269 j Marehiennes . 356 ! Morlanrvelz . , 708 | Namur . 512 ! Nivelics . 159 Ostend . 152 : Paturages . 231 St. Nicholas . 120 St. Gliislain . . 335 Schaerbeek . 152 _ _ 216 Toum ni _ .... 294 Verviers . 518 - _ j 173 Walcourt . 185 i Ypres . : . 146 j Zamins^-.. - . . 292 ! Francs. Francs. Francs. Francs. 9, 729. 76 4, 500. 00 11, 708. 00 2, 475. CO 1, 3U0. 00 1, 300. 00 2. 500. GO 1, 000. 00 1. 650. 00 150.00 3, 250. 00 3. 125. CO 3; 125. 00 900.00 59, 117. 00 10, 000. 00 45, 933. 00 3, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 4, 000. 00 6, 500. 00 3, 142. 00 3, 000. 00 3, 69G. 92 500. 00 3, 000. 00 3, 000. 00 5, 073. 00 1, 274. 75 500. 00 1, 274. 75 1, 116. 00 1, 500. 00 1, 656. 00 1, 050. 00 2,015. 50 700. oo 2. 015. 50 34, 919. 03 4, 500. 00 17, 459. 01 1. 960. 00 1, 960. 00 1, 960. 00 1. 575. 00 300. 00 1, 700. 00 500. 00 3. 750. 95 3, 000. 00 2, 574. 80 3, 750. 95 3. 090. 00 3, 850. 00 4,200,00 ; 2, coo. oo 2, 400. 00 450. 00 2,930.53 ! 2. 930. 53 2. 930. 53 200. 00 6. 917.00 5, 000. 00 8, 033. 00 625. 6)5 6, 003. 67 3, 300. 00 7, 571. 73 1, 618. 60 5, 800. CO 4, 500. 00 5, 000. 00 1, 800. 00 4, 839. 00 3, 820. 00 3, 560. 00 3, 000. 00 300. 00 3, 000. 00 5, 443. 00 1, 250. CO 5. 443. 67 4, 400. 00 3, 000. 00 1. 7C0. 00 93. 70 2, 0 0. GO 1, 000. 00 2, 000. 00 5, 000. 00 3. 000. 00 5, 450. 00 . . 1 1, 17. 50 1,250.00 I 1,417.50 50. 00 | 7, 000. 00 7,000.00 7, 000. 00 815. 59 12, 737. 70 3.000.00 7, 868. 85 2, 600. 00 1,200.00 i 2. 650. CO 112.30 I 1. 650. 00 500. CO 1, 000. 00 1,800.00 2. 875. 00 2, 874. CO 2. 875. 00 667.00 ! 1,333.00 1 Total income. Approxi¬ mate income in I dollars per pupil. Francs. \ 25, 937. 76 5, 075. 00 5. 300. 00 10, 4C0. U0 118. 050. 00 30. 500. 00 10, 338. 92 11.073.00 3, 049. 50 5, 322. 00 4, 731. 00 56, 878. 04 5, 8S0. 00 4, 075. 00 9, 325. 75 10, COO. 95 9, 050. 00 8, 191. 59 20, 575. 63 18, 494. GO 17, 100. 00 12, 219. 00 6, 300. 00 12. 136. 67 9, 193. 70 5, 000. 00 13, 450. 00 4. 135. 00 21, 815. 59 23, 606. 55 6. 562. 30 4. 950. 00 8, 624. 00 2, 000. 00 $12. 50 4. 05 5. 95 2. 25 4. 25 2.25 4. 45 8. 60 7. 35 3. 65 5. 30 6. 10 10.60 5.50 6. 10 10. 35 4.65 4. 60 7. 70 15. 50 7. 65 8. 10 7.80 3. 70 14. 40 8. 80 7. 35 5.20 11.50 3. 80 Approximate average income per pupil 7. 10 Industrial and trade schools for girls. - Institutions. ' . U I £ J2 ' Subsidy. in¬ come. Total in¬ come. Percentage of in¬ come given by — Ap¬ proxi¬ mate income per pupil in dol¬ lars. 6 m Province. 1 1 "S 1 ^ V 1 f- 5 ® fH ! s © 1 0 1 0 Classes and schools of Francs Francs Francs Francs. Francs. household economy. . . 194 9, 774 80, 000 218, 000 36 _ _ ! $4. 35 Schools of trade and i householu economy... 5 405 16. 400 3, 700 14. 240 17, 199 51, 539 31i 'l 3 28 j 331 24.90 Trade courses . 4 254 7, 075 1,475 13, 207 1, 570 23, 327 30g 6^ 56£' 65 17. 95 Trade schools . 12 1, 504 55, 387 9, 700 o4, 975 106, 341 226, 403 24± 41 24|i 47 29.40 Approximate average income per pupi\ . . . . 19. 15 192 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. In addition to the above statistics, the annual statement of the minister of the interior and of public instruction (1891) shows for the Superior School of Commerce at Antwerp an attendance of 141 pupils in 1890 and an income of 77,943 francs ($15,588), of which 56.7 per cent came from the State, and from the municipality 18 per cent; the remainder was from balances of the previous year and from private sources. The provincial School of Mines of Hainaut had an attendance of 91 pupils and an income of 62,452 francs ($12,490), of which the Stat£ furnished 32 per cent, the province 43 per cent, and the commune£ (Mons) 15 per cent, leaving a small balance from other sources. The 37 apprenticeship schools enrolled 1,020 pupils (938 boys, 82 girls) and had an income of 68,472 francs ($13,694) derived as follows: From the State, 54 per cent; provinces, 14.8; communes, 27; other sources, 4.2 per cent. Appendix A. CITATION FROM “^INSTRUCTION DU PEUPLE,” BYfiMILE DE LAVELEYE. [Published 1872.] ' BELGIUM. During the Middle Ages primary instruction had fuller development in Flanders than elsewhere, because there industry and agriculture had enriched the classes who live by work. In 1192 the citizens of Gand secured the sanction of their count to a measure which stipulated that “whoever had the will, capacity,, and means for the work, should have full right to open a school in the city of Gand without opposition from any person.” This, which might be called “liberty of instruction” at that early period, was proclaimed also at Ypres at the beginning of the twelfth century. At that time instruction had already extended into the country, since in many villages local dramatic societies were organized to compose and represent the mysteries and dramas. “There are in this country,” said Guichardin, who lived in Belgium for some¬ time, “ a great number of persons learned and wise in all knowledge and sciences, and the greater part of the people know something of grammar; even the villagers are able to read and write.” During the reunion of Belgium with Holland the Government of King William exerted itself to extend instruction into Belgium. The application of the law and the methods of Holland, which were excellent, was of great advantage. Unfortunately, after the revolution of 1830 the communes, left to themselves, nearly everywhere abandoned the work so happily commenced — new proof that primary education can not be confided exclusively to local administration without compromising and ruining it. The majority of the teachers were reduced to want; nearly all sought some other means of subsistence. Only those remained who were not qualified for any other profession. To a blind reaction against the system of Holland, which resulted in the closing of the best schools, succeeded an indiffer¬ ence not less baneful which prevented the location of new schools. The inter¬ vention of the central power was necessary to arrest the backward movement. The communal law of 1836, and following this, the law of 1842, organizing primary instruction, started a progressive movement which has never since ceased. The law PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 193 of 1842 lias suffered no modification since its origin; it still actually controls popu¬ lar instruction in Belgium. It is then important to make it known. In its prin¬ cipal provisions this law recalls the French law of 1833. It determines at the outset that in each commune at least one primary school shall be established in an acces¬ sible place. However, the commune is not obliged to establish a school at its own expense when its educational needs are fully met by private schools. A commune is also authorized to adopt one or more private schools, fulfilling the legal conditions required in schools which take the place of communal schools. The provincial deputation decides this, save that appeal may be made to the King. All indigent children have the right to gratuitous instruction. Primary instruction comprises, as obligatory subjects, religion and morals, read¬ ing, writing, the legal systems of weights and measures, elements of arithmetic, and, according to the demands of the localities, the elements of the French language, the Flemish, or the German. Instruction in religion and morals is given under the direction of the ministers of the denomination to which the majority of the pupils of the school belong. Chil¬ dren who do not belong to the communion of the majority are excused from taking part in this instruction. The control of the school appertains to the local authorities, save in respect to instruction in religion and morals; this is confided to the ministers of religion. A double system of inspection is established — lay inspection and ecclesiastical — exer¬ cised the one by cantonal and provincial inspectors, the other by diocesan inspectors ; the former appointed by the Government, the latter by the bishops. The books intended for primary instruction in the schools under inspection must be approved by the Government, excepting those relating to religion and morals. These are approved by the ecclesiastical authorities only. The communal council appoints the teacher. Choice must be made among candi¬ dates who, for two years at least, have attended with good results the courses of normal schools under inspection. A candidate who has not a diploma can only be appointed with the consent of the central authority. The council may suspend a teacher for three months at most. The Government decides finally as to his reinstatement or dismissal. The teacher has always the right to a hearing. The provincial inspectors are convoked every three years in a central commission under the presidency of the minister of the interior. Each pro¬ vincial inspector submits to this central commission, for its c nsideration, a report upon the schools of his district. The commission suggests 1 ne necessary modifica¬ tions and improvements. The different religious denominations may be represented in the central commission by a delegate having a voice in the deliberations. At least once every three months the civil cantonal inspectors must call a confer¬ ence of the teachers of their respective districts. Here questions of pedagogy are considered. Fundamentally, all the costs of primary instruction are at the charge of the com¬ mune. Only when the appropriation of the commune is equal to the product of 2 centimes added to the principal of the direct taxes may the iirovince intervene ; when the province has made an equal appropriation, the State in its turn may intervene. The teacher must have an annual salary of not less than 200 francs (to-day 850) and an allowance for the poor children instructed, besides a house or an indemnity in lieu of lodging. Such in sum is the organic law of 1842. Very vigorously opposed in Parliament at first by the Liberals, it has ever since been attacked by the most zealous members of this party. They assert that this law permits the priest to enter the school with¬ out a shadow of authority. In Belgium, it is said, the state and the church are completely separated; it is then against the spirit of the constitution to accord such powers to the ministers of religion who are entirely independent of the lay authorities. This system may be ED 93 - 13 194 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. possible elsewhere, in France, for example, where the State intervenes in the ap¬ pointment of prelates. In Belgium, where the church has no union with the state, it can not be tolerated. Moreover, the church naturally desires to see denomina¬ tional schools replace the communal schools. It does not love secular instruction. Every day gives proof that when it can destroy this it does not hesitate to do so. If the church has not declared war against the communal primary school, this is simply because it really has the school in its own hand. The Belgian constitution formulates so clearly the principle of the equality of religious denominations that it was impossible for the law of 1842 to violate the same directly. The primary school is therefore in principle a mixed school, where children of all religious denominations are freely admitted; but by virtue of article 6, which confides religious instruction to the teacher, and of article 7, which gives the clergy the right to inspect the school at all times with authority, the communal school is in reality a Catholic school. It would have been easy to have avoided this difficulty. It would have sufficed to confide religious instruction to the clergy, the only persons competent in this subject, as was done by the Hollandish law, and by the project of law prepared under tbe ministry of M. de Theux in Belgium in 1833. But would the clergy have been content with such provisions? Would they have accorded theii support to the communal school if they had not the power to super¬ vise and direct it? This is not probable. Would it have been possible to organize secular instruction in Belgium after the precedent afforded by Holland, despite the resistance of the clergy, and to bring the children under its influence despite their hostility? Mr. J. B. Northomb 1 did not think so, and he therefore drew up the law of 1842 as a compromise measure between the demands of the Catholic party and of the Liberal party. The Belgian law of 1842 is inferior to the Netherland law of 1857 in other respects also. The former went no further than to require one school for each commune. The Netherland law intended that the number of schools should be proportioned to the needs of the population, and to the central authority was given the power to force the commune to fulfill its obligations in this respect. The law of 1842 has not determined with sufficient precision the proportion which each of the public powers charged with the support of public instruction should contribute toward the total expense. Different interpretations have been put upon these provisions by the com¬ munes and by the State. Nevertheless, under the law of 1842 much has been done for the development of piimary instruction. (L’lnstruction du peuple, pp. 177-180.) APPENDIX B. PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. Primary Communal Schools. OBLIGATORY PROGRAMME OF STUDIES AND OFFICIAL DIRECTIONS RELATIVE THERETO. [Law of 1879, article 5.] Primary education comprises morals, reading, writing, elements of arithmetic, sys¬ tem of weights and measures, elements of the French, Flemish, and German lan¬ guages (according to locality), geography, Belgian history, elements of drawing, knowledge of geometric forms, elements of natural sciences, gymnastics, singing, and needlework for girls. Other branches may be added in localities where it is deemed advisable. A royal decree is to indicate the additional branches, as well as the reason for such increase of the list for the commune. 1 Chairman of the committee appointed to draft provisions acceptable to the oppos¬ ing parties. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 195 Text-books are to be examined by tbe council appointed to judge of such matters (conseil de perfectionuement), then to be approved by the Government. The teacher must not neglect any opportunity of inspiring the pupils with a love of country and the national institutions. The teacher is to abstain at all times from any remarks against the religious belief of the families whose children are confided to his care. GENERAL RULES. [Decree of August 16, 1879.] The instructor is to have constant care for the physical, intellectual, and moral education of the pupils under his charge. He is to see that moral duties are under¬ stood, loved, and practiced. He is to watch carefully that pupils observe all rules of propriety at all times. Primary instruction covers necessarily the branches mentioned in the first para¬ graph of article 5 of the law of July 1, 1879. Only those books may be used which have beep approved of as in accordance with the law. As regards methods of instruction, the teacher must conform to the regulations given by the minister of public instruction. The distribution of work in the various branches of instruction is to be arranged by the head teacher, countersigned (vise) by the cantonal inspector, then ordered (or published) by the municipal authorities. This programme is to be placed on the wall of the schoolroom. The head teacher and assistants are forbidden to make any changes in the programme. Both principal and assistants are to keep a daily record of the instruction in each class, the quality of recitations, etc. The assistants and employees about the building are to be under the orders of the head teacher or whoever takes his place. The school yard is to be opened at least a quarter of an hour before the recitations commence. The head teacher and the assistants are to watch over the pupils when they enter and leave the schoolroom and during recess. * * * Head teachers and assistants must not attend to anything else during the recita¬ tions than the instruction of their pupils. The classification of pupils in the different divisions belongs to the head teacher, or in certain cases it may be referred to the cantonal inspector. The head teacher is to keej) watch over the pupils, so that they do not waste their time. The head teacher and assistants are forbidden to show any preference for any bright pupil to the neglect of others, either by reason of desiring to make a fine effect at the examinations or for any reason whatsoever. The instruction should be distributed equally among the pupils. The head teacher is to see that proper care is taken of the building and its appur¬ tenances. He is to have a care that nothing is allowed which might injuriously affect the health of the pupils. He is to see that the schoolroom is always neat and that it is cleaned at least once a day. The room should be ventilated before pupils enter and after they leave. In localities where the rdiysicians of the j>oor receive a salary from Ihe board of health (bureau de bienfaisance) they are expected to visit the public schools at least once a month. At the close of the visit they are to report the sanitary condition of the pupils to the proper authorities (college 6chevinal). Any pupils attacked by a contagious disease are to be sent home, and they can not enter the schoolroom again untiL a certificate, stating that they are entirely cured, has been obtained from the physician. 196 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. PROGRAMME OF EDUCATION. The following from the circular, explanatory of the programme, shows the ideal of popular education contemplated by the Liberal party. “If it is important that the programme should neither alarm nor discourage anyone, it is of supreme necessity that it should offer serious obstacles to routine and become an instrument of progress ; that it should compel the teacher to awaken in his pupils a spirit of observation, experiment, and reflection; that instead of habituating him to the disastrous methods of verbalism it should urge him to labor for the sound development of the faculties. It should constantly be a reminder to him that his last as well as his first daily duty is to make a thorough preparation of his lessons — that is to say, to find out the surest, shortest, and most attractive way of making his instruction reach the minds and hearts of his pupils. “ The programme ought to fulfill another important condition. It should stimulate the teachers in small communes, while it responds to more general requirements. It should arouse them and encourage them to lead their pupils as far as the extreme limits of primary education properly so called will permit. But it should not become an obstacle in the path of improvement in larger communes which may wish to extend the education of their children beyond the ordinary sphere. In order to comply with these different principles the plan of study has been divided into two great sections — the programme of the primary school proper and of the superior primary school. “The programme of the primary school proper is obligatory throughout and em¬ braces three successive courses or grades of two years or more each. In schools where the attendance is regular the first or elementary grade will include, as a rule, children of from 6 to 8 years of age ; the second, children of 8 to 10 ; and the third, those from 10 to 12 years of age. It is not the intention of the Government to prescribe in an abso¬ lute way the precise time to be devoted to studying the subjects assigned to each grade. It contents itself with requiring that these three great stages of school life should be clearly marked in each school, and it is also convinced that the majority of children will be able to pass them without too much effort between the ages of 6 and 12, and very easily between 6 and 13 or 6 and 14 years of age.” It belongs to the inspectors, the communal governments, and the teachers to adapt the programme to the needs of each locality by distributing the subjects of study among the different school years and divisions, and by selecting the points which will only be treated summarily and those which, according to the longer or shorter time at the disposal of the teachers, can be studied more deeply. Besides the obligatory subjects enumerated in article 5 of the law of July 1, 1879, the programme of primary schools includes two elective studies : a language (French for Flemish or German localities, or German for Walloon districts) and elementary notions of agriculture, horticulture, and arboriculture. Instructions in these two branches will be organized in accordance with the regulations of the royal decree of April 25, 1880. The superior primary school can only be established by virtue of the same decree. It will be opened for children of at least twelve years of age who have finished the studies of the third grade of the primary school. Instruction in each of these schools must be given by one, and, if necessary, two, special teachers. The superior primary schools offer great advantages to the large rural or industrial communes which have no secondary State«schools. They will continue the general education of the young, furnish preparatory training for an agricultural or professional career, and diffuse among the population, by an extension of knowledge, a taste for obser¬ vation and for intellectual pleasures. Communes which can not organize a complete superior primary school may add to the obligatory programme of the ordinary primary school one or more of the subjects of study of the superior primary school, in accordance with the regulations of the above-mentioned royal decree, such studies to be pursued only by pupils of at least PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 197 12 years of age. In tlie inteiesfc of the scholars care must he taken that the number of studies thus added shall he as restricted as possible. As formulated, the programme of primary education, with the extensions it may receive, embraces four concentric circles gradually widening, each of which embraces all the subjects of study. These four progressive courses, the first three of which are obligatory, are characterized by being at once independent and connected, each forming a whole in itself and yet being complemented by the others. The system adopted, so eminently suited to the simultaneous development of all the faculties of a child, also has the advantage of corresponding in its first three courses to the present classification of scholars into the lower, middle, and superior divisions, and is adapted at the same time to the needs of children who leave school without having finished a full course of primary studies. By offering all the subjects of study in each grade, according to the measure of the intellectual powers of the children, the latter are enabled to reap from their attendance at school much more solid advantages than could be gained from instruc¬ tion in fragmentary courses graded in successive stages. Instruction in morals. — The official programme determines the office of the teacher with regard to moral instruction, as follows: Moral instruction is the noblest and most important work of the school, and the teacher must devote all his energies to it. He is to employ all the resources of his mind and heart in making easy to his pupils the practice of their duties to them¬ selves, their parents, their superiors, their equals, and their country. Instruction in duty to God belongs more especially to the different religious beliefs, but by making use of an idea common to all of them without entering on dogmatic ground the teacher can find occasion to talk to his pupils about the Deity, the soul, and those great moral and Christian truths which, to the honor of human¬ ity, have progressively become the domain of all religions and the inheritance of all civilized nations. (Ministerial circular of July 17, 1879.) It is principally by his administration of the school that the teacher will inculcate morality. The dignity of his acts and language, his respect for justice, his sincere regard for his pupils, will enable him to establish a wise discipline and assure him the respect and love of his scholars. Thus holding the position of a good father of a family he will endeavor to give instruction which, like that of the domestic hearth, breathes simplicity, goodness, and virtue. He will take advantage of all the school exercises, recreations, sports, and prome¬ nades, and the thousand incidents of school life to enlighteu the consciences of his pupils, strengthen their good and check their evil propensities, and exercise and cultivate their wills in good directions. He will endeavor to inspire respect for truth and justice, to develop a spirit of charity and tolerance, and a love of work and economy. He will seek opportunities for rendering his pupils sensible to the beautiful in nature, in art, and in a moral life, thus enabling them to profit by the influence which esthetic culture exercises on the education of the feelings. The character of the primary school is opposed to providing for it a course of moral didactics made in accordance with a plan devised beforehand. What a child needs is the good example of his teacher and of his comrades, moral instruction in action, a spontaneous lesson which comes now from something he reads and now from some aspect of nature, at one time from a passage of history and at another from a fable. There is no objection to giving certain lessons at fixed hours every week on some story, fable, or historical or literary extract. The teacher may make the selections from the reader or classical manual, and arrange them so as to present in a concrete and entertaining form the principal moral duties of a child. Short pieces of poetry, selected with discretion, offer valuable resources. They induce a love of nature, strengthen the patriotic sentiment, and refine the moral sense. 198 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Schedule of work. — The number of hours of lessons and other exercises a week is as follows : In the first or elementary grade, twenty-five hours; in the second grade, twenty-eight hours; in the third grade, twenty-eight hours; and in the superior primary schools, thirty hours. Examinations. — Competitive examinations take place annually for pupils of the superior division of primary schools. TEACHING GEOMETRICAL FORMS IX THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. The Belgian primary school attributes much importance to the study of geomet¬ rical forms. This branch furnishes excellent means for intellectual development. It lays the foundation of instruction in drawing and forms an admirable preparation for different trades (carpentry, masonry, locksmithing, etc.). The inspectors must be careful to see that the instruction is essentially practical and given by inspection (i. e., from objects) only, that scientific demonstrations are pro¬ hibited, and that the teacher is sparing in definitions. It is enough for the pupils to recognize the forms by perceiving their relations, and to be able to reproduce them in a drawing and by one of the methods borrowed from the Frobel system (by bend¬ ing, constructing figures of pieces of wood, etc.). Our method, therefore, is not that of scientific geometry, with its theorems, corol¬ laries, and problems. It is entirely based on inspection and practice, and is only the natural development of what takes place in kindergarten. The essential point is that pupils know how to draw or construct the geometrical forms and learn their leading properties, with the measure of their areas and volumes. SCHOOL HYGIENE. The inspection of school hygiene under the central administration of the depart¬ ment of public instruction includes the three degrees of education. As far as primary education is concerned the inspectors are charged with the examination of building sites, plans of construction and of improvements and extensions of school buildings. Their main duty is to see that the approved proposals are in accordance with the just demands of hygiene and pedagogy. They must also be very particular to insist that the designs for schools conform to the requirements of simplicity and good taste. Since its organization the bureau of inspection has brought about great reduction in expenses by opposing extravagance in fagades and in general furnishing. It has drawn up a programme for the construction of normal schools which has been adoptedby the department. This programme has facilitated the work of the architects and has enabled them to*effect very considerable savings in making new estimates and plans. The examination of school designs is not, however, the only mission of the inspectors of school hygiene. TThen there are different opinions as to the best sites to choose for schools, or when improvements or extensions of existing buildings are under discussion, they visit the spots designated, make examinations, and report to the department for its guidance. It is also the duty of the inspection bureau, so far as the school is concerned, to bring about the harmonious action of the physical, intellectual, and moral nature of the children. It is important that the impulse to study in all school grades should be regulated in accordance with the laws of human nature, by applying the princi-. pies of hygiene, which require an equilibrium of the physical forces and the intel¬ lectual faculties. A programme based on these principles is vast. It can only be prepared by method¬ ically correlating observations made in all parts of the country. To accomplish this researches of two kinds are necessary. The hygienic situation of all school build¬ ings must be ascertained, so as to apply to them the improvements which may be found necessary, and, what is of no less importance, the inspectors must prepare a system of regular medical inspection of all educational institutions in the whole realm. At present this can only be done in the larger cities. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 199 Appendix C. LAW CONTROLLING PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. [September 20, 1884.] Every commune must have at least one communal school, situated in an accessible place. The commune may adopt one or more private schools. In this case the King, upon the advice of the 11 permanent committee,” may exempt the commune from the obli¬ gation to maintain a communal school. This dispensation can not be accorded if 20 heads of families having children of school age demand the creation or the main¬ tenance of a school for the instruction of their children and the “ permanent com¬ mittee” concurs in this demand. In case of necessity two or more communes, upon authority from the King, may unite to found and maintain a school. (Art. 1.) Communal primary schools are directed by the communes. The number of the schools and of the teachers is determined by the communal council according to the needs of the locality. The council also controls everything relating to the establishment and organization of infant schools (ecoles gardiennes) and of schools for adults. (Art. 2.) The children of poor parents receive gratuitous instruction. The communes mast see that all those who do not attend uninspected private schools are provided with instruction either in a communal or adopted school. The communal council, on communication with the board of charities, draws up every year a list of poor children receiving gratuitous instruction in the communal or adopted schools and determines the amount of pay due the teachers of those schools for each scholar receiving such instruction. This list and the assessment of the amount due is submitted for approval to the committee, subject to appeal to the King. The committee also determine, under appeal to the King, the proportion to bo paid by the board of charities for the education of poor children, and the pro¬ portion so assigned is included in the appropriation for the board. (Art. 3.) Primary instruction comprises as obligatory branches, reading, writing, elements of arithmetic, the legal system of weights and measures, the elements of the French language, of the Flemish or the German, according to local requirements ; geography, history of Belgium, elements of drawing, singing, and gymnastics. Moreover, it comprises needlework for girls, and for boys in the rural districts notions of agri¬ culture. Communes have the right to extend the programme as may be possible or desirable. The communes may inscribe religious and moral instruction at the head of the curriculum of all or some of their elementary schools. This instruction is given at the commencement or at the end of the school hours. Children at the request of their parents, are excused from attending such instruction. (a) In the case of a commune in which 20 heads of families having children of school age ask that their children shall be exempted from assisting at religious instruction, the King can, at the request of the parents, oblige such commune to organize, for the use of these children, one or more special classes. ( b ) If, in spite of the request of 20 heads of families haying children of school age, the commune refuse to inscribe the teaching of their religion in the school curricu¬ lum or hinder such instruction being given by the ministers of their religion or by persons approved of by these latter, the Government can, at the request of the par¬ ents, adopt one or more private schools, as may be requisite, provided they meet the conditions prescribed for adoption by the commune. (Art. 4.) Teachers must show an equal solicitude for the education and instruction of the children under their charge. They are to neglect no opportunity to inspire in their pupils the sentiments of duty, love of country, respect for national institutions, and 200 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. attachment to constitutional liberty. They must abstain from any attack upon the religious beliefs of the families whose children are intrusted to them. (Art. 5.) The communes hear the expenses of primary instruction in the communal schools, the provinces and the communes to an extent not less than 2 centimes on the amount of the direct tax. A commune can not obtain subsidies from the State or province for primary in¬ struction unless it contributes at least 4 centimes additional to the direct tax and carries out the present law in all points. Each year to the proposed estimate there must be annexed a detailed account of the application of the funds of the preceding year, including those of the State, province, and commune. (Art. 6.) The communal council has the right of appointing, of suspending, of placing en disponibilitd (out of active service, but drawing pay), and of revoking the appoint¬ ments of teachers. At the same time, the teacher’s appointment can not be canceled without the approval of the permanent deputation. The council and the teacher may appeal to the King. The same rules apply to all suspension for more than a month and to all suspension with stoppage of pay or upon reduced pay. Suspension once decreed by the communal council can not be renewed by it on the same facts nor exceed six months’ duration. The King, in accord with the advice of the permanent deputation, both the teacher and the com¬ munal council being heard, may suspend or revoke a teacher’s appointment. Sub¬ ject to the same advice, he may place a teacher en disponibilitA The salary of an unattached teacher is paid by the commune if the order depriving him of service is issued by the communal council ; by the State if the order is issued by the King. No place may remain more than a month without a teacher. The Col¬ lege f! chevinal designates the substitute. The council fixes the minimum of teachers’ salaries. The salary can not be less than 1,000 francs ($200) for assistant teachers and 1,200 francs ($240) for teachers. The teacher has, besides this, the right to be lodged or to receive an allowance for house rent. The communal council can place a teacher on the unattached list, and so keep him from active employment, in which case he will receive waiting pay, under conditions which will be determined by royal decree. The amount can not be less than half his salary nor less than 750 francs. This pay will be furnished by the State, the province, and the commune, in the proportions fixed by article 5 of the law of May 16,1876. * * * (Art. 7.) The communal schoolmasters are chosen from among those Belgians, either by birth or naturalization, who have gained the diploma of an elementary teacher after being trained in a public normal school, or who have passed an examination after having attended lectures during at least two years, or who have gained a diploma for secondary teaching (enseignement moyen) of the second degree. They can also be selected from among those persons who have successfully passed the teachers’ examination before a jury appointed by the Government. (Art. 8.) A private school can not be adopted unless it fulfills the following conditions : (1) The school must be established in a suitable building. (2) At least half the number of teachers must have received a diploma or have passed the examination for the male or female teachers ; but the minister is at liberty to dispense with this condition during the two years following the promulgation of this law. Those who have had charge of communal schools prior to the present law are exempt from examination. (3) Should religious instruction form part of the curriculum, such instruction shall be given at the beginning or at the end of the school hours. Children, on the application of their parents, shall be exenrpted from attending religious instruction. (4) The curriculum shall comprise the subjects mentioned in section 1 of article 4 of the law. (5) The adopted school must accept State inspection. (6) It must admit poor children without requiring other payment than that pre¬ scribed in article 3 of the law. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 201 (7) Tlie number of hours of School attendance shall not be less than twenty per week, without including the time devoted to teaching of religion and morals; after deducting the time employed on needlework, this number shall not be less than sixteen. * * * (Art. 9.) Communal and adopted schools are subject to inspection by the State ; this can not extend to the course in religion and morals. In each province there must be one or more principal insjiectors, and in each district under a principal inspector several cantonal inspectors. Once a year the cantonal inspector must visit all the schools of his district. Once, at least, every three months he must call the teachers of his district together for a conference, and must submit to the principal inspector a report upon the state of primary instruction in tli© communes uuder his charge. Once a year each principal inspector must preside over one of the teachers’ conferences, and once in two years, at least, must visit each school of his province. He must submit an annual report to the minister upon the state of primary instruction in his province. * * * (Art. 10. ) The State, the provinces, and the communes may establish normal schools. (Art. 11.) The organization of normal schools belonging to the State is regulated by the Government. A ministerial decree insures absolute liberty of conscience to stu¬ dents of the normal school. (Art. 12.) The provincial and communal normal school, as well as private schools, may receive State aid, provided they are subject to inspection. * * * (Art. 13.) The communal inspectors and teachers and the directors, professors, and teachers of State normal schools must take the oath prescribed by article 2 of the decree of July 20, 1831. (Art. 14.) A report on the condition of primary instruction shall be presented to the legisla¬ ture by the Government every three years. (Art. 15.) Article 16 specifies the laws repealed or modified by the present law. Persons who obtained the diploma of primary teacher from a private normal school between the adoption and the repeal of the law of July 1, 1879, may receive the appointment of communal teacher on condition of obtaining a confirmation of such diploma from a board organized in accordance with article 8. It shall be the duty of the board to see that the private normal school giving the diploma is organized so as to train teachers capable of keeping communal primary schools established in conformity with the present law. The board may make the confirmation subject to a complementary examination on certain matters to be des¬ ignated by it. In such case the teacher who has a diploma shall have one year to prepare for the examination. He . may meanwhile exercise the functions of a com¬ munal teacher provisionally. (Art. 17.) CHAPTER IV. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. GREAT BRITAIN. England and Wales. — Population 29,731,100, estimated 1893. School attendance. — From the report of the committee of council on education (education department) for 1893 it appears that the State- aided elementary schools had an enrollment for the year ending August 31, 1893, of 5,12G,373 children, or L7 per cent of the population (1893). The daily average attendance was 4,100,030 (i. e., 2,137,487 boys and 1,962,543 girls), or 82 per cent of the enrollment. The average attend¬ ance at evening schools was 81,068. As compared with the preceding year there was a gain of 2.38 per cent in day-school enrollment and 5.92 per cent in average attendance. It is noted that the gain in both items is nearly as great among the older children — i. e., those above 7 years of age — as in those below 7. To quote the report : The number of infants on the registers has gone up from 1,764,930 to 1,813,992, an increase of 49,062 (2.83 per cent), and that of older children from 3,242,049 to 3,312,381, an increase of 70,332 (2.17 per cent). The number of infants in average attendance has similarly risen from 1,183,830 to 1,278,798, an increase of 94,968 (8.02 per cent), and that of older children in average attendance from 2,686,944 to 2,821,232, an increase of 131,288 (5 per cent). This result is attributed chiefly to the practical effect of the law of 1891 in bringing about the abolition or substantial reduction of school fees. On the registers of the schools actually inspected during the year under review there were 4,236,867 free pupils, as against 589,506 paying fees. Other causes for the improved attendance are the grow¬ ing sense of the importance of education among parents and school managers, and also, paradoxical as it may seem, the stagnation of trade during the year. Experience in England, as in the United States, shows that dull trade makes a full school and brisk trade an empty one. In the absence of temptation to send their children into employment on the earliest possible opportunity parents are content to allow them to stay on at school, and especially so now that no payment is neces¬ sarily demanded from them. In illustration of this fact the report 203 204 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. states that an investigation into the effect of the dispute in the coal trade of last autumn upon the school attendance in the districts affected showed a distinct increase in the attendance of children, dur¬ ing the weeks for which the dispute lasted, over the normal attendance for the year. Classification of schools and relative attendance. — The schools included in the report are board schools and private (voluntary) schools, chiefly denominational. The former are established and conducted by elected boards and maintained by local taxes (rates) and the Government grant, with fees in certain cases. They numbered 4,904 and comprised 41 per cent of the pupils in average attendance upon elementary schools. The voluntary schools, which are established and controlled by private individuals, churches, or associations, and maintained by the Government grant, private subscriptions, endowments, and fees -in some cases, numbered 14,673 and comprised 59 per cent of the average attendance. Teaching force. — The elementary schools employed 101,751 teachers, of whom 49,340 had Government certiflcates, 25,123 were un certificated assistants, and 27,288 were pupil teachers. The proportion of women teachers was 59 per cent in the first class specified, and 80 per cent in each of the other two classes. The average salaries of certificated teachers were, for men £121 15s. 2d. ($592.44), and for women £79 4s. ($385.39). About 31 per cent of the certificated masters and 17 per cent of the certificated mistresses are also provided with free residences. The training colleges supply the greater proportion of certificated teachers to the service. The 44 boarding colleges were attended in 1893 by 3,409 students and the 14 day training colleges by 564 students. These colleges, like the elemen¬ tary schools, are supported in part by Government appropriations. Inspection. — In accordance with the law of 1870 and subsequent modi¬ fying laws under which the system of elementary education is admin¬ istered, local boards and managers have full control of elementary schools. In order, however, to secure a share in the Government grant they must fulfill certain conditions as to equipments and staff, duration of school year, curricula, etc.1 The Government grant is allowed solely for instruction in secular subjects under the conditions specified in the law and departmental regulations. Beligious exercises in board schools must be strictly un¬ denominational ; in private schools sectarian instruction must not be forced upon any pupil. The Government maintains an inspection over the schools to deter¬ mine the manner in which its requirements are met. For the purposes of this inspection the country is divided into 10 districts, each under a chief inspector, whose duties are of a general nature, advisory and ^or detailed particulars see tlie Commissioner’s Report for 1888-89. vol. 1, pp. 97-101. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 205 judicial, with the specific obligation to present an annual report to the department based upon the reports of the inspectors. The latter num¬ ber at present 91, which, with 53 subinspectors and 160 inspectors’ assist¬ ants, gives a total of 316 officials engaged in the work. In the inspectors’ reports the schools are classified as infant schools and classes j i. e., for children under 7 years of age and schools for older pupils, i. e., 7 to 14. In the former the Government grant is allowed entirely on the basis of average attendance, and consists of a fixed por¬ tion at the rate of 7s. or 9s. per capita and a variable grant of 2s., 4s., or 6s. per capita. The highest fixed rate is allowed only when the school is held in a room specially furnished for the instruction of infants. The rate of the variable grant allowed is determined by the report as to general conditions; it may be withheld altogether. For the year under review only 38 schools out of 7,140 and 1,175 classes out of 5,755 were recommended for the lower fixed rate. The showing as to the variable grant indicates that in general the larger the infant school the greater its merit. Extra grants are allowed in the infant schools for needlework, drawing, and singing. The total rate per capita allowed was 15s. 7d. and the total payment £994,009 ($4,836,848). The grants to older schools are made up as follows: s. d. s. d. Principal grant . .» . 12 6 or 14 0 Grant for discipline and organization . 1 0 or I 6 Grant for needlework on account of girls . 1 0 Grant for singing . 0 6 or 1 0 Grant for class subject . 1 0 or 2 0 Grant for specific subjects . 2 0 or 3 0 All the foregoing are reckoned on the average attendance, excepting the grant for needlework, which is reckoned on the average attendance of girls only, and the grant for specific subjects, which is paid for each individual passing examination in the same. The total grant allowed in schools for older scholars wTas at the rate of 19s. 2Jd. per capita of average attendance, and yielded the sum of £2,734,618 ($13,306,651). Besides the obligatory subjects of instruction, i. e., reading, writing, arithmetic, needlework for girls, and drawing for boys, additional class subjects were maintained in 95 per cent of the schools. Hot more than two class subjects are allowed at a time. The reports show that English is the preferred subject and geography second. Hereafter the department will not recognize any school that does not maintain at least one class subject. Among interesting f)articulars brought out by the inspectors is the marked increase in the number of schools maintaining savings banks. The returns show that savings were received in 8,548 schools, an increase of 2,165 over the previous year. This progress is attributed to a disposition on the part of parents to invest week by week the small sums formerly paid in school fees. 206 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. Tlie Government inspection extends also to teachers’ training col¬ leges, which are under two chief inspectors, one assigned to the schools for young men, the other to those for young women.1 The Government grant for the residential (boarding) colleges in 1893 amounted to £126,392, which was equal to about 70 per cent of the current expenditure for the same. The grants to day training colleges, established in connection with university colleges, under regulations adopted in 1890, amounted to 118,322, or about 70 per cent of their current expenditure. Finances. — Tlie current expenditure for elementary education was £8,640,859 ($42,046,420). Of this amount the Government grant allowed upon the reports of inspection, and in lieu of school fees, furnished 67 per cent; local taxes (rates allowed for board schools only), 20 per cent; fees, 4 per cent; other local sources, i. e., subscriptions, endowments, etc., the balance. The expenditure per capita of average attendance was, in board schools, £2 8s. ljd. ($11.71) and in private schools (voluntary) £1 17s. GJd.. ($9.13). Two important laws relative to education were passed during the year. These are the “ elementary education (blind and deaf children) act 1893” and the “ elementary education (school attendance) act 1893.” The former provides for the education of blind and deaf children in elementary schools under special arrangement, and makes it obligatory upon parents to avail themselves of the provision, unless their children are otherwise instructed. The latter is characterized in the report as a distinct “step forward in the history of national education.” “It provides, in effect, that the minimum age for exenrption, whether fatal or partial, from the obligation to attend school fixed by local by-laws made under the education act shall be raised to 11 years of age, in¬ stead of 10, as heretofore; and it contains a corresponding prohibition of employment of children under 11.” The department expresses the hope “that as years go on, and public opinion ripens as to the impor¬ tance of sufficient education, and the mischief of early child labor, it may be found possible to raise still further the mi nimum age of exemp¬ tion.” The new regulations respecting evening schools also render this a memorable year in the history of elementary education in England. The purpose of these regulations is indicated in the word “continua¬ tion,” applied to the evening schools for the first time. Heretofore these schools have been treated merely as elementary schools for igno¬ rant youths. Under the new conception it is believed that they will become the means of extending the education of ambitious working men and women who desire to pursue their studies beyond the elemen¬ tary stage. TMr. J. G. Fitch, who has' held this position since 1885, resigned at the close of the year under review (1893). ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 207 Hereafter pupils above 21 years of age are to be counted in the average attendance for grants, and no pupil is to be compelled to take tlie purely elementary subjects (i. e., reading, writing, and arithmetic). Among the subjects of instruction recognized for the fixed grant are drawing, manual and technical instruction, physical exercises, military drill (for boys and men), household work (for girls and women). Grants may also be allowed for modern languages, algebra and geometry, chemistry, physics and other branches of science, vocal music, book¬ keeping, etc. Considerable freedom is allowed to managers in respect to the organization and conduct of the schools. It is noticeable that the teachers need not necessarily be lay persons. As the scheme did not go into operation until May 18, 1893, its effects can not yet be certainly determined. It is, however, apparent that attendance upon and interest in these schools have been greatly stimu¬ lated by the new measure. Scotland. — Population, 4,090,315 (estimated, 1893). The system of public instruction established under the u Scotch ed¬ ucation act,’7 1872, resembles the English system in its main features; both are maintained by the combined action of Government and local agencies, with like provision as to Government appropriations and inspection. The Scotch educational department has the same functions as the English; it is composed, like the latter, of lords of the privy council, and has the same president. The officers of inspection in Scotland comprise 3 chief inspectors, 22 inspectors, 4 subinspectors, and 21 inspectors7 assistants. The main points of difference between the Scotch and the English systems are the greater prevalence in the former of board schools (i. e., public schools sharing in local taxes), which enroll about 85 percent of pupils in Scotland, as against 41 percent in England; the greater freedom left to local boards with respect to religious instruction, and the distinct recognition given to secondary education by the Scottish school law. Statistics 1892-93 . — The report of the education department for the year ending September 30, 1893, shows that the enrollment of children in the schools under inspection was 064,838, or 16.25 per cent of the population, and the average attendance 542,851, or 81.6 per cent of the enrollment. There v ere also 19,575 pupils in average attendance upon the night schools. The number of boys in attendance upon the day schools is slightly in excess of the number of girls, being 52 per cent as against 48 per cent of girls. As regards age, 20 per cent of pupils in average attend¬ ance were below 7 years of age, 39 per cent between 7 and 10 years, and 41 per cent above 10. As regards subjects of instruction, it appears that out of 3,010 depart¬ ments (i. e., divisions of a school under a separate head teacher) for 208 . EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. older pupils (above 7 years of age), class subjects bad been taken in 2,996, or more than 99 per cent of the whole. English and geography are, as in England, the preferred subjects. Further, 44,280 pupils were presented for examination in from one to three specific subjects. These are within the range of secondary or high school branches. The teaching force of the schools comprised 8,325 teachers having a Government certificate, 1,874 assistants, and 3,775 pupil teachers; total, 13,974. Nearly one- third of the teachers were men. Average salaries for certificated teachers were £135 15s. 2d. ($660.50) for 'men and £64 8s. lOd. ($313.56) for women. About one-fourth of the head teachers are also provided with free residence. The training colleges for teachers, 7 in number, were attended by 945 students; of these 138 were also pursuing studies in university classes. As the course of training is two years, these colleges afford about 440 trained teachers annually to the schools. Expenditure. — The expenditure for elementary education, day and night schools, was £1,280,289 ($6,229,886). Of this sum the Govern¬ ment grant, including grant in lieu of fees, supplied 71 per cent, local taxes (rates) 22.6 per cent, tuition fees 2.6 per cent, other local sources the small balance of 3.8 per cent. The cost per capita of average attendance was in board schools £2 6s. lljd. ($11.42), in private (vol¬ untary) schools £2 2s. 6Jd. ($10.34). Examination for merit certificates. — In 1891 the department offered a merit certificate for pupils of elementary schools above the fifth grade who should pass a special examination, intended as a proof of special thoroughness in the elementary branches. It was hoped that this measure might induce pupils to remain longer at school than was for¬ merly the rule. Such, indeed, seems to have been its effect. The num¬ ber of pupils seeking the certificate has increased each year, reaching in 1893 a total of 3,791. Secondary schools. — The inspection of higher schools was first under¬ taken by the department in 1885. The present year 69 schools accepted the service, of which number 27 were public high schools, 124 endowed F drools, and 18 private schools. The u leaving certificate5’ examination, which is accepted by the universities and many professional authorities in place of their own preliminary examinations, attracts a constantly increasing number of candidates. In 1888 the number was 972; it rose to 7,148 the present year. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION UNDER THE LONDON SCHOOL BOARD The most notable event of the year’s history is the agitation of the question of religious instruction in the London schools. To understand the full significance of this agitation it is necessary to have in mind the previous history of the matter at issue. In the celebrated debate over the education law of 1870 the question of religious instruction in public schools was discussed with thoroughness, with ardor and candor, and ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRIL’ AIN. 209 a course was adopted that lias ever since been known as the “set¬ tlement of 1870,” an expression indicating the general hope that the arrangements were final. Occasional efforts however, have been made to reopen the matter. This was especially the case at the time of the appointment of the royal commission on the elementary education acts (1886), but although this body had a decided leaning toward the claims and interests of the established church, it made no recommendations to disturb the “settlement.” It was manifest from the investigation of the commission that the people of England by an overwhelming majority desired religious instruction in the elementary schools, and equally manifest that the existing adjustments gave general satisfaction to the laity. The provisions of the law of 1870 with respect to this matter were com¬ prised in section 7, commonly known as the “conscience clause,” which prohibited every school that shared in the Government grant from applying any religious test to pupils or forcing sectarian instruction upon any. The religious exercises were to be conducted either at the beginning or end of the day’s session, so that children whose parents so desired might withdraw without the loss of other exercises ; more¬ over, the fourteenth section of the act prohibited board schools from “the teaching of any religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination.” Under these restrictions, as was ascertained by the commission, the school boards of England, save only 91 out of a total of 2,255, had pro¬ vided for religious exercises in their schools. The London board early elaborated a very full syllabus of Bible instruction which is followed in all its schools, and occupies from halt to three-quarters of an hour daily. * Explicit directions are issued to the teachers as to the carrying out of the scheme. They are requested to make the lessons as practical as possible and not to give attention to unnecessary details. In addition to the large number of children in London affected by this instruction (about 450,000), the influence of the scheme has been greatly extended through its adoption by 101 other boards, including several of the most important cities. With these conditions in mind, it will be easy to understand the excitement caused by the sudden reopening of the question in the London board. It is proposed here only to give the leading facts of the controversy. The discussion was started in the board in February, 1893, by Mr. Athelstan Riley, who called attention to the following statement made by the chairman of the committee on religious instruction (Rev. J. J. Coxhead) in the columns of a church paper : I have been this morning present in one of these (board) schools during the viva voce examination of the children by the teachers. In the first room to Which I entered I heard these questions : What was the name of the mother of Jesus? What was the name of His father? Every child that the teacher called upon answered ED 93 - 14 210 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Joseph. Not a word was said to imply the existence of His divine nature. The teacher was the headmistress of an infant department (i. e., for children under 7 years of age). Id view of this statement, Mr. Eiley moved — That the teachers of the hoard he informed that when the religious instruction for the day is given on passages from the Bible which refer to Christ, the children are to bo distinctly taught that Christ is God, and such explanations of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity are to be given as may be suited to their capacities. (School Board Chronicle, February 4, 1893, p. 122.) Although Mr. Eiley started the discussion, the chairman of the board, Mr. Joseph E. Higgle, soon became the leader of the movement, while the Hon. Lyulph Stanley appeared as the leader of the opposition.1 During the discussion of the original motion, which was prolonged through several meetings of the board, Lyulph Stanley moved “that the board adhere to the scheme of biblical and religious teaching which was settled by the first board and has remained in force down to the present time.” This was carried by a majority of 12 in a vote of 54. At the same meeting a motion was carried by a majority of 19 providing for the substitution of the words “Christian religion and morality,” for “ morality and religion,” the expression used in the orig¬ inal directions of the board for the guidance of their teachers in the matter. Eesolutions, counter resolutions, and debates within the board, peti¬ tions and protests from without became the order of the day. The let¬ ters and petitions on the subject received by the board up to October 12, 1893, were thus classified by a member, Mr. J. H. Gladstone : Forty-one letters of individuals or of 2 or 3 individuals combined; and 99 memo¬ rials of public bodies or of groups of at least 6 individuals. Taking the first cate¬ gory, 7 w' ere in favor of the changes proposed in the regulations of the board, 34 against; taking the second category, 11 were in favor, 8G against, 2 were doubtful; so that, taking the two categories together, there would seem to be numerically more than 6 to 1 against the proposed changes. In November the rumor arose that the school management committee of the board had agreed to advise that a circular be sent to the teach¬ ers explaining the sense in which they were to understand the word “Christian.” Therumor was confirmed early in February when the com¬ mittee submitted the proposed circular to the board. The document was kept under discussion for several meetings and finally adopted in an amended form as follows: Sir (or Madam) : In forwarding to you a copy of the rules of the board having ref¬ erence to Bible instruction and religious observances, I am directed to ask your thoughtful consideration of the following suggestions, in the hope that they may be useful for your guidance and direction : The Bible is your text-book, from which it has always been the desire of the board that you should give such explanations in the Christian religion and morality as are ]See “Religion — at the London School Board” (Nineteenth Century, November, 1893). “The London School Board — a reply to Hon. Lyulph Stanley” (Nineteenth Century, December, 1893). ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 211 suited to the capacities of children of various ages attending the schools of the hoard. Such explanations and instruction should of course he based on the conception of human nature which the Bihle presents, namely, that a man is a responsible being with distinct and definite duties to God, to himself, and to his fellow-man. Under¬ standing child nature as you do, you will of course adapt your teaching to the various motives by which children are influenced; the object and purpose of all education being the formation of habits, mental, moral, and religious. And it is important to this end that the character of the children committed to your care should be studied individually, so as to correct tne defects and encourage and stim¬ ulate the good points in each. The lessons adapted to an infant school are not the same as those which are suit¬ able to children of a more advanced age, and there are subjects essentially connected with the well-being and happiness of the individual on which the greatest caution has to be observed; but instruction in morality should not shirk the consideration of the relations of man to all the conditions of his being, and the Bible lesson affords you opportunities of so discussing these questions with the elder children as to impress them with the paramount importance of being pure, sincere, and upright in their life. The board have never intended their teachers to diverge from the presentation of the Christian religion which is revealed in the Bible. While following the syllabus which is suggested to you yearly, you are at liberty to refer to other parts of the Bible, by which the principles of the Christian religion may be elucidated and enforced. These principles include a belief in God the Father as our Creator, in God the Son as our Redeemer, and in God the Holy Ghost as our Sanctifier. The board can not approve of any teaching which denies either the Divine or the human nature of the Lord Jesus Christ, or which leaves on the minds of the chil¬ dren any other impression than that they are bound to trust and serve Him as their God and Lord. The board desire that in giving the Bible lesson you will strictly observe, both in letter and spirit, the provisions of sections 7 and 14 of the elementary education act of 1870, and that you will make no attempt whatever to attach the children to any particular religious denomination. A question having been raised as to whether, under the heading of religious observances, the board permit the use of hymns, concluding with the Doxologv or prayers other than the Lord’s Prayer, I am directed to inform you that no restriction is placed upon your liberty of choice in this respect. These suggestions are made by the board in no spirit of distrust or want of confi¬ dence in your good intentions to make the Bible lesson as useful as possible, but in order to avoid any misconceptions which may exist as to the meaning and intention of the board’s rules with reference to a portion of their work upon which they lay the greatest stress. If there are those among you who can not conscientiously impart Bible instruction in this spirit, means will be taken, without prejudice to their posi¬ tion under the board, to release them from the duty of giving the Bible lesson. The religious opinions of candidates will not in any way influence their appoint¬ ment or promotion. The significance of the circular is emphasized by explanations of its intent brought out at subsequent meetings of the board. For example, in the meeting of April 26, 1894, Rev. Copeland Bowie, who had voted against the circular, put the following questions to Mr. Athelstan Riley and others : (1) Does the circular, in your opinion, render it incumbent upon teachers who conscientiously believe that the doctrine of the Trinity is nowhere to be found in the Bible to discontinue giving Scripture lessons in the schools of the board ? (2) Is a teacher, who holds Jesus in loving reverence as the bravest, noblest, purest Son of God the world has seen, but who does not beiieve that he was 212 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. Almighty God, incompetent to give a Bible lesson under the terms of the circular, even though the teacher in question scrupulously avoids all controversial theology? The replies were as follows : Mr. Riley : (1) Yes; I take that to he the force of the circular as explanatory of the rule. (2) Y"es, as above. Mr. Bowie puts the fundamental difference between the Christian and Unitarian religions with admirable clearness. To allow the children, as they pass through the hands of different teachers, to be taught to regard Jesus Christ first in one aspect and then in the other would be an outrage on Christian and Unitarian parents alike. It is generally held that one common religion should be taught throughout the board schools, and in this case, as it is impossible to get a religion which trims between these two, it is clear that the board must choose the Christian, which is the religion of the majority of the English people. Unitarian parents, knowing the character of the board’s teaching, can avail themselves of the conscience clause. As it appears to be the general wish of people outside and inside the board that the “ compromise’' i. e., the common religion, should be maintained, I have always expressed myself willing to support this if it is made clear, that this religion is Christian in the sense of containing those fundamental tenets of the Christian religion upon which churchmen and Christian nonconformists are agreed. I am not, however, responsible for the policy of a common religion, so I can not be held responsible for its results. Personally, I am not in favor of having only one kind of religious teaching in the schools; considering the widely differing beliefs of parents, such a practice appears to me to lack the elements of justice. This view was ably advocated by Dr. Martineau, the respected leader of the Uni¬ tarian body, in a letter to the Times of May 4. Here are Dr. Martineau’s words: “The error of the past, then, has been the attempt to fit a uniform system of relig¬ ious instruction to the wants of so variegated a whole as the population of a London school district. If you satisfy the ecclesiastical standard, you wrong the miscella¬ neous host of unattached, yet not irreligious, people. If you insist on the latitude necessary to make the best of their religious proclivities, you disappoint the genuine church disciples of the indispensable nurture of their piety. The simple remedy is to recognize the different requirements of their consciences and make distinct pro¬ vision for each. In any school worked under the 1871 rule this may be done by adding a department to the religious teaching conformed to Mr. Athelstan Riley’s restrictive condition, without prejudice to freedom established elsewhere. I do not see why he and his friends should not have all they desire, provided they are content with the consideration justty due to their own consciences and refrain from all unfriendly attitude toward the different ideas and usages of their copartners. If, in deference to the special requirements of the Jews, arrangements of different types have been thought admissible in different schools, there seems nothing to forbid the coexistence of similar though minor varieties within the same school.” Dr. Martineau, it will be observed, agrees with me. I have no doubt the time is not far distant when sensible people of all religions will come round to our opinion. Rev. Rowland Plummer : It is for the individual teacher to decide as his conscience may direct, but in my opinion no man can conscientiously teach as an article of faith that which he believes untrue; therefore, if he asked me, I should advise him to take advantage of the extension of liberty granted by the circular and apply to be excused Scripture lessons, without prejudice to his present position or future promotion. Mr. Sharp: In my opinion, the circular relieves a teacher who denies the Divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ from the duty of giving Bible instructions under the rules of the board. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 213 Mr. Bowie asked the chairman of the Scripture subcommittee: (1) Are teachers who are unable to assent to the tritheism set forth in the circular incompetent to give lessons from the Bible? (2) In your speech at tho board you said: “ Of course, the circular is a test.” Is it proposed to apply the test in the case of teachers who conscientiously believe that the religion of Jesus is best summed up in the doctrines of the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man? (3) Teachers are required to give lessons from a specially prepared syllabus. Do the expressions “ God the Son” and “God the Holy Ghost” occur in any chapters or verses of the Bible set down in the syllabus? If so, where? (4) If the expressions “God the Son” and “God the Holy Ghost” are unscriptural phrases, is it proposed to teach the children these dogmas under the pretense that they are contained in the Bible? The Rev. Jolm Coxhead, chairman of the Scripture subcommittee: (1) The regulations under which teachers are expected to work are clearly set forth in the rules of the board, and are definitely explained in circulars sent to the teach¬ ers under the authority of the board when such explanations seem to be required. (2) The committee of the board, and not individual members, administer the rules of the board. For the answer which Mr. Copeland Bowie appears to require for 3 and 4 I would refer him to Pearson on the Creed and to a more recent book, The Faith of the Gos¬ pel, by the Rev. Canon Mason. (School Board Chronicle, April 28, 1894, pp. 449, 450.) It need liardly be said that the circular is regarded in many quarters as a religious test applied to teachers, and, as such, is vehemently opposed. The National Union of Elementary Teachers, the great body of Wes¬ leyan Methodists, are strong in their denunciations. The difficulties in the way of giving practical effect to the circular are indicated by the fact that 3,150 teachers employed by the board, or nearly half the ent ire body, have asked to be relieved from giving religious instruction under the new conditions. The request, with the signatures appended, was forwarded to the board by the secretary of the Metropolitan Teachers’ Association. Instead of replying through the same medium, the board decided that — The school management committee be authorized to address a letter to each of the signatories to the memorial forwarded by Mr. T. Gautrey, inquiring whether they desire to be relieved from the duty of giving Bible instruction, in accordance with the following sentence of the circular, dated 15th April, 1894, referring to Bible instructions : “If there are those among you who cannot conscientiously impart Bible instruc¬ tion in this spirit, means will be taken, without prejudice to their position under the board, to release them from the duty of giving the Bible lesson.” The association at once called a meeting to protest against this deci¬ sion. The call was responded to by 1,500 members, who unanimously adopted the following manifesto: This large meeting, on behalf of the 3,150 signatories asking to be relieved from giving religious instruction until the circular be withdrawn, hereby respectfully decides, and recommends the absent signatories to do likewise, not to reply individ¬ ually to the board’s individual request. They take this step 'with reluctance and a 214- education REPORT, 1892-93. due sense Oi its gravity. They made the applications to he relieved in proper form and after mature consideration, and to these applications they have nothing to add and from them nothing to subtract. As experts, they are convinced that the intro¬ duction into the schools of the definite dogmatic teaching desired by the leaders in this movement is both unsuitable and unwarranted. They feel strongly that the religious instruction should aim at the formation of character and the inculcation of the principles of morality rather than supplying doctrinal teaching, which is best left for a more mature age. Instruction of the former character they have given in the past from the open Bible, and, as they are denied the relief promised on applica¬ tion, they will continue to give such instruction in the future, without reference to the circular. They are still of opinion that the operation of the circular will amount to the application of a test, and they agree with the Kev. Dr. Abbott (late of the city of London school) that a “ teacher who will conform, will be more useful than one who will not, and in the end, the former will have his reward in better pay and quicker promotion,” and “ that a new kind of ‘ dissent ’ will thus be started; and { school board nonconformists’ will find themselves gradually drifting out of the swim of professional advancement. ” They also respectfully resent the board’s action in treating their applications as if they were not bona fide, and because they were sent through the Metropolitan Board Teachers’ Association. They can only interpret the board’s action as an attempt to break up their organization, and this they are determined to resist at all haza id In conclusion, they much regret to have to assume an attitude of apparent oppo¬ sition to the board’s wishes, and they still earnestly hope the board will see its way to withdraw the circular, and allow the instruction to continue on the lines and tvith the great success wdiich has hitherto attended it. (Schoolmaster, July 14, 1894, p. 55.) At this crisis the executive of the National Union of Elementary Teachers, an association representing the collective body of English teachers, also sent a memorial to the board Avhich reviews the situa¬ tion in a judicial but emphatic manner. This memorial is as follows: The executive of the National Union of Teachers observe with profound regret that recent action by the London school board has brought the question of religious education into public dispute. For twenty-three years the subject had been settled upon the peaceable basis of compromise; in practice its theoretical differences and perplexities have been obviated or solved; and, in point of fact, the so-called “religious difficulty” had ceased to exist. With sorrow and foreboding, therefore, the executive have seen this delicate matter flung anew into the arena of public polemics and sectarian strife. A war of creeds has been incurred; the healing influences of time and tact¬ ful teaching have been arrested, and a debate has recommenced that can not proceed afresh without fresh wounds to religion and further hindrance to the schools. Deploring this prospect, the executive, in the name of the teachers, make solemn protest against action so perilous and incendiary. With full knowledge of the nature and quality of the religious instruction imparted, they declare that there is no parental demand or justification for change. They venture to think that none can speak with more experience of the facts than the teachers themselves; and the teachers are aware that the instruction has been such as Christian theologians could collectively indorse. They know' that the scholars have been carefully and rever¬ ently taught the essentials of the Christian faith as drawn from Holy Scripture. They know that the syllabus of instruction in use in the board schools is a compen¬ dium of the fundamentals of Christianity; that the children have learned by heart ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 215 the Lord’s Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and many of the choicest passages from the Gospels, the Epistles, the Psalms, the Proverbs, the Pentateuch, and the Prophets ; that lessons have been regularly given on the life, parables, miracles, and the divin¬ ity of Christ; the Four Gospels; the Epistles of St. Paul, St. John, and St. James; the Acts of the Apostles; the Psalms, the Proverbs, the Prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah; the Pentateuch, the Books of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, and Kings; the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Samuel, and David, the life and law of Moses. They know that all this has been faithfully expounded according to the capacities of the children, and that the parents who have claimed the exemptions of the con¬ science clause arc infinitesimally few. They have known that the religious lessons and observances in London board schools (as in the schools elsewhere) have always won high commendation from parents, inspectors, clergy and ministers of all denominations. They are further aware that three-fourths of the teachers in ques¬ tion have been taught and trained in schools and colleges controlled by the clergy of the Church of England, and of those equipped at other colleges at least one- third were members of that church. They know that Avithout exception the other teachers were tiained in schools or colleges wherein religious observances obtained. They also know that the prayers and hymns used in board schools are prayers and hymns appointed for the services of the Church of England or other Christian denominations. In short, the executive feel that the teachers in London board schools may fairly claim to have taught the faith with knowledge, in unity of spirit and the bond of love. With indignation, therefore, the executive have seen the respectful protests of associated teachers against the initiation of dogmatic creeds and tests construed by some to mean a hatred of the ethical part of a teacher’s duty, and an atheistic or agnostic attitude of mind. The teachers resent and repudiate the charge. So far from seeking to subvert religious instruction in the schools, the teachers have, by tact and care, made its continuance practicable. But they fear that its continuance will become impracticable if varying interpretations of the Word, by varying boards, are to take the place of the system that has worked so well hitherto. The authority of one theological circular would be destroyed by the issue of another, and orthodoxy would become heterodox at every change of government in the board. To fluctuate from one set of tenets to another, and from that to a third, and back again, must lead to contemptuous unbelief, confusion, and revolt, and thus to the secularization of board schools; whilst the prohibition of religious teaching in board schools would rapidly induce the secularization of all State-aided schools and colleges. Already the action of the board has greatly strengthened the argument that religion should be taught only in other places and ways. Already, also, the impression has been created that insistence on theological knowl¬ edge means treason to the interests of general education. While protracted and bitter debates on the compromise and the circular have occupied the attention of the board, defects and evils in the schools have not received due attention. Children have been left without schools, schools without sufficient teachers, and health and study have been allowed to suffer from insanitary buildings, dirty rooms, and classes cruelly large. But there are further grounds for this protest. The action of the board in refusing to accept the teachers’ collective claim to liberty of conscience resembles an attempt by a powerful body to oppress individuals who are not so powerful. Duty to each other demands that teachers in board schools should withstand denominational tests that might withhold from any section of themselves the ordinary opportunities for professional employment and promotion. And, finally, there is serious danger of the mischief set afoot in London extending to the provinces. At present the conflagra¬ tion is mainly local to the metropolis, but there are already symptoms of a conta¬ gious spread of the evil elsewhere. The example set by London would doubtless be 216 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. copied, though the circulars would differ according to localities, and might often define Christianity in terms at variance with those of the circular issued by the London board. Respectfully, but earnestly, therefore, the executive again appeal that the circu¬ lar may be withdrawn, in the interests of religion and education. (School Board Chronicle, September 15, 1891, p. 270.) At present the controversy within the school board is eclipsed by the agitations of an election campaign. In accordance with the law a new triennial board comes into power in December. The religious question is the issue before the voters and their action must determine its further developments. An interesting complication has arisen in the progress of the matter before the London board from the discovery of or rather the prominence given to the modifications of the scheme of religious instruction in its application to the Jewish schools. As stated by Mr. Diggle, chairman of the Loudon board, in explaining the action of the board, it was “found impossible to fill a school in the East End until they appointed Jewish teachers.” Under these circum¬ stances the absolute necessity of adjusting biblical instruction to the conscientious scruples of the teacher and parents is evident. Hence the board sanctioned a syllabus drawn up for the Jewish schools by the chief rabbi, Dr. Adler. In this the lessons from the Hew ‘Testa¬ ment are omitted and the Hebrew Scriptures are used. It is claimed that the concession is made on historical grounds only, and that Jewish teachers use the syllabus in the undenominational spirit. Haturally their ecclesiastical rivals are not inclined to take so neutral a view, and a pressure has been brought to bear upon the Government with a view to securing the repeal of section II of the law of 1870. A bill to this effect and providing also for denominational instruction under specified conditions was introduced into the House of Lords, May, 1893, by the Bishop of Salisbury. These conditions are identical with those in vogue in several continental countries and often advocated in the United States. The objections to them are stated very clearly by Dr. el. G. Fitch in an article in the nineteenth Century for July, 1894. On this point he says: Among the expedients most frequently suggested by those who are dissatisfied with the present arrangements is one which would provide that at certain hours, set apart for the special purpose, the ministers of the various churches should he ashed to form classes, composed of the children of their several flocks, and to give them the distinctive instruction proper to their several creeds. There is at first siglit a plausible show of fairness in this suggestion, but in practice it has never succeeded well, and there are excellent reasons why it never could succeed in a community like ours, for, in the first place, the clergy have not always the time or the Avill to undertake the work. The best of them are preoccupied with other duties. If they are to be paid, the expense will be considerable, and it would not be likely that Parliament would sanction the payment from the rates. If they are to be unpaid, their attendance will be desultory and uncertain, and subject to such frequent inter¬ ruption as to dislocate seriously the organization of the school. But even if their attendance could be secured the results would be A ery unsatisfactory. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 217 It is no disparagement to tlie ministers of religion to say of them that, as a rule, they are ill suited to he the teachers of young children. Their habits of mind and the peculiar nature of their pastoral work unfit them for this duty — a duty requir¬ ing special skill and insight and a kind of tact in the presentation of truth to young minds which is only to he gained by exceptional training aud experience. Moreover, the fact that the minister was employed as the representative of a par¬ ticular church would lead him to accentuate those points of difference which dis¬ tinguish. that church from others, and thus there would bo introduced among the children visible sectarian divisions, which would have the most unedifying effect on the social and moral character of the school. But the most serious result of such an arrangement would be the degradation of the teacher’s office. To supersede him in regard to the one subject of instruction which is presumably of the highest importance would be to deprive him of much of his moral influence and to lower him in the eyes of the scholars. He is, after all, a qualified teacher. He knows better than anyone else is likely to know what is the nature of childhood, and what are the most approved methods of finding access to the understanding, the conscience, and the sympathies of those whom he teaches. He has no denomina¬ tional interests to serve, but he is responsible for the general education of liis scholars and for their moral training ; and his scriptural instruction, therefore, is likely to be more effective and more appropriate than that of a stranger, because it will be part of a rounded and well-ordered scheme of intellectual training, and not a purpureus pannus, patched on at an extra time, aud having no organic connection with the rest of the school course. Such well-meant efforts as those of the Bishop of Salisbury, in his abortive bill of last session, proceed on two assumptions : (1) That the parents, as a rule, belong to some religious denomination or other; and (2) that they desire to have denominational instruction imparted in the day school. Both hypotheses will be found on closer inquiry to be untenable (p. 66). Subsequently the House of Lords ordered a “return of the regula¬ tions with regard to religious instruction” from all school boards, to secure which the department of education, June, 1804, issued a schedule of inquiry to be filled out by each board. The questions which it com¬ prises are as follows : (1) Is any religious teaching or religious observance practiced or given in the schools of the board ? (2) Are any hymns or prayers used? (3) Is the Bible read (with or without comment thereon)? (4) State the time (if any) allotted to each subject. (5) Give the syllabus of religious instruction. (6) Give the rules (if any) for annual examination in religious knowledge. (7) A copy of the regulation of the board, in pursuance of which the religious observances and instruction are carried out, should be furnished. (8) If no formal regulation has been passed, state the practice of the schools under the board. (School Board Chronicle July, 14, 1894.) At this point the whole matter rests, waiting the results of the school-board elections in November. MOVEMENTS AFFECTING SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The most important event of the year with respect to secondary education was the conference held at Oxford October 11 and 12. The delegates were men and women of distinction in the educational or political world. Oxford, Cambridge, London, and Durham universities, 218 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tlie university colleges, and the endowed schools were all well repre¬ sented. The main subject before the conference was that of the State organization of secondary schools, and the speakers very naturally kept in view the lines on which secondary instruction in England divides. The practical outcome of the conference was an agreement that an inquiry commission should precede legislation affecting secondary schools. The recent announcement that the commission is to be appointed gives general satisfaction. CHAPTER V. EDUCATION IN FRANCE.1 Topical outline. — Outline of system of public instruction — Official statistics, 1891-93 — Inspection of infant schools ( e'eotes maUrnelles ) — Summary of recent measures affecting secondary schools ( lycees and communal colleges) — Measures affecting the faculties — Reorganization of medical studies and institution of a neiv course of scientific studies preparatory to the medical course. France, Republic. — Area, 204,092 square miles. Population (actual) April 12, 1891, 38,095,156; domiciled or legal, 38,343,192. Civil divisions. — For purposes of civil government France is divided into 86 depart¬ ments (90 if Algiers be included), each having its local legislative assembly, which is formed by election. The departments are subdivided into arrondissements, and these into cantons. The smallest civil divisions comprised within the cantons are communes. The present Government of France maintains a system of education which x>reserves many of tlie administrative features of the Imperial University. Authority is centralized in a cabinet officer, the minister of public instruction and fine arts.2 The expenses of the service are covered by an annual appropriation from the State, which receives into its treasury the local appropriations for the service and the receipts from tuition fees. All appointments to the service, whether official or professional, are made either by the minister or by the President of the Republic, excepting only in the case of elementary teachers, who are appointed by the heads of departments (prefects, themselves appointed by the President). The officers of administration form an educational hier¬ arch y, entrance into which is secured not alone by favor, but upon proof of special qualifications; promotions in the same are generally the reward of distinguished service or the recognition of superior merit. Officials, professors, and teachers all receive their salaries from the State. The control of the system is facilitated by its organization into three great departments — primary, which includes infant schools (ages 2 to G), primary schools (elementary and superior, ages 6 to 13), adult schools, and normal schools for primary teachers; secondary, to which Prepared by A. Tolman Smith . 2Present incumbent, M. G. Leygues, wlio succeeded M. Spuller in June, 1894. The former assumed the portfolio in December, 1893. 219 220 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. belong the lycees and communal colleges; superior, which comprises the faculties for liberal and professional training, and special schools.1 Each department has its own chief or director,2 its separate budget and distinct body of laws, decrees, etc. The academies (17 in number) are local districts of educational administration. Each academie forms a scholastic unit, whose chief (recteur) is the official head of all the teaching institutions located within its bounds. The possession of a doctor’s degree is an essential qualification for the rectorship. The 90 departments (districts of civil administration) are treated as subdivisions of the academies in respect to educational affairs, the prefects of departments having a measure of control over primary and normal schools. The supervision of secondary instruction is intrusted to general in¬ spectors, at present 10 in number, and that of primary instruction to a graded series of inspectors, (1) general inspectors, including 9 assigned to particular sections of the country, several assigned to the oversight of special branches of study, and general inspectresses of infant schools. These officials report directly to the minister as to the manner in which the educational law is carried out. (2) Academic inspectors (inspec- teurs d’academies), one for each department, who are subordinate to the rectors. They have the general direction of primary schools, con¬ duct examinations for teachers’ certificates, appoint all teachers on probation, and name the candidates from whom the prefects of depart¬ ments may appoint full teachers. (3) Primary inspectors, at present about 450 in number, or 1 for every 150 primary schools. They inspect the work of individual schools, and report to the academic inspector. (4) Medical inspectors, whose duties include the examination of children with respect to their physical condition and of sites and buildings with respect to sanitary particulars. There are also inspectresses of board¬ ing schools for girls. It should be observed that all these officials must have access also to private schools. The scholastic work of the system is regulated by law or by official decrees which embody the matured opinions of the superior council of education, a representative body of 60 members, three-fourths of whom are elected by their peers from the various orders of public instruction, the remainder'being appointed by the President. The council is not only an advisory, but also a judicial body, being the final court of aThe special schools which are under the exclusive control of the minister of pub¬ lic instruction and fine arts are the College de France, Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Ecole Normale Superieure, Ecole Frangaise de Rome, Ecole Francaise d’Athenes, Ecole Nationale des Cliartes, Ecole Speciale des Langues Orientales Vivantes, Ecole Rationale et Speciale des Beaux Arts a Paris, Conservatoire National de Musique efc de Ddclamation. -The present incumbents are: M. Louis Liard, superior; M. Rabier, secondary ; M. F. Buisson, primary. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 221 appeal in certain cases of contention; as, for example, cases of the re¬ moval of teachers by local authorities. Paris is the seat of the council, „ whose deliberations are presided over by the minister. The academic rectors have the advice of academic councils composed of inspecteurs d’academies, professors, and teachers; finally, the prefects are assisted by departmental councils. These several councils save the work of public education, to some degree at least, from the mechanical routine which is one danger of a highly centralized system. As regards primary schools, the direct interest of the people is enlisted in several ways. The law of 1833 made it obligatory upon every commune to establish a public school, which under the law of June 16, 1881, must be a free school, and under laws of 1882 and 1886, secular, and taught by a lay teacher. A commune, it must be remem¬ bered, is the simplest civil division in France. Its local affairs are con¬ trolled by a council and a mayor chosen from the members of the same. A commune may have less than 20 inhabitants; it may be, a populous city. Paris, indeed, is a commune, although differing somewhat from others in its form of local government. Large or small the commune must establish a free primary school, provide the site and building and a portion of the current expenditure; not only so, but every commune of more than 500 inhabitants must have a separate school for girls. (Laws of March 15, 1850, and April 10, 1867.) Since, however, many communes are too small and too poor to obey the law, and others require stimulating, the State has been exceedingly liberal with subsidies to help in the initial steps. The subsidies and advances for this purpose amounted in the decade 1878-1888 to $105,000,000. In order that the communes should perform their part, provision must be made for concerted action. Hence the departmental councils appoint delegates to confer with the communal authorities and with the primary inspectors as to sites, buildings, material, etc. The mayors of communes have free access to the schools at all times; their duties and those of the delegates are much like those of our district school committees, excepting that they have no control over teachers or pro¬ grammes. It is incumbent also upon communes to maintain funds (caisses des ecoles) for the assistance of indigent pupils; Although the law (March 28, 1882) obliges parents to secure the instruction of their children, they can make choice of the means, i. e., public schools, pri¬ vate schools, home tuition. Official statistics. — No complete statistics of education in France have been published since 1889.1 The following statistics relative to the most important operations of the system are, however, from official sources of later date. 3Inthat year the minister submitted the following reports : “Statistique de Ten- seignement primarie, 1886-87, ” secondaire 1887, superieur 1878-1888. 222 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Finances. — The State appropriation for education in 1893 was $33,699,943. Estimates submitted to the Chamber of Deputies by the financial committee for 1894 showed an increase of $1,204,852. The sum allowed in 1893 was distributed as follows : For administra¬ tion, 2.3 per cent; department of superior instruction, 10.3 per cent; of secondary, 9.6 per cent; of primary, 77.8 per cent. (Rapport de la com¬ mission du budget chargee d?examiner le projet de loi portant fixation du budget general de Fexercice 18n3.) The amount of the appropriation represents approximately the ex¬ penditure for public education in that year, as the receipts from fees in secondary and superior institutions and the amount raised by the obli¬ gatory communal school tax are paid into the public treasury. Incomes from other sources, i. e., gifts, legacies, etc., are retained by the institu¬ tions or by the local authorities. The total expenditure for public primary schools (infant included) in 1890 was 162,681,805 francs ($32,536,361). Of this amount 64.8 per cent was contributed by the State and the balance by the communes. The marked increase in the relative proportion derived from the State (it was 50.6 per cent in 1889 as against 64.7 in 1890) is due to the fact that the State has assumed the responsibility of paying the salaries of teachers. In 1892 the expenditure rose to 171,395,206 francs ($34,279,041), the proportionate parts of the State and communes being the same as in 1890. (Resume des fitats de situation de Fenseignement primaire, 1890- 91, Tables 22 and 23; also, Statistique de Fenseignement primaire, 1891- 92, p. cxix.) Enrollment in universities and schools. — Statistics of facultes ( universities ) January 15 , 189S. STUDEXTS. In the State faculties. i In the private faculties. 1 Names of faculties. Paris. Provin¬ cial, 'including I Algiers. j Total. | Paris. Provin¬ cial. Total. Protestant theology . - . . 47 42 89 i Law . 3,503 4, 707 8, 210 306 362 688 Medicine (faculties) . 3, 634 2, 836 1, 2G7 6, 470 139 139 Sciences . . . . . . 599 1, 866 67 67 Letters . . . 1, 230 1, 770 3, 000 99 99 Pharmacy (superior schools and mixed faculties) Eull-course schools of medicine and pharmacy. 1,097 916 1,749 2,013 1.749 15 15 Total . . . . 10, 110 13. 277 23,397 306 682 988 Total in 1892 . . . . 9, 837 12,491 ! 22,328 331 691 1, 022 Difference in 1893 . . . . : +273 -+796 j 1 i +1,069 _ 25 —9 1 — 34 EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 223 The foreign students comprised in the table numbered 1,432 in 1893, an excess of 35 above the previous year. They were distributed as follows : Theology . . . 8 Law . 326 Medicine . 851 Sciences . 69 Letters . 123 Pharmacy . 29 Fnll-conrse schools (medicine and pharmacy) . 26 (Bapport de la commission du budget, etc., p. 8.) Secondary schools for hoys. 1 Students. 1890. 1891. 1892. Lycees and communal colleges . 84,186 18, 645 83, 764 15, 840 85, 291 15, 508 Private lay establishments . - . . . . Total . 102, 831 99, 604 100,799 Jpnl psfnblislnnent.s . . . . . 48,606 23, 016 51, 181 23, 042 50 699 23, 359 Small seminaries (clerical) . Total . - . 71, 682 74, 223 74, 058 Grand total . . . . . . . . . 174, 513 1 173, 827 j 174,857 PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS FOR GTRLS. In 1891 there were 11,045 students in the public secondary schools for girls, i. e., lycees (State schools), 29; communal colleges, 26; sec¬ ondary courses (or departments), Cl. To the foregoing may be added 21,230 boys and 7,579 girls in the higher primary schools. (Beport of financial committee of the Cham¬ ber of Deputies, commission of budget, etc., 1893, pp. 43, 60, 67.) Primary schools. — For the following information as to primary schools the office is indebted to the eminent statistician, M. E. Levasseur: FRANCE AND ALGIERS, 1891-92. Number of schools. Pupils. Teachers. Boys. Girls. Men. Women. Public schools . 67, 262 15, 271 2, 355, 318 450, 531 1, 925, 805 824, 756 55, 091 46, 795 10,672 3$, 516 Private schools . Total . 82,533 2, 805, 849 2, 750, 621 102, 4S6 44, 188 Grand total . 5, 556, 470 146, 674 From a further classification it appears that the lay schools number 64,000, with an enrollment of 3,900,977 pupils, and clerical 18,533, with an enrollment of 1,655,493. M. Levassenr notes that there has been a decline of 37,413 in the total enrollment since 1890-91. 224 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1892-93. Infant schools (ecoles maternelles), which are not included in the above statement, excepting only in the financial showing, numbered 5,411 in 1891-92, of which 2,603 were public and 2,808 private. The former had 5,140 teachers and an enrollment of 456,008 pupils; the latter 3,613 teachers and 250,571 pupils, or a total teaching force of 8,753, and a total enrollment of 706,579. The inspection of these schools is intrusted to persons specially qualified for the work. The office is indebted to M. F. Buisson, director of primary instruction in the ministry of public instruction, for the following statement as to the conduct of this service: Inspection of Infant Schools (Ecoles Maternelles) in France. In addition to the inspectors of primary instruction, the persons employed to inspect or simply visit the infant schools (Ecoles maternelles) are the inspectresses- general, the primary inspectresses of girls’ schools, the departmental inspectresses, and the women belonging to the local committee (comites de patronage). I. Inspectresses-general are 4 in number, and are appointed by the minister. The conditions required for the position are the following: The applicant must be at least 35 years of age and must have had five years’ serv¬ ice in public or private instruction and must have received a certificate of aptitude for the inspection of infant schools. (Order of January 18, 1887, Chap. Y, arts. 183 to 186.) The inspectresses-general are divided into three classes, with the following salaries : First class, $1,000 (5,000 francs); second class, $800 (4,000 francs); third class, $600 (3,000 francs). Besides their salaries, they are allowed $4 (20 francs) a day and their traveling expenses while in the performance of duty pertaining to their office. The inspectresses-general make the circuit of the territory assigned to them. They inspect the infant schools, both public and private, but their inspection of the pri¬ vate schools is confined to hygienic and moral conditions. They make a detailed report of their work each year to the minister of public instruction, to whom they are all responsible. II. PRIMARY INSPECTRESS. The service of primary inspectress is of recent date, having been instituted by the law of July 19, 1889. It exists only in the department of the Seine and Oise, and is there in reality only in the nature of an experiment. There is only one inspectress, and she confines her work to the infant schools for girls in this single department. III. DEPARTMENTAL INSPECTRESSES OF INFANT SCHOOLS. These are appointed by the minister, but are found only in those departments which engage to pay one half of the salaries, the other half being paid by the State Two or three departments may unite to bear this expense, dividing it equally. The department of the Seine employs five departmental inspectresses, bearing the entire expense of their service. Applicants for these positions must be 30 years of age and must have had three years’ experience m teaching. They must also have received a certificate of aptitude for the inspection of infant schools. These inspectresses are divided into three classes, with the following salaries: First class, $480 (2,400 francs); second class, $450 (2,200 francs); third class, $400 (2,000 francs) EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 225 Besides her salary each inspectress is allowed a minimum amount of $100 while in actual performance of her duties when she has charge of only one department, and a minimum of $200 when several departments are under her inspection. This allow¬ ance includes the traveling expenses. The inspectresses of the infant schools are under the authority of the academic inspectors, who determine their circuit. They visit each school at least twice a year and make a special report of each inspection. They advise concerning the appoint¬ ment and dismissal of directresses and suhdirectresses of the public infant schools, and also as to their salaries. IV. LOCAL COMMITTEES (COMITE DE PATRONAGE). One or more local committees of women may be created in each department or commune where there is a public infant school. The members of these committees are appointed for three years by the academic inspector upon the advice of the mayor, who presides over the committee. Their duties are confined exclusively to watching over the hygienic conditions of the schools, their good management, as well as the use of the funds or gifts collected for the children. (Decision of January 18, 1887.) V. PROGRAMME OF THE EXAMINATION FOR THE CERTIFICATE OF APTITUDE FOR THE INSPECTION OF INFANT SCHOOLS. Article 185. The examination consists of a written, an oral, and a practical test. There are two Avritten tests : First. A composition on pedagogy applied to the infant schools. (Time allowed, three hours.) Second. A composition upon the hygiene of infant schools (care to give to the children, building, and premises). 1 (Three hours.) The oral test consists of questions : First. On pedagogy applied to infant schools and on hygiene. Second. On the laws pertaining to the administration of these schools. The practical test consists of an inspection of an infant school and an oral report of this inspection. SUMMARY OF RECENT MEASURES AFFECTING SECONDARY INSTRUC¬ TION. As regards the department of secondary instruction, comprising the lycees and communal colleges, the efforts of the past two years have been directed to giving effect to the decrees of August 8, 1890, and June 4, 1891, which were considered in full in the Commissioner’s report for 1890-91.2 To summarize briefly, these measures, so far as they relate to the internal conduct of the schools, are intended to lessen the strain of overcrowded programmes, to break up mechanical routine, to stimu¬ late the free initiative of individual institutions, and to elevate the scholastic standards of the u modern course. Hygiene of the building and premises, choice of site Avith reference to the sun¬ light, ventilation, lighting, heating, furnishing, sanitation, laAratories, baths, hygiene of the children; feeding, clothing, contagious maladies ^procedure with respect to), evils arising from defective hygiene. 2 Pages 109-124. ED 93 - 15 226 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. The most obvious purpose of the new measures is to effect an impor¬ tant change in the bachelor’s degree, which is the goal of the classical course of the lycees. For the three degrees established in 1865 (bacca¬ laureat es lettres, baccalaureat -es sciences complet, baccalaureat es sciences restreint), and secured by examinations essentially different, there is substituted a single bachelor’s degree requiring the same preparation on the part of all candidates. Election is allowed simply in the last year (i. e., pliilosophie) of the lycee course between three equivalent lines of study, and in accordance with the choice the diploma is inscribed as “Lettres, philosophies” “Lettres, mathematiques;” or “ Lettres, sciences physiques et naturelles.” The nonclassical secondary course established in 1865 under the name enseignement secondaire special is now termed enseignement secondaire moderne, and the diploma to which it leads, baccalaureat de l’enseignement secondaire moderne. This diploma, like the classical, may bear one of three inscriptions: “ Lettres, philosophies” “ Lettres, sciences.;” or “Lettres, mathematiques.” Measures affecting the faculties. — As regards the department of supe¬ rior instruction, the project of law for transforming the faculties into autonomous universities, which was considered in full in the Commis¬ sioner’s last report,1 is still under debate. Meanwhile the development of courses of study, the increase of equipments, the extension and deepening of professional courses, or, in brief, the transformation of the scholastic work in the spirit of university ideals, continues. Special importance attaches to the measures affecting the medical faculties. The purpose of these measures is indicated in official decrees bear¬ ing date July 31, 1893. These decrees provide for the reorganization of the medical courses and for a new course in the sciences pertaining to medical studies to be organized in the faculty of sciences. They are the outcome of special inquiries instituted from time to time by the Government, the last in 1892. The impulse to these inquiries came from the faculties of medicine, who complained that their students had not adequate preliminary preparation, either in the principles of science or in laboratory practice. They urged that the chairs of chemistry, physics, and natural history created in the faculties of medicine them¬ selves were not intended for general instruction in science nor for training in methods of investigation, but as a means of making known the medical applications of science and of scientific methods. The professors supported their complaint by the statistics of the prelimi¬ nary examinations for the doctor’s degree, which showed that more than a third, often one-half, of the applicants failed in this test two or three times, and that a great number, discouraged by failure, gave up the effort to accomplish a medical course. In 1890 the Government sought the opinion of the faculties in respect to measures for remedying the evils complained of. As regards the 1891-92, pp. 76-95. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 227 scientific preparation, it was proposed that a special scientific course should be opened in the lycees and a complementary course of one year in the faculties of science for students who intended to pursue medical studies. Further, that the course in medicine should be four years in duration. The response of the faculties to the official inquiry upon these points showed that while they were agreed as to the necessity of a special preparatory course in science, there were differences of opinion as to its proper place, i. e., whether in the lycees, the faculty of science, or divided between the two. The above resume, drawn from the report of a commission appointed to elaborate measures for the proposed reform of the medical course, brings the history of the movement to 1892, the year of the final inquiry into the subject on the part of the Government. The further history is here presented in extracts from this report, which was submitted to the superior council by M. Brouardel, dean of the Paris faculty of medicine, and from the report of the commission on the proposed course in science submitted to the council by M. Darboux, dean of the Paris faculty of sciences. These reports, with the resulting decrees, afford a very clear idea of the conduct of medical students in France, and also of the relations that exist in the French system between general studies, whether organized in the lycees or in the faculties, and professional studies. For the better understanding of the citations from the reports here considered it should be premised that medical instruction is the province of medical faculties, of full course schools having the same rank as the faculties, and of preparatory schools in which students may pass three years of the four required in the medical course.1 In the ministerial circular of May 9, 1892, the propositions to be con¬ sidered by the commissions were submitted as follows : (1) In the “ faculties of sciences/' following the full secondary or lycee course (scientific), the organization of a year’s course in theoretical and practical studies comprising physics, chemistry, and. natural history; this course to take the place of the baccalaureate of sciences limited (restreint)2 and of the first year of the actual programme of the faculties of medicine. (2) The organization of a four years* medical course so as to comprise therein the applications of physical and natural sciences to medicine, and such an adjustment of the examinations in these subjects as would bring a part of them into the period of medical study. Before proceeding directly to the consideration of these propositions M. Brouardel says, with respect to possible modification of the second¬ ary course of studies in the interests of students intending to follow a medical course ; It is to he noted that as regards the organization of the medical studies and the scientific preparation necessary to these studies, the questions put to the faculties in 1880 and 1892 are identical ; the difference is only as to the preliminary secondary JFor location of medical faculties and schools see Report of the Commissioner. 1891-02, pp. 92-95. 2 For explanation see p. 220. 228 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. studies. In 1890 tlie question was, if these studies could not stop at the class of rhetoric. In 1892 it was admitted that they must he continued through the year of philosophy. This change is accounted for hy two reasons: First, in the permanent section of the superior council numerous projects have been elaborated with a view to comprising, in a single year, the class of philosophy and the preparatory year of physical and natural sciences; as this could not be satisfactorily arranged, the attempt was abandoned. Second, the faculties of medicine who had raised the question of the suppression or the transformation of the philosophical class, at last, by a great majority, decided against any modification of that class. * * * Proceeding then to the propositions before the commission, the reporter says with respect to the scientific studies preliminary to the medical : From the replies to the circular of inquiry it appears that the faculties demand unanimously the organization of one year of preparatory study in the physical and natural sciences applicable to medicine, and, with a great majority, they desire that the same be organized in the faculties of sciences. After having discussed the matter, your commission came to the conclusion that one of the principal causes of the failure of the previous efforts was the mixing of that which is general with what pertains specially to medicine in the same instruc¬ tion ; and that this confusion had prevented that profit to the medical sciences which might have been expected from these studies. Therefore the commission believes that these two parts (i. e., general and special) should be separated definitely; that only pupils already sufficiently instructed in the physical and natural sciences should be permitted to enter into the faculties of medicine ; that the instruction in these sciences should be organized in the faculties of medicine with an exclusively med¬ ical view, because they are convinced that the preparatory instruction maintained in the faculties and schools of medicine would resemble too much that which up to this time has not given satisfactory results. Passing then to the duration of studies, including in the term the pre¬ liminary general course and the strictly professional course, the report continues : The faculties of medicine in demanding one year preparatory to the medical studies are well aware that, considering the entire course of study, they seem to increase by a year the time required under the present order. But they observe: (1) That if the duration of the period of study seems to be prolonged by a year, this is not the case with the actual duration of the medical studies. This appears from the examination of the records of the 663 doctors examined at Paris, 1888 and 1889. As regards the number of years spent in study, the records show the following: From 4 to 5 years . : . 6L From 5 to 6 years . 113 From 6 to 7 years . 142 From 7 to 8 years . 91 From 8 to 9 years . 61 From 9 to 10 years . 46 From 10 to 11 years . 51 More than 11 . 98 Total . 663 It is evident from this statement that, of these 663 physicians, above half had devoted more than seven years to their studies; some did this in order to prepare thoroughly for the examinations for positions in the civil hospitals (concours dev Pinternat) ; these voluntarily, ant1 with great profit, prolonged their studies; others EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 229 who did not desire to compete for these positions availed themselves of the labora¬ tories freely placed at their disposal and frequented the special cliuics; and, finally, others because their studies had been interrupted by sickness, misfortune, etc. For the better scholars the duration of professional studies varies between six and eight years, and in the case of those preparing for hospital service it extends often to ten years. With respect to the division of studies and examinations in the medical course the commission say : The student, on entering into the faculty of medicine, will begin at once the ana¬ tomical and clinical studies. In order to be ready for an examination in surgical and medical pathology at the time of the thirteenth inscription or act of enroll¬ ment (beginning of the fourth year), it is necessary that during the first three years he should pursue the hospital course (stage hospitalier). For the first two years he will take partin dissections in the winter semester; during the summer semester ho will frequent the laboratories of histology, physiology, physics, chemistry, of medical natural history. As to these last sciences, they should be so distributed as to be pursued throughout the course, the time devoted to the demonstrations per¬ taining to each being properly related to the successive stages of the instruction. Thus optics and acoustics should be associated with physiology, and the student should be tested in these matters at the second examination. Medical electricity, so little understood by physicians, simply because it is not taught to the students at the moment when they might study its applications to the nervous system, should form part of the fourth examination (therapeutic). The chemistry of humors and of nutrition belongs medically to the programme of physiology; their alterations to that of general or special pathology; they should be taught during the third year of the course. The applications of chemistry to therapeutics, to materia medica, to hygiene, to legal medicine, belong to the fourth examination. Zoology, botany, and, above all, by reason of the part which they actually play in pathology and hygiene, animal and vegetative parasites must be studied for the third and fourth examinations. The practical laboratories actually attached to these chairs will serve to make the pupils familiar with the objects pertaining immediately to their studies. If some persons have feared that the instruction in sciences was to be abandoned, they have misunderstood the project. French scientists having accomplished such great things for the progress of med¬ ical science by their discoveries in physics and bacteriology, it would certainly never occur to one of us to eliminate these sciences from medical studies. But we believe that speaking of the medical applications of the sciences to those who do not know the elements of medicine is an error in method; to explain these applications at the moment when the students are occupied with physiology, pathology, therapeu¬ tics, would enhance the value of the instruction and, I will add, is indispensable. Diseases are often diagnosed by means of laboratory investigations either by chemical processes or by bacteriological examinations. It is thus, at the present time, that the diagnosis of phthisis (consumption) is decided and confirmed; thus also the nature of an epidemic is determined at its outset. The study of the applications of physical, chemical, and natural sciences will therefore follow the student during the whole of his professional course. We have the firm conviction that by this procedure we restore the scientific studies to their true place in medical instruction. Here follows a section of the report devoted to the consideration of the medical schools. As these are matters purely of administration they do not particularly concern us. The report concludes : Such are, in brief, the views which have influenced all those who for several years have studied these projects of reform. If they have varied in their opinions as to 230 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. some details, they have not differed as to the end to he attained,, namely, to associate the experimental sciences with the medical studies properly so called, in such a manner as to maintain the prestige of our medical instruction. CERTIFICATE OF PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND NATURAL SCIENCES. The commission of which M, Darbonx was the chairman was charged to examine the project of a decree relative to physical, chemical, and natural science studies as preliminary to the medical course. As explained by M. Darboux at the beginning of his report, this commis¬ sion was obliged before entering upon its task to obtain the decisions of the commission whose report has just been considered. The president of this commission [says M. Darboux] having informed us that, saving only changes in details, they had unanimously adopted the project submitted to their examination, that they proposed to reorganize the medical studies conform¬ ably to the oft-repeated views of the faculties of medicine, and that they favored the organization, outside of these faculties, of preparatory courses in physical, chem¬ ical, and natural sciences, such as might give the future physicians the knowledge of these sciences both theoretical and practical, which they must possess in order to follow successfully the medical studies properly so called, our task was very pre¬ cisely defined. It only remained for us to consider the best organization of this instruction, and where it should be placed in order to produce the best results.' The detailed examination of this question led us to accept with some trifling mod¬ ifications the project which had been submitted to us. To insure your approval it will only be necessary to place before you a full resume of the discussion which took place in the commission. We first considered what should be the nature of the new instruction. The answer to this question was indicated to us by the very terms in which it was pro¬ posed. In the project that had been reported to us, and which you had approved, the faculties of medicine retain complete control of the study of the applications of physical and natural sciences to the different branches of the art of healing, but they demand pupils already initiated into the elements of these sciences. The new instruction must, therefore, first of all, be general instruction and not instruction in apxdications. But as the j)hysician is not a man of theory, but of practice, the new instruction must not only be theoretical but also practical and experimental. It is in labora¬ tories, in contact with a teacher, and not from books, that the pupil acquires a truly vital knowledge of experimental sciences. Where must this instruction be placed in order that it may have, to the highest degree, this indispensable double character, that it may be at once general and practical? Only two solutions were possible — the first was to place it in the iycees and colleges, the other in the faculties of sciences. The first of these plans being out of the question, it would be useless to reproduce here the considerations advanced in its favor but for their general bearing. They afford an interesting view of the conditions under which secondary instruction is maintained in France, of the pur¬ poses by which it is animated, and of its relations to superior instruc¬ tion and to society in general. Moreover, these considerations were kept in mind by the advocates of the opposite policy, and, consequently, they are necessary to a full understanding of this side of the discussion. Hence the report is reproduced without material omissions. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 231 One of our colleagues [says M. Darboux] gave the following reasons in favor of the first solution. The relegation of the new instruction to the lycees and colleges is necessary to maintain the equilibrium of the plan of secondary studies, so wisely organized in 1890. This plan comprehends an examination after the class of rhetoric which is common to all the students and the indispensable sanction of literary studies; then after the class of philosophy three distinct examinations, correspond¬ ing to the needs and to the aptitudes of the scholars, i. e., li Lettres philosophic,” “Lettres mathematiques,” and a third series which it is proposed to organize, “ Lettres sciences physiques et naturelies.” 1 The diploma inscribed “ Lettres matheraatiques” is intended especially for scholars who desire to enter the u schools” (superior technical). Physical science has only small representation in this course, and natural science has not been introduced at all. Hence it follows that, unless the baccalaureate of physical and natural sciences is organized the plan of studies will remain incomplete, and the programmes of secondary instruction will be inferior in this respect to those of the primary normal schools. This baccalaureate, not yet organized, ought not to be adapted solely to the needs of the future students of medicine; it should suffice also for all students who do not need a highly extended mathematical culture, for sons of tradesmen and farmers, and for all young men who, by their aptitudes and taste, are inclined to the physical and natural sciences. The proposed measure (projet de decret) leaves these latter sciences, so far as regards secondary instruction, in a state of weakness and inferiority, which it is impossible to account for, considering their importance to society. In the lycee natural history is only taught in the philo¬ sophical class, and even there in a very elementary manner. Of what use, then, is it to establish an examination for special professors (agregation) of natural science? The project permits an encroachment of superior instruction upon secondary, which is to be deplored, because the studies that it is proposed to organize in the faculties of science can only be secondary in view of the scientific attainments of the young men for whom they are intended. Now all superior instruction should have a solid basis, and this secondary instruction must give. Secondary instruction has for its end the discipline of the mind required in every order of science. This discipline is attained in the class and by exercises, by the contact of the professor and the pupil. Within the faculties this contact can not be maintained to the same degree on account of the great number of pnpils, who, with far better results could be distributed among the different establishments of secondary instruction. Why has the year of physical and natural sciences not produced better results in the faculties of medicine? Because the pupils were too numerous. The same will be the case in the faculties of science. On the other side, is it probable that parents will view the proposed measure with favor? Not only will it take the young men too early from the beneficent and necessary influence of the lycees, but it will increase the pecuniary sacrifices which they must undergo. From this point of view the project is not democratic. From the financial standpoint also the project is disadvantageous. In the second¬ ary course the projected instruction could be organized with less expense. A certain number of teachers do not reach the maximum working hours imposed upon them by the regulations. By completing their service and by assigning additional hours to others the expense would be very small. The persons necessary for this are quite ready; the teachers required are already prepared; they desire the new duties; they feel that they can perform them to their own honor and also that the service now assigned to them does not accord with the qualifications demanded of them. Is their ability questioned? The success which they achieve in preparing students for the “ schools” (i. e,, superior technical) will suf¬ fice for an answer. This project is therefore injurious to secondary instruction For explanation see p. 226. 232 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. because it cuts off oue of the most important branches of this course, and also, because it deprives the course of a powerful influence against the competition to which it is subject. Many pupils in private institutions look to the lycees for scien¬ tific education. To organize therein instruction in physical sciences would be to furnish to our establishments a new means of strengthening public instruction (un nouveau moyen de propagande universitaire). Finally the project makes the first breach in secondary instruction. Is it not to be feared that later on others will be made? Will not the transfer of the special mathematical and philosophical classes into the faculties follow? Thus are summarized, as precisely and completely as possible, the considerations presented in favor of the first solution. Before presenting the reasons for the other solution, we will submit certain obser¬ vations and statements in opposition to the above. First, there is no question at all about cutting down secondary instruction. To do this, would be to take away something from it. But what is taken away? Nothing. Where are the pupils in question? In superior instruction. It is proposed only to transfer them from the faculty of medicine to the faculty, of sciences. Already students of superior instruc¬ tion, they will still remain students of superior instruction. It is therefore useless to speak of a breach in secondary instruction. Hence, also, the apprehensions expressed as to the classes of philosophy and special mathematics is chimerical. Moreover, on this subject, the administration has given the most explicit and most emphatic assurances. Not only has it never thought of transferring the classes of philosophy and special mathematics from the lycees into the faculties, but it has declared that such a project would be veritable folly, more dangerous to the interests of superior instruction than to those of secondary instruction itself. Neither is there any question of passing the future students of medicine from the lyc6es into superior instruction at an earlier age than at present. This age will be the same to-morrow as it was yesterday. But their secondary studies once terminated, philosophy once finished, once made bachelors, the young men will be admitted to the faculties. The onty difference is this, for the first year, a difference in respect to place, i. e., the faculty of sciences instead of the faculty of medicine; this is not a difference in respect to age. Nor is there any ground for a question about increasing the expenses of families. Indeed your commission on the medical faculties has arranged this in the most satisfactory way — the duration of the studies will not be prolonged. I can not do better here than to refer to what has already been presented to you.1 Finally, it is useless to discuss the competency of the professors of secondary instruction. There is no reason nor ground for this. Almost all the professors of the faculties have been professors of the lycees ; they remember this and feel honored by it. In their eyes public education is a unit, and they can admit no other rivalry among the different orders of education than that of devotion to the public welfare. These questions disposed of, we may consider the arguments which have prevailed in the commission. The real matter, and the only matter to be considered, is to organize the new instruction under the conditions most favorable to its success, to the interest of the studies, and to the good of the country. In order to settle this it is not necessary to proceed with abstract definitions. Where does secondary instruction commence? Where does it finish? Where does superior instruction commence? Different theo¬ retical answers can be given to these questions. In a general way, as one of our colleagues remarked, that which characterizes superior instruction is not the subjects taught, but the methods. Very elementary matters may legitimately be the subjects of superior instruction if they are taught by those methods which enable the student to master them for himself. Now, such should be the character of instruction in the faculties of medicine. They demand students who combine with theoretical knowledge a certain practice in experiments See p. 229. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 233 and manipulations, that is to say, in those iirocesses which alone enable one to explain phenomena, to truly understand them. In these matters, moreover, we must he guided not by theoretical ideas alone, but, above all, by facts. Practical matters are judged by their results; the results can only be known through facts. Let us then consider in the light of facts from which side, lycee or faculty of sciences, the best results may be expected. It might be assumed that the new organization could be limited to certain lyc£es; for instance, to one for each academy — to that one nearest the faculty of sciences or the faculty or school of medicine. This solution would be impracticable. There are about 1,200 students of the hrst year in the faculties of medicine; of this num¬ ber at least seven or eight hundred come from the lycees or colleges of the State. To distribute them as proposed, would be to have in each one of the selected lycees — save Paris, where there must be more — groups of sixty, eight}", or even a hundred students. Without inquiring if this would be good for the general discipline of these lycees, we need only ask where are the laboratories for so great a number of students ? They do not exist, and they can not be constructed. Possibly, as has been sug¬ gested, those of the faculty of science might be used, but that would, in reality, place the new instruction within the faculty of sciences, while the pupils whose parents reside in other cities would live in the lycees. But it would not be possible to limit the new instruction to a few lycees. Unfor¬ tunately, it must be introduced everywhere, in the colleges as well as in the lycees. Need we cite the example of the special mathematical classes, in all 47, of the special classes for St. Cyr, numbering 57.1 These numbers prove that the administration is often forced to go beyond what is required. In respect to the new course, there would be still greater pressure. If it is recog¬ nized as an integral part of secondary instruction, the demands of the families are justilied in advance. Now these demands would be made everywhere, as the future students of medicine are distributed everywhere, in the colleges as well as in the lycees. Moreover, to say nothing of local rivalries and the inevitable effects of influ¬ ence, there is also the rivalry of the private establishments. Wherever the State should refuse to have the studies preparatory to the medical course in its lycees and colleges, private institutions would organize them and the State would be forced to do the same. We have seen what this new instruction ought to be. Let us see what it would be under these conditions. In order to be thorough, it ought to be, as we have said, at once theoretical, prac¬ tical, and experimental. Now, in the lycees there is no room for the laboratories. The expenses of creating them would be considerable, and out of all proportion to the results. The material is equally lacking. There exists indeed in every lycee a physical cabinet, but the instruments to be put into the hands of the students for the manipulations in physics, chemistry, and natural history are wanting. They must be furnished. In estimating the expenses at 60,000 francs ($12,000) for each lycde (a low estimate and probably insufficient), this would require at the outset, and without reference to sites, an expenditure of more thau six millions. The col¬ leges, it will be seen, are not considered here. The number of professors in the lycees is insufficient. To raise the number of lessons to be given each professor to the highest required in his position, and in addition to charge him with supplementary lessons, would be a sorry expedient, for, to quote the words of the commission, this would be to imovide for the new instruc¬ tion by shreds (rognures) ; therefore it would be necessary to employ extra pro¬ fessors in almost all lycees, to say nothing of the colleges. Together with these professors, an equal number of superintendents of practical work would be required. At present there are none in the lycees. Two at least would be needed in every establishment — one for physics and chemistry, one for natural history. This would make more than 200 new positions still, not including the colleges. * * * 1 Reference is here made to special classes in the lycees. 234 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Besides this, assistants would he required; these must necessarily he specialists, and at least 200 in number for the lycees only. Finally, there would be expenses for material for practical work in every establish- estiment. This expenditure would be considerable. According to the most careful estimates laid before the commission, the annual expenditure, not including the cost of the first establishment, would amount to no less than 1,500,000 francs for the lycees alone. Thus, after subtracting the expenditure for tuition, every student would cost the State more than 20,000 francs ($4,000) per year. In view of these estimates, which have not been exaggerated, if the studies are to be properly provided for, the plan here considered is not practicable. * * * Let us now examine the other solution, namely, that of placing the new instruc¬ tion into the faculty of sciences. You know what profound transformations have been accomplished in these establishments within twenty years. Everywhere the buildings have been reconstructed and enlarged; they have been supplied with large laboratories for the experimental sciences. If in some places these are still too small, the remedy is easy. It is not the same with a faculty as with the lycdes, which can only be enlarged by the acquisition of territory and the construction of adjacent buildings. A barrack on a site not far distant is sufficient. Certainly, we professors of the faculties of Paris will never forget the services rendered to superior instruction by the barracks and halls of Gerson. As to the material, it exists everywhere complete and admirable. The corps of teachers? Without doubt, it will be necessary to increase it. But this increase will be small compared with that which we examined before (i. e., with respect to lycees). The corps of laboratory chiefs and assistants? The faculties have these, both able and experienced. For fifteen years they have been developing on this side. If it be necessary to increase the force, the expense will be small compared with that which would be necessary in the lycees and col¬ leges. Finally, the faculties have ample resources to meet the annual expenditure for laboratories and practical work. According to the estimates laid before the commission, the increase of expenditure will not surpass the increase in receipts. Considered from the intellectual standpoint, the faculties of science are thoroughly competent, even better prepared for insuring the discipline of the mind in any par¬ ticular order of sciences than was deemed necessary by one of our colleagues, who proposed to place the new course in the lycees. Such a discipline results less from the effect of the lesson given by the teacher than from his contact with the student, and the atmosphere in which the student lives. Now those professors of the faculty who have devoted themselves to the experi¬ mental sciences live in their laboratories with their assistants in constant communi¬ cation with their pupils. In these laboratories the students are, as it were, enveloped in science ; they handle the apparatus ; they see it in action ; everything speaks of their specialty, the material as well as the teachers. This is the only place indeed where they can be filled with the spirit of science and thoroughly comprehend it. Moreover, we have something more and better than hopes and promises. The administration was of the opinion that, in a matter like this, experience was desir¬ able. With the assent of the permanent section of the superior council of education an experiment has been made at Toulouse. Now for three years in that city students of medicine have received during their first year instruction in physical, chemical, and natural sciences in the faculty of science. The experiment has succeeded; the results are entirely satisfactory. The deans of the faculty of medicine and of the faculty of sciences charged one colleague, who belongs to the faculties of Toulouse, to inform us as to the results. W e cite the facts in support of the project. It remains to submit the considerations as to another matter with which the commission was especially charged. The course to be created is a general one. Although intended for the future physicians, it may also serve others. Besides the young men who enter EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 235 into the special scliools, as tlie Central School and the Agronomic Institute, a great number of those destined for industrial or agricultural careers will need correspond¬ ing practical instruction. Some faculties of science — Lyons and Nancy for instance — have voluntarily tried to meet this requirement. Experience has shown that those students to whom these faculties have given instruction, practical indeed, hut general in its nature, have been very successful in industry. It has seemed to us that, in this respect, the new instruction might produce excellent results. While giving indispensable scientific preparation to the future physicians it will also give equal preparation to others, and thus become, in certain centers, the basis of technical instruction, which will be advantageous for our national industries. Thus the particular conditions for acquir¬ ing the degree of doctor of medicine being determined by a special' decree, we recommend that the proposed courses bo open to the bachelors of all orders. We go further, in the true spirit of sound democracy, and, supported by the results already obtained at Lyons and Nancy, we recommend also that this course be opened to select pupils from the primary schools who pass the required tests. We shall be glad to see this union established between superior and primary instruction, as it will certainly be useful to both of them. The faculties, having been freely consulted in this matter, according to the liberal policy of the Govern¬ ment, have agreed to accept the new responsibility. They have already a well- defined purpose, i. e., that of preparing candidates for the degree of licencie, for the examinations for special professorship (agregations), for the doctorate, and for special research. They will maintain this service and will discharge it as heretofore. They have already a large attendance upon these courses, not less than 1,800 students. In enlarging their province, in placing beside their highest instruction courses more elementary and experimental work of a modest character, but so useful that the most experienced professors will willingly bear part in them, the faculties are con¬ scious that they will fill up a gap in our educational provision and at the same time meet a pressing demand of the time. It is impossible to overestimate the ever increasing part which pure science must bear in the activities and industries of our society. The remarkable development of industrial chemistry in a neighboring country, of electrical industry in all coun¬ tries, has been brought about by men, whether chiefs or subordinates, who have followed university courses or who have come from institutions directed by univer¬ sity professors. In exchange for all that the country has done for them, our facul¬ ties desire to render an equivalent service. This they will do by imparting to the future physicians the indispensable knowledge of the sciences called accessory, but which we will rather call fundamental, by bringing artisans and agriculturists into the current of scientific method, and also, they hope, in some instances at least, by developing eminent savants, whose abilities would otherwise remain dor¬ mant and useless. In view of these considerations, your commission recommend to you, almost unani¬ mously, and saving only some changes of detail, the adoption of the project “laid before you.” As a result of tlie reports cited, and in accordance with the advice of the superior council of public instruction, the President of the Republic issued the two following decrees, dated both July 31, 1893: DECREE REGULATING THE COURSE OF STUDY AND THE EXAMINATIONS REQUIRED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF MEDICINE. Article 1. The studies for obtaining the degree of doctor of medicine continue four years. They can be pursued during the first three years in a preparatory school of medieino or pharmacy; during the fourth year in a faculty of medicine, in a 236 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. mixed faculty of medicine and pharmacy, or in a full-course school of medicine and pharmacy. Art. 2. The candidates for the doctorate in medicine, in order to take their first inscription, have to attain the diploma of a bachelor of secondary classical instruc¬ tion (lettres-philosophie) and the certificate of physical, chemical, and natural sciences. Art. 3. They must undergo five examinations and sustain one thesis. Art. 4. The examinations comprise the following topics : First examination: Anatomy, omitting topographic anatomy; practical test in dis¬ section. Second examination : Histology, physiology, in which are comprehended biologic physics and biologic chemistry. Third examination : First part, surgery aud topographic anatomy, surgical pathol¬ ogy (externe), accouchements. Second part, general pathology, animal and veget¬ able parasites, microbes, medical pathology (interne), practical test in pathologic anatomy. Fourth examination: Therapeutics, hygiene, medical law, materia medica, phar¬ macology, with the applications of physical and natural sciences. Fifth examination : First part, clinics (externe), obstretric clinics. Second part, hospital clinics; thesis upon a subject chosen by the candidate. Art. 5. The first examination must be taken between the sixth and eighth inscrip¬ tion (terms); the second, between the eighth and tenth; the third, between the thirteenth and sixteenth; the fourth and the fifth, after the sixteenth. Art. 6. The records made by the candidates, whether in practical work, in recita¬ tions, in clinical service, where they have been regularly admitted as probationers, are communicated to the examiners by the dean, and count in the examination. Art. 7. The students admitted to the full-course schools and to the reorganized preparatory schools undergo the first and second examinations before the school to which they belong. Art. 8. The president of the examining jury is a professor of the faculty, dele¬ gated by the minister. Immediately after the examinations the president of the jury sends a report of the results of the same to the minister Art. 9. The sessions of the examination take place in the schools, full-course and reorganized prepiaratory, twice a year, at dates fixed by the minister. Art. 10. The students admitted to the preparatory schools which are not reorgan¬ ized undergo the first and second examinations before a faculty at the times fixed by article 5. In case of adjournment, they must appear before the same faculty. Art. 11. The practical work in dissection in the laboratory and in the hospital service is obligatory. The hospital practice must continue at least three years; it must comprehend at least three months’ practice in obstetrics. A ministerial order will determine the time to be given to dissection and to other Practical work. Art. 12. The fourth and fifth examinations and thesis must be sustained before the same faculty. Art. 13. The present decree takes effect November 1, 1895. The candidates admitted before this date will take their examinations according to the decree of June 20, 1878. In order to be admitted they must possess either the degree of bachelor of sciences or of bachelor of secondary classical instruction (lettres-philosophie), and of bachelor of sciences limited as to mathematics. Art. 14. All previous provisions contrary to those of the present decree are and remain abrogated. Art. 15. The minister of public instruction, of liberal arts and culture, is charged with the execution of the present decision, which will be inscribed into the bulletin of the laws and published in the official journal. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 237 DECREE RELATIVE TO SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC STUDIES REQUIRED FOR ADMISSION TO THE MEDICAL COURSE. Article 1. There is instituted in the faculties of sciences a preparatory course of physical, chemical, and natural sciences. Art. 2. To this instruction are admitted young men provided with a diploma of bachelor, and, after examination by the faculty, young men of at least seventeen years of age, provided either with the superior certificate of primary instruction or with the certificate of superior primary (high school) studies. Art. 3. At the end of this course, and after examinations passed before the facul¬ ties of sciences, a certificate of physical, chemical, and natural studies is delivered. Art, 4. In order to be admitted to the examination, the candidates must show that they have paid the fees for four successive terms (inscription) and taken part in the practical work. Art. 5. The examination is passed before the faculty in which the candidate has taken the four inscriptions (been enrolled four terms). It comprises questions and practical test in physics ; questions and practical test in chemistry ; questions and practical test in zoology; questions and practical test in botany. All this according to programmes which will be determined by a ministerial order. Art. 6. The jury is composed of three members of the faculty. Art. 7. The instruction instituted by the present decree may be organized near the medical schools, and near the reorganized preparatory schools situated in those cities where faculties of sciences do not exist. The examinations take place under the presidency of a professor of a faculty of sciences delegated by the minister. Art. 8. The minister of public instruction, of liberal arts and culture, is charged with the execution of the present decision, which will be inserted in the bulletin of the laws and published in the official journal. CHAPTER VI. EDUCATION IN ONTARIO, NEW ZEALAND, AND INDIA. I. — System of Education in Ontario. (Salient features of the system as presented by the deputy minister of education, Mr. John Millar, B. A. Current operations as set forth in an address by the min¬ ister. Hon. George W. Ross.) The Dominion of Canada comprises the seven Provinces — Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Mani¬ toba, and British Columbia — each of which has its separate system of public instruction. The system of Ontario possesses peculiar interest for us on account both of the features in which it resembles and those in which it differs from the systems in our own States. A very com¬ plete exposition of the Ontario system, prepared by the deputy minister of education, Mr. John Millar, has recently been published by the Ontario education department. The salient features of the system, as set forth in this monograph, are as follows: Origin. — The system of education in Ontario maybe said to combine the best features of the systems of several countries. To the Old World it is indebted for a large measure of its stability, uniformity, and cen¬ tralization ; to the older settled parts of the New World for its popular nature, its flexibility, and its democratic principles, which have given, wherever desirable, local control and individual responsibility. From the State of New York we have borrowed the machinery of our schools: from Massachusetts the principle of local taxation ; from Ireland our first series of text-books; from Scotland the cooperation of parents with the teacher in upholding his authority; from Germany the system of normal schools and the kindergarten, and from the United States generally the nondenominational character of elementary, secondary, and university education. Ontario may claim to have some features of her system that are largely her own. Among them may be mentioned a division of state and municipal authority on a judicious basis: clear lines separating the function of the university from that of the high schools, and the func¬ tion of the high schools from that of the public or elementary schools; a uniform course of study; all high and public schools in the hands of professionally trained teachers; no person eligible to the position of 239 240 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. inspector who does not liold tlie highest grade of a teacher’s certificate, and who has not had years of experience as a teacher ; inspectors removable if inefficient, but not subject to removal by popular vote; the examinatious of the teachers under provincial instead of local con¬ trol; the acceptance of a common matriculation examination for admis¬ sion to the universities and to the learned profession ; a uniform series of text-books for the whole Province; the almost entire absence of party politics in the manner in which school boards, inspectors, and teachers discharge their duties; the system national instead of secta¬ rian, but affording under constitutional guarantees and limitations protection to Roman Catholic and Protestant separate schools and denominational universities. Unity. — The three main features of elementary, secondary, and higher education are clearly defined in the system adopted in Ontario. It is held that each of these has its own proper field and that no one of them should trench upon the grounds of another. It is also intended that there should be, as far as possible, no overlapping of the courses of study. The system includes the kindergarten, public and separate schools, high schools and the collegiate institutes, and the university. These may be regarded as an organic whole. The child enters the kindergarten at perhaps 4 years of age, and the public school at 6, and is prepared, about the age of 13, to be admitted to a high school. Four or five years at the high school or collegiate institute enables him to matriculate in the university, where he attends four years and gains his B. A. degree. This course, if taken in full, gives him superior educa¬ tional advantages fur taking up the study of his chosen profession or entering upon the calling in life to which his mind is directed. As only a small percentage of the youth of any country can reach the highest rung of the educational ladder, the curriculum is so arranged as to afford, as far as possible, no misdirected steps to those who do not take the full course. As the great body of the people must be the “ breadwinners,” and from necessity never reach the high school, the course of study for the elementary schools is limited to a few subjects of the most practical character, the three “R’s” receiving special promi¬ nence. Moreover the curriculum of the high schools in the lower terms puts stress upon English, arithmetic, geography, history, elementary science, bookkeeping, drawing, reading, and physical education. The principles of our system of national education favor no class or sect. “The rich and the poor meet together.” Private schools have been successful only in rare instances. The high school has been called the “poor man’s college,” on account of the general desire in the com¬ munity to exact low fees from students, and in many instances to charge no fees. The highest distinctions in the university are most frequently gained by the sons — and daughters, too — of workingmen. No part of the system can do without the others. To the high schools the public schools are indebted for their efficient army of well- EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 241 educated teachers. In like manner the university furnishes in the persons of its graduates the well-trained principals and assistants of our high schools and collegiate institutes. The secondary schools, in turn, supply the university with hundreds of well-prepared matricu¬ lants. To improve the university is to give an impetus to the high schools, and to render the latter more efficient tells likewise upon the character of elementary education. If one member of the body suffers, all the other members of the body suffer with it. It is thus that all departments of the system form a harmonious unity, and it is thus the functions of each have come to be fully recognized and clearly understood. Relations to municipalities. — The municipal system of Ontario affords a full measure of local self-government. The Province is for the most part divided into counties, which are subdivided into minor muni¬ cipalities, consisting of townships, incorporated villages, towns, and cities. These corporations are given certain powers, and have certain responsibilities with respect to education. Through their municipal councils, counties are under obligation to make grants of money to high schools, and both counties and townships must contribute certain sums in aid of public schools. Each township is divided into school sections, and each of these sections is provided with a public schooL There is a board of trustees for each school section, incorporated vil¬ lage, town, and city. Much the greater part of what is expended for public schools is provided by the school section, village, town, or city. The ratepayers (men and women) elect the trustees who, within the provisions of the provincial statutes or regulations of the education department, appoint the teachers and determine the amounts to be expended for buildings, equipments, and salaries. It thus follows that the system of education in Ontario is essentially democratic, and in those matters which affect the sentiments or touch the pockets of the people, each locality has almost entire control. It is not, however, con¬ sidered wise to decentralize as regards the granting of certificates to teachers and inspectors, the authorizing of text-books, the fixing of courses of study, and the prescribing of the duties of trustees, inspect¬ ors, and teachers. These are questions which, though still under the control of the people, are regulated by a responsible government. Relations to churches. — There is no established church in Ontario, or connection between church and state. The constitution gives the Prov¬ ince control of its educational affairs, and the great majority of the people believe that schools and colleges should be nondenominational. Ho religious body has any voice in the management of the high and public schools or the university. These institutions are, however, far from beiug u Godless” or irreligious. Though not religious, they are institutions of a Christian people. The doctrines of no church are taught, but the principles of Christianity form an essential feature of the daily exercises. The teachers are, with very rare exceptions, men ed 93 - 16 242 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1S92-33. and women of high moral character. The cooperation of the clergy of all denominations in educational gatherings is quite common, and rec¬ ognition of religion is Tally shown in the following regulations which have been prescribed by the education department: (1) Every public and high school shall be opened with the Lord’s Prayer and closed with the reading of the Scriptures and the Lord’s Prayer, or the prayer authorized by the department of education. (2) The Scriptures shall be read daily and systematically without comment or explanation, and the portions used may be taken from the book of selections adopted by the department for that purpose, or from the Bible, as the trustees, by resolution may direct. (3) Trustees may also order the reading of the Bible or the authorized Scripture selections by both pupils and teachers at the opening and closing of the school, and the repeating of the Ten Commandments at least once a week. (4) No pupil shall be required to take part in any religious exercise objected to by his parents or guardians, and in order to the observance of this regulation, the teacher, before commencing a religious exercise, is to allow a short interval to elapse, during which the children of Eoman Catholics and of others who have signified their objection, may retire. (5) If in virtue of the right to be absent from the religious exercises any pupil does not enter the schoolroom till fifteen minutes after the proper time for the open¬ ing the school in the forenoon, such absence shall not be treated as an offense against the rules of the school. (6) When a teacher claims to have conscientious scruples in regard to opening or closing the school as herein prescribed, he shall notify the trustees to that effect in writing, and it shall be the duty of the trustees to make such provision in the premises as they may deem expedient. (7) The clergy of any denomination, or their authorized representatives, shall have the right to give religious instruction to the pupils of their own church, in each school- house, at least once a week, after the hour of closing the school in the afternoon, and if the clergy of more than one denomination apply to give religious instruction in the same schoolhouse, the board of trustees shall decide on what day of the week the schoolhouse shall be at the disposal of the clergyman of each denomination at the time above stated. But it shall be lawful for the board of trustees and clergymen of any denomination to agree upon any hour of the day at which a clergyman, or his authorized representative, may give religious instruction to the pupils of his own church, provided it be not during the regular hours of the school. Emblems of a denominational character shall not be exhibited in a public school during regular school hours. The imperial statute, called the British Korth America act, which united, the Pro viuces forming the Dominion of Canada, guaranteed cer¬ tain educational privileges to the Eoman Catholic citizens of Ontario. The separate schools act, as it is termed, enables Protestants, as well as Eoman Catholics, to establish, under certain conditions, schools for themselves. In these schools, in addition to the ordinary course of study for public schools, religious exercises are taken up under the direction of the trustees. The education department has not the same authority under the statute over Eoman Catholic separate schools as it has over the public schools, yet in the main features — such as the qualification of teachers, excepting those in religious orders, the selec¬ tion of text-books, except those required for religious exercises — the EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 243 authority of the department may be said to be tlie same. There is no provision in the constitution allowing the establishment of separate high schools, and any private or denominational institutions of this kind which have been established receive no legislative aid, nor are their supporters exempted from taxation for the national schools. The Roman Catholics have shown as little disposition as the Protes¬ tants to establish denominational schools for secondary education, and the verdict of all classes appears to be that religious convictions are not interfered with, and that Christian principles are strengthened by attendance at the high schools and collegiate institutes. A few church schools have been opened for boys and several ladies’ colleges have been established by different denominations. The course of study in these institutions is, in many respects, similar to that in the high schools, and the students frequently write at the same university and departmental examinations. The Provincial University is also nondenominational. All the churches are well represented among its alumni. The arts course has been taken up by Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist, and Roman Catholic candidates for the ministry before attending the theo¬ logical colleges of their respective denominations. No religious tests are required of the professors, who, in fact, represent different denomi¬ nations, and, in many instances, have identified themselves with the work of the different churches. An important adjunct to the uni¬ versity is a flourishing Young Men’s Christian Association, which has been of much service as a religious and moral bond of union among the students. The wishes of those who prefer attendance at a denominational uni¬ versity are well met by the several institutions of the kind that have been established, viz : Ottawa University (Korean Catholic), Queen’s University (Presbyterian), Trinity (Episcopalian), the Western Uni¬ versity (Episcopalian), Victoria University (Methodist), now federated with Toronto, and McMaster University (Baptist). These are sus¬ tained by private endowments or grants made by religious bodies. No financial assistance is given them by the State. The course of study is, as a rule, the same as in the Provincial University and University College, except that some options of a denominational character are allowed. They have all accepted a uniform matriculation examination held by the education department and Toronto University. No relig¬ ious tests are required, and the degrees have the same legal value as those given by the Provincial University. Relations to parents — Compulsory education. — It is held to be the duty of the State to provide free elementary schools. To allow children to grow up in ignorance is detrimental to the interests of the community. All persons are taxed to support education, because its general diffu¬ sion is for the public good. It is held that compulsory education is a necessary corollary of free education. If the State gives the boon of 244 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. free schools to all, it has a right to see that the expected advantages are realized. On this principle the truancy and compulsory education act of 1891 was passed. This statute combines the best features of the laws of Great Britain on the subject, as well as those of the principal States of the American Union. By this act all children between the ages of 8 and 11 are obliged to attend school for the full term during which the school is open, and parents or guardians who fail to send their children are subject to penalties. The rights of conscience are sufficiently guarded. Penalties are not inflicted if the child is under efficient instruction at home, or unable to attend through sickness or other unavoidable cause, or is excused by a justice of the peace or by the principal of the school, or if he has passed the high school entrance examination. Any person employing a child under 14 years of age, during school hours, is liable to a penalty of $20. When the services of a child are deemed urgent, an absence from school for six weeks of the term may be granted. Provision is made for sending a child who is vicious and immoral to an industrial school. To nip truancy in the bud is regarded as the most effective means of preventing a recourse to the penalties of the act. Truant officers must be appointed for every city, town, and incorporated village, and may be appointed for every school section. These officers are vested with police powers, and have authority to enter factories, workshops, stores, and other places where children may be employed, and ascertain whether there is any violation of the act. Regulations may be made by the local authorities for the better enforcement of the statute. The truant officers must report annually to the education department according to prescribed forms. Separation from municipal and party politics. — The system of educa¬ tion in Ontario is remarkably free from politics. * # * School trustees are not selected from our municipal councils, and in the case of high school boards and boards of education the members can not hold at the same time positions in the municipal council of the municipality or county in which the high school is situated. The candidates for political honors or the “ wire-pullers” of a political party have scarcely any chance to advance their interests by bringing party politics into the domain of school management. Inspectors are not selected by pop¬ ular vote. Ro person can be appointed as inspector who has not a cer¬ tificate showing that be has attained to the highest rank as a public school teacher. * # # Boards of education have nothing to do with fixing the standards of examinations or awarding certificates. Tbe graduates of the high school, which is controlled b.y the trustees, must attend a training school before being eligible for positions in the gift of the board. In the case of public schools the inspector, or in the case of high schools the principal, is properly consulted regarding appointments. It is safe to say that rarely does an inspector or high school principal make his EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 245 recommendations through political motives, or make himself obnoxious to a section of the community by taking a part in the u party caucus” or political campaign. Appointments are almost invariably made on the ground of fitness, and even though personal motives and preferences may influence trustees, the fact that a candidate for a position takes an active interest in politics would prove fatal to his success even among his political friends. It is not intended to convey the impression that teachers or inspectors are debarred from any rights as citizens in the study of political questions, or the expression of their political views. It is only meant that their positions render it injudicious for them to alienate a part of the public by actively indulging in the strife of party warfare, and that inspectors or teachers who do so find their useful¬ ness gone. Education department. — By an act of the legislative assembly of the Province the educational department is intrusted with the administra¬ tion of the school law. The department consists of the members of the executive government, and its head, as already stated, is the min¬ ister of education. Subject to the provisions of any statute in that behalf, and the regulations of the department, there maybe established the following schools: (1) Kindergartens, (2) public schools, (3) night schools, (4) high schools and collegiate institutes, (5) art schools, (6) county model schools, (7) normal schools, (8) schools of pedagogy, (9) teachers7 institutes, (10) mechanics7 institutes, (11) industrial schools. It is the duty of the minister to direct all the educational forces in the country; first, from his place as a member of the legislative assem¬ bly, and secondly, through, the officers of his department. From the discussions of educational questions in the provincial parliament, his position as a member gives him the best facilities for recognizing the working of the school law and ascertaining the trend of public opinion. As the head of his department, his constant official intercourse with trustees, inspectors, and teachers gives him the greatest opportunity for prescribing from time to time whatever amendments to the regulations may be considered wise in the interest of high and public schools. From the wide sweep of the legislation which he is expected to direct, and from his position as a member of the government responsible to the people’s representatives, he is able to advance such legislation as will guard the unity of the system and preserve its symmetry, as well as prevent any needless innovation from pseudo-reformers or visionary meddlers. Extensive powers are given to the education department, but every regulation or order in council made under the statute giving it an existence, or under the public, separate, or high schools act must be laid before the legislative assembly. It has power, subject to the provisions of any statute in that behalf, to make regulations — (1) For tlie classification, organization, government, and examination of all schools and institutes in the preceding section mentioned, and for the equipment of school- houses and the arrangement of school premises ; 246 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. (2) For the authorization of text-hooks for the use of pupils attending such schools or institutes and for the selection of hooks of reference for the use of teachers and pupils, and school libraries; (3) For determining the qualifications and duties of inspectors, examiners, and teachers of such schools and institutes, and for the appointment from time to time of such examiners as maybe requisite for that purpose; (4) For the payment of the pensions of superannuated inspectors and teachers, and the proper distribution of all moneys set apart by the legislative assembly for school purposes; (5) For extending, on the petition of a board of school trustees, and on such evidence as to efficiency as may be deemed necessary, any third-class certificate issued under the authority of the public schools act; (6) For the study of agriculture and for scientific instruction as to the nature of alcoholic stimulants and narcotics with special reference to their effect upon the human system. Tlie education department has power also — (1) To appoint inspectors of high schools, separate schools, and county model schools, masters of normal and model schools, and directors of teachers’ institutes ; (2) To affiliate with the schools of pedagogy such high schools or collegiate insti¬ tutes as may be necessary for practical instruction in the art of teaching; (3) To determine the fees to be paid by candidates at departmental examinations; (4) To accept in such subjects as may be deemed expedient the examination of any university in the British Dominions in lieu of the departmental examinations; (5) To prescribe such forms for school registers and departmental reports as may be deemed expedient ; (6) To accept, on passing the annual departmental examination, the professional or training certificate of any normal school or other training institution in the British Dominions. The minister of education makes an annual report to the lieutenant- governor upon the schools and other institutions under the control of his department with such statements and suggestions for promoting education generally as he may deem useful and expedient. He has power to decide upon all disputes and complaints laid before him, the settlement of which is not otherwise provided by law, and upon all appeals made to him from the decisions of any inspector or other school officer. PRESENT STATUS OF THE SYSTEM. The following review of the operations of the system was presented before the legislature by the minister of education, Hon. George W. Ross, in submitting the estimates for 1894. The value of this survey is enhanced by comparative statistics and by the discussions of topics of vital interest in all systems : The estimates for educational purposes may be conveniently grouped under four heads: (1) Grants to elementary schools; (2) grants to secondary schools; (3) grants for the training of teachers ; (4) grants for technical education. The grants for elementary education are divided principally among three classes of schools — public schools, separate schools, and poor schools. There is, in addition, a small grant for kindergartens and night schools, and for pupils in the highest form of public and separate schools who pass the leaving examinathm. EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 247 By statute the amount appropriated for public and separate schools is divided on the basis of average attendance in each respectively. The amount paid to public schools in 1893 was $222,844.45, and the amount to separate schools $18,491.60. The Roman Catholic separate schools received over one-thirteenth of the money voted by the legislative assembly, -while the Roman Catholic population of the Province is about one-sixth. Although the amount given for elementary education is not as large as one would desire, still, having regard to the increase of the population, the legislature can not be said to be remiss in its duty. In 1871 the amount paid by the Government for elementary education was $178,975. This sum steadily increased, until in 1893 it amounted to $291,325, or an increase of 62 per cent in the last twenty years, while the pupils enrolled have increased only 7 per cent. There has also been a very substantial increase in the aid given to poor schools. Beginning with $5,990 in 1871, this grant has increased until it now reaches $45,000. From the reports of the inspectors I am led to believe that no money voted by the legislature is more gratefully received or more economically expended. In spite of all we have done for the settlers in the northern districts in the way of railways and colonization roads, they still suffer many of the inconveniences incident to pioneer life. By means of the grants given by the Government the burdens of taxation for education have been greatly lightened, and schools are now established as far west as the Rainy River district under teachers of recognized ability, and this year we hope to be successful in establishing a public school on the shores of James Bay. These schools were attended last year by over 10,000 children, and, although the attendance was not as regular as in the settled districts, I am satisfied from the reports of the inspectors that the pupils are steadily advancing in their studies. The attendance at night schools was till two years ago regarded as attendance at the public school, and consequently they shared in the grant to public schools on the basis of average attendance. Three years ago the legislature, feeling the importance of affording greater encour¬ agement to such schools, appropriated a small grant which went directly to the board of trustees for the purpose of defraying necessary expenses. The number of night schools established and receiving aid in 1892 was 32, and the number of pupils in attendance was 2,293. It is proposed to continue the grant, as without it many young men and women, belonging especially to the working classes, would be placed at a disadvantage as compared with those who are able to attend school during the day. KINDERGARTENS. Just before I took charge of the education department my predecessor had taken steps for the introduction of the kindergarten system of instruction into the schools of Toronto. Such schools were sanctioned by the public schools act under the name of “Infant schools.” As this term had no distinctive meaning in this Province, the school act of 1885 was amended to provide expressly for the establishment of kinder¬ gartens. So far as I know the Province of Ontario was the first Province or State on the continent to recognize as part of its school system the philosophical teach¬ ings of Froebel and Pestalozzi. Even in Germany the kindergarten system has received no State recognition, such schools, though largely attended, being private undertakings. The growth of the kindergarten system is remarkable. In 1882 the first kindergarten was opened in the city of Toronto; now, in 1893, we have 85 kin¬ dergartens, with 200 teachers, attended by 8,056 pupils. Kindergartens have been established in nearly every city in the Province and in several of the larger towns, and I understand they meet with the cordial approval of the ratepayers, are found to be very stimulating to the teachers, and have greatly developed kindly methods of discipline in the management of our schools. 248 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. The percentage of pupils enrolled in proportion to the population of the country furnishes gratifying evidenco of the interest taken by all classes in the education of their children. In this respect Ontario leads all the Provinces of the Dominion and nearly every State of the Union. Iowa is the only State that surpasses Ontario in its zeal for elementary education. Let me give a few comparisons : Out of her whole population Ontario sends to her elementary schools 24.95 per cent; Maine, 21.13; Illinois, 20.34; Michigan, 20.39; New York, 17.38; Ohio, 21.71; Massachusetts, 16.95; Iowa, 25.80. An important feature in connection with the enrollment is the relative length of the school year in Ontario and the United States. In Maine the average length of the school year is less than 6 months; in Connecticut, 10 months; in Illinois, 7i months; In Iowa, 7^ months; in Massachusetts, 8 months; in New York, 9 months. The average for the whole United States was only 134 days, or less than 7 months, against 208 days, i. e., a trifle over 10 months, in Ontario. The average number of days which a pupil in the United States attends a public school is 87£ days in the year; in Ontario the average number of days is 112|, or a trifle over 5£ months. In rural districts the average is largely reduced by the irregularity of pupils in the newer districts, and even in the most favored portions of Ontario the severity of the winter seriously affects school attendance. In cities and towns the average in some cases reaches as high as 75 per cent of the aggregate, or an average of 150 days in the year for each pupil. There are two reflections germane to the subject of school attendance worthy of notice: First, with the irregularity of attendance there is a great loss of teaching force, and a necessarily imperfect development of the child’s education. We paid last year $2,752,629 for the salaries of the teachers employed in the education of half a million of children. Less than half of the number of pupils attended school the whole year, consequently one-half of the sum expended on teachers’ salaries must have produced very unsatisfactory results, and one-half the children at school, no matter how zealous the Government or the education department may be, must have received but a very imperfect education. The second reflection is that a child who devotes himself to study on an average of 120 days in the year, that is, less than one-third of the whole time, is not in very great danger of suffering either mental or physical disability from the alleged overpressure of our school system. Even admitting that examinations are exacting and home lessons sometimes unreasonable, one day’s study, six hours at school, and two days off, for that is what it amounts to, is not very taxing. The Germans are a vigorous people, possessed of great vitality and energy, yet the schools of Germany show an average attendance of 78 per cent, with much longer hours of study than we prescribe. Ordinarily, the German schools open in summer at 7 o’clock in the morning and close at 4 o’clock in the afternoon, with two hours of recess during midday. In winter the hours are shorter, but by their continua¬ tion system, like our night schools, the studies of the pupils are continued during the evenings just as rigidly as during attendance at the public school in the day¬ time. TRUANCY ACT. By the truancy act of 1891* an attempt was made to improve the compulsory fea¬ tures of our school law. I think the experience of the next few years will show that the small residuum of truant children, whose evil habits the act was intended to correct, has been very much reduced. The rigid enforcement of the act by the public authorities, I am convinced, will have a very salutary effect upon the indifference of both parents and children. The number of convictions in 1891 was 7, and in 1892, 49. EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 249 PROGRESS IN ADVANCED SUBJECTS. There has been a gratifying increase in the number of pupils studying the advanced subjects in the public school course, such as history, geography, and grammar. Taking the statistics contained in the annual report of the inspectors as a basis, it is beyond question that the attainments of the pupils of the public schools of the Province are considerably higher than they were ten or fifteen years ago. In every advanced subject of the course there has been a large increase in the number of pupils. Even in the fifth form, which the department was said to regard with some indifference, there has been an increase of over 3,000 pupils in the last five years, although there have been drained from the public school to the high school in the same period about 8,000 pupils a year, who, had they remained in the public school, would have entered the fifth form. CANADIAN HISTORY. It is particularly gratifying to notice the increased interest taken in the subject of Canadian history — a subject which was first made compulsory for entrance to high schools by the regulations of 1885. In 1886 this subject was taken by 67,682 pupils; in 1892 it was taken by 135,968. It is impossible to estimate the effect which the study of the history of our own country will have upon the minds of those who are to be the future citizens and rulers of Canada. I believe that much of the wonder¬ ful power the American Republic has shown in absorbing and assimilating the large foreign population which has drifted into the Republic from all parts of the world was owing to the efforts made in the public schools of the United States to impress the school children with the advantages of republican institutions. Her great men formed the subject of anecdote and sketch in every test-book; her struggle for independence, the courage of her generals, the eloquence of her statesmen, her litera¬ ture, her natural resources, in fact, everything she was and everything she expected to be, were made the subject of study and of declamation, and every child on leaving school was made to feel that the American Republic, if not representing the whole world, represented at least the most important part of it. In the same way the study of the history of the Fatherland is made an important part in the curriculum of all the schools of Germany, from the volkschulen to the gymnasien. In her dark days, when humbled and crushed by the first Napoleon, Frederick William announced to his disconsolate subjects “the State must make good through intellectual power what it has lost in physical strength,” and straight¬ way began the organization of a school system of which loyalty to the German Empire may be said to be one of its corner stones. From its earliest history do\vn to its triumphs before Sedan every event calculated to stimulate attachment to his native land or to increase his admiration of the national character of the great leaders of public opinion is daily presented to the pupil for the purpose of strength¬ ening his interest in the country to which he belongs. In England, strange to say, the subject of British history occupies a secondary place in the school curriculum. It is at present an optional subject, and the only incentive to teacher or pupil to take it up is the mercenary one that by so doing the school will receive a larger grant. Out of 5,006,979 pupils enrolled in the schools of England and Wales in 1892 only 90,070 pupils were presented for examination in all the specific subjects, English history being one of these subjects. It i3 but proper to say, however, that a series of readers in British history is required to be used in every school from the second standard upward, so that much of the knowledge obtained in this country by the use of a text-book in British history is obtained in England by the use of readers specially prepared and which are supplementary to the ordinary school reader. A few months ago, when the education department relieved candidates for entrance to the high school from an examination in British history in order that greater atten¬ tion could be given to the study of Canadian history, an outcry was raised by the 250 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. opposition press and the historic charge of disloyalty was hnrled against the Govern¬ ment. It may he that in its zeal to promote a Canadian sentiment the education department went too far in the first instance to make Canadian history compulsory. It may he that the practice of other nations, such as the United States and Germany, who had to deal with mixed communities, as we have in Canada, was at fault. It may he that to emhodv in the regulations of the department a course of study which presupposes greater attachment to our own country than is required hy the depart¬ ment of education of England and Wales, was too great a stride for this generation to take; hut whatever may have been the motives which governed the department, certain it is that at no previous period in the history of Canada has there been so much attention paid to the history of our own country, its relations to the British Empire, and the position it is destined to occupy, if it is true to itself, in the future of this continent. The object of relieving the pupils from the examination in British history was to give the teacher greater freedom in dealing with the subject and the pupils greater zest in its study. It is possible so to load our pupils with examinations as to make school life irksome and repulsive, and if there is one department more than another where the method of the examiner is calculated to destroy interest in a subject, it is in the study of history. Examinations in history can not be framed so as to develop in the children either the true spirit of the historian or to disclose to their minds the aspirations which culminate in the great events which it records. The child may get that for himself by reading and meditation; he ought to get it from the teacher; he can not get it from the examiner. I hope, therefore, it will not be many years till we can say to the teachers of Ontario, “We have confidence in your work without an examination,” and to the school children of Ontario, “ Read the history of Great Britain for the purpose of absorbing the spirit of her institutions, the temper of her statesmen, and the courage and freedom-loving disposition of her people, and repeat it in the experience of Canada, clarified and sublimated by the genius of our own institutions, and you will have what is best in humanity and what is best in government as well.” PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE. I can not dismiss this part of my subject without a word or two as to the extent to which physiology and temperance are receiving the attention of our public school. It was in 1886 that authority was given the education department to provide instruc¬ tion in this subject. Since that authority was given a text-book was prescribed, and although for several years the subject was optional, it was believed that public opinion would justify its being made compulsory, and this was done accordingly by the regulations of last August. Out of 201,619 who were required under the regulations to study this subject, 171,594 were reported as receiving the requisite instruction. In addition to the study of the subject in the public school, provision was made for the instruction of teachers at normal and model schools, and every teacher since 1887 who has received a certificate from the education department has been required to pass an examina¬ tion as to his knowledge of the principles of physiology and temperance. Is it too much to expect that this action of the department will greatly aid the enforcement of any legislation that may be required farther to restrain the liquor traffic? COURSE OF STUDY. The course of study for the public schools has been very much simplified within the last ten years. The opinion at one time evidently prevailed that almost every subject within the range of human knowledge should be taken up in the public school. In 1871 our school curriculum consisted of fifteen subjects, all of which were obligatory, requiring the use of 24 text-books at a cost of $10.83. The course now consists of 9 compulsory subjects and 3 optional, requiring the purchase of only EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 251 9 text-books at a cost of $4.06. The judgment of the best educators is strongly in favor of a limited course of study for elementary schools, and by a limited course of study I mean a course embracing a few subjects well taught. It does not follow that because geology or astronomy is not included in the curriculum that an advanced public school pupil should know nothing of these sciences, but what is meant is that a knowledge of these sciences snch as a child may be capable of obtaining should be incidental to the ordinary course of the school, and not made the subject of special study by means of a text-book. Within the range of our public school curriculum there is ample material with which to develop all the faculties which are supposed to be most active within the age limit of public school life. Imagination, and memory, and the reasoning powers and observation can all be quickened and stimulated to the utmost of any child’s capacity as our curriculum now stands. If the true purpose of education be to develop power and concentration of thought, then as a necessary corollary the dissipation of energy leads to weakness. Better have a pupil an expert in the four simple rules of arithmetic than give him a smattering of all. TEACHERS AND THEIR TRAINING. The teaching staff of the Province of Ontario now numbers 8,480, the number of females employed being 5,710, and the number of males 2,770. In the last ten years female teachers have increased by about 2,000, and male teachers have increased by about 300. The effect which the employment of so many female teachers may have on the formation of national character and the development of those influences which give vigor and strength to national life is too large a question for present con¬ sideration. Having regard to the influences on the child of the personality of the teacher, one would naturally assume that the more vigorous and forceful methods of the male teacher would more thoroughly arouse the latent energies of the child and train him better for a life of self-reliance and self-assertion, but the time is too short during which the sway of the female teacher has been exercised to form a judgment on this point. It is apparent, however, to the most superficial observer of the changing phases of school life that in recent years the arbitrary discipline which asserted itself by physical force has given way to the humane and sympathetic dis¬ cipline of affection and self-respect; that the schoolroom, so frequently the scene of angry denunciation and cruel torture to be avoided, shunned, and deserted whenever it was possible, is now resorted to with pleasurable anticipations, and is enjoyed for its happy associations as much as for the benefits which it produces. The great gulf which once separated the teacher from his pupils has been bridged over, and the feelings of dread and suppressed terror with which the child ever approached the teacher have been replaced by feelings of confidence and affection. This change, in itself a most important one, has been brought about largely by the influence of the female teacher. The tendency toward the employment of female teachers, increasing as it is in Ontario, is still greater in other Provinces of the Dominion, as well as in the neigh¬ boring Republic. Only 66 per cent of the teachers of this Province belong to the female sex; in Quebec the percentage is 86; in New Brunswick, 79; in Massachusetts, 91; in New York, 83; in Connecticut, 88. Notwithstanding the great increase in the number of teachers, the teaching force of the Province is still inadequate, and in this respect the position of Ontario is inferior to any of the other Provinces or the adjoining States of the Union, as will be seen from the following comparisons of the number of pupils allotted to each teacher : In the Province of Ontario the average number of pupils allotted to each teacher is 57; in Quebec, 30; in Nora Scotia, 45; in New Brunswick, 41; in Maine, 18; in Iowa, 19; in Massachusetts, 36; in New York, 32. 252 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. EXPENDITURE. The Province of Ontario has been most generous in its contributions for all educa¬ tional purposes, and particularly in the liberality with which it has maintained its public school system. I am not able to say that the salaries of teachers are as liberal as I would desire, and yet they compare favorably with the average salaries paid in the other Provinces and the adjoining States of the Union. Our schoolhouses may be said to be as comfortable and as commodious as schoolhouses are in any country. In the last ten years we have expended on sites and buildings for school purposes the large sum of $5,371,661, and still the expense per pupil is certainly not excessive. The average cost for elementary education in the United States, according to the last report of the Commissioner of Education, was $17.22 per pupil; in the Province of Ontario it was $8.40; in Illinois it was $14.82; in Michigan, $14.70; in New York, $16.80, and in Massachusetts, $22.60. PROGRESS OF SEPARATE SCHOOLS. It is also gratifying to notice that the separate schools have kept pace generally with the public schools. In nearly all urban districts the accommodation for sepa¬ rate schools is ample and the equipment all that could be desired. The boards of trustees, with commendable liberality, have increased the teaching staff from 210 teachers in 1867 to 662 teachers in 1892, thus reducing the number of pupils per teacher from 91 to 56. The increase in the number of separate school pupils in advanced subjects was most satisfactory. For instance, in 1867 the number studying geography was 8,866 and in 1892, 26,999; in grammar, 5,688 in 1867, and in 1892, 22,755; in arithmetic, 10,559 in 1867, and in 1892, 35,936; in British history, 1,418 in 1867, and in 1892, 6,713; in Canadian history, 2,571 in 1867, and 11,493 in 1892. There were 11,056 pupils tak¬ ing physiology and temperance in 1892. The standing of the teachers has also improved. Last year two were holders of first-class certificates, 93 of second-class certificates, 193 of third-class certificates, 15 old county boards, and 18 temporary certificates. In 1889 only 190 separate school teachers held certificates granted by the depart¬ ment ; in 1892, 288 held departmental certificates. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. One of the most gratifying features, and the most hopeful as to the future results of our school system, is the fact that practically every school in Ontario is in the hands of a trained teacher. There is no phase of school work that occupies just now a greater portion of the attention of educators the world over than the profes¬ sional training of the teachers of elementary schools. When Yon Humboldt, early in the century, began the organization of the schools of Prussia, he laid down three proportions: (1) Education shall be compulsory; (2) education shall be liberally aided by the State; (3) every teacher must be trained. The necessity for the training of teachers was also recognized in the reorganiza¬ tion of the elementary schools of Great Britain about fifty years ago. Horace Mann, who did so much for the schools of New England, and in fact for the schools of America, made the training of teachers the object of his special solicitude; and Dr. Eyerson, in inaugurating a school system for the Province of Ontario, as one of his first measures of reform secured the establishment of a normal school in Toronto. The large increase of normal schools in the United States and on the Continent is a sufficient indication of the importance attached to the training of teachers. Massa¬ chusetts, with a population but slightly in excess of Ontario, has 5 normal schools; New York has 11 ; Pennsylvania has 12; England and Wales have 44, and Prussia has 116. The time must come sooner or later when additional accommodation for normal school training must be provided in the Province of Ontario. EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 253 There are two features of professional training peculiar to Ontario which must he noticed: (1) The county model school system, and (2) the provincial school of peda¬ gogy. In regard to both of these our position educationally is almost exceptional. I know of no other Province or State, except Germany, that has laid down the rule that no teacher shall enter upon the duties of his profession without special training. England has its army of pupil teachers, who may, in a certain sense, he said to he specially prepared before assuming their full professional duties; and, although there is much to say in favor of the English system, still, after a careful study of all its advantages, I prefer our own, and I believe that much of the prosperity of our schools during the last fifteen years is owing to the county model schools. The provincial school of pedagogy deals with a department of professional train¬ ing which everywhere, except in Germany, appears to he overlooked. Although the necessity for training elementary teachers is all hut universally admitted, and gen¬ erous provision made for such training in almost every civilized country, it was not considered necessary that the teachers of high schools should he required to study the science or art of teaching. About ten years ago provision was made for the special instruction of the higher schools of Germany, with encouraging results. In 1885 the first attempt was made in Ontario to provide similar instruction for the masters of our high schools, and three years ago the school of pedagogy, with a dis¬ tinct faculty of its own, was properly organized. New York State, within the last three or four years, has established at Albany a normal school on a basis similar to the Ontario School of Pedagogy, for the purpose of training the masters of grammar and high schools. I am aware that in certain quarters the school of pedagogy is not regarded with particular favor, but I have yet to meet an intelligent educator, either in this coun¬ try or abroad, who does not consider its establishment as one of the most important steps which we have taken educationally in the last twenty years. When we reflect that nearly every teacher in our public schools passes through the high school ; that every matriculant into our universities lays the foundation of future advancement in our high schools ; that thousands of young men and women, from the farm and from the homes of our workingmen and our busy citizens, come under high school influences, it is not impossible to overestimate the effect which superior training of their masters must have upon their future lives. True, teaching power comes from study and experience, and no one who does not understand the processes by which knowledge is acquired and retained could discharge the duties of the teacher suc¬ cessfully. I hope before the session is over that the school of pedagogy will be more closely related to the Provincial University. By making it a purely post-graduate school we will maintain the high literary qualifications requisite for high school work; and by granting a degree in pedagogy, as I hope the university senate will agree to, we will have the imprimatur of the university, and in that way an addi¬ tional guaranty as to its efficiency. HIGH SCHOOLS. The growth of the high schools is the onty remarkable feature of our school sys¬ tem that now remains to be noticed. In 1867 we had but 103 high schools, with 159 teachers, attended by 5,696 pupils. The number of high schools in operation at the close of last year was 130, with 522 teachers, attended by 22,837 pupils. Thirty- three of the high schools have attained to the status of a collegiate institute. The number of pupils enrolled in the high schools represent a trifle over 1 per cent of the entire population of the Province; in the United States in the same class of schools the percentage is 0.58, and in Prussia, where great attention is paid to secondary education, the enrollment was 1.2. No less than 45 new high schools were erected in the last ten years, and substantial improvements have been made to 25. Nearly one-fourth, or 21 per cent, of the expenditure for teachers’ salaries is now paid out of the pupils’ fees. Ten years ago only 11 per cent of the teachers’ salaries was paid in this way. In the course of study pursued by high schools there appears to be a 254 EDUCATION REPOKTj 1892-93. general preference for the study of modern language compared with the classics. For instance, only 5 per cent of the pupils now take a Greek course, as against 15 per cent taking the same course in 1867 ; only 40 per cent take Latin, as against 90 per cent taking Latin the same year; in 1867 38 per cent of the pupils studied French and none studied German; in 1892 the percentage of pupils studying French and German was 45 and 12 per cent, respectively. As evidence of the increased efficiency of the schools it may he stated that in 1867 56, or only 1 per cent of the pupils, matriculated into the university; in 1892 the number matriculated was 471, or about 2 per cent. It is gratifying to notice that many young men and women attend the high schools for the purpose of acquiring a superior education for its own sake. Although high schools were primarily established for the purpose of preparing pupils for the learned professions, such is the appreciation of their course of study now that thousands flock to them for the mental training which they afford. The sons of workingmen, of farmers, and of the mercantile classes, who have no other object than to fit them¬ selves for the ordinary duties of their callings, have found the high school course an exceedingly profitable one. Since 1872 no fewer than 16,601 left the high school for mercantile life and 12,504 for agriculture. Under our system of training teachers the high schools have within the last ten years been obliged to assume the nonprofessional course for the teachers of the Province, which was formerly done in the public and normal schools. The superior attainments of high school masters qualify them particularly well for the work of instruction in the nonprofessional subjects, and it is hard to overrate the advantages which young men and women enjoy in being brought into competition with each other at a leading high school to receive instruction from university graduates, many of them specialists in their departments. Were we to undertake as a Province the task of providing a system of training equally efficient by means of normal schools, the cost to the country would be greatly increased and without any substantial advan¬ tage by way of compensation ; but from the organic connection which we have now established between all parts of our school system we are able to use at no additional cost to the Province our high schools for work which in the United States, in Eng¬ land, and in Germany is done in the normal schools at the expense of the State. The Province of Nova Scotia has recently followed our example and is now using the high schools and academies of the Province for the nonprofessional training of her teachers. It will be observed from the estimates that we have made no increase for the last three years in the grant to high schools. I hope the house will see its way before many years to supplement the increased liberality of the taxpayer by an additional grant. In 1867, when we paid but a trifle over $50,000 for high school purposes, the grant amounted to $9.43 per pupil enrolled; last year, although the sum of $100,000 was paid for high school purposes, it amounted to but $4.38 per pupil, or less than one-half the amount per pupil paid twenty-five years ago. In the same period of time the expenditure for teachers’ salaries has increased from $94,820 to $472,029, and the total expenditure for all high school purposes from $124,181 to $696,114. The liberality of the legislature, having regard to the number of pupils enrolled, is not nearly as great as it was twenty-five years ago. If our high schools are to continue to be accessible to all classes of the people, they should not be barred by excessive fees. The Farmers’ Institute a few weeks ago adopted a resolution to the effect that “any interference with our high school system which would remove it beyond the reach of the poor and make higher education the exclusive property of the rich is not in the public interest.' >f DEPARTMENTAL EXAMINATIONS. The house will observe that I am asking for the sum of $16,000 for departmental examinations. This is a slight increase on last year, but will be recouped by the fees of candidates. The education department considers it but reasonable, if the EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 255 country provides wliat is almost free education for the pupils attending public and high schools, that those who want a test applied to their attainments by which they can enter on an educational career for the purpose of their own maintenance should themselves hear the cost of this test. Formerly a great part of the sum now paid by the candidates was paid by county councils, and, as somebody must bear the expense of the examination, it is thought that those specially interested are not the persons entitled to relief. It might be interesting to the house to know that the system of conducting examinations by a joint board of the department and of the university has worked well. By means of this board we are able to obtain examiners of the very highest standing, and, as a consequence, the value of the certificate which they recommend is greatly enhanced. For admission to the examinations of the medical council it is the only standard now accepted. For university purposes it is also accepted pro tanto, and, inasmuch as candidates can prepare in the same class either for matricu¬ lation into the university, law, medicine, or a teachers’ certificate, the classification of the high schools is, as a matter of course, very much simplified. The generous acceptance of this standard by the different universities of the Province has contri¬ buted very largely to the success of the scheme. Another feature of this scheme which should not pass unnoticed is that it makes teachers to a great extent the guardians of their own profession. This is the case in law, in medicine, and in arts. In 1883 the departmental examinations were con¬ ducted by men engaged in other callings, some of them young and inexperienced, others too much absorbed in their own professional work to sympathize fully with other professions. The year before I entered upon my duties the examination papers of candidates for teachers’ certificates were read by law students, medical students, lawyers in active practice, clergymen, and others with little or no profes¬ sional experience. Last year, and for several years back, these papers were read only by graduates of our universities actually engaged in teaching. TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The growth of mechanics’ institutes and free libraries in the last ten years is worthy of notice, the increase being from 93 in 1883 to 255 in 1893. The number of volumes issued in 1883 was 251,920, and in 1893, 1,415,867, an increase of nearly 600 per cent. I am asking for an additional grant this year for mechanics’ institutes, mainly that their advantages might be extended to the residents of small towns and outlying villages, and I do so with the greatest pleasure because I observe that the tendency toward the perusal of a higher class of literature is in the ascendant. For instance, in 1886 60 per cent of the volumes circulating by means of our mechanics’ institutes and free libraries was fiction; last year (1893) only 43 per cent of the volumes issued was fiction. I attribute this change very largely to the improved taste for substantial reading which we have been able to cultivate through the literature course in our high schools and collegiate institutes. The demand for the best literature of the language, either in history, in poetry, in biog¬ raphy, or in the magazines, is constantly growing, and I know of no better way by which a young man can continue his education after he leaves the public school, or even the high school, than by becoming a subscriber to a mechanics’ institute or a free library. SCHOOL OF PKACTICAL SCIENCE. The school of practical science has grown out of the school of technology estab¬ lished in 1871. Up till 1886 the work of the school was limited to the study of civil and mechanical engineering with such instruction in practical and analytical chem¬ istry as was necessary. Owing to the strong demands for more adequate provision for mechanics, engineers, architects, and miners, the accommodation in the school of science was greatly increased and such equipment provided as would facilitate the practical study of a complete course in practical science and technology. 256 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1892-93. In company with Professor Galbraith I visited, in 1886, some of the largest schools in the United States, snch as the school of science in connection with Lehigh Univer¬ sity, Cornell University, Columbia University, the School of Technology at Boston, and other schools. The basis of the South Kensington School in London was also considered and the faculties in the school of science were, as a consequence, greatly enlarged. The new buildings projected in 1886 were completed in 1890 and formally opened in 1891. The total cost of the building and equipment, including the old building now used for chemistry and mineralogy, was $220,000. It is most satisfactory to know that the provisions made for technical education will now compare favorably with the best institutions on the Continent. No where in Canada, at all events, unless it be at McGill University, is there such ample provision for the education of engineers, architects, and mechanics, and in no school in the United States, unless it be the Boston School of Technology, is there a school supe¬ rior to that now established in Toronto. The course of study includes mechanical, electrical, and mining engineering, with full courses in architecture and analytical and applied chemistry. By the appoint¬ ment of Professor Coleman the department of mineralogy, metallurgy, and assaying has been greatly strengthened, and although not as yet as complete as I would desire, nevertheless the work done must ultimately prove of the greatest value in the devel¬ opment of the mineral resources of the country. That this addition to the educational facilities of the country has been appreciated is evident from the increased attendance of students. In 1882 the number of stu¬ dents in attendance was 18 ; in 1893 the attendance was 143, a very gratifying increase in such a short period. Twenty-six counties of the Province and two districts and two Provinces of the Dominion are represented in the school and contribute among them 89 students; 4 are from the United States and the remainder from the city of Toronto. Apart from the advantages which must accrue to the country from the training of skilled workmen in the departments of engineering and architecture, the diversity of employment afforded by the school of science must prove of substantial advantage to the young men of Ontario. While it may be impossible by any action of the leg¬ islature to restrain the strong disposition which appears to prevail everywhere to enter the learned professions, it is without question an advantage to diversify the occupation of the people as much as possible. Skilled architects and engineers are in constant demand. The vast railway enterprises of the Dominion are calling for skilled mechanics. The development of electricity opens a new field for the genius of our people. The mineral resources of the country are waiting the Midas hand of the assayist. The growth of our large cities and the vast expenditures on water¬ works and sewage systems call for the well trained hydraulic and sanitary engineer. That the skilled labor required for these purposes can now be supplied within our own Province and by the judicious expenditure of the money appropriated by this legislature is a feature of the educational system of this country which should not be overlooked. I have great confidence, therefore, in asking the legislature to continue its liberality to the school of science. Its record shows that it is worthy of confi¬ dence, and the attendance from all parts of the Province shows the extent to which the instruction which it affords is appreciated. GENERAL SUMMARY. Since 1867 the sum of $12,372,922 was spent by the education department for all educational purposes. Of this sum $6,229,410 went to public and separate schools, and $2,092,570 went to high schools; the remainder was spent on the training of teachers, technical education, and the maintenance of superannuated teachers. The average amount paid, for all educational purposes during the administration of Mr. Sandfield Macdonald was $295,962. The average amount paid during the last twenty- two years was $510,403, or an increase of 73 per cent. The last year of Sandfield EDUCATION IN ONTARIO. 257 Macdonald's government the whole grant to education amounted to $351,306; in 1893 :he total sum expended for all educational purposes, leaving out civil government, was $662,520. The yearly average grant to public and separate schools during the Sandfield Macdonald administration was $167,540 ; during the last twenty-two years the yearly average was $258,394, or an increase of over 50 per cent. The grant to poor schools rose from $5,590 in 1871 to $31,497 in 1893, to he further ’ncreased to $45,000 during the current year. The grant for mechanics’ institutes, libraries, and technical education rose from $4,257 to $69,630 in 1892. During Mr. Sandfield Macdonald’s time the cost of administering the education department was 5 per cent of the average exxienditure; during the last twenty-two years the cost of administration was only 3 per cent. During the last year of Dr. Ryerson's administration the cost of administering the education department was $19,315; the year before I took charge of the department the cost was $20,309; the cost in 1893 Avas $19,890. Since 1871 the number of public schools established has increased from 4,770 to 5,903, the number of teachers from 5,476 to 8,480, and the number of pupils enrolled from 454,662 to 485,670; the number of teachers trained in normal schools from 828 to 3,038. Our high schools have increased during the same period from 104 to 128, the teachers from 239 to 522, and the pupils from 7,968 to 22,837. In 1871 we had but 1 normal school; now we have 2. In 1871 we had no county model schools; now'we have 59. In 1871 we had no school of pedagogy; now we have 1. In 1871 we had no art schools for mechanics ; now we have 8, besides the school of science. In 1871 we had no properly organized teachers’ institutes ; now we have 69, attended annually by 8,142 teachers. In 1871 we had only 51 mechanics’ institutes ; now we have 244, with 145 reading rooms. On every hand there has been growth and development. The liberality of the government has been exceeded over and over again by the liberality of the rate- payer. During the last twenty-two years about three generations of school children have passed from the activities of the schoolroom to the responsibilities of citizen¬ ship. May we assume that in the energy of our peox>le, the stability of their char¬ acter, and the general moral tone of the community there is reflected some of those qualities which it has been the purpose of the public and the high school to inculcate. world’s fair. I can not close my observations without congratulating the house and the Prov¬ ince on the distinguished position won for the school system of Ontario at the World’s Columbian Exhibition. To x>lace a young Province like Ontario in competi¬ tion with the States of the American Republic and with the monarchies of Europe was a somewhat severe test. It was no small honor, therefore, in the face of such competition, to obtain an award for our exhibit as a whole, and particularly to obtain an award for our school system as a national system, completely organized from the kindergarten to the university. I am informed that this was the only award of the kind that was given. If so, it adds very much to its importance. Besides this award, which includes almost all others, we were awarded honors for our system of conducting the professional training of teachers, for our public and high school system, and for the excellence of our text-books and the system under which they were authorized. For the honors of this distinction no single person can establish an undivided claim. A school system, either in its main features or in its details, is not the work of a day. The governments which preceded this government, both in Ontario and in the old Parliament of Canada, the ministers and chief superintendents who were my prede¬ cessors, the inspectors of public and high schools, and the others officers of the department, the director of the exhibit and the commissioner appointed by the gov- ED 93 - 17 258 EDUCATION EEPOBT, 1892-93. eminent, as well as the iieople of Ontario whose liberality made our school system — all possibly have a right to share in this distinction. An honor so worthily obtained will, I hope, he carefully guarded. The man who would imperil our school system by partisan criticism should meet with undisguised opposition; the secretary who would introduce any element of disintegration, either into the organization of the system itself or into the public sentiment by which it is supported, should be treated as an open and avowed enemy, and he who by paper or by speech attempts rather to discredit than to improve the work already done should be regarded as an incendiary applying a flaming torch to one of the historic cathedrals of the mother country. II. — Education in 1\te¥ Zealand. The report of the Commissioner of Education for 1890-91 contained a paper on u Secondary education in Eew Zealand,”1 prepared by Hon. Sir Eobert Stout, K. C. M. Gr., formerly minister of education and pre¬ mier of the colon y. He introduced his subject by a brief outline of the system of public instruction and closed with an account of the univer¬ sities, especially as related to the secondary schools. For the following statement, showing more fully the organization and present work of the universities and also comprising particulars relative to technical instruction in the colony, the office is indebted to Mr. Mark Cohen, editor of the Dunedin Evening Star : The annual meeting of the senate of the New Zealand University was held at Auck¬ land this year under the presidency of the chancellor (Sir James Hector). It must be borne in mind that our university does not teach ; it merely examines. The teach¬ ing is done by the affiliated colleges, which are entirely independent of the university. There are three of these colleges — one at Dunedin, another at Christchurch, the third at Auckland, and Parliament is now being petitioned to make the necessary provi¬ sion for the establishment of the fourth at Auckland. The senate is a peripatetic body, meeting annually in one of the chief cities, its principal work consisting of appointing examiners, arranging for the conduct of examinations, prescribing the work, and conferring scholarships and degrees according to the reports of the exam¬ iners, who are resident in England for the most part. The revenue of the university is close on $20,000, of which $15,000 is provided by Parliament, and $6,750 are expended on scholarships and a little over $10,000 in examiners’ fees. Last year 903 candidates presented themselves for examination in all branches — matriculation, medicine, law, arts, science, scholarships, and honors — compared with 782 in 1891, and the percentage of passes was eminently satisfactory. Among the degrees conferred was that of doctor of science on Mr. Charles Chilton, rector of the high school at Pat Chalmers, near Dunedin — the first degree of its class gained in any of the Australian colonies. The principal matter discussed by the senate was a proposal by Auckland College to discontinue tko appointment of exam¬ iners in England, and to change the existing system of college work under which the academic year is divided into two terms. They suggested that the year’s work should be spread over nine months and be divided into three terms; and that, in order to get rid of the delay and lessen the expense, the English examiners should be dispensed with and examiners be appointed either in the colony or in Australia. 1Vol. I, Chap. II, pp. 45-94. Note corrections in the list of Fellows of the New Zealand University, p. 94: Eead Cook for Coop; after Sir James Hector, Iv. C. M. G. F. E. S. instead of abbreviations printed; in blank after W. D., Milne; for Eohl- erton, Eolleston; for I. S. Sale, M. A., G. S. Sale, M. A., and for Hon. Sir Eobert Lunt, E. C. M. G., Hon. Sir Eobert Stout, K. C. M. G. EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND. 259 But it was clearly shown that the entire fabric on which the memorialists had con¬ structed their petition was based on false conclusions. It was proved that the time given to tuition in our colleges was equal to that of any university in the world, and that as much time was given to lectures as in either Australia or England, and that the proposed change would not tend to economy. The senate were unanimous in approving of the English examiners and indorsed Chancellor Hector’s view that the university derived immense advantage from securing in that capacity the services of some of the most eminent literary and scientific men in Great Britain. The report of the University of New Zealand just issued contains a few items of interest. In the first calender, published in 1873, there were entered 17 matriculated students, all men. In 1875 one femalo matriculated student was chronicled among 50 men. During 1891-92 there were attending lectures at the colleges at Dunedin, Christchurch, and Auckland 705 students — of this number there were in all 378 female students — 118 matriculated female students, as against 261 males; 160 unrna- triculatcd females as against 166 males. There is no British university — probably no university anywhere — that can show such a large proportion of women students. Between 1886 and 1892 93 junior scholarships were granted by the university, and of these 40 were gained by girls. During the same period 188 students have received the B. A. degree, and of these 46 were females. The M. A. degree is now held by 128 New Zealand graduates; and of these 34 are women. But of the 100 senior scholarships granted after three years’ college work, when the candidate is completing the B. A. examination, only 16 fell to women between 1876 and 1892, and of the 58 graduates who gained the M. A. degree with first class honors during the same period only 10 were women. On April 8 Otago University celebrated its majority with a speech day. There was a goodly gathering of the alumni and friends of the institution, and the venerable chancellor (the Rev. Dr. Stuart) presided. The most interesting address delivered on the occasion was that by Dr. Shand, professor of mathematics, who sketched the work done by this university during the past twenty-one years. It was opened in July, 1871, on premises (now used as a bank) in the very center of the business part of Dunedin with a staff of j>rofessors — classics and English (Sale), mathematics and natural philosophy (Shand), and mental and moral science (Macgregor, now inspector- general of hospitals for the colony). In 1872 a chair of chemistry and mineralogy (Black) was established; in 1873 the faculty of law, with Mr. (now Sir Robert) Stout as the first lecturer; in 1875 the medical school was founded, with Professor Coughtrey as the first demonstrator of anatomy and professor of physiology, to be succeeded in 1877 by Dr. Scott, the present dean of the faculty of medicine; in 1877 Captain Hutton was appointed professor of natural science, to be succeeded in 1880 by its present incumbent, Prof. Jeffrey Parker; in 1878 a school of mines was established, with Professor Ulrich at its head, and in 1891 the latter was given the assistance of Mr. D. Wilkinson, from the School of Mines, London, as lecturer on metallurgy. The Presbyterian Synod of Otago has indorsed three chairs — mental and moral philosophy (Dr. Salmond), English language and literature (Professor Gilroy), and natural philosophy (Dr. Shand). Thus the staff in the faculty of arts increased from 3 professors in 1871 to 7 professors and 2 lecturers in 1893, while the whole teaching staff of the university had increased from 3 in 1871 to 26 professors and lecturers in 1893, exclusive of the honorary medical staff of the Dunedin Hospital who are ex officio the university’s lecturers on clinical medicine and surgery. When the university opened its doors it had 81 students, none of whom had to pass a matriculation examination. In 1872 only 7 candidates passed that examination and the attendance consequently fell to 70, and in 1874 it dropped to 50, its lowest point, due to the entrance examination and the natural process of weeding out incompetent students. The number has gradually risen since, till in 1892 the attendance was 212, the classes taken were 568, and the matriculated students 173, or 83 per cent. As to the results of the teaching : 260 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. For tlio quinquennial period ending in 1877 only 5 degrees were obtained and 1 student took honors ; in the period ending 1882, 19 degrees were taken and 3 students took honors; in the period ending 1887, 56 degrees were obtained, 12 students taking honors; and in the last period ending in 1892, and including the latest examinations, 143 degrees were obtained and 44 students took honors. Of the whole number of 23 degrees that were obtained 189 were in arts and science, 9 in law, and 25 in medi¬ cine. To quote Dr. Shand: “1 venture to suggest that these figures indicate a sat¬ isfactory rate of progress, and the progress is due in part to the expansion of the institution, in part to the marked elevation of school education in this district, and in part to the improved tone existing among the students. Technical instruction is making headway in the colony, thanks to the enthusiasm of a number of gentlemen in the trading and manufacturing centers. After a great deal of agitation the legislature has, during two sessions, voted $4,000 per annum toward the encouragement of technical education, the vote being distributed in the proportion of £1 to every £1 locally raised by subscription. But it is felt that this is placing the so-called technical schools on an insecure footing ; that it is too much like a hand-to-mouth existence, and the present minister of education intends ask¬ ing Parliament to pass a bill which will give a per capita allowance to every student who passes examination by a Government inspector in certain specified technical subjects. At Dunedin, the technical institute, which owes its origin mainly to the enthu¬ siasm of Superintendent Thomson, who is one of the science teachers at the boys7 high school in that city, has been in existence exactly three years, and has so far done good work, several of its students having been enabled to proceed thence to the matriculation examination of the New Zealand University, and, passing it, have entered on the arts and mechanical courses of the Otago University, which is one of the teaching colleges of that institution. This year’s report of the committee of man¬ agement (mailed herewith) is one of encouraging progress. Of the 364 students who enrolled themselves nearly 60 per cent were lads and girls who, having passed the u compulsory standards” of the primary schools, availed themselves of this opportu¬ nity of self-improvement in some branch of study that is likely to be of service to them in the business on which they are now engaged. Owing to the want of suitable premises the committee have not been able till the present year to take up the truly technical side of their work, but that difficulty has now been overcome, and this term the curriculum includes instruction in plumbing, carpentry, wood and metal turning, wood carving, and typewriting. The manage¬ ment of the school is intrusted to a number of educationists, who are annually selected by the subscribers. At Auckland a similar institution has just been estab¬ lished under the more ambitious title of the Workingmen’s College, which will be managed by a council, partly chosen by subscribers, and partly elected by the city council, the governing body of Auckland College, the goAmrning body of the Auck¬ land Grammar School, the education board of the. Province, the Employers’ Associa¬ tion, and the Trades and Labor Council. Its session will be considerably longer than that at Dunedin, viz: from February to November, while the Dunedin institu¬ tion usually opens its doors in April and has difficulty in keeping its students together after October. The Auckland institution proposes to be affiliated with the South Kensington Art Department, and its curriculum embraces freehand drawing; practical, plane, and solid geometry; mechanical drawing and machine construction; coach building; architectural drawing and building construction; chemistry; dressmaking, domestic economy, arithmetic, algebra, mathematics, English and English literature; French, and bookkeeping. In Wellington a commencement has been made under the director¬ ship of Mr. A. D. Riley, the drawing teacher under the Wellington education board, who may bo considered a technical expert, and at Invercayell and Christchurch organizations will shortly be in existence for giving instructions on similar lines EDUCATION IN INDIA. 261 to those followed in Dunedin and Auckland. There is therefore reasonable grounds for anticipating that Parliament will soon be invited to increase the grant in aid of technical education. Mr. Cohen adds the following particulars, derived from the report of the minister of education (Hon. W. P. Peeves) for 1S92-93 : For the first time since the inauguration of our educational system in 1877, the aver¬ age attendance during the last quarter of 1892 numbered for all the schools in the colony upward of 100,000 children, exceeding the record for 1891 by 4,653. It is noteworthy in this connection that, for each of the fifteen years during which the education act has been in operation, each succeeding year, in respect to average attendance both for the fourth quarter and the entire year, has gained steadily on the preceding year. The ratio of average attendance to the mean roll for the year was 80.6 per cent, which is the highest yet recorded. There was very little change in the relative proportions of the ages in the public schools. There is a slight increase in the proportion of children who remain at school after passing their thirteenth year, the percentage now standing at 14 ; but, our factories act notwith¬ standing, the great bulk of our children leave the schools immediately after the compulsory standard has been passed, and either assist the household or enter on the battle of life. In 1878, when the act came into operation, the average attendance only numbered 45,521. The number of pupils has doubled itself in the intervening fifteen years, due primarily to the natural increase of population, and due in no small degree to the acceptance of the system by the colonists and to the steadfast policy of each administration, which has taken care that a school shall be planted alongside of every knot of fresh settlers. The total cost of our public school system in 1892-93 was £479,114; in 1877 it was £308,000. III. — Education in India. India (British provinces and native States) : Area, 1,560,160; population, 287,223,- 431 (1891). On the 3d of February, 1882, the Government of India appointed an education commission, with a view to inquiring into the working of the existing system of public instruction and to the further extension of that system on a popular basis. The system has been developed in accordance with the policy outlined in the dispatches of 1854 and 1859, the former being the date at which the education of the whole people of India was definitely accepted as a state duty. As set forth in the dispatch of 1854, the state undertook (1) to give pecuniary assistance on the grant-in-aid system to efficient schools and colleges: (2) to direct their efforts and afford them counsel and advice; (3) to encourage and reward the desire for learning in various ways, but chiefly by the establishment of universities; (4) to take measures for providing a due supply of teachers and for making the profession of teaching honorable and respected. The second great dispatch on education, that of 1859, reiterated and confirmed the provisions of the earlier dispatch, with the single excep¬ tion of the course to be adopted for promoting elementary education. It was noted that the native community failed to cooperate with the Government in promoting vernacular education, and strong doubts were 262 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. expressed as to the suitability of the grant in aid system, as hitherto in force, for the supply of vernacular education to the masses of the population. Such vernacular instruction should, it was suggested, be provided by the direct instrumentality of the officers of the Govern¬ ment, on the basis of some one of the plans already in operation for the improvement of indigenous schools or by any modification of those plans which might suit the circumstances of different provinces. The expediency of imposing a special rate on the land for the pro¬ vision of elementary education was also commended to the careful con¬ sideration of the Government. In short, these instructions confirmed the principle of incorporating and improving the existing indigenous schools, rather than of inducing the people to set up new schools under the grant in aid systems then in force; but they also sanctioned the establishment of new schools by direct departmental agency. Accord¬ ingly, the local governments considered themselves free to adopt which¬ ever system seemed to be best suited to local circumstances. In the instructions to the commission created in 1882 attention is called to the fact that, although the development of elementary educa¬ tion was one of the main objects contemplated by the dispatch of 1854, owing to a variety of circumstances more progress up to the present time has been made in high and middle than in primary education. While there was no disposition on the part of the Government to check or hinder such progress, it was submitted that the means by which elementary education may be extended and improved should be their principle care. In the investigation, which lasted from the 10th of February, 1882, to the 16th of March, 1883, the commission embraced every grade of instruc¬ tion and all classes of schools as well as the particulars of administra¬ tion, finance, and legislation. A summary of the report of the commission was presented in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1883-84 ,1 The Government of India has since published two quinquennial reviews of the progress of public instruction in all its branches. The substance of these later reports was brought into very concise form in a paper presented before the Bristol Royal Statistical Society, by J. A. Baines, esq., C. S. I. The portion of this paper dealing directly with the sta¬ tistics of education is here reproduced. As introductory, it should be said that Mr. Baines discussed the subject from the stand}3oint of an intimate personal knowledge of all the conditions involved. Of him¬ self he says : In the part of India where I have been chiefly employed in administrative work it is the rule for what are known as the district officers — a comprehensive term which I fear I can not spare space to explain here — to inspect all the primary schools that he within their range during the annual tour in the rural tracts. The inspection is directed not so much to the proficiency of the pupils in their studies, which is tested Pages CCXXXVIII-CCXLVI. EDUCATION IN INDIA. 263 by tlio departmental officers, as to tho general condition of the institution in regard to sncli matters as attendance, punctuality in registration, and writing up current records, provision of furniture, cleanliness of the school premises, and similar non- professional essentials. It is the custom, however, on such occasions to gratify the master and tho local board of management or tho parents of the pupils by a cursory parade of tho different classes in tho school, and to note down one’s general impres¬ sion or any special merits or defects that may have attracted attention. This, then, is tho extent to which probably nearly every member of my profession is competent to judge of matters educational, and it obviously covers but one section, though that is tho largest and most important of tho population under instruction. It is that in which tho masses, among whom the bulk of our work lies, are chiefly inter¬ ested, and it is that again which, under the system in force in several of the Prov¬ inces, seems as a feeder to the institutions of a higher grade, and where accordingly one finds in embryo the pupil who is met later in life in tho court or offices of the district, or in even higher functions. I personally have had tho further advantage of having been for a few months an educational inspector, and though, my experiences in that capacity gave mo no right to speak as an authority, they were sufficient to give me a certain insight into the system and to enable me to read between the lines of the statistics, selections from which. I have to present to you hereafter. It should be premised also that the interest of the portion of the paper here reproduced is greatly enhanced in the original by the author’s analysis of the social and industrial conditions of the country. Interesting and valuable as this portion of the paper is, the limits of space forbid its full presentation. A single paragraph, in which the writer has summed up the conditions that exercise a paramount influ¬ ence upon education in India and differentiate this from other coun¬ tries, is here quoted : I have hitherto spoken of the population as consisting of only two sections; one preponderately numerous, the other very much the reverse. I have divided the com¬ munity into, first, a largo body of agriculturists with a small contingent of handi¬ craftsmen working on a small scale, and, secondly, into an enormous aggregate of independent village communities with a minute sprinkling of towns of above the size of a local market. But the next social units with which, it is necessary to my subject that I should deal are of a very different character. They refer not so much to the occupation and functions of the people or to what may bo called, on a small scale, their political congregation, but to what, from an educational point of view, is much more important; that is, their religious, their ceremonial, and, above all, their domestic relations. I speak of what are known to us by tho Portuguese name of castes. I can only touch here upon the barest outlines of this complicated subject, and will just bring forward enough of its main features to explain its great, indeed we may almost say without exaggeration, its overwhelming influence upon the educa¬ tion of the majority of the Indian population. The caste system, indeed, nominally prevails, strictly speaking, among tho Brah- manic community alone; that is, among those who accept Brahmanic ministrations and recognize the religious and social preeminence of the Brahman. Butin prac¬ tice there are few sections of the community that are free from it. The bulk of the Mussulmans in India are local converts from tho Brahmanic fold and have preserved to a great extent their former unregenerato social observances and traditions. The Jains and Sikhs are simply schismatics. The forest tribes occupy the border land between Brahmanism and the organized and animistic creeds of their ancestors. Those who remain in the woods are staunch to their ancient faith, and have their own priests and ceremonials. The fringe that lives adjacent to the plains is gradu¬ ally being absorbed into Brahmanism by means of caste inducements, not by anything 264 EDUCATION REPORT, 1S92-93. in the nature of proselytism or coli version, so that we may roughly say that, except among the frontier tribes of the northwest, where Islam is strong and tribal feeling stronger, and among the Buddhists of Burmah, a portion of the Christian converts and the small communities of the hill tracts, there is a general adherence to the caste system. Even foreign tribes, such as the Parsis and Beni-Irael, or Marathi-speaking Jews, have acquired a considerable dash of the prevailing sentiment regarding this matter. Mr. Barnes introduces the strictly educational part of the paper with the following table, compiled from the census returns modified by the returns of the education departments. They relate to the British provinces, comprising a population of 221,172,952 (census 1891), and the native States, whose schools come under the department of public instruction of the adjacent local governments, as in. Bombay and the central provinces : British provinces and smaller cities. Males. Females. Pupils _ - . . _ . . . ----- _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ 3, 517, 778 9, 471, 663 101,504, 573 168, 274 461,955 112, 776, 440 Literate -(but not pupils) . . . . . . Illiterate . . . . . .... Total . . . 117, 494, 014 113, 406, 669 Proportionately stated, the figures tell the following tale: Males. Females. \percent: Per cent. Under instruction . j 2. 99 i 0. 22 Hot under instruction, but able to read and write . 8. 06 0. 34 Illiterate . 88. 95 | 99.44 Total . 100. 00 100. 00 The paper continues : This, then, was the prevalence of instruction in the year 1891. Of the males, 11 per cent, of the females of India 56 per 10,000 were then stated to be not illiterate, or 6 per cent of the whole community. There are three other aspects in which the return may be considered. First, it is allowable to deduct the children of both sexes under 5 years old, that is below school-going age, a process which raises the proportions to the extent shown below : Males. Females. Per cent. 3.49 9.39 87.12 1 Per cent. 0. 17 0.48 99. 35 Literate . . . . . . . . . . . . Illiterate . - . I should have liked to have dealt with the population of school-going age as a whole, but as a further return will show, when I treat of it presently, it is not prac¬ ticable to thus distribute the pupils, since, though the masses may cease to attend school at 14, many leave long before this, while of the minority a good many con¬ tinue at school up to 19 or 20, and at college still longer. Roughly speaking, the proportion has been departmentally taken at 15 per cent of the total male popula- EDUCATION IN INDIA. 265 tion. In the case of girls it would not reach, much above half that fraction, since it is rare to find them allowed to attend school after they have attained their marriage¬ able age of between 10 and 14, and the proportion under 5 is considerably above that of the boys. The next light in which to consider the distribution is territori¬ ally or by provinces, a point which can bo dealt with summarily by reference to the following statement, which shows the proportion of illiterate of both sexes in the principal divisions of the country : Illiterate per 1,000. Males. Females. PROVINCES. Madras . 851 990 Bombay . 860 990 Bengal . 892 996 Northwest provinces . 937 997 Oudli . 942 998 Sindh . 915 995 Pan i ah . 926 997 Central provinces . 941 998 Assam . 924 997 Illiterate per 1,000. Males. Females. provinces — con tin ued . Lower Burmah . 557 962 Upper Burmah . 538 985 STATES. ' Haidrabad . 928 997 Baroda . 856 995 Mysore . 895 993 As regards males, the difference between Burmah and the rest of the British Pos¬ sessions must be noted, as it is due to the religious system in the more remote prov¬ ince. Buddhism there demands that every boy should spend a certain number of years under instruction in a monastery, and the establishment of these institutions being an act of religious merit, leading to substantial benefit in the next incarnation of the pious founder, is a usual way of disposing of wealth, the accumulation of which is reprobated in the tenets of the local faith. Not a large proportion, it may be men¬ tioned, of these Hpongyi Kyaungs, as they are called, are included in the depart¬ mental returns, though a good many of the private institutions are gradually adopting the modern text-books and methods of teaching mathematics and writing introduced of late years along with the British system. But when we come to the rest of India, instead of but little over half the male population being illiterate, we find the lowest proportion to be 85 per cent, and throughout a considerable portion of the country it rises above 93. All that need be remarked about the other sex is that, except in Burmah, the illiterate nowhere form less than 99 per cent of the total number. W e have, then, the distribution according to the main religious creeds. Here, again, no detailed comment is necessary, since nearly three-fourths of the community are returned under titles which include such wide divergences in their subdivisions as to be valueless as aggregates. We must take, for instance, the Brahmanic community by castes, and if we divide the Christians, similarly, into native converts and foreign sojourners, the results are very different from those given in the following table: Brahmanic . . . Sikli . Jain . Buddhist Parsi . Mussulman. . Christian . . . . Jew . F orest tribes Creed. Percentage of illiterate. Males. Females. 89.5 99.6 90.4 99.6 46.6 98.6 52.6 97.4 22.3 49.9 92.9 99.7 05. 7 86.4 48.1 78.6 99.2 100.0 The only remarks on the figures, then, that need be made are that next to the European element, the Parsi is the least illiterate, and represents the only indigenous section which has an appreciable proportion of literate women in it, and the whole 266 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Zoroastrian community numbers less than 90,000 souls. The Jains, which come next, show remarkable divergence between the figures for the two sexes. This is clue to the fact that the males included in the area where education was returned at the last census are nearly all traders, while their households have no such characteristic to raise them above the general dead level of their sex. The Jews, again, form a small and scattered community of less than 18,000. The Sikhs are cultivating land¬ holders of military proclivities, neither of which pursuits is favorable to the diffusion of book learning. They are probably, however, a little more literato than the table shows them to be, because many know their scriptural alphabet and literature, without being able to read the Persian character, which is that taught in the public schools of tho Punjab. The Buddhists, as I have just said, are concentrated in Burmah and tho Himalaya, and can generally read and write. But there is another point in connection with the permeation of literature through the community at large on which the census alone throws any definite light. This is the component parts of the class shown above as not illiterate. The information collected relates only to those returning themselves as no longer under instruction, but no doubt many of the pupils of the higher institutions are hero included, and even irrespective of these the return sufficiently fulfills its object of indicating the social classes that tako advantage of tho instruction placed within their reach. The tables treating on this subject are based on individual castes, numbering, of course, many thousands, all of which were classified into conventional groups, based partly on racial, but mainly on occupational or functional considerations; not neces¬ sarily the occupation, it must bo understood, exercised in the present day, but that traditional in tho caste and from which it derives its name. Tho object of this combination, I need perhaps hardly observe to my statistical colleagues here, was not to serve any anthropological purpose, but merely to ensure uniformity of treatment in the twenty or so units of compilation over which the 287,000,000 people -were distributed, so that the central authority might bo confident that in analyzing the aggregate of the returns he was dealing with material iden¬ tical, or nearly identical, in all cases. Now, as there are no less than 60 of these caste groups, I do not propose to do more than skim the surface of the very sugges¬ tive results of the above analysis. The first glance shows us two facts : One encour¬ aging from the standpoint of comparison with the past, the other rather startling as to tho situation at present. We find, on the one hand, that among these 60 social groups there is not one which is entirely barren of people who know how to read and write. Of course, if we take individual castes, in different parts of India, there must be hundreds in the latter condition, but looking at society in what wo may describe as strata, to use a geological term, it is remarkable that the lowest sections have managed to obtain a crumb or so of instruction, and it is quite certain that this was not tho case half a century ago. Even now the share of the majority of the groups is insignificant, save in connection with this last consideration, but the encouraging fact is that it is there at all. This brings me to the second and less satisfactory aspect of tho table. We find that the proportion of one-tenth of the group is literate in no more than 11 instances out of the 60, and that these 11, con¬ taining 52 per cent of the total number of literates of the country, represent less than 14 per cent of the populatiou. Even from this selection we must make certain deductions, as in the 52 per cent are included nearly 14 per cent of Burmese, Euro¬ peans, and Eurasians. We then get the results shown below, that over 86 per cent of tho people share among them something under 48 per cent of those who can read and write, scattered over some 50 functional groups. The great agricultural and pastoral group, for instance, shows 2$ per cent of liter¬ ate among its component parts. The artisans fall slightly below this, and no item of either group is included in the inner circle of the 10 per cent. These figures show tho comparative concentration of instruction within the classes to whom it is the EDUCATION IN INDIA. 267 traditional and direct means of livelihood, and its comparative neglect where it can only ho of value as a factor in general education. But this is a matter on which my remarks must ho deferred till we have done with the statistics of the subject. Percentage on total. Population. Brahmans . Writers . Traders . . Native Christians . . Parsis . Others . Foreigners and Burmese Balance . 4.90 .94 4.11 . 72 *.04 22 86.19 Literates. 16.81 4.74 13.74 2. 05 .42 13.86 47. 69 I therefore pass on to the last statistics which I propose to introduce. They relate to the quality of tho instruction, even as those already passed in review show its diffusion, and are taken therefore from the departmental returns of public schools by which arc meant those conforming to the prescribed standards. There are, no doubt, over 39,000 institutions shown as private on the rolls, but most of them are merely denominational or rudimentary schools, with from 10 to 13 pupils apiece, and of a very fluctuating standard of learning and precarious existence. Tho following table contains the information in question : Grade. Numbers. Distribution, per cent. i Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. College : Arts . . . 12, 940 45 0. 44 0. 01 Professional . 3, 261 31 .10 .01 Normal institution . 4, 327 819 .14 .27 Technical institution . . 16, 125 461 .53 . 15 High . Middle . 57, 462 926 1.89 .30 125, 014 6, 105 4. 11 1. 98 Primary : Upper . 343, 734 19, 920 11. 30 6.47 Lower a . 1, 819. 849 178,477 59. 83 58. 08 Lower b . . . 658, 758 100, 616 21. 66 32. 73 Total . 3, 041, 510 307, 400- 100. 00 100. 00 a Beading printed hooks. b Not reading printed hooks. It shows that 93 per cent of the boys and 96 of the girls are in the primary stage of instruction, and that over a fifth of the former and nearly a third of the latter are not yet advanced to the stage of reading printed books; 4 boys and 2 girls in every 100 at school at all had reached the middle grade, and two more boys had got as far as the higher. When we have to consider the university and other institutions, we must abandon percentage and take to the fractions of 1,000 to get an appreciable proportion, either for boys or girls. This brief exposition is enough to show that anything beyond elementary instruction has as yet made little way in India, and I fear that when we come to the tests applied to the work of the schools the real value of the figures will shrink into still smaller proportions. Generally speaking, the scheme includes a test of primary instruction at the end of the third or fifth year of attendance. The middle-class stage is closed by an appropriate examination, to which is added a special test for entrance to the lower clerical grades of the public service, while the high school, except where a special bifurcation of studies has been recently introduced, leads directly to the entrance examination to the university. The following table, which shows the number of boys considered sufficiently pre- 268 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. pared to be subjected to examination, and the percentage tbat were successful at the test, speaks for itself : Test. Xumber examined. Percentage passed. Matriculation . . 14,244 1, 355 21, 385 4, 869 99, 449 176, 757 40 28 49 33 61 59 Upper secondary . . . Middle . Public service certificate . Upper primary . . . Lover primary . Total . I . . . . . 321, 059 Relatively few girls advance beyond the primary stage, but the still smaller num¬ ber examined seems better prepared than their comrades of the other sex. About 1 in 8 of the boys seem to have come to the test, and a little above half passed, chiefly owing to the greater success in the lower standards. In a paper treating of popular education only, it is not necessary to discuss the branches of instruction which are not strictly included under that term, so the uni¬ versities and their work maybe said not to fall within the scope of my subject. But I wish to include in my general survey Indian education as a whole, and to praise accordingly the higher culture as we have done the rest. In fact, if we are talking of an educated community at all, we can not draw the line at the sixth standard, which represents in India even a lower degree of attainments than it does here, but we must imply something more extended. It is desirable, therefore, to sfec the actual extent of what is called the educated community. It has been shown already that at the present time only some 5 per 1,000 of the pupils of India have reached the university, including both arts and the professional faculties. The departmental returns show that during the last five years an average of about 18,000 annually appeared for matriculation, of whom a third only passed the test. Of' the latter class something under 38 per cent proceeded no further than to the intermediate examina¬ tion ; 14 per cent went on to a degree in arts, and some 10 per cent graduated in law, medicine, or civil engineering. To the great majority ihe entrance examination is no more than a qualification for service under Government or under such private employers as require assistants of the literary caliber implied by this test, and to such an extent has this tendency grown in some parts of the country, that at least one university has been obliged to promote the establishment of an independent examination of the feeder schools, to serve the purpose for which its own doors were formerly besieged. As to the graduates, the universities have been now in operation for the last thirty-five years or so, and the total outturn in the arts faculty may be estimated at- somewhere about 16,000 ; but the present vice-chancellor of the Bombay University, a Brahman of great distinction, has just been deploring the serious want of stamina he has noticed among university men, and their generally short lives, so that the actual number in existence must be considerably below tho above figure. This, then, is the nucleus of the intellectual life of India, and, as I have said before, there is in it no representative of the agricultural or the industrial backbone of the country, even if there be any to speak of in the stages between this and the primary schools. I will not overburden this paper with statistics showing what has been done dur¬ ing the last forty years in the way of extending the provisions for popular instruc¬ tion, or how far advantage has been taken of these provisions. The information is available elsewhere in’a form more explicit than any I could adopt within my present limits. Progress there has been, and very marked progress, though not altogether in the direction where it was most needed; and the foregoing portion of this paper is calculated, perhaps, to indicate not so much what has been accomplished as the vast amount still to be done. It is on this consideration that I am laying so little EDUCATION IN INDIA. 269 stress on the system of education or on tlie State action witli regard to it. Where there is no effective demand for education, or, as in India, a demand for it only among a small minority, the part that can he played by system or by State initiative or aid is insignificant, and its results are no more than an excrescence or parasitic growth on the life of the community. What has to be educated is not the mind, which can bo reached from school or college, but the will, which is molded only by public opin¬ ion. The advance of the two independently of each other leads to results which are by no means free from difficulty and even danger. To take first the practical, and, I admit, the lower, side of the question, the professionally literate castes, as the returns show, are taking far more advantage of the educational facilities of the present system than the rest; so not only is the already Avide gulf between the two being increased, but the too prevalent view is being emphasized and confirmed that instruction is merely a tool whereby a certain class gets its liAung, and with which the rest of the community has no concern. The notion once held that instruction would reach the masses best by a downward filtration” from the literate minority, was based on a misconception of the character of Brahmanic society, and has long since been abandoned. The hold of caste on occupation is strengthened by this unequal tendency, and the position of the lowest, who, like those at the opposite extreme of the social scale, are not bound down to definite functions, but are avail¬ able to undertake any class of labor, is stereotyped in its depression. I spoke, in the beginning of this paper, of a specially meritorious work to which the efforts of Christian missionaries had been directed. This is in relation to the education of the classes whose contact and presence is traditionally polluting to the rest of the Brahmanic community. To enforce, in the case of such castes, the equality of treatment in schools to which, under the Queen’s proclamation of 1858 and the rules of all State departments, they are entitled, is equivalent to a decree of evic¬ tion against the rest of the pupils. Not one could, under pain of excommunication, remain, and the master himself would be in the same plight. I have myself seen, in place of the traditional rattan for corporal punishment, a row of hardened clay pellets on the tutorial desk, which were thrown with the accuracy of long practice at the impure urchins who were receiving instruction in a row outside the building occupied by the rest. The Government has had to recognize the prejudice, and to ordain that it should be met with tact and patience, but not directly infringed. Now the important feature in this digression is that these educationally boycotted castes contain over 57,000,000 souls, or 1 in 5 of the population. If it were not for mission schools and public institutions established in special tracts where such castes are strong, not a boy among them would be able to acquire the rudiments of learning. To return to the question of the relations between the minority and the masses, we already find that the real influences on public opinion are only to be learned in the court, in the field, at the well, or under the big tree in the middle of the village; and to go to the school or press for such information is to incur the cer¬ tainty of being misled. The b(Jy of the literate class, if not of town origin, spends most of his youth in a town if he aims at secondary education, acquires urban tastes and urban views of life, which unfit him for sympathy with rustic concerns, just as the peasant complains that retaining his boy up to 14 in the primary school softens his hands and makes him unable to do his full day’s plowing. Then, again, the strict caste-regime that prevails among the literate community shows little or no signs of material relaxation, though in one or two points there are manifestations of revolt among a small minority aaTlo may finally succeed in leavening the mass. Thus the outlet for the youth of this class is annually growing narrower, and the market for their industry more glutted. India can only promde litigation for a cer¬ tain number of legal practitioners, and the higher class of students has hitherto shown little aptitude for any other profession but that and the service of the state or public bodies, which is, again, a more or less fixed quantity. Medicine and crvil engineering, for which there is an opening, are only favored by a narrow class, not 270 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. always the dlite of society. Further into this question it is not necessary liere to enter. It is when we turn to tlio moral aspects of the extension of intellectual education in a population subdivided and constituted as is that of India, that we find the gravest reason for deliberation. It is not merely that the rift between con¬ viction and conformity is growing wider; that the head is growing faster than the heart, for that is usual, if not universal, in the experience of national education, but it is the causes that tend to retard, and perhaps to prevent, readjustment, that must give us pause. The very first and foremost educative influence in a state is that of the family, not the school. There is a phrase of Richter bearing on this that is worth remembering ; so much so, that I have prefixed it to the chapter on education in my census report; but, as I do not flatter myself that I have thereby made it trite or universally known, it is worth citing again: “The waves of the ocean, before reaching the child, break against four Avails Avhich encompass the water of his education or crystallization. Father, mother, brothers, and sisters, and a few extra people are his forming-world and mold.” And in India, as I hope I haA'c made clear, he has also an outer line of defense, in his caste. But, withal, the main influence is that of woman. I have heard and read a great deal on the subjection of women in India, and the deadening influences of the zenana system ; but, as to the latter, I can speak from personal experience, and history confirms it, that there are few shrewder negotiators, or persons more alive to what is necessary for their own purposes or the interests of their estates, than the ladies with whom one has to do business with a curtain between us. As to their subjection, whatever may be the theory regarding it— and I must admit that the authorities use braArc Avorcls — in practice, and again I speak from varied occurrences laid before mo in court and village — I have invariably found, if the president Avill permit me to use an expression the political signification of which is scarcely older than this paper, that the predominant member of the domestic partnership was a certain old woman, generally the mother, not, as I have heard is the case in this country, of the wife, but of the husband. In India, in fact, as elsewhere, “she Avho rocks the cradle rules the empire,” and when we find that her SAvay in her own immediate circle is complete, her social aspirations are restricted within immutable limits, and those of Jier inferiors similarly kept from encroaching, and that she has no conception of any social grievance with Avhich the elders of her caste are not competent to deal, wo shall not go far wrong if Ave say her tendencies are likely to be con ser \rative, and, looking at the very high place ceremonial and custom occupy in her religion and in her domestic arrangements, more probably than not she will be found to bo a bigoted member of that party. Any inclination toward innova¬ tion, therefore, will be sure to bo met with far more resistance from the Avomen of the community than evrnn from the men, and Avhat the latter is I have given the means of judging already. In the mere matter of book learning it is less surprising to find the women backward than in regard to the abandonment of social customs Avhich they no doubt recognize as harmful to their sex, but Avhich, nev'ettheless, like some other fashions, they consider it a point of honor to endure. To explain this, it is unnecessary' to go further than the antipathy of the men, especially of the literate castes, to the acquisition of learning by their partners any more than by their social inferiors.1 If any other reason bo required it may be found in the fact briefly mentioned aboAre, that in proportion as the Brahmanic hold on the masses is strong, the adoption of their ideal in regard to marriage is preAralent, so that there is a con¬ tinuous tendency as wealth increases to lower the age of the bride, and to seclude the girls of marriageable age, both of Avhich practices, I need hardly remark, have an influence fatal to anything beyond the very rudiments of learning. Thus it hap¬ pens that according to the census avo find to every 1,000 males not wholly illiterate only 47 females of tho same degree of acquirements, the disparity running in greater or less intensity through the whole community. 1 For instance, out of about 15,000,000 of Brahmans, 1,957,000 of the males are returned as literate, bu t only 72,500 of the other sex. EDUCATION IN INDIA. 271 Nor is there at present any sign that tlio disparity is on the decrease. It may he said, of course, that within this last ten years or so female education has advanced faster than that of males, and the naked figures of the annual returns are called in evidence of this. Granted ; hut let us look if that is the real teaching of these fig¬ ures. Consider the numbers involved, actual or relative. What a drop in the ocean ! Ten years ago there were in every thousand women four who were not illiterate, there are now five. There has heen a growth of secondary and middle-class educa¬ tion among them, hut the tables show that it is confined practically to the small communities of Europeans, Parsis, and Christian converts, and has nothing to do with the masses. The number of pupils in training to take charge of girls’ schools has increased, hut it appears due only to the accession of Christian converts, as no other caste will degrade itself to so public a function. Now, the great hulk of these converts, and to the honor of the missions he it spoken, belong to the depressed or menial section of the Brahmanic community, and take their place in their little world, not according to attainments or conduct, hut by virtue of their traditional and native position. They have no influence, therefore, outside their class room, and so far as the parents of their pupils are concerned, are admissible to no share in social life. This, again, is not conducive to the spread of learning among the women of the country. So long then, I repeat, as the disparity between the sexes in point of education continues at anything like its present extent, the influence of the home will bo set dead against that of the school, except in so far as the latter acts merely as the agent for obtaining early in life a pecuniary position that will enable the recipient to dis¬ pense with further study. So long, again, as this mental divorce is the approved rule, all the education that can be imparted from without the home will be “of the man’s life a thing apart.” It will hang on him like Saul’s armor on the shepherd boy, and for all the help it may give him in the battle of life, the Goliath of ances¬ tral prejudice will die in his bed at a ripe old age. Knowing what it is my profes¬ sional duty to know of the sentiment and practice of the home circle and domestic surroundings, to hear the great English classics or the vernacular renderings of the political history of Europe or America from the mouths of the urchins in the village or district schools, always brings to my mind Cicero’s question when he saw his rather diminutive son-in-law invested with the brand his father had borne in the civil war, “ Who on earth has tied Dolabella to that sword?” In later life it is too often the same, and the great principles of morality and statecraft that have been the brand of victory in the West become in Oriental hands the court sword flourished to direct the movements of a sham fight in which neither morals nor policy are at stake. With policy we have luckily nothing to do on this occasion. As to morals, though the results of a system of public instruction may not yet be apparent among the masses for reasons I have already given, the system has borne a fruit esoterically, or within the fold, which is not altogether palatable to the mental horticulturist, even if it be so to anyone else concerned. It is the results of testing intellectual proficiency and depth by means which connote moral conditions which have not yet been developed in India. Examinations in this country are, relatively speaking, successful, because it can be assumed with reason that the moral fiber of a candidate is up to a certain standard, so that it is necessary to test his intellect alone. It is not so in India, where the goal is considered attainable by the bypaths of morality as justifiably as by the highroad. In fact, in some parts of the country the art of swindling has received quite a fresh stimulus from the new field thus opened to it. Not a year passes without its crop of cases of personation, fraudulent acquisition of the examination papers, even when they are expressly x^rinted in various towns in Eurox>e; forged certificates of character, age, and departmental qualifications. In Bengal it is stated officially that detection is entirely dex3endent on accidental defects in the procedure, so that probably for every case found out ten pass unnoticed. In a lower sphere of the education of youth pux3ils are borrowed for a day from one school for the annual examination of another. The prosecution of a few masters for 272 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. fraudulent or forged registers of attendance had the effect of temporarily stopping the practice of submitting registers at all. A district hoard found it necessary to abandon the custom of giving annual school rewards because of the fraud practiced in order to get them. A municipality in another part of the country reduced the salary of a master who had offended one of the leading townsmen, first by expelling his son and secondly by refusing to give that promising pupil a certificate of good character on which he might appear for the university examination. In another similar case a fresh school was set up by the city fathers to ruin the too conscientious pedagogue. Finally, a master in a village on the border of a district got the reward at his annual examination, and then promptly transferred himself and his pupils to an adjacent village in the next district, where a second examination brought him in a second harvest. The competition for promising boys in the aided schools of the capital of India, which is carried on by public advertisements offering rewards, by active canvassing, and by other means derogatory to the dignity of learning, such as tampering with registers, falsifying transfer receipts, and similar expedients, which outside the scholastic world would be called forgery, has, it is stated, mate¬ rially lo wered the discipline of the whole body of pupils. The best prepared openly put themselves up to auction shortly before the examination. Others — I am quoting from the latest report to hand — confine themselves to sending anonymous accusations against the master or each other to the inspectors or other officials. In one case a riot was attributed by the master to u an improper sense of offended dignity.” In another the inspecting officer, having asked the master to explain an intricate sum on the blackboard, was stoned by the loyal pupils as he left the building. One boy in a high school, who had been punished, burnt down the school and the master’s house. The next day the temporary building to which the classes had been removed was also set on fire, and the youth who was caught thus employing the resources of civilization spent some time in a reformatory. In the east of Bengal a more com¬ plicated occurrence is reported. The English school in the town had been burned down twice in the year, on which the native gentleman who was acting as assistant inspector naively remarks that it appeared as though the master had created enemies by too strict discipline, or that an unhealthy rivalry existed between this school and another. The latter alternative seems the correct one, as I find that in the course of the year the rival school was also burned down. The serious part of these events is not, in my view, the actual offense or the spirit which instigated its preparation, but the acquiescence in and the connivance with it by all who had any knowledge of what was intended or was actually going on. In the case of the fraudulent transfer of pupils and similar artifices to cheat the public purse or to profit by the wrong done one’s neighbor, not only every master round, every pupil implicated, but every parent must have been privy to the fraud, and acquiesced in the methods by which it was successfully carried into execution, anti, remember, it is not the low-class hedge-schools where this goes on, but the sec¬ ondary and, even more, the high schools that feed the university, the entrance exam¬ ination to which is to nine out of ten of that class of pupils the end-all and be-all of their education. It is after passing through an atmosphere such as that which this moral apathy proves to be prevalent that the highest product of the present system is thrown onto the world, and when we hear of the educated classes in India we ought to have a clear conception of the grounds on which the application of that epithet is based. We have to appreciate not what the mouth has learned to speak, but what the heart really cherishes. We have to consider what is the relation this class bears to the masses ; what part it takes in the great life of the community ; what is its numerical strength, and how far it is predisposed to admit the rest of its less gifted fellows to a share in the intellectual privileges on which it founds its claims ; or how far it is inclined to j>erpetuate a traditional monopoly. What, again, is its attitude, not in precept, but in example, toward the deeply seated influences that impair the general vitality of the country and cramp its energies? I have EDUCATION IN INDIA. 273 touched sufficiently on all these questions to show you, to say the least of it, that they have more thau one side, and that however glittering the surface that lies uppermost, it by no means follows that all below is gold. I have shown, also, the proportion borne to the people at large by the class which, by the utmost extension of the term, can be called educated. It may be said that tho progress of education, according to my view, has been insignificant. But remember, first, that forty or fifty years are as nothing in the life of a people. The great dispatch of 1854 closes with a phrase which is, I think we may all agree, well worth repetition : “To imbue a vast and ignorant population with a general desire for knowledge, and to take advantage of that desire when excited to improve the means for diffusing education among them, must be a work of many years.” We have also to accustom the people to a regime of equality, to which they are even now little more than strangers, and which they have received timidly and with the suspicion born of centuries of experiences diametrically opposite in their nature to those to which they are now subjected. The sway of the sword has given place to that of the scales, wherein every person in the eye of the administration weighs equally before the law. Finally, are not we Western nations rather too prone to consider progress as a natural characteristic or tendency of the human race, and not to sufficiently realize the very narrow limits to which in that capacity it is confined? What people has shown it that has not been, at some time or other in its history, in touch, directly or indirectly, with that little spot on the north side of the Mediterranean where alone of all countries of the known world the spirit of progress has not been proved to have been implanted from outside? If it be an exaggeration at all, it is a splendid one of Sir Henry Maine, that, except the blind forces of nature, nothing moves in this world which is not Greek in its origin. How then is it to be expected that contact merely political between countries separated by half the world, whereof one alone has received the sjiark of Hellenic fire, will produce the same results within the same time, or measurable distance of it, as that of contiguous or colonized nations? The longitudes are too far apart for the administrative clocks to keep the same time, and a mean must bo adopted which will satisfy the one that the other is moving, but not go so fast that the latter can not keep up with it. I do not take, I hope, too pessimistic a view of the subject of which I have been treating this evening, and I have nowhere asserted that the situation is approaching an impasse, though the advance has been in some respects singularly unequal. I Iook for the solution of the problem not to any direct effort on the part of the State, of private enterprise, or of the literate classes, but to the stimulus of the steady advance of the masses in prosperity, in the educating influence of material circum¬ stances, the opening of the mind by travel, commerce, and industry, all of which are now in their lusty infancy. The following paper, presented before the Department Congress of Educational Journalism in Chicago, adds many interesting particulars to the present survey of educational agencies in India: EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM IN INDIA. [By Tliomas Denham, M. A. (Queen’s College, Oxford), vice-principal Teachers’ College, Saidapet, Madras, late editor of the Madras Journal of Education.] In a paper on “Educational Journalism in India” it is not necessary, even if it were convenient, to give a detailed account of every periodical of this class which has appeared in India. Fortunately for the writer, but unfortunately for the cause of education in India, much of the information respecting these papers would scarcely deserve to be incorporated in such a paper as the present, except as afford¬ ing direct evidence of the low state of educational journalism in India. The writer ED 93 - 18 274 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. "will therefore content himself with a hare mention of many journals the names of which sufficiently indicate their scope. Ho will speak more at large of the few lead¬ ing representative journals, and, what appears to him of still greater importance, will discuss briefly the causes which are, in his opinion, mainly responsible for the deplorable lack of interest taken in educational journalism in a country in which education has made rapid strides within the last half century. Without doubt the leading educational journal in India is what was known up to within a few months back as the Madras Journal of Education, but which is now known by the more ambitious name of the Indian Journal of Education. Madras, in this matter of educational journalism as in other educational matters, has given the lie to the opprobrious appellation by which she was designated by the other presidencies, viz, “The benighted presidency.” The journal was Started in 1859 — an important date, as it comes just after the great mutiny in 1858 and the estab¬ lishment of the Indian University, a date which practically marks the birth of educational journalism in India. The features of the Madras Journal of Education may be gathered by a notice of it by the Madras Christian College Magazine in 1892 : '“It now contains a larger number of short original articles than it formerly did, while at the same time it devotes a considerable portion of its space to notes and news of general and local interest, dealing mainly, of course, with educational matters. Reviews and notice of works and of other educational reviews, the pro¬ ceedings of the director of public instruction, and educational notifications occupy a considerable portion of its space, and some pages, in which questions are asked and answered, are set apart in each issue foT the benefit of students. It is now a useful and interesting journal, and we hope that in its new and improved form it may have a wide circulation.” For the greater part of its existence it was conducted by two well-known Indian educationists, Messrs. Fowler and Barron, who for many years boro the burden and the heat of the day in what must have been generally an unthankful task. The journal now circulates throughout India, and is officially recognized in most prov¬ inces, and yet has not a greater circulation than 1,000 copies; Since January of the present year it has had the misfortune to change its editor twice. As the Indian Journal of Education its Character has considerably changed also, having fewer original articles and less pedagogic information. It is safe to say that no similar periodical in India can approach it as regards its size, matter, and circulation. One other educational journal which was circulated throughout the Madras presi¬ dency may be noticed, as it is typical of the history of many similar journals in this country. In January, 1871, was published No. 1 of -the Mangalore Month and Educa¬ tional and Literary Record. This was a journal of 21 pages, edited by John Brad¬ shaw, M. A., then head master of the Government provincial school, Mangalore, now an LL. D. of Dublin, and wmrld known as an editor of Milton and Gray’s works and Lord Chesterfield’s letters. The aims of this creditable little production are thus stated by the editor in the introductory number: “ It will be a record of educational news and such intelligence as is likely to prove interesting to those connected with education in this country • as, however, it is principally intended for students, wo purpose in each number supplying them with such information in matters connected with these studies as either may not be explained in their text-book or they might otherwise be unable to procure.” The editor calculated that about 200 subscribers at 3 annas (about 7 cents) would cover the expense of each month’s issue, and that if a sufficient increase in the number of subscribers took place he would increase the size of the journal and change its name “by embracing a wider circle than the locality of Mangalore.” In spite of Mangalore being an out-of-the-way place on the Malabar coast and having no direct railway communication with the rest of the presidency, the merits of the journal were such that after six months the number of subscribers justified the editor in changing the name of the journal to the Madras Educational Record. In EDUCATION IN INDIA. 275 the first number of the new venture one of the chief causes for the dearth of good educational journalism is alluded to : “That Madras is without an educational record worthy the presidency is not to ho attributed to any want of ability or energy on the part of educationists, but finds its explanation in the nature of Indian society. Few care to embark on the undertaking, which, after it is fairly alloat, they may be compelled to relinquish from their being transferred to some other scene or sphere which may preclude their proceeding with it.” How true this statement is the history of the journal in question gees to prove; for after a successful career of eighteen months it ceased to exist, as Dr. Bradshaw, having been appointed an inspector of schools, found he could not continue to edit the journal while holding a traveling appointment. Of current educational journals in India, the Bombay Educational Record perhaps stands next to the Indian Journal of Education. It has flourished for many years with the help of Government support. For the last quarter of a century it has been under the editorship of Mr. J. B. Kirkham, who is now retiring after over thirty years’ service in India. This magazine contains little but departmental notifications, appointments, lists of prescribed books, etc. As a rule there are about two small pages of original matter, consisting of short, pithy notes on current educational questions. Occasionally good articles are reproduced from other educational mag¬ azines. It has a circulation of about four or five hundred. Such well-known men as Sir A. Grant and Sir James Peile have taken an active interest in its welfare. The little journal has always aimed at encouraging an accurate record of facts, a study of principles and their application to the peculiar circumstances of India and a professional spirit based on a high estimate of the work and office of the teacher. The Educational Magazine hails from Calcutta, and is the organ of the European Teachers’ Association at Calcutta. • It is a small periodical with a small circulation. It contains little original matter, the magazine being chiefly made up of questions on school work and extracts. The magazine ought probably to be spoken of in the past tense, as the writer has seen nothing of it for the last twelve months and has no definite information regarding its existence. Besides these educational magazines there are other periodicals in India which thouirh chiefly of a literary character yet give place in their columns to articles and discussions on educational topics of general interest. The Madras Christian College Magazine holds a peculiar place in the current literature of India. It is managed by one of the professors of the college w'lio is assisted by the principal and the other professors. The articles are contributed in great measure by outsiders, and are of a general literary character. Details respecting the college appear from month to month. The magazine can scarcely be called educational, nor is it a bona fide col- lego magazine in the sense that the students contribute to it or that it faithfully records the many agencies of the college. There are in fact in India very few col¬ lege or school magazines such as are common in the large schools in England, and which contain full details of school work, sports, etc., with occasional original articles and tales. One main reason why educational journalism in India is so rarely taken up by educated men has been already alluded to, viz, the frequent changes from post to post which fall to the lot of m*)st educational officers in India. But apart from this deterring cause there are comparatively few Englishmen in India who take an interest in general matters of education outside their own special branch. Being members of the Government educational service their positions are assured, and so far as their own interests are concerned they see nothing to be gained by agitating for educa¬ tional reforms in a bureaucratically governed country. The climatic conditions of the country, too, are such that most men are content perforce with the ordinary discharge of their duties and shun such overwork as is often responsible for the sudden and utter collapses which sometimes overtake Englishmen in India. System¬ atic mental work of a severe nature is almost impossible after the college or school 276 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. closes for tlie clay. Again, among tlie other necessary conditions of healthy living among Englishmen in India is the periodical furlough or leave of one or two years to Europe. But when all is allowed for it must he confessed that many English educa¬ tionists in India are regrettably negligent in the matter of educational journalism. As regards the natives of the country, it must be remembered that they can carry on work of this kind only under considerable disadvantages. Educational journals in India, if they are to have a faT-reaching influence, must be conducted in the English language, the common medium of education and communication of the upper classes throughout the vast continent of India. If they make use of any one of the many dialects of India they at once limit their influence by appealing to a com¬ paratively small section of India society, and that not the most cultured portion. Every schoolboy in India can read more or less intelligently in English, and the educated native prefers to get his information through the medium of the English language, that language being capable of greater exactness of expression and being the door to a vast range of literature. It is a lamentable fact that the vernaculars of India are being increasingly neglected from a literary point of view, except for examination purposes. But English, after all, is a foreign language to Indians, and although they are at infinite pains to make themselves conversant with it, it is but natural that they should find considerable difficulty in expressing themselves clearly and forcibly in that language. In any case the task of conducting with credit an English educational journal is no inconsiderable one to the ordinary educated Indian. Then there is the question of poverty which must be reckoned with when account¬ ing for the small circulation of educational journals in India. Education, if it is to be given at all, must be given at a nominal charge, for the majority of students are admittedly poor. They will do anything to save the expenditure of a few annas. Journals and papers are handed on from one to another in such a way that there is no approximation between the number of subscribers and the number of readers of any particular journal or paper. Text-books, when once they have answered the purpose of the examination, are disposed of with a callousness which argues a singular lack of interest in the sub¬ jects which for the time being engrossed the attention of the student, but which are often so disposed of on the specious plea of poverty. But the writer is inclined to look for another reason why educational journalism is so little patronized by the natives of India. He finds it in the little interest which the ordinary student or teacher takes in matters educational — a lack of interest due to a low and false esti¬ mate of education, an estimate which values education mainly for its material bene¬ fits, an estimate due in part to inherent faults in the higher educational system of the country, and to the increasing number of the examinations Avhich throw open the doors to the services. Moreover, the teachers of the country are not organized to look after the interests of education and their own interests. Associations of such proportions and wielding such power as the various associations in Amer¬ ica and England are unknown. What few associations do exist, and they can be counted on one’s fingers, have few members, are purely local, discuss purely literary and pedagogical questions, and have no influence among teachers or on the public generally. Annual conferences of teachers are unknown ; esprit.de corps is wanting. The con¬ flicting interests of Government, mission, and native institutions may in part account for this. The minimum qualifications and resources of those who enter the teaching profession; the caste system, with the blight of its social ostracism; a bureaucratic system — all these may account for the absence of teachers’ associations in India, but the painful and palpable fact remains that such aids to the teacher’s position, to the cause of true education, do not exist, in India. Did they exist, a different account of educational journalism in India would have to be written. There being no associa¬ tions, there are consequently no organs to disseminate their views. Nor is there in India anything analogous to that excellent institution the Bureau of Education EDUCATION IN INDIA. 277 as it exists in the United States of America, an institution which is the medium for collecting and disseminating interesting matter which concerns the welfare of education. Wo have spoken of the low estimate of education which, the average student has of the benefits of education. To him it is the means to an end, the end being the passing of such examinations as will enable him to secure a competency in some one or other of the Government services. Students7 journals which would give hints for passing examinations might secure a fair circulation under proper management. Teachers, too, are more or less content in seeing that their pupils are well stored with just that amount of carrying knowledge which will enable them to pass exami¬ nations. They have little faith in new and improved methods for imparting knowl¬ edge and know little of educational systems outside their own. The people of India are strong in memorizing, but not so strong in assimilating knowledge and in mental productiveness. The universities examine, but do not teach, and the educational system generally tends to accentuate the memorizing rather than the assimilating faculties. Unfortunately, there is practically no edu¬ cational journalism to correct this tendency, to stimulate and inspire by proclaim¬ ing new methods, by discussing the merits or otherwise of outside systems, and by placing before the people a high ideal of the ends and objects of true education, by awakening a true regard for the profession among teachers and by giving them an esprit de corps which alone can raise them socially and morally in the eyes of the public at large. How much remains to be done this simple fact alone will show — that in a country whose population exceeds by five times the 50,000,000 of the United States the leading educational journal has a circulation of 1,000 copies. Add to these reasons the facts that there are few educationists who have the time and not many who have the requisite knowledge of pedagogy to conduct high-class journals, that the editor’s funds will not allow of good articles being paid for, that specialists can find a ready market for their articles either in the better-class news¬ paper in India or in journals in England, and it need not be wondered at that there are no educational journals in India which can in any way approach the high-class journals of America and England. India has made rapid strides in education during the past forty years. There are some few signs that she is awakening to a sense of what true education means. When that time arrives, she will give expression to her enlarged Adews in a journal¬ ism which may bo worthy of her, and which, though it can only be fostered amid dis¬ advantages from Avhich the educational journalism of England and America is free, will be worthy of a modest place beside the literature of these two countries. I append a complete list (so far as in my poiver to make it) of all the educational journals Avhich are or haAre flourished in India. It will be seen that they are many in number, but that generally they have had but a short existence, and this for the causes which lia\Te been considered. The writer feels that the list is far from being a satisfactory one. There are, doubt¬ less, some few journals which have not been included, and there are, doubtless, many in the list which can scarcely claim to be educational journals in the proper sense of the word, containing, as they do, much matter which is not strictly educational and nothing of matter which deals with what may be called the politics of education or with the iirinciples of education. The list shows, however, that the educated men of India are not without their literary ambitions, although they undertake the duties connected with such ambitions far too lightly, many of them without the requisite qualifications and without a due sense of the responsibilities involved. 278 1892-93 EDUCATION REPORT, List of educational journals in India ENGLISH AND VERNACULAR. Date. Discontinued. Madras presidency: English . Tamil. Telngu Bombay : English, Mahratti - Gujarati The The The The The The The The The The The Madras Journal of Education . . . Madras Educational Repos Lory Student . . . Middle and High School Friend Students’ Monthly . Middle School Manual . Matriculation Journal . Schoolmaster . . . Matriculation Student . Madras Students’ Magazine _ Tutor . . . . . . 1859 1865 1877 1881 1883 1881 1881 1885 1885 1885 1886 The Educational Record . . The Students’ Educational Magazine _ _ _ _ _ The Home Teacher . . . ... . The Village Schoolmaster . . . . . The Maharani (in Tamil, Telugu, and Malayaleiu, devoted chiefly to female education in schools and homes. An excellent magazine, hut badly supported. The Teacher . . . Upadhyay of a Kari (The Teachers’ Help) . . . ;i87i '1886 1892 1888 1887 R87 1SS8 1832 Date not known. 1880. Date notknown . Not known. Same year. Do. 1889. Same year. Do. 1887. 1872. 1890. Same year. Do. 1889. 1889. The Elphinston School Paper (out of this small paper grew the Bombay Educational Record). The Bombay Educational Record . . . The Teacher . . . . . . . The Monthly Miscellany English and Mahratta _ Vividha Guyana Vista . . Abalaluta (Friend of 'Womankind) _ Berar School Paper.. . . . . . . ... Buhabodha for children . . Vidymitea . . . . Stubodh . . * . . . . . . I860- 1865 1389 1881 1881 1881 1891 1881 1876 1864. Not known. 1892. Bengal : English Bengali Hindu . Sanskrit The Indian Student . . The Bengal Magazine . The Calcutta Magazine . . Vanqa Darshane . Vanqa Mabela (for female readers) Bbama Bodhini . . Babika . Sarasuati . Valavodhini . . . . . . Eusankar Nevarak . . . Ba’ubodhini - 4 - - - - Vidyantti - .., - Guana Probba . 1876 1872 1874 1874 1876 1882 1886 1881 1874 1884 1875 1877 1881 CHAPTER VII. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE TEACHING OF GEOG¬ RAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. INTRODUCTION. The report of the committee of ten on secondary school studies has indicated that the study of gcograifhy in the schools is the center of all scientific instruction — the link, as it were, which connects all branches of science. The definition offered in the subreport reads: ‘‘The word makes it embrace not only a description of the surface of the earth, but also the elements of botany, zoology, astronomy, and mete¬ orology, as well as many considerations pertaining to commerce, government, and ethnology. The term ‘ physical environments ’ of men expresses, as well as any single phrase can, the conference’s conception of the principal subject which they wish to have taught.” This sentence, and the subsequent explanations which will be found in the report mentioned, clearly indicate that geography is vastly different from what our fathers and forefathers thought it to be. It is the only branch in the curriculum of schools, below the university, which connects the mathematical and natural-scientific with historical knowledge, and will always furnish the strongest remedy against mental waste. The fact that geography has of late found so much attention in educational literature, especially in central Europe, suggests a presen¬ tation of the leading ideas, and enumeration of the more recent inventions, devices, and appliances for teaching. This is attempted in the following chapter. HISTORICAL. SKETCH. It is difficult to state with any degree of certainty at what time geography was introduced into the curriculum of schools, to what extent, and in what manner it was taught. This much is certain, that geography, as a branch of study, has not kept pace with its scientific development. Although geography as a science was rep¬ resented in ancient times by such noted men as Pytheas, Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, and although during the Middle Ages the Moors fostered the study of geography, it can not be said that the schools of these periods had given to geography an adequate importance. Nor did the vast extension of the geographical horizon at the time of the great discoveries, during the fifteenth century, bring it about that geography received the attention and respect it deserved as a school study. The great church reformers in Germany comprehended the value of instruction in knowledge of nature, but the intense religious feeling of the time and the renewal of the study of the classical languages j>revented a renewal of nature-study — in fact, religion and language ruled supreme in the c >urses of study during the sixteenth century. Of the great educators of that period, Sturm, Trotzendorf, and Ncander, only the latter bestowed any attention upon geograi>liy. Neander published a geographical text¬ book in 1583 in Eisleben (Orbis terne partinm explicatio). This book still showed a complete dependence upon the knowledge of the ancients, and. topography is with the author simply an enumeration of historical notes, copied more or less exten¬ sively. Nevertheless the work of Neander may be considered a great step in 279 280 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. advance, and np to the year 1624, when Philipp Cliiver’s geographical works appeared, Neander’s hooks were the only ones used extensively. But the position geography held among the branches of study remained a subordinate one; at best, it was a supplement to the reading of Roman authors. Not until the one-sided phi¬ lological character of instruction was attacked with success by Bacon and Montaigne, and not until Locke and Comenius demanded the consideration of nature-study in schools, did geography become a “full-fledged” branch of study. Comenius said : “Instruction should begin with sense-perception, with observation of real objects; from sense-perception real knowledge grows; hence lessons in geography must neces¬ sarily be object lessons at first. It must start from knowledge of home.” The leader of the school of pietists, Francke, considered geography in German schools a means for training in Christian wisdom, which he placed side by side with Christian righteousness, as aims of every education, “because anyone who desires to become a sensible man, useful to the Commonwealth, should know the principles of astronomy, geography, physics, and history, though he may never enter a higher seat of learning.” Palestine and Germany were treated most extensively in the Francke schools, “ so that the citizens should be well acquainted with their father- land, and could study biblical history with the aid of sacred geography. ” Generally speaking, Francke followed, in the treatment of geography, John Hiibner's “Brief Questions,” which were published in 1693, and for many years were the only geo¬ graphical text-books psed in the schools of Germany. Hiibner does not consider the natural condition of the country, and merely treats of the political and statistical elements of geography. This can not be explained better than by quoting a jiage from Hiibner : “Where is Austria situated? — Ans. It is situated so that the Danube River flows through the center, above are Bohemia and Moravia ; to the right is Hungary; to the left Salzburg and Bavaria, below Styria. The whole country belongs to the Roman Emperor of the German nation; his title is Archduke of Austria. The religion throughout is Roman Catholic. — Ques. What do we note in Austria? — Ans. Almost in the center of Austria the little river Enns (Latin, Anissus) empties its waters into the Danube, and divides the country into two parts. That which lies to the right — that is, toward Hungary, is called. Nether- Austria, or the country below the Enns (Latin, Austria-inferior) ; that which is situated on the left, toward Bavaria, is called Upper- Austria, or the land above the Enns (Latin, Austria-sujje- rior). In Nether- Austria we have to note the following places: First, Vienna (L. Vindobona), situated on the Danube, is the capital and residence of the Roman Emperor. It is an excellent fortress and the true vanguard of Christendom, having been beleaguered twice by the Turks, in 1529 and 1683, without being captured. The city ha > a bishop, but he is not an independent prince of the realm, and it has an ancient university. 2nd. Krems (L. Cremsa), a fine city situated ou the Danube, a little to the left. 3rd. Neustadt (L. Nova Stadium) is commonly called a suburb of Vienna, and is situated below Vienna, near the Hungarian line, is a brave fortress. 4th. Ivloster-Neuburg (L. Monasterium Neoburgicum), situated not far from Vienna, and is the place where his Imperial Majesty performs his devotions. 5th. Laxenburg (L. Laxemburgum), and 6th, Ebersdorf (L. Ebersdorflum), are both situated below Vienna, and they are places where the imperial court often seeks diversion and pleasure. 7th. Schbnbrunn, close by Vienna, is an incomparable pleasure-house of the present Roman Emperor. 8th. Baden (L. Therm® Austriacse), is noted for its warm springs. 9th. Starenberg (L. Starenberga), the castle and seat of the Staren- berg family. 10th. Weitra, a princely possession situated near the Bohemian line, belonging to the Flirstenberg family.” Up to the close of the eighteenth century, instruction in geography was conducted in the spirit of Hiibner, that is, purely historical and practically political consider¬ ations decided the selection of matter. Then came the great revolution in* pedagog¬ ical views, started by Rousseau. It had great influence upon the formation of TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 281 geographical instruction. Rousseau demanded objective instruction (object lessons), saying : *• In every study signs are worthless without the ideas they are to represent. Nevertheless the child's study is confined to signs; it never becomes able to under¬ stand the things themselves. While one endeavors to give him a description of the earth, ho makes the acquaintance of the map ; he learns the names of cities, coun¬ tries, and rivers, of which he has no adequate conception. To the child they are nowhere except on paper; it does not see them, or anything that would indicate that they are more than words.” At another place Rousseau says : “ That city in which the child lives, the country house of his father, should be the first, two points of departure in geography; then should follow the places lying between them; the rivers in the neighborhood; lastly, the position of the sun and the mode of finding one’s way by learning geographical directions. * * * The child should make a map of its own, however simple, which should contain only two points at first; others to be added as instruction proceeds, and as it learns to estimate distances and positions. * * * Generally speaking, never place the sign before the thing, unless it is absolutely impossible to produce the thing itself so that it be seen ; for the sign absorbs the attention of the child and causes the thing it represents to be forgotten. Things! Things! I can not often enough repeat that we give too much importance to words; with our talkative education we produce x>rattlers.” The fundamental ideas of Rousseau found enthusiastic appreciation in Germany, and were practically carried out, at least partly, by the philanthropinists of Dessau and Schnepfenthal. The influence of these schools was essentially aided by J. Chris¬ tian Gatterer, who especially emphasized the physical part of geography in his Sketch of Geography. Topography had hitherto not been considered. The prog¬ ress made in the study of geography at the close of the last century was very great, and much of what was then demanded by the greatest educators and reformers may still be demanded to-day. Kropatscheck sums up the vital principles of geographical instruction advocated one hundred years ago, as follows : “The one principle is unassailable, namely, that geography, among all the branches taught in school, is the one that needs sensuali- zation most, hence it is essential to train the pupils in self-seeing, in sense percep¬ tion. This can best be done by beginning the instruction with knowledge of home, as Schiitz in Halle does, proceeding from the city to the Saale country and gradually extending the outlook upon Germany and Europe. But the instruction must be articulated into several grades, for each of which a special book and special maps are required. However, tlm best maps will be useless if the student merely memo¬ rizes and fails to understand the map. The map must not be overcrowded with names, but should contain only that which is necessary matter for each grade. It must represent the various European countries on precisely the same scale. It would be very well if they contained no names at all, not even initials, which would lead to mere guessing. Every map must regularly be compared with the globe, so that the pupil may be trained in studying it from different points of view, in order to firmly impress upon his memory the positions of places, courses of rivers, and eleva¬ tions ; a comparison with the globe will also facilitate the estimation of distances. If he has thus become familiar with the map picture, he should draw the outlines of the country into a network of meridians and parallels. This free-hand drawing of the countries should be aided by the now well-known devices of applying geometrical figures. In the literature of the period we find very pronounced warnings against overdoing the map drawing, for it would easily degenerate into a mere pastime and would lead to false representations, since no scholar’s drawing would be as correct as the drawing of the printed map.” Among the men who worked assiduously in the line Gatterer had pointed out, Herder may be mentioned. He had been inspired by Kant, and wrote an admir¬ able address on 11 The pleasure, utility, and necessity of geography.” Herder in this 282 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. oration advocated the placing of physical geography in the beginning of all geograph¬ ical instruction ; also ho emphasized the importance of geography for the other sciences, especially history, saying: “How does it aid a youth if he merely knows what has happened and can not locate events? Only through the aid of geography will it become clear to him why certain people had to play a role upon the his¬ toric stage and could play no other; why the sciences, inventions, and arts — indeed the whole civilization — took the course it has taken and no other. Geography is the basis of history, and history is nothing but the geography of times and nations set in motion. He who studies the one without the other will understand neither, and he who despises both should live like the mole, not upon but in the earth. Hence, happy is ho whoso occupation with geography does not merely fill his memory, but forms his soul and ojiens his mind.” At another place Herder says : “ The Egyptian horse, the Arabian camel, the African lion, the American alligator, etc., are more noteworthy symbols and features of some countries than the changeable boundary lines which were drawn by a deceptive peace, and which the first war following may change again.” The greatest progress, however, was made in geographical science, as well as geo¬ graphical instruction, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, under the influence of Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Hitter. Humboldt, in the most monumental book of the century, his Cosmos, represented the entirety of terres¬ trial natural phenomena as a system of causes and effects based strictly on natural laws. In this he was successful as far as it was possible to be with the mass of geographical and physical knowledge accumulated uj> to the middle of our century. Humboldt prepared tho first presentation of vertical profiles and most excellent maps. He it was who introduced the study of comparative elevations; his mathe¬ matical and hypsometrical data enabled him to furnish the basis for a geography of plants; his map of Central Asia gave to the relief of a large continent an entirely new formation, one that is adhered to in the main to the present day; together with Leopold von Buck, he advanced a new theory of the formation of volcanoes; by means of his isotherms he, as it were, compelled nature to reveal the disturbing meteorological causes, and this ingenious invention acted not only as a light in the field of meteorology, but also helped to illustrate the working of natural forces. He has thus explained to us a largo number of facts of physical geography. Hitter, in building up geography as a science, profited by the enormous forward stride the natural sciences had taken through Humboldt. Even before the appear¬ ance of the Cosmos ho acknowledged clearly and distinctly the idea whose realiza¬ tion has made his name immortal. This was in 1804 in the preface to his first work on Europe. “ Geography must be delivered from the spiritless treatment of text¬ book writers, who heap up in a desolate chaos names and numbers ; from this deso¬ late heap of useless particles an organic lifelike whole must be develojmd which corresponds to reality; from tho tedious, because thoughtless, description of the earth must arise a knowledge of the earth, i. e., a science which investigates causal connections and enlivens intellect and imagination. Geography must virtually become a science.” “ 1 endeavored,” he said of his juvenile but very important first attempt, “to make geography pragmatic, if I may use that term. The earth and its inhabitants have an exact reciprocal effect upon each other; neither of the two can be represented faithfully in its relations without the other. The land influences the inhabitants and the inhabitants influence the land.” Humboldt and Ritter were true friends who were never envious of each other; they worked hand in hand during the forties and fifties in Berlin. They may be called the founders of modern scientific geography. Ritter published his investiga¬ tions chiefly in a large work entitled Geography in Its Relation to Nature and the History of Mankind. Alas, tho book was never finished. “If the earth,” said Ritter, “is not a mere lifeless, dead aggregate of inorganic nature, or as Herodotus expresses it, a disk made on a potter’s pallet, but a real and peculiarly organized natural body that constantly develops new forms, bearing new TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 283 germs of life for further development in the course of centuries and millenniums — then geography assumes the character of a unity through which, as its life principle, it becomes a whole and enables us to represent it systematically; not until then will geography become a formative science for the human mind, a necessary link in the system of sciences.” Among the men who promoted Ritter's ideas the following deserve mention : Berg- haus, Boon, Yogel, Daniel, Ivlocaen, Guthe, Piitz, Sydow, Obcrliinder, Delitsck, and others, but above all Peschel, Avhose erudition, art of representation, and rare skill in teaching exerted great influence upon the geographers of the present day. In our days geography, both as a science and as a branch of study in schools, receives the attention and promotion it so fully deserves. Noted men arc success¬ fully engaged in expressing the ideas of Ritter, and in securing for them an intro¬ duction into German elementary schools. These men are Wagner, Kirchoff. and Egli. Herbart's idea was specially influential in securing for geography an introduction into the courses of study of secondary and elementary schools, and in giving it a pedagogical value. He said : “ Geography is an associating science, and must make use of the opportunities of connecting many branches of knowledge that can not stand alone. Without geography all knowledge remains unstable, for historical events can not be fixed by positions and distances ; without it natural products are not traced to their origin, etc.” Geographical instruction, at the present time, can draw upon a great mass of interesting material. It is the task of the teacher to sift, arrange, and present it in accordance with the laws of pedagogy. The rational formation of geographical instruction in the sense in which Germans speak of “educative instruction” (that is, instruction placed in the service of the training of the will), is still an aim to be reached. Hummel and Matzat are doing a great deal in this direction (see Bibli¬ ography at the close of this chapter). Teachers and technical geographers in Ger¬ many have an organ in which they discuss questions of school geography. This organ is Seibert's Zeitschrift fur Schulgeographie, which periodical has secured for itself an honorable position in modern educational literature. GEOGRAPHY IN THE MODERN SCHOOL. [By Dr. Edvrin Zollinger, Basel, Switzerland, in Zeitschrift fnr Schulgeographie. ] If we consider the enormous progress the human mind has made daring the last decades in all domains of exertion, especially in that of technology, and if we see that everything tends toward accomplishing great things with small means, wc are unconsciously induced to review our own domain, that of education, and ask whether we have been keeping pace with the progress of the times and whether the greatest possible accomplishments are aimed at by means of the least possible exertion on the part of the pupil. The question can scarcely ho answered in the affirmative; the present time demands peremptorily a reform in education, and par¬ ticularly improvement in method. It would be altogether wrong to formulate by means of logical speculation a prin¬ ciple for all the branches of instruction, according to which the matter of instruction is to he offered to the juvenile mind. The contents of the different branches are different; hence the methods should be different. Only one general requirement can he made, and that is, that they all obey the laws of logical thought and judg¬ ment. Hence the attempt to establish a uniform system of instruction and method is to be rejected as something unscientific, as something resembling the scholasticism of the Middle Ages. In several branches of study the views have gradually cleared; for instance, sen- sualization and the use of experiments have become the leading principles in nature study. In geography, however, no such weP-defined method has been agreed upon, chiefly, I think, because this study has rarely assumed an independent position; it has always been coupled with some other bran elf — now with nature study, at other 284 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. times witli history. A natural consequence was that the treatment of these branches was transferred to that of geography, although, according to its character, it demanded a special method of its own. Approaching the question of what position geography should occupy in the organ¬ ism of school it seems advisable to first throw a glance upon the growth of geog¬ raphy as a science, for pedagogics and methodology would not he able to give us a competent reply. I. Antiquity and the Middle Ages produced no men who exclusively devoted them¬ selves to the science of the earth and attempted to develop it methodically. It is our nineteenth century which deserves the honor of having done this. As a repre¬ sentative of former centuries, Yarenius stands in lonely grandeur as a scientific geographer. In the year 1650 he published a remarkable book, which has recently received the honor of a modern translation; it was entitled Geographia Generalis. In contradistinction to the former cosmographs he did not consider small portions of the earth, but the earth as a whole. Two centuries passed before another remarkable book on the subject was written. It was done by Alexander von Hum¬ boldt in his Cosmos, after men like Torbern Bergmann, Johann Reinhold Forster, and Horace Benedict de Saussure had promoted physical geography considerably. In this grand work and in other writings, chiefly in his Views of Nature, which were magnificent pen pictures in noble language, Humboldt appeared as a promoter of science with an immense success. Ho became the founder of the geography of plants, the first investigator of the earth’s magnetism, and the chief promoter of the science of volcanic phenomena. The most important fact for us is that he has shown in examples of surpassing beauty and convincing strength the intimate relation of the various kingdoms of nature. Humboldt was not an academic teacher ; in his old age he went to hear lectures on geography delivered by Carl Ritter, the same man whom he had befriended with this science. While Humboldt spent his entire fortune in extensive journeys in the equatorial regions of the new continent, so that in late years he had to accept a pen¬ sion from the King of Prussia, Carl Ritter did not travel, but during his thirty-nine years of academic teaching disseminated his ideas and enlisted in their favor a large number of scholars and disciples. He was also very fruitful as an author. His later masterpiece was : Geography in its Relation to Nature and the History of Man, or a General Comparative Geography : A Secure Foundation for the Study and Instruction in the Physical and Historical Sciences. Second edition, Berlin, 1822-1859. The first volume treats of Africa; the following 18 volumes, each num¬ bering over 1,000 pages, are devoted to the continent of Asia without exhausting the subject. No one before Ritter had attempted to collect the entire knowledge of a continent and scientifically present the investigations and observations of others. At the close of the first volume Ritter offers a review upon Africa which is charac¬ teristic of his views. We see from this that he designates the continents as “the great individuals of the earth ” who resemble one another in special “family fea¬ tures.” The features of Africa consist in “the peculiarity of its coast line having no large indentations; * * * in the simplicity of the contrast between high and low land; * * * in the incomplete development of large systems of streams ; * * * in its position to the course of the sun, by which this continent is divided into two almost equal parts with regard to its climatic conditions; * * * in the insignifi¬ cant contrast of its general conditions, and the greater similarity and uniformity of the whole.” “In this earth individual, which, physically, is less developed than others, fewer natural impulses exist for the development of the consciousness of the human race; hence the history of the race shows little progress. The color of the skin, the physiognomy of the African are both less differentiated and less uniform. This fact is in harmony with the physiognomy of the continent, which shows few variations in its main forms and parts.” The cumbrous, compact form of Africa, Ritter thought, was reflected in the type of the negro, while on the other hand the ■ TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE, 285 elegant well-articulated formation of Europe was reflected in tlio symmetry of the Caucasian race and in its high intellectual development. This seems to be a kind of geographical science of predestination. This philosophic consideration, this attempt at connecting the nature of a country with its history, Carl Ritter calls “ Comparative geography.” He was still engaged in his large work when opposition was offered to his views by Julius Frbbel in an essay entitled: “Some remarks concerning the present condition of geography.” Frbbel said: “Comparative anatomic investigation searches for relations in the structures of a large number of individuals, and attempts to demonstrate similarity or dissimilarity, and derives from them general morphologic laws. If we introduce the idea of individuality into geography it would be the earth as a whole that would have to be called an individual, but never a country, as Ritter claims, however well defined it be by natural boundaries or its history, for both are accidental and chang¬ ing. * * * To compare geographically one country with another seems like com¬ paring anatomically an arm with a leg, which, of course, would be interesting enough. Laws, however, which have the same value for the science of the earth as for the science of the human body derived from a comparison with other animal bodies, could be obtained only through comparison of terrestrial nature with a nature of some other heavenly body, if this thing were possible.” Ritter, in an extensive letter to Berghaus, replied to this attack, but all he said amounted to a panegyric on his own method, which had caused a reform in science, and was either imitated by a number of learned men or worked out in specialties of various kinds. "What he said was not a refutation of Frbbel's view. Julius Frbbel soon emigrated to Switzerland and occupied himself after that more with politics than with science; hence the objection raised against Ritter was not further emphasized. Ritter received general recognition for his “ Comparative geog¬ raphy,” and all who had taken up geography from the historical point of view accepted his method as the only proper one. This caused a standstill of several decades in the methodical development of a science. According to Ritter’s dictum that the earth was only a stage for history, his school treated geography merely as a basis of history and thus degraded it to be history’s handmaid. But since it was acknowledged that knowledge in mathematical and physical geography was desir¬ able, these two branches were given over into the hands of the teachers of mathe¬ matics and natural sciences, and thus the unity of the science was broken up. Oscar Peschel deserves praise for having reestablished the connection of the various geographical sciences. Acknowledging the high merits of Carl Ritter, Peschel con¬ cludes “ that Ritter had never solved a problem of comparative geography. * * * He investigated the reflex action of the horizontal and vertical formation of dryland upon the course of human culture, a thing that has nothing in common with the procedure called e comparative geography’ * * *. The problem of the latter science consists rather in finding the similarities in nature as the map drawer repre¬ sents them to us.” In this Peschel saved the epithet “ comparative,” but he con¬ ceived the problem less extensively and profoundly than Ritter. Peschel prepared in his acceptation of the word “ comparison ” so-called geographical homologies — Africa, Australia, and South America — Borneo, Celebes, and Djilolo. Peschel’s works are written so that the general reader can understand them without special prepara¬ tion. Geography was thereby popularized, but not at all elevated scientifically. Peschel confirmed, as it were, the view that geography was a matter of self-evidence, a branch which every teacher could teach without special preparation. During the seventies an important change took place in the views of the leading scholars. A large number of universities established chairs for that branch of study. From the death of Carl Ritter, in 1859, till 1872 only three professors, B. G. Mendels¬ sohn, in Bonn, Fr. Symoni, in Vienna, and J. J. Egli, in Zurich, gave lectures on geography. From among the men who, after 1872, devoted their lives to the teach¬ ing of geography, F. v. Richthofen, Supan, Mart-lie, and Gerland may be mentioned. 286 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. They promoted and enriched the science by publications of great value, and especially fostered the teaching. From utterances of these men it is plain that the term “comparative geography ” is not strictly adhered to any longer, partly beeausc the deep philosophical concep¬ tion of Carl Ritter aims more at finding causality than at comparison; partly also, because the importance which Oscar Pescliel had given to the term “comparison” confines itself to a part of geographical investigations. Modern scientists have returned to the technical term “geography,” which is not understood to be knowl¬ edge of the earth, but knowledge of the surface of the earth. This defines its limits with regard to other sciences, notably geology. So, then, geography is to be considered as a science of the surface of the earth and the organic beings thereon as well as the formation and configuration of the land¬ scape. It is claimed that the school method should not only proceed to describe, but especially point out, reciprocal relations and dependencies of the various factors. The method in geography has, therefore, nothing to do with that of history, but it is that of the natural sciences. Indeed, it is in our latter clays called a natural science, and Gerlancl, in his attempt at building np the science to a complete unity, banished the human element — i. e., the history of man — entirely from the confines of geography. No one seems to have followed him to this extreme. On the contrary, man and his settlements are now considered as determining agencies that change the face of our plauet. Not only the civilized nations are drawn into the compass of observation, as in the case of history, but also savage people. Their dependence upon the soil is considered in a manner similar to that in which plant families are represented biologically. Meanwhile, some people desire to see geography occupy a position subordinate to that of history. They desire to represent it simply as the stage upon which historic events are played. This view necessitates an unequal treatment of the various con¬ tinents, because certain regions which have no historic interest must he neglected. Furthermore, such a geography is mainly au enumeration of names and dates; it docs not appeal to the intellect, hut chiefly to the memory, and is therefore to be rejected. On the other hand, the philosophic view, according to Ritter, makes too great demands upon the intellect and capacity of pupils, and lienee must be rejected also. There is, therefore, nothing left hut the third view, which considers geography as a natural science. It will not be difficult to support tbo demands which at the present day are made upon the instruction and the teacher of geography. II. Teaching is not a trade. The teacher should not only know and understand what he is to present to the pupil, but the interests of freedom and independence in the mode of treatment demand that the extent of his knowledge and skill be vastly greater. The higher his aims are, the deeper will he have penetrated into the fun¬ damental sciences of his braneh. A teacher who, in a middle grade for instance, teaches the elements of mineralogy must he expected to have a clear idea of the inner structure and chemical combinations of those natural bodies which he has to describe and explain. Of a teacher who has to teach geology, even though it he in the most elementary form, we presuppose, as a matter of course, that he has studied mineralogy. The simple result of this argument is that the geographer must have studied geology, for the forms of the earth’s surface and the constant changes going on on it are consequences of the combinations of matter and can be understood or explained only if the geological formation he understood. AThat structural difference, for instance, exists between the steep-pointed horns of the high Alps and the compact, terrace-like knolls of the lower ranges at the foot of the Alps ? It is explained hv the fact that the peaks consist of homogeneous crys¬ talline rock, while the foothills are built up of sedimeut deposited in layers by faie action of water. How different is the landscape around the lakes in northern Italy and those in the phlegrliic fields ! The former have a foundation of erratic material. TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 287 which has round forms enveloped in luxuriant vegetation; in the latter the founda¬ tions are volcanic productions, which were accumulated or heaped up in regular, almost mathematical, forms. Can there ho a greater contrast than between the Vierwaldstadter Lake and the lakes in the Albanian Mountains ? Tho former lies in a system of valleys crossing one another, the latter in the craters of extinct volcanoes. In describing the flora and fauna of the earth tho teacher must be able to enumer¬ ate and describe tho various plant and animal families. Ho would give himself a testimonial of poverty if he were to use names with which he can connect no ideas; hcnco ho must have studied botany and zoology at least in their elementary form. In the treatment of antliropographic conditions he need not necessarily be an histo¬ rian, for ho deals not with questions of the past but with those of the present. Hence it is of great advantage to him to be acquainted with physical anthropology. Instruction in geography, then, presupposes knowledge in geology, botany, zoology, and mineralogy. We rarely find a historian who understands all these branches, because his inclinations and studies have led him into a different direction. If, therefore, geography can not be represented by a special teacher, it would bo best to put it into the hands of the teacher of natural science. Such a combination will elevate this branch not only materially, hut also formally ; for in this case the purely narrative method of the historian is not applied, hut the developing method of the inductive sciences ; geographical facts are not offered to the memory as mere names, but as concepts, and things are brought together which are in causal connection, not; in a purely accidental, such as battles and mountains or heroes and islands. When Vesuvius is mentioned, it is not only stated that it hurled Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stahhe, but by the aid of a schematic profile the formation of the mountain and its activity will be explained. If, perchance, pieces of lava, bombs, and lapilli are shown to the pupil the entire knowledge will form a correct and indelible image in the mind, better than can he done by reading long descriptions. The terrace landsear>es of northern China and the pampas of La Plata owe their peculiarity to the soil, the “loess,” a specimen of which material, if picked up near Basel, near Aarau, or in the valley of the Rhine, can demonstrate the peculiarities of that soil and induce far-reaching geographical conclusions. In studying the glaciers the teachers should not neglect to exhibit a small piece of rock, polished or scratched by the movement of a glacier, taken from an accumulation of rocks brought down by a glacier. If this specimen be found in the neighborhood of the school — that is, in a place situated at a great distance from the present glacier — the pupil will conclude that glaciers must in prehistoric times have had a much larger extension than now. His mind will, by arriving at such a conclusion, not only gain an impres¬ sive fact, hut grow in capacity. The various coast lines and their formation, such as the Giant’s Causeway, in Ireland, the sandy coast of northern German}’, the Mangrove uoast of Venezuela, and others,, should he shown in pictures which may he used profitably to teach the pupils something of the dangerous life of the coast population. If there is any part of geographical instruction that profits by tho mode of treat¬ ment applied in natural sciences, it is map drawing. Of the numberless methods advanced, in order to acquaint tbe pupil with geographical data by means of a draw¬ ing, not one has gained general approbation, because none of them treat nature correctly. All do violence to nature in attempting to force it to conform to a pattern. Geometrical figures and lines are used within which or around which the coast line is drawn ; in fact, the map picture becomes a mathematical problem. Those who advocate this procedure forget that the configuration of continents is not made on geometrical lines; that the surface of the earth is the result of innumerable forces and is constantly changing. The earth’s surface lias neither straight lines nor plane figures, simply because the earth is a sphere. The study of any continent should begin by pointing out the errors in cartographic representation. Notably : Africa, from north to south, measures one-fifth of the 288 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. earth’s circumference; the Pacific Ocean, in equatorial direction, measures one-third. These facts can he expressed on the plane only by diminishing the dimensions near the margin. When the various modes of projection are treated (for instance, Mer¬ cator’s) the distortion of a continent becomes obvious in the comparison of various projections. Hence it is a useless, because senseless, demand to require of a pupil that he should remember the exact configuration of a continent so that he may draw it from memory; senseless, I call it, because there is no faultless model. In a Greek ornament the different parts fit together according to given measurements, but not in a geographical map. In the latter there is no right or left, or top or bottom side, as in any other drawing, but merely the position within the network of meridians and parallels. If there is anything to be remembered it should be longitude and latitude of certain points, especially the latitude, because on that is dependent the temperature and climate. I state again that the map is only a symbol of the earth’s surface, and it is this surface that is to be described, not the map. It is best to do this in the manner in which any other natural body is described. In teaching botany a plant is not drawn in its entirety, but only certain parts which are to be brought to the attention of the pupil, either because they can not be observed easily, or because they are of particu¬ lar interest for the comprehension of plant life. In similar manner a complete image of the country is to be drawn on the board in a step-by-step procedure. I have found it to be useless to draw that which the map represents correctly; but all indistinct points and facts must be brought out, as well as those that are of special impor¬ tance; all these must be drawn. To give an instance: How laborious it would be to draw the whole of Italy on the blackboard ! How simple, on the other hand, if in one lesson the valley of the river Po be drawn; in a following lesson the region around Rome, with the Albanian Mountains; then the Gulf of Naples, and in a sub¬ sequent lesson Sicily, with the various neighboring volcanic islands. These details can easily bo brought into close organic connection with the aid of the map. The third dimension of space especially must be brought to the comprehension of the pupil by special sketches. A practiced eye can easily see it, but to the pupil the flat-surfaced map does not convey a correct idea of the third dimension. Plence, not only the ground plan but also vertical cuts and profiles must be sketched. The lat¬ ter will, in the nature of the case, always exhibit exaggeration, but it is extraordi¬ narily instructive to give a profile, for instance, of Sicily in the latitude of Mount AEtna, or of South America in the. latitude of the Aconcagua, in proper relation of height and distance. Still better would it be if the sketch were drawn on a curved line showing the curve of the surface. It is astonishing to see how insignificant the vertical dimension is in comparison with the horizontal. In opposition to Peschel, who claims that during the geography lesson the pupil should be hurried from page to page in his atlas, I am disposed to say that that instruction is best in which the atlas is used least, and in which drawing and grad¬ ual development of the subject on the blackboard is resorted to. Like a text-book, the atlas has the chief object of affording opportunity for review at home. I should consider him a bungler who would during the lesson rely on the text-book or the atlas, and require his pupils to use their index finger on the map all the time. An independent teacher will instruct with the aid of a large wall map and the black¬ board, at least in higher grades ; text-book and atlas lie will leave to the pupil’s own use. Naturally the pupil should learn to read print, but also to read maps. The drawing referred to in the foregoing paragraphs will be specially adapted as an introduction to tbe comprehension of printed maps. It is readily admitted that drawing is an art which is not at the disposal of every¬ one; but everyone can acquire it to the extent in which it is here required. Of CDurse he must be conscious of what should be drawn, and sketches must be prepared at home just as orations are prepared in the solitude of one’s study. Note of the compiler. — For this kind of teaching the silhouette practice maps, invented in this country, are eminently practical. See p. 315. TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 289 MODERN' METHODS AND DEVICES. Prof. Jolm Goodison, of tlie State normal school of Ypsilanti, Midi., who died recently, published not long ago in the Popular Educator a series of articles on the subject: ‘^Recent developments of geographical teaching in Europe,” which con¬ tain a number of very valuable suggestions, and are an example of careful, thorough research. Upon request, Mrs. Goodison kindly placed these eight articles at the dis¬ posal of the compiler, who takes the liberty of inserting them in this chapter. I. Introductory. — In all well-ordered mercantile establishments there occurs at more or less frequent intervals an event known as taking stock. By its means, in combination with the usually attendant trial balance, the prudent merchant learns his business whereabouts — what items of stock have in the past proved saleable or otherwise, and hence what need retrenching, abandoning, or increasing. He dis¬ covers his business deficiencies, and < an determine in what directions he must employ his energies to secure further development and improvement. So excellent a custom would seem to deserve imitation in the teaching world. It would be a commendable and a valuable work to take at suitable intervals an account of our pedagogical stock in trade — to learn in what state as to profit or loss our balance sheet may stand — to inquire what of our past stock of methods and material is dead stock to be discarded, and what has proved of real value and in what direction w& are to look and labor for additions and improvements. It is the purpose of these articles to attempt such a stock taking in regard to th© subject of teaching geography, and, more especially, to give an account of the work done in this direction in Europe during the last decade. It is probable that not many people know what was the state of geographical teaching in our schools some twenty-five years ago. Its subject-matter was a dry, meaningless, unrelated mass of names and locations, pieced out here and there with vague statements about products, etc., with some scraps of history thrown in with the charitable purpose of making the geography lesson interesting — a common expression at the time. The method was mainly pointing out and naming bays, capes, mountains, cities, etc., upon an outline map — itself a particolored affair, guiltless, save for a little mountain shading, of any attempt to express physical features. I can well remember a geography recitation to which I listened when visiting the- Michigan State normal school as an intending student. Upon the wall in front of the class hung a large outline map — Pelton’s — upon which the mountains were drawn as single peaks arranged in a continuous line. Each member of the class in turn advancing to the map pointed out and named five places. I much admired, the readiness and certainty with which one young man recited — an admiration which ceased, however, when I learned his method. These outline maps had num¬ bers attached to the various features they contained and corresponding to the names given in a key. The pupil was supposed to study the lesson for the day in his atlas,, aided by a manual of 11 Local geography.” But my friend was the happy possessor of a “key” and merely memorized the names with their corresponding numbers,, never troubling himself to look out anything in his atlas. At recitation he merely looked for the numbers with which he had associated the names. I think perhaps he knew as much about geography as the rest of the class, for their knowledge was merely of the map and not of the things represented on the map — a so-called “Local geography.” But of the great physical facts of the earth’s structure, of the relation of contour and reliefs to hydrography, to climate, to organic life, and to man’s social and historical development nothing whatever was learned. The first effort to remedy this state of things was made by Cornelius S. Cartee, principal of the Harvard school, Charlestown, Mass. His physical geography and the accompanying atlas were models in every respect. The time, however, had not yet come for a new departure, and the excellent work had but little circulation. The harvest was reaped later by Colton, Fitch, Warren, and others, whose “Physical geographies” were a sign that teachers were awakening to a consciousness that the study of geog¬ raphy was more than a matter of names and locations. Great, however, as was the advance indicated by the appearance of these works, they still, to a large extent, represented the prevalent idea that in the lower grades the teacher’s work should be restricted to local geography. Physical geography was regarded as a high- school study. A conception of the unity of the subject had not yet been reached,, and these works consisted mainly of brief separate treatises upon the sciences which geography must necessarily call to her aid. The earth was almost lost sight of in the mass of details drawn from many sciences, but of the “Erdkunde” of Ritter and Humboldt there seemed to be no conception. Most of these books closed with a “Physical geography of the United States,” and it is somewhat surprising that not one of the skillful writers followed out this idea, giving a physical geography of the oceans and continents on the same lines. ED 93 - 19 290 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Tlic realization of this idea — the presentation to tho teaching world of the concept of geography as one science dealing with the earth as its subject-matter and recogniz¬ ing a casual relation between all classes of geographical facts — was to come from another hand. Arnold Guyot, trained in the school of Ritter and Humboldt, brought to us the results of the European in favor of better geographical teaching. Previous to the advent of Carl Ritter, geography had occupied but a subordinate place in the schools. It was regarded as the handmaid -of history and other sciences — merely a convenient register of the locations of places and an aid to readily iinding them when wanted. In 1801 Carl Ritter, who had been educated at Salzmann’s Institute, in Schnepfenthal, and later had spent some time with Pestalozzi, published the lirst volume of his Europa. In the preface he says: “My first aim is to gi\e the reader a vivid picture of the entire land, of its products of nature and art, of the world of man and of nature, and to so present this as a connected whole that the most important results concerning nature and man will develop themselves through reciprocal com¬ parison. * * * The earth and its inhabitants stand in the closest interconnect ion, and one can not be presented in all its relations without the other. Hence history and geography must ever remain inseparable companions. The land works upon the people, the people upon the land. ’ In 1801-1808 ho issued from the press of the Schnepfenthal Institute his Sechs Kartell von Europa, with explanatory text. I am the fortunate possessor of a copy of the second edition (1820), discovered by accident in a box of old maps, etc., in Siemon & Bros.’ bookstore, Fort Wayne, Ind. Of the six mails, the first presents the distribution of cultivated plants in Europe ; the second, the distribution of forest trees, shrubs, etc. ; the third, of wild and domestic animals ; the fourth, the chief mountain chains of Europe ; the fifth is a profile representing the leading elevations, with regions of vegetation, etc., compared with the equatorial Cordillera; the sixth shows the density of population, distribution of various races, etc. An extra map, as frontispiece, is an attempt to delineate Europe as a bas-relief. In 1829 Denaix published an edition of this work at Paris under the title Atlas Physique de PEurope. It will be observed that this epoch-making book laid down the lines upon which most work of the kind has since been done. In July, 1806, Ritter published in Guts-Mirths’ Zeitschrift fur Piidagogik an essay of 20 pages, “ Einige Bemerkungen iiber den metkodiseken Unterricht in der Geographic.” In this essay Ritter des< ribes the aim of geography to be “to make man acquainted with the scene of his labors in special and in general; hence it is a description not merely of the earth itself, but of the earth in relation to man. It is the bond of union between the world of nature and the word of man, inseparable from each, since it is tho funda¬ mental. necessary condition for the characterization of both.” After enumerating the different classes of facts that constitute geography, he says: “The natural method is that which knows how to unite these different objects to a whole, which also, in harmony with the nature of tho object, passes from the special to the general. It is that method which makes the child in the first place at home amid the realities that surround him and teaches him to see in the place of his abode.” Trained in this school, founded by Ritter and developed by Berghaus, Schouw, von Rougemont, von Roon, Ludde, and others, Guyot gave us, first in his Earth and Man and later in his geographies and wall maps, the results of the labors of European geographers joined to those of his own original and active mind. His wall maps and tho maps of his text-books were (with the exception previously noted) the first to represent the earth's surface as it is. To-day the wall maps are unex¬ celled as a foundation for class instruction and the practice of map reading. Guyot's works were, in fact, the outcome of just such a stocktaking of progress in geograph¬ ical method antecedent to their days as the present series of papers propose to attempt for a later period. It will be obvious that naturally the topics to bo treated would fall under two divisions — such as relate to the subject-matter of geography as school science and such as relate to methods of teaching in the narrower sense. But it is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between such closely allied topics, and the discussion of one will often lead to incursions into the domain of the other. The chief subjects presented will be: Home geography (Heimatkunde), use of the wall map, map read¬ ing, representation (map drawing, reliefs, etc.), distribution of topics into courses, commercial geography, anthropography, means of illustration, onomatology, geo¬ graphical museums, geographical chairs in universities. II. Home geography ( Heimatlcunde ). — That the study of geography should begin with the jmpil’s home is an educational commonplace oftener assented to than acted upon. In Germany, Austria, and Switzerland home geography leceives a large share of tho attention of teachers, and the essays, pamphlets, and books discussing its methods and details would form a small library. Ritter laid the foundations of home geography when, as quoted in the preceding paper, he said: “The natural method is that * . * * which makes the child in the first place at home amid the realiti s that surround his al o e.” The first efforts to carry out the idea were prob¬ ably made in Pestalozzi’s school at Yverdun. J. AY. Henning, one of Pestalozzi’s assistants, in his liber die Methode beim geographischen Unterrichte, Iferten, 1812, . TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 291 a work in which he probably had the assistance of Ritter, lays down four courses of geographical instruction. He describes the first or elementary course as “a complete knowledge of the neighborhood,” in which the pupil should lay the foundations for his future study of physical, political, and mathematical geography, and prescribes excursions in field and forest as the method of teaching. Later writers, as Wilhelmi in his Ideen ueber Geographic, Lohse in his Der metliodische Unterriclit in der Geo¬ graphic, Ziemann in his Der geographische Unterricht, and others, further developed the subject. But as the scientific concept of geography Avas then in its infancy, this earlier Avork in home geography naturally took a purely topographical direction, and after a feAv lessons on cardinal points, etc., proceeded at once to study the neighborhood as a political division. The book that first worked out a course of homo geography in harmony with the modern idea of geography was F. A. Finger’s Amweisung zum Unterricht© in der Heimatskunde. First published in 1844, it appeared in a sixth edition in 1887. For Finger home geography is a preparation for the study of the earth. The “home” is the region that av'c can see, travel over on foot ; the mountains, woods, and brooks that sur¬ round ns ; the clouds, sun, and stars of the heaA^ens above us. “ We do not make politi¬ cal divisions our limit ; * * * that would be an unnatural restriction.” Finger bases his lessons on Weinheim, which is in Baden, but on the border looking into the beautiful Birkenau Valley, which is Hessian. “ If the pupils point out to me the lovely beech forest northeast fr m Wagenberge, shall I say, ‘Stop, children; that is Hes¬ sian’?” In ansAver to the question, What features of the home shall be studied? Finger replies that home geography is a preparation for the study of geography proper, and should consider such topics as Avill reappear in that study. “What does geography teach? Geography makes the pupils acquainted Avith the earth; it teaches its size and form; its motions on its own axis and around the sun; * * * it teaches the distribution of land andAvater; it shows the separation into conti¬ nents and oceans; it considers the pooition, size, boundaries, surface, climate, pro¬ ductions, inhabitants, etc., of each land. * * * As aids, geography uses globes and maps, representations of things, not the things themseHes; it also draws maps.” All these topics have, as Finger shows, their type in the home. The following par¬ tial synopsis of the lessons in his “First step” for children between the ages of 6 and 8 Avill show how he works out this principle: Schoolroom; things in the schoolroom; before, behind, right, left, above, below; first exercise in drawing (plan of schoolroom, of room at home) ; the sun and moon; rain, hail, thunder, lightning; garden; sunset; clouds; rainbow; shadows; school- house; the sun moves to the right hand; the moon moATes to the right hand; south; Avest; east; north; spring; southeast; stars, snow, ice, short days, winter; occupa¬ tions of men, etc. The second step reviews and expands these topics, adding new ones, such as rain¬ bow, aurora, seasons, storms, and extends the map drawing beyond the school limits into the town. Finger points out that as soon as home geography has accomplished its end of laying the foundation for later study of geography and training to the use of maps, etc., its usefulness ceases. Its ATalue lies in the fact that its subject-matter can be directly observed, described, and represented by the pupils. Any attempt to extend the course beyond what the pupil can see is a ATiolation of the principles upon which home geography depends. Hence Finger protests against passing from the home to county, county to state (or their German equivalents), state to native land, and so on to the earth. “When home geography is completed, and before studying single countries, we pass to the earth as a whole.” This view of Finger’s was shared by Henning, Avho declares it to be absurd, almost impossible, and at variance with the order of development of the human mind and the nature of geography, “to lead the child from his birthplace as center in continually widening circles to a conscious¬ ness and building up of the idea of the earth.” Finger’s Anweisung has a worthy companion in Matzat’s Metliodik des geographi- sclien L nterrichts, published in 1885. This work covers the entire field of geograph¬ ical teaching, and I shall have occasion to speak of it fully hereafter. It comprises two parts, an analytic and a synthetic. The analytic section lays doAvn the princi¬ ples of geographical method and consists of an empirical and a theoretical part. It will be readily seen that Matzat has a philosophical head. He belongs to the school of Herbart and Ziller, and though the first part of his book is by no means easy reading, it will repay any effort it may cost. In the synthetic division he marks out a complete geographical course, giving the lessons for each day of the year. The first thirty-eight lessons are green to home geography. Matzat makes a (to my mind) well-grounded distinction betAveen home knowledge and geographical home knowl¬ edge (Heimatkunde und geographische Heimatkunde). His order of lesson is as follows : Heaven and earth; horizon; vertical and horizontal; plan of schoolroom, 1 : 100 (metric measures) ; cardinal points ; plan of school building and neighborhood, 1 : 1000 (metric measures); reduction of this plan to 1:10,000; measuring angles; plan of 292 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. school grounds, 1:10,000 (pace measures) ; elevations; profile of the school grounds, 1 : 10,000 ; representation of relief on the principle the steeper the darker the shading ; reduction of plan to 1:100,000; map of neighborhood of school grounds, 1:1,000,000; relief model of neighborhood of school grounds; first wall map of neighborhood of school grounds; relief expressed by shading as above; movement of the sun from beginning of May to end of September; second wall map of neighborhood of school grounds, colored in flat tints, the higher the darker; profile through the neighbor¬ hood, 1 : 100,000. It will bo noticed that Matzat first develops the idea of the horizon as the visible limit of home geography, and then proceeds from the schoolhouse as center of horizon to study the neighborhood. This was the method of Dr. Friederich Kapp, as developed in his Zeichnende Erdkunde (Minden, 1837); the present writer has employed it for many years and finds it more satisfactory than any other. Matzat differs from Finger in following home geography by a study of the native country, combined with lessons on the constellations, further movements of the sun, etc.; then Germany, Europe, the earth as a sphere, the continents and the oceans, with lessons on equinox, solstice, day, hour, year, calendar, moon, pole, meridian, etc. This is partly due to the fact that in the school of which Matzat is principal the course in geography runs parallel with a course in history, the latter commencing with Germany. E. Gopfert (Ueber den Unterricht in der Heimatskunde) proposes three successive courses in home geography : The first has for its object to obtain a geographical pic¬ ture of the home as to position, size, relief, etc. ; the second employs itself in com¬ paring and grouping the facts already acquired; the third consists in a systematic study of the home in all its geographical features. Each of these courses would in turn form the introduction to a corresponding course in geography proper. In each the passage would be from the home directly to the earth as a whole. In the words of Gopfert, “ With the ending of the course in home geography we step beyond the limits of sense apprehension and resort to representations, and among these the globe is undoubtedly the easiest to understand.” I have tried, in discussing the three works named above, to give some idea of the importance attached by European teachers of geography to home geography as a foundation for systematic geography and to indicate the general character of the work. As was remarked in the beginning, the literature of this subject would form a library in itself. The views set forth by advocates of the study of home geography may be summarized as follows: 1. In the terrestrial and celestial phenomena of the home region, types and analo¬ gies are to be sought for all the concepts that will be met with in advanced geo¬ graphical study. 2. Hence the limits of home geography are determined by these prospective requirements of future work. As these include the relations of the earth to the sun, etc. (mathematical geography, so called), form, relief, hydrography, and other features of physical structure, organic life, man, etc., all these must find their beginnings and fundamental concepts in home geography. 3. The study of the geographical aspects of the home is obviously primarily a study of its physical features; hence to proceed by political divisions, township, county, etc., is to violate the fundamental idea of home geography. 4. A leading purpose of home geography is lo train the pupil to map reading by establishing a relation between geographical elements and their representation. o. Each grade of geographical teaching (primary, grammar, high-school) should have its preparatory course in home geography. 6. Home geography once completed, the next step is to the globe as a representa¬ tion of the earth. When the limits of the pupil’s field of observation is reached, the work of home geography is completed. 7. The order of teaching may be stated as follows : First, the pupil is led to observe the geographical fact. Second, he is led to describe it. Third, he is taught to rep¬ resent it. This order is true of all geographical work, and is not restricted to home geography. Note. — German spelling varies between “Heimatskunde” and 11 Heimatkunde ” — the latter is the more modern form, but in quoting titles I have always used the author’s spelling. Strictly speaking, “ Heimatkunde” means home knowledge, but is interpreted by the majority to mean home geography. Some writers, however, give it the broader signification, and include all the facts of the home in their les¬ sons. Hence the distinction quoted above from Matzat between a general home knowledge, including all facts of the home, zoological, botanical, historical, etc., and a geographical home knowledge forming a special preparation for future geo¬ graphical work. In this case general home knowledge would be the work of the first and second school years. Geographical home knowledge would commence in the third school year. The question whether work in home geography should begin TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 293- in the first or in the third school year, often quite sharply discussed, is really a question of the meaning attached to the word. III. The ivall map as ihe foundation of geographical teaching. — The pupil, having completed his course in home geography, is assumed to have acquired the power to read maps. Hence the success of his after course depends mainly upon the thorough¬ ness of this elementary work. He has passed beyond the limits of direct personal observation and must henceforth depend upon the observations of others, recorded in maps and books, to increase his stock of knowledge. Since all classes of geographi¬ cal facts can bo represented on maps, and since one map may record the results reached by many explorers and investigators, it follows that the study of the map must occupy a chief place in geographical teaching. This is a point repeatedly insisted upon by German and Swiss writers upon methods in geography. Expres¬ sions such as the following are of frequent occurrence : “The map, the truest representation of the earth’s surface, in which explorers have recorded their experiences, is the chief means of geographical instruction.' ” “We must sec to it that the pupil gives his interpretation to the cartographic signs ; that he reads into and out of the map the correct geographical relations. Map reading is the foundation of geographical instruction in the second grade of work. It was prepared for in the first grade (home geography) ; hero it will be broadened and deepened.” An excellent little manual (Ptaschnik's Leitfaden beim Lesen der geografischen Karten) recognizes this idea in its title, and Geister’s Atlas fiir die Heimatskunde der Schweiz is an example of its complete realization. In its twelve maps the pupils of the Swiss schools can read an answer to any question respecting their native land. Good instruction in geography from this point of view will not consist in looking up answers to “map questions” — in memorizing a mass of descriptive text, in point¬ ing out places upon a so-called “outline map” — but in a well-ordered reading from the map under the teacher’s guidance, and in after work in fixing and defining the knowledge thus obtained. Such a course implies the use of two kinds of maps — the Avail map, from which, with the teacher’s help, the pupil reads the main points of his lesson; the hand maxi of his atlas or geography, in which he reviews and makes his own the ideas presented in the lesson. It further implies the division of the lesson hour intotAvo parts — the first half devoted to a reproduction of the lesson of the preceding day, the second half to teaching a new lesson. These lessons are not assigned; they are taught; and the pupil carries away from the classroom an imperishable geograxiliical picture of the region studied — a picture which he has himself read from the map, and to enlarge and complete which he needs only more complete maps. The wall map, then, is the foundation of geographical teaching, the hand map its adjunct. The class work is centered upon the wall map, the pupil’s individual work upon the hand map. In the paper on home geography it was stated that there arc three steps in each lesson in geography — observation, description, and representation — and that this order of teaching is not confined to the work in home geography, but applies to every grade. It will bo readily seen that the wall map takes the place of the home as a field of observation ; that in both cases the pupil describes what he has observed and in like manner represents it. Of this last in connection with reading from the. wall map I shall have something to say in a future article, and will at present attend exclu¬ sively to the Avork of obserAung and describing. This will be best understood from an actual example, which, howeA er, will mainly show the results rather than the process of map reading. Intelligent teachers will readily understand that nothing is to be told the pupil which he can see for himself, and that, while at first he may be assisted in the verbal expression of the results, he must be gradually trained to self- dependence in this matter. Let us suppose that the lesson is the relief map of continental Europe. In some previous lesson the pupil has read from the wall map the triangular form of the con¬ tinental mass of Europe and has noted its Avest, east, south Avest, and southeast angles. It is to. the relief of this continental triangle that his attention is now directed. Something like the following Avill be the result — it being assumed that the pupil understands the way in which highlands, lowlands, etc., are represented on the map: Teacher. Look at the map and tell me in what part of continental Europe you find the lowland represented, in what part the-hiahland. Pupil. The lowland is in the northeast. The highland is in the southwest. T. Look at the map again and tell me if it is all lowland in the northeast. P. Some small highlands are represented there. T. Is the southwest all highlands"? P. There are some small lowlands in different parts of the highlands. T. State what you haA-e learned from the map. P . Northeast continental Europe is mostly loAvland. Southeast continental Europe is mostly highland. -294 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. T. In what direction must I draw a line to separate the lowland from the highland? P. Prom northwest to southeast - T. Someone may point to the northwest part of the highland. What river lias its mouth just above it? P. The Rhine. T. Someone may point to the southeast part of the highland. What river’s mouth just above it? P. The Danube. T. Between what points, then, may my line dividing the lowland from the highland extend? P. From the mouth of the Rhine River southeast to the mouth of the Danube River. T. This line is called the mountain diagonal of Europe. You may state how the lowland part of continental Europe is divided from the highland part. P. Lowland continental Europe is separated from highland continental Europe by the mountain diagonal, a line drawn from the mouth of the Rhine River to the mouth of the Danube River. Northeast of this line the surface is mostly lowland; southwest mostly highland. T. We will now attend to the highland part of continental Europe. In what direction must I draw a line from the northwest end of the mountain diagonal to clear the highland on its west side? P. Southwest. T. In what direction to reach the southeast end of the mountain diagonal? P. East. T. What, then, is the form of highland continental Europe? What are its bound¬ ing lines? P. Highland continental Europe has the form of a triangle, its bounding lines being the mountain diagonal on the northeast side, a line drawn southwest from the Rhine River mouth on the northwest side, and a line drawn east to the Danube River mouth on the south side. T. Look at tho map and tell me which part of the highland is the highest. P- The south. T. Of what does this highest part consist? P. Mountain chains. T. What name do you give to several mountain chains extending in one general direction? P. A mountain system. T. This mountain system is called the Alps. You may state what you have learned about the south part of the highland. P. The highest part of the highland of continental Europe is in tho south. It consists of many mountain chains forming the mountain system of the Alps. T. Look at the map and tell me how you see the rest of the highland represented. P. Broad spaces bounded by mountain chains. T. These broad spaces are plateaus and elevated river basins. How do they com¬ pare with the Alps as to height ? P. They are lower. T.‘ In what direction do they lie from the Alps? P. West, north, and east. T. You told me that there were several small lowlands in different parts of the highland. See if there are any of these between the Alps and the plateaus and river basins and to what rivers they belong. P. There is one southwest of the Alps and another in the east. The southwest lowland belongs to the Rhine, the east lowland to the Danube. T. Look at the plateau region north of the central part of the Alps and see whether it is joined to or separated from them. P. It is joined to the Alps. T. This region of plateaus, elevated river basins, and mountains is called the middle mountain and plateau system of Europe. The word “ middle r’ has reference to its elevation, which is not so high as the Alps and not so low as some other moun¬ tains, etc., of continental Europe which lie outside this region. You may state what you have learned about this part of the highland. P. A region of plateaus, elevated river basins, and mountains lies west, north, and east of the Alps. It is called the middle mountain and plateau system of Europe. It is separated from the Alps in the west by the valley of the Rhone River, in the east by the valley of the Danube River, and is joined to the Alps in the center on their north side. This may suffice as an example of the method pursued. The next step would be a more detailed study first of the Alps and then of the plateau region — the amount TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 295 of detail and the method of presentation being governed by the grade of pupils instructed. A summary of the results of an exercise in reading the contour of Far¬ ther India, will furnish an example of more specialized Avork. It is taken from an article by Director Heiland, of the Weimar Seminary: “ Farther India has the form of a triangle; its base line is the Tropic of Cancer, between 90° and 110° cast longitude from Greenwich, or between the Ganges- Bralimaputra Delta and the meridian of Hainan Island. The vertex is Cape Buro in l£c north latitude, on the same meridian as Cape Tcheljnskin, the northernmost point of Asia. Base is to height as 3 to 4. Length from north to south is 23^° — 1£° X CO (geographical miles). Length of base is 110° — 90° X 55 (geographical miles). Direction of west coast is from northwest to southeast, interrupted by the Gulf of Martalan. It has three natural divisions: (1) from Bralimaputra-Ganges Delta to the Irrawa.ddi ; (2) to the angle of Malacca; (3) to Cape Buro. Direction of 1 and 3 west -northwest to south-southeast— of 2 north to south. Lengths equal.” The reader must bear in mind that each of these examples is taken from parts of a course that imply much pre\'ious Avork upon other countries and instruction in terminology, modes of representation upon the wall map, etc. Further, this work in reading and describing would be accompanied by corresponding work in repre¬ senting both by teacher and pupil— omitted here, since it Avill be fully treated in a special article. Such Avork implies good wall maps. Good wall maps are maps that represent the surface of a country as it is — its highlands and lowlands, plateaus, mountains, etc. Maps giving political divisions only, with a few indications of mountain chains but with no delineation of highlands and lowlands, are absolutely worthless for any intelligent work in geography. When the pupil Avas working in homo geography he suav before him a collection of natural features, ele\rations and depressions — plains, hills, and valleys. He first of all studied the physical features of his home and traced the political divisions Avithin the lines given by these physical features. Why, Avhen he comes to study the map as a means of acquiring geographical knowl¬ edge, should this be reversed? The writer pursues the course above described in his classes in the Michigan State normal school. EA^ery topic — climate, vegetation, commercial relations — is studied in the same way, the basis being the excellent wall maps of Professor Guyot, supple¬ mented by Yon Haardt's Karte der Alpen and similar aids. He ho])es at some future time to add to his tools the Avail relief maps now used in some of the best European schools, of which more in a future article on relief work. He Avould not Avillingly adopt any other method of teaching geography than the method of map reading from the wall map. I can not close this article better than in the words of Director Hei¬ land, Avhose lesson. on Farther India Avas quoted aboA'e: “The wall map is the foundation of the Avork. This place belongs to it as the rela- tively best means of geographical instruction. This corresponds to Avhat is the estab¬ lished method in instruction in home geography, in natural science, in drawing. Cer¬ tain fundamental geographical concepts can be formed only by a direct study of the map. The wall map should further form the foundation of this work because the self-activity of the pupil is thereby most surely promoted. Only when map reading forms the beginning and center of the study of country, and. when the pupil by the exercise of his own powers masters the material presented in the map, can this be reached. But it must not be forgotten that where previous instruction in homo geography lias not made the pupil skilled in understanding the symbols of a map and has not established a close and living relation between the representation and the object represented, geographical teaching plays on an instrument Avithout strings.” IV. Map reading. — One of the most prominent features in recent European discus¬ sions of geographical methods is an insistancc upon the importance of map reading as the foundation of all good work in teaching geography. This topic has already been touched upon in the papers on home geography and use of the Avail map, but its great importance will perhaps warrant a more detailed treatment. The principle of map reading is involved in Froehel’s statement that man develops himself by making the external internal and the internal external. The pupil in the study of home geography has made the characteristics of the external features of his neigh¬ borhood the basis for mental pictures of them, and has associated with these internal concepts the mode of representing them. Ho must now reArerse the process, must read into the Avail and the hand map these concepts, and by describing and repre¬ senting what he finds there delineated give them external presentation. “ Knowl¬ edge of the map,” says an anonymous Avriter in a German educational journal, “is the most important thing in geographical teaching. Hence systematic map reading- must be pursued from the \Tery beginning. * • * * The pupil should study the map intelligently and should translate its signs into the forms for which they stand, so that the map will, as it Avere, describe to him and paint for him vivid pictures of 296 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. the earth. The map is an unknown region of the earth in which the pupil makes discoveries. In spirit he takes ship and traverses the oceans; he lands and explores the continents; discovers the hays, peninsulas, islands; crosses plains and deserts; clirnhs the mountains, and penetrates their passes and valleys.77 So H. Funk, in his Ueber die Anscliaulichkeit des geograpliisclien Unterrichtes mit hesonderer Beriicksichtigung des Kartenlesens, says : “ The teacher must I ase his instruction upon the map. Whatever the pupil can find for himself hy attentive consideration of the map should not he told him.77 J. S. Gerster, in his Geographic der Gegeuwart, says: “Geographical instruction has especially to provide for devel¬ oping the self-activity of the pupil. This is accomplished byhliligent map reading on the pupil’s part. Let the teacher dispense with the text-book, rely wholly upon the map, and lead the pupil to discover the fundamental physical features of each country for himself. Such a course habituates the pupil to independent research and compels him always to think while studying the map.77 Prof. IT. Wagner, in his address before the second German Geographical Congress, declared that “ the intensive study of the map is the central point of all geographical teachings.77 E. II. Oberliinder, of the Grimma Teachers7 Seminary, in his Der geo- grapliisclie Unterricht nach den Gruudsatzen der Ritter’schen Seliule, writes : “ What the pupil can himself read from the map and what he can infer from a study of it the teacher should not tell him. He must rather by his questions lead the pupil to express his knowledge. Through analytical questions the teacher must guide the pupil to describe, upon the basis of the map, the horizontal and the vertical forms of a land, its hy drograjdiy and its topography. Through developing questions he should lead him to determine the climate, productions, etc., as a result of the natu¬ ral features.77 Matzat, in a passage too long for quotation, says in substance that the study of regions outside the home begins when thepupil has acquired the power to read maps. The process consists in the pupil’s studying the geographical objects on wall and hand map and framing his own descriptions of them. The description is at first guided by the teacher's questions, but as tlio pupil learns the what and the how of map reading ho must be required to work more and more independently. The verbal expression is a sign for the teacher that the jiupil has the geographical concept in his mind, a still further and more j>ositive proof being the power to rep¬ resent what has been observed and described. It has been ray aim in the foregoing quotations to indicate the lines upon which good work in map reading must proceed. An attempt will now be made to apply these ideas to a concrete example — North America, lfc is premised that a good wall mail hangs in view of the class, a map which by either drawing or coloring shows not only topography and hydrography but also the distribution of highlands and lowlands, and the altitude and character of mountains. Any map that does not do this has no place in the schoolroom. It may have its uses as a reference map for ascertaining the location of towns, boundaries, railroads, etc., but as a foundation for the study of geography it is not merely valueless — it is positively injurious. The pupils have before them the corresponding hand map of their atlases or geographies. These equally with the wall map should show the physical features. German and Swiss school children have an advantage over their American compeers in the fact that not only do good atlases published independently from text-books abound, but the maps composing them can be separately purchased ; hence, the best map for the purpose in view can always be used. Guyot’s may be cited as fulfilling the require¬ ments of a good wall map; Appleton’s and the Eclectic, among others, of good hand maps. Under the conditions stated let us proceed to read the map of North America. 1. Explanation of map. — What it represents. Origin of name America. Why North America ? (Refer to globe, which should bo present at every lesson, for answer to this question and the two following:) In which hemisphere, reckoned from the equator? In which from meridian of Ferro? 2. Projection lines. — In what direction do the parallels of latitude curve? How, then, must east and west bo determined? Find meridian of 97° west from Greenwich or 20° west from AVashington. In what direction does it extend? In what direction the meridian west of it? East of it? What rule must we observe in judging of directions north, south? What angle does the meridian of 97° west from Greenwich make with the parallels of latitude? Why are the parallels drawn in curved lines? 3. Position. — (a) Relative position. Position of home found on map of North America and on globe. Pupils mark this position with a small cross upon their hand maps. Find the most northern point of North America. How far from the home? Measure with scale of miles. How many degrees between the home and this point? Proceed similarly with south, west, and east points of North America. (&) Absolute position. — Latitude and longitude of north point of North America (Boothia Peninsula). What parallel runs south of it (70° N.)? What parallel north of it (80° N.)? Take the space between 70° N. and north point of Boothia with dividers or on a strip of paper and see how many times it is contained between TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 297 70° N. and 80° N. (about five times). Ilow many degrees, then, is north point of Boothia north of parallel of 70° N. ? (Two degrees.) What, then, is the latitude of the most northern point of North America? (72° N. Lat.) Proceed similarly with longitude. Repeat with south, Avest, and east points of North America. 4. Boundaries. — This needs no illustration. 5. Coast line. — Find the strait that joins the Arctic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. Name? Find the most easterly point of North America. Name? Direction of coast from Bering Strait to Bello Isle Strait? Length measured with scale of miles. Starting from Bering Strait what do wo first pass? (A bayO Name? (Kotzebue Sound.) What next? (A cape.) Name? (Lisburne.) Next? (A cape.) Name? (Barrow.) Next? (A river mouth, Colville ; another river mouth, Mackenzie.) A cape (Bathurst). A strait (Union). A bay (Coronation). A river mouth (Copper- mine), etc. Treat remaining coasts in same manner. 6. Bonn. — How many oceans bound North America? How long is its northeast coast? How wide at its most southern part? (Runs to a point.) What form, then, has North America? (Triangular.) This triangular form is sometimes called the stem or trunk of the continent; the peninsulas and islands the branches. What shape is the continental stem of North America? 7. Peninsulas. — Read from map in same order as coast. S. Islands. — What body of water lies north of North America and west of 97° W. from Greenwich ? (Melville Sound.) How many straits lead out of it ? Name them; first south, then west, north, east. AVhat is this sound surrounded by? (Islands.) How many ? Name them, beginning west of McClintock Channel and passing north¬ east and south. Other islands treated in a similar manner. If more islands are named than the teacher thinks it desirable to have learned, he will indicate upon the wait map those that he wishes to be remembered. 9. Dimensions. — Measure on map length of each side of triangular form. Compute area of triangle by known rule. Compare with area given in book. Whence the ditference (allowances made for projections and indentations)? Measure length of North America on 97° W. from Greenwich; on 87° W; on 107° W. ; from Bering Strait to Isthmus of Panama, from Strait of Belle Isle to Cape St. Lucas. Width on 50° N. ; on 70° N. ; on 40° N. ; on 30° N. ; on 10° N. ; from Cape Hatteras to San Francisco Bay; from Delaware Bay to Cape Mendocino; Strait of Belle Isle to Gulf of Georgia. How long would it take a train traveling 40 miles an hour to pass over each of these distances? 10. Belief. — Teacher explains that the green coloring indicates lowland — the lighter the color, the higher the land. Tho buff color indicates highland. White, the region of perpetual snow. (In recent German maps brown tints are used throughout — the darker, the higher. On tho whole this is to be preferred.) Meanings of terms “lowland” and “ highland.” What parts of North America show lowland? What parts highland? How many lowlands do you see? Names given as “lowland Mac¬ kenzie River,” “Hudson Bay lowland,” etc. How many highlands? Names given as “Arctic highland,” “ western highland,” “eastern highland.” What connects east¬ ern and western highland? (Highland north of St. Lawrence system.) Name given. What connects Laurentian heights with Arctic highland ? The distribution of high¬ lands and lowlands being studied, a special study is made of each. The eastern highland may serve as an example. Direction (southwest to northeast.) Position of southwest extremity ; of northeast. Of what composed? (Mountains in center, plateaus western, terraces eastern.) Name of the mountains. River valleys within tho system. Name rivers in longitudinal valleys. What transverse valleys? In the western highland attention would be called to the arrangement of the mountains on its west side, diverging to include the valleys of Sacramento and San Joaquin — uniting at Mount Shasta and again diverging. In the Rocky Mountain system the difference in character between its southern, central, and northern portions would be noted. So also the plateau region between the Rocky and Coast systems and the Great Plains east of the Rockies. Similarly the highlands of Central America and of Mexico would be noted as divisions of the western highland, to be more fully studied when those countries were taken up. It will be noted that the features of relief that belong together are studied together. Thus not all the mountains of North America first, and then all the valleys and next the plateaus, but rather first the distribution of highlands and lowlands, next each of these separately; but in each studying together features that belong together in nature. Thus in Asia, after trac- ingthe disposition of lowlands and highlands, wo might take up the special study of the great central highland. Its extent from the Mediterranean to tho Pacific would first be noted; its increase in width from west to east; tho contraction to the vicin¬ ity of 75° E. and 35° N., forming two divisions, eastern and western. Next we might take the eastern highland; study its extent east and west, north and south; its nearly triangular form ; note and describe the mountains of its northern, eastern, 298 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. and southern margins; the mountains crossing its interior and the divisions (as Soongaria, Thibet, etc.) thus originating. Then, if desirable (as would be the case say with the Himalaya Mountains), special study would bo made of each of these bordering mountains, divisions, etc. So again, if the topic were that part of the central European highland lying north of the Alps and between the Eliine and the March, first would be noted the exist¬ ence of three divisions meeting in the Eichtel Mountains— the Swiss-Bavarian pla¬ teau, the Franconian basin, and the Bohemian basin. Next each in turn would be studied as to position, form, boundary, mountains, rivers, etc. In brief, the objec-t in view is to develop in the pupil’s mind a picture of the coun¬ try studied that will never leave him, and a sense of the interdependence of related geographical features. How this observation and description of the contents of a map is to ho accompanied by representation of the things observed and described will be discussed in the next paper. For the present the statement that map drawing is a necessary accompani¬ ment of map reading must suffice. I will in closing call attention to the fact that the work so far is analytical — wo have merely determined the contents of the map. The next topic, hydrography, will furnish an opportunity for showing how develop¬ ing questions may bring out ideas of the relations existing between different classes of geographical phenomena. 11. Hydrography. — Our reading of the coast has made us acquainted with thej)osi- tion of the mouths of leading rivers; lienee, this will be our starting point for the study of hydrography. Questioning should be first directed to fixing the great drainage areas in the pupil's mind. AVhat rivers have their mouths between Bering Strait and Bello Isle Strait? Into what ocean do they discharge? Proceed in the same manner with remaining coasts. Into how many and what oceans do the rivers of North America flow ? We’will first study the rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean or into any of its bays, gulfs, etc. Find" the mouth of the Mackenzie Elver. Follow it till first tributary is reached. In what direction do we go? (Southeast.) Name of first tributary ? (Waters of Great Bear Lake from east, through river not named.) In what direction from this point? (Southeast.) Tributary? (Dease Eiver.) What body of water do we reach? (Great Slave Lake.) In Avhat direction now? (Nearly south.) Some pupils raise hands here and state that the river is no longer called tho Mackenzie, but the Slave Eiver. The Slave Eiver is traced in Athabasca Lake and the tributary, Peace Eiver, noted from Athabasca Lake, south and southwest to Mount Hooker, under name of Atha¬ basca Eiver. Pupils now describe the river from source to mouth. In tho same way two or three leading rivers should be read at each lesson, and the remaining rivers to be studied on the same plan indicated. Tho teacher thus reduces tlie amount to be learned within the limits he deems fit, no matter how much detail tho map studied may contain. Tho process described above fixes the location of drainage areas, and traces them back to tho relief of the land. The next step should connect relief with hydrog¬ raphy as a determining cause. Into what ocean do most of the rivers of Forth America discharge directly or through bays, gulfs, etc. ? (Atlantic.) On which side of North America is tho greatest elevation of its surface? (West.) In what direc¬ tion is, then, its largest slope? (To the Atlantic.) Why do most of its rivers flow into tho Atlantic? Similarly trace the influence of the western highland upon the drainage to the Pacific, of the Appalachian highland in directing tlie Mississippi drainage to the Gulf of Mexico, the St. Lawrenco to the northeast, and upon the formation of the Atlantic slope. Tlio pupils, being supposed to know tho distinction between upper, middle, and low course of rivers, should be questioned upon the relation of this feature to relief. Taking first the Atlantic slope, lead them to see that since the eastern part of the Appalachian highland consists in succession of mountains, terrace, and lowland, the three divisions are found fully developed in its rivers. Taking next the Mississippi, show that the larger part of its course being through a lowland tends to reduce the middle course in length. Again show the relation between longest slope and longest rivers; how the rivers of North America exceed in length and area drained those of the Old World as a consequence of the predominance of lowlands; how this length of course through lowland limits their fall and rate of current. Ask the pupils to deseriho a few of the rivers of northern North America east of the western high¬ land, and a few of southern North America. Then question them upon their differ¬ ences to show that down to and including the St. Lawrence they are outlets of chains of lakes, and below this mainly large streams with numerous branches. 12. Climate. — Pupils are supposed to know the distinction between continental and oceanic climates, and between tropfeal, subtropical, temperate, steppe, and desert climates. Between what two parallels of latitude does North America lie? What line crosses southern North America? Northern North America? Through how TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 299 runny zones does North America extend? Northern zone? Southern zone ? Central zone ? Compare as to temperature. Make plain to pupils that this is a division into so-called mathematical climate, and takes account mainly of tlio position of different parts of North America in regard to the direction of the sun's rays. This climate will be further modified by the relief of North America. In what direction does the highest line of elevation cross North America? -(From north to south.) In what direction the greatest lowland? (North to south.) In which half of North America is the greatest highland? In which the greatest lowland? Upon what part of tho map is the white placed, show¬ ing where snow remains during the year ? Which, then, is tho colder, tho great high¬ land or the great lowland? Which half of North America has the largest and most bays and gulfs ? Into which half does the ocean extend farthest ? What climate will the east half of North America have? (Oceanic. ) In a similar manner it should be shown how this results from the lower cast half lying open to moist winds from the Atlantic ; how the latitude of the lands north of the Gulf of Mexico, and their accessibility to moist winds from the Gulf, gives them a subtropical climate with summer rains. Nearly all the later geographies contain physical maps upon which the lino of northern limit of trees, etc., is drawn. This may be used to point the contrast in temperature between the east and west coasts. Similarly the continental character of the western half of North America east of the Pacific region should be inferred from the relation of the line of greatest eleva¬ tion to the moist winds of the Pacific. So also the subtropical climate of California, the steppe climate of the prairie region, etc. If the map gives the ocean currents these will aid in reading the climate. Again, a relation may he traced between the contrast of east and west in climate and the like contrast in hydrography — between the absence of east and west lines of elevation and the comparatively gradual change of climate from north to south. If the pupil has learned in the primary grade (as he should) some elementary facts about the climate of Europe, a few comparisons of latitude in North America and in Europe may be combined with this knowledge to point out the cooler character of the climate" of North America, which may then he traced to the wider extension of that continent toward the north, the absence of mar¬ ginal mountains to protect it from arctic winds, the course of the Gulf Stream, etc. 13. Vegetation. — A majority of our best geographies give upon their physical maps the line of limit of trees, etc., m the same manner as the best German maps, and indicate the localities of leading varieties of vegetation . When studying the vegeta¬ tion of the entire earth the grouping into zones and regions, as of palm and banana, needle-leaved evergreens, etc., has an advantage in giving broad general views. In the study of the grand divisions, however, the grouping by natural province brings vegetation into closer relation in relief, hydrography, and climate. Tho classifica¬ tion given by Professor Griesbach in his Vegetation dcr Erde is adopted by the leading German geographies and will form the basis of the present illustration. Calling attention to the line of northern limit of trees, question the pupils as to its direction and consequent difference of position on east and west coasts. They will easily he led to see that the region north of this line is treeless, and that it is appropriately named Arctic province. They will then read from their maps the characteristic vegetation of this province. Appropriate questioning will show the influence of the Rocky Mountains in carrying the tree line northward in the north¬ west, and of the deep inlets from the Arctic Ocean in correspondingly depressing it farther east. By commencing on the Pacific Coast and noting the enumeration of trees upon the map the limits of the North American forest province may he readily traced — its southern limit north of the steppe region of the Great Plain; its south¬ ward extension toward the Gulf cn the Atlantic side of North America ; the specific trees which characterize its western, eastern, and southeastern portions; the connec¬ tion between its position and relief, hydrography, and climate. So, also, the steppe province of the prairies, the subtropical Californian province so similar to the Mediterranean province in Europe, the Mexican, West Indian, etc. The limits of this paper preclude fuller detail, but teachers will readily see how the German idea of reading from the map and cf not telling the pupil anything that he can find out for himself is to be carried out It may be noted that the vegetation of a country and its vegetable products are different matters, and that as regards the vegetation of our own country valuable aid may he obtained from volume 9 of the census report, epitomized with a good map in Petermanms Mittheilungen, No. Till, 1886. 14. Animals — Should be treated similarly to vegetation, and may be grouped according to the climatic regions and provinces of vegetation. 15. Inhabitants. — In Gerster’s Atlas of Switzerland, described in an earlier paper, two maps, one showing the parts occupied by French, Germans, and Italians, and another showing the density of population, furnish a basis for an exercise in map reading under this topic and for tracing a relation between the facts delineated and the physical structure of the country. The ethnographical map of Europe, 300 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. found, in the best German school atlases,, enables the pupil to see how two lines, radiating from Trieste, will follow the lino of division between the three dominant European races — Romanic, Germanic, and Slavonic — to distinguish the Alps as a common meeting ground of the races and other similar facts. Our American geogra¬ phies do not furnish us this aid, and it is hence necessary to teach facts under this topic as matters of information, unless teachers, with the aid of the census reports, will prepare rough wall maps for this purpose. In a following paper on graphic work in geography an attempt will be made to show the German and Swiss method of training pupils to translate the statistics given under the topic “ Population” into visible speech on blank maps, thus reading the facts into instead of out of the map. Passing some other topics, such as products, industries, etc., with the statement that with suitable maps they would be best taught by map reading, I will close this paper with an illustration of map reading, applied to the study of the cities upon the Atl antic Slope of the United States. The lesson would be opened by questions reviewing the relief of the region and directing the pupil’s attention to its three divisions — mountains, terrace, and low¬ land. The teacher would then point to such of the cities along the east foot of the mountains as he wished learned, the pupils finding them on their hand maps, naming them, and if any are upon rivers, noting and naming the rivers. A similar course would be followed with the cities near the eastern margin of the terrace and with those upon the coast. The gradual approach of the mountains to the coast as the north is approached, and the consequent decrease in width of terrace and lowland would be noted. The facts being thus read from the map, the connection of this position of cities in three lines related to the three lines of relief would be brought out. Questions as to the probable mode of transporting goods in mountain and comparatively level country, respectively, would lead to change of transportation being assigned as a probable reason of the location of cities at the mountain foot. Questions as to the effect upon river currents of the passage over the edge of the terrace, the formation of water power, and the navigability by large craft carrying more goods to the streams below the terrace would point to some of the causes determining the location of the second line of cities, while the coast cities are obviously at the seat of change from land and river to ocean carriage. None of these relations would be told to the pupil; he must be led by the teacher’s questions to discover them for himself. It has not been my purpose to make a complete geographical study of North America, but to present such illustrations as would show clearly the spirit and method of the map reading so much insisted upon by European writers upon geo¬ graphical teaching. That it develops the self-activity of the pupil seems evident; equally plain is it that the method requires teaching rather than lesson setting and lesson hearing. Undoubtedly it requires hard work from both teacher and pupil; undoubtedly it will take more time than memorizing and repeating the words of a printed text. It is not, however, in the material world only that a constant relation exists between power applied and work accomplished. U. Graphic uorh. — In the summary of work in home geography it is stated that in all geographical work there are three steps — observation, description, representation. I have ventured to include under the term “ graphic work” a variety of processes which, while differing considerably among themselves, have the carrying out of the third step — representation — as their common aim. To use a much-abused term, map reading may be described as a process of analysis. The pupil sees the map as a whole, and step by step analyzes it into its constituent elements. The description of the results thus obtained is to a certain extent a proc¬ ess of synthesis. But if the pupil goes a step farther and represents what he has observed and described the process is complete ; he associates the various matters of detail so as to form a connected picture of the region studied Naturally map drawing is one of the very obvious directions taken by this work of representation, but it is by no means the only form that it assumes. The various geographical ele¬ ments that admit of representation may, perhaps, be roughly classified as position, magnitude, and form, using these terms in a very broad sense. In map drawing all three are obviously more or less dealt with, but some German geographers — more especially Matzat, Kirchhoff, Coordes, and Kiihne — have recently employed methods of representing position and magnitude which would seem to be worthy of consid¬ eration and adoption by American teachers. It is the purpose of the present paper to speak of these, reserving for later treatment map drawing proper and relief work. And, first, as to position. One of the simplest forms of this, suitable for use with quite young pupils, is to write the names of the geographical objects in their TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 301 true relative positions. Thus, if tlie boundaries of Europo have been studied they mav be represented thus: Arctic Ocean,. Atlantic Ocect7z. A - - EUROPE . — — - $8“- Asicc. Y Jtfedtierraneecn. Sea. In a more advanced class, where greater detail is required, as, for instance, the seas — North Sea, Sea of Marmora, Black Sea, etc. — a similar plan would bo followed. As an example may be taken a representation of the positions of the tributaries of the Danube within the limits of Germany : $ $ ft? s 302 EDUCATION RE POET, 1892-93. A similar one of the Rhine would he as follows, adding to the Rhine tributaries their tributaries, and indicating by 1. or r. their position on left or on right bank: Scheldt. ( 1. $a?nbre.) Meuse. ( r Me ui'tke an d Mosel. Saar.) WecJtar. ni.. (r. Reuss.) Aar. The central point of the middle mountains of Germany is formed by the Eichtel Mountains, which may also be considered as the meeting point of the plateau system of Central Europe north of the Alps — the Swiss- Bavarian Plateau, the Franconian Basin, and the Bohemian Basin. In the Fiehtel Mountains four other ranges nearly meet and four rivers take their rise. If we represent the Fiehtel by F, the following scheme will represent this important geographical relation: TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 303 If the topic studied has been the west, south, and east coasts of England, the result may he thus represented : West Coast. East Coast. Cumberland. North England. Liverpool Basin. The Wash. Wales. Central England. East Anglia. Bristol Channel. The A "ore. Cornwall and Devon. South England. Kent. Enylish Channel. Similarly, the division of Scotland into three parts by the firths and the Caledo¬ nian Canal may be represented: North Scotland. Caledonian Canal. Moray Firth. Central Scotland. Firth of Clyde. Firth of Forth. South Scotland. In a Prussian school the pupils have studied the relative positions of the twelve Prussian provinces just as American children would study the positions of the States. Representing each province by a square, the following would be a record of the result: SCHLESW/G- HOLSTE/N. | POMERAN/A. WEST PRUSS/A. \ EASTPRUSS/A. 1 1 WESTPHAL/A. HANOUER. BRANDENBURG. POSEN . RHINELAND. HE SSE- NASSAU SAXONY. SALES /A. The pupils of a German school have traced the Telief of their native land from the shores of the North and the Baltic Sea south to the Swiss Jura fountains. While doing this they have noted the elevation above the sea in hundred meter intervals of certain leading points. To represent this a vertical line 8^ inches long is divided into 17 half-inch spaces, each representing 100 meters. As this figure is to represent elevation it is numbered from below upward — had direction been aimed at the 304 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. reversed plan would have been adopted. The diagram would present the following appearance : I METERS. ■ l - - - IS W/SS JURA , R/ESEN MTS. BON EM /AN FORESTAND B/A CK FOREST. VOSGES MTS . J300 — — | - - L/TTLE CAR PATH /AN /UTS. 1200 . 1 ■ ERZ MTS. 1 harz mts: /iOO- - — - § - . . F/CHTEL MTS. /OOO 900 8 GO 700 600 500 NUREMBERG, POM ER AN /AN LANE PLATEAU, STUTTGART, BASLE. IV/ENNA, PRAGUE, METZ, STRASSBURG . FRANKFORT o. M, LE/PZ/G, WARSAW, BRUSSELS, HA NO IV ER. TNUR/NG/AN MTS. TAUNUS MTS. • E/FEL MTS. ~ RANCON/A/Z JURA MTS. ODEN WALD, S PEGS ART. -JT UR/ CH, MUN/CH. COAST of NORTH SEA AND BALT/C SEA. TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 305 Tlie numbers, of course, are round numbers. Where a point — as the Harz Moun¬ tains, Stuttgart, etc., — lies between the given heights, it is written in its proper place. These examples will be sufficient to show the manner of representing position, either horizontally or vertically. Of the value of the plan there can, 1 think, be but little doubt. As an illustration of the application of the samo idea to physical geography let us take the case of the circulation of water, starting from sea, river, or land, and returning as rain. This may bo expressed by a diagram thus: Yapor of Water-. - > Wind. - - S' Clouds. t ■ a cs. k] Ocean. ^ - - - - River. ■<— - — Land. We will now pass to the methods of dealing with geographical magnitudes. I presume that many of my readers have questioned what they should do with such matters as populations, areas, etc. That some use, for instance, should be made of the statistical tables appended to our school geographies will be readily admitted. l~et to require the memorizing of these numbers would be absurd. In fact, in them¬ selves, these magnitudes have no value. They have a value, however, the moment they are used to express a relation. The tables in my geography give me the follow¬ ing facts respecting the leading States of central Europe: Area. Population. Population per kilometer. German Empire . Kilometers. 543, 966 45, 235 14. 855 4, 720 83 Austria’s share of central Europe . Netherlands (including Luxemburg) . 193, 396 35, 587 77 124 Belgium . 29, 455 41, 213 5, 655 192 Switzerland . 2, 846 69 1 might of course memorize these details, but of what value would they be and how long should I retain them? Moreover, the quantities in the second and third columns are subject to change. Instead of attempting to memorize them I will represent the relations existing between these numbers. Let us first take the areas given for the above-named States of central Europe and arranging them in a decreasing series, express this by lines of corresponding length, of course “round¬ ing’’ the numbers : German. Empire. ED 93 ■20 306 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Such a figure appeals to the eye, aud the relative length of the lines v^ill remain a long time in the memory. A pupil who makes such a construction reaps a benefit from the work itself. It would of course he desirable to adopt a much larger scale than the one here employed. Let us now arrange the numbers of the second column in a decreasing- series and represent the result by lines. Will the pupil who works this diagram out soon forget that the areas of Switzer¬ land, the Netherlands, and Belgium are inversely as their populations? A similar treatment of the third column gives ns : j BelcjiuTn. Netherlands. Germ a n Jdmpire . Austria's: share of central JEurope. Sivitserlccrzcl. It would be a valuable exercise to try and trace the remarkable reversal of order in this last representation to the character of the surface of each country and its position as maritime or inland. Let us now attempt to express the area of each country and the density of its population together. A square with sides 3f iuches long would express the area of Germany. The nearest integral square root of its population considered as hundreds is 21. Taking a dot to represent each 100 inhabitants, we place within our square 21 rows, each°containing 21 dots, and arranged so as^to form squares. Taking Bel¬ gium as the next example, we should have a square with -J-inch sides and 7 rows, each containing 7 dots. The distance between the dots in the square representing Ger¬ many would be inch nearly; between those in the square representing Bel¬ gium, £ inch. The square representing Switzerland will show the appearance o'f the diagram : o « o o' ©090 TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 307 As another example, take the population of six important cities in thousands: London, 3,816; Paris, 2,269; Canton, 1,500; Berlin, 1,278; New York, 1,207; Vienna, 1,105. Taking a line of 44 inches to represent London, we should have : The example given of the vertical positions between the North Sea and the Swiss Jura is also in a certain sense a representation of magnitudes. A similar example may he taken from the average depth of the ocean (3,000 meters) as compared with the greatest known sea depth. (See figure below.) The average elevation of the land mass above the sea level (a), 650 meters, and the two most remarkable depressions below it — surface of the Caspian Sea (b), 26 meters, surface of the Dead Sea (c), 400 meters— may be represented in a diagram profile as follows : For more advanced work a method is employed by several German teachers of geography which represents at the same time the relative areas and the approximate forms of the countries. 308 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Tims, ruling light lines to divide a sheet of paper into squares, the German Empire, Holland, Belgium, and Switzerland will take this form : NORTH. - 1 , _ ' ' 1 SOUTH . By tinting each country with different crayons the diagram would he much improved, and hyplacing within each country as many dots as it has millions of population, an additional relation would he represented. The mention of colored crayons suggests another mode of representation, with which I will close this paper. Ascertain from the table the density of population of certain selected countries. Take a blank map of the countries and with an Eagle or other brown crayon pencil fill in the outlines of the countries with lighter or heavier strokes according to the density of the population. Of course still nicer work could he done with sepia or india ink. VI. Graphic work. — Map drawing— It has already been indicated that the facts and relations learned by map reading receive their final association to a complete picture of the region studied through map drawing. While the pupil’s verbal statement of the results of his map reading does this work to a certain extent — as he can be said to know only what he can express — so also has he clearly seen only that which he can draw. We must guard ourselves, however, against taking this undoubtedly true statement too absolutely. In the words of Matzat, “ Things are never drawn as they arc in full detail ; the draftsman represents only such of their features as may impress him.” Hence two persons drawing the same landscape may produce strikingly differ¬ ent pictures, yet both be true to nature. This fact lies at the foundation of the dis¬ tinction between artistic and ordinary drawing. Artistic drawing strives to express delicate distinctions of form, and this conditions its aesthetic value. But on the other hand, if a young child represents a man by a small circle for the head, a straight vertical line for the neck, an oval for the body, and four strokes for arms and legs, he has simply drawn those peculiarities of the human form which he has apprehended. He has seen many other peculiarities, but they have obviously not made such an impression as to result in a visual representation which finds expression in his draw¬ ing. As a drawing this child’s picture is laughable, ridiculous; but, as a delineation of the undetailed concept of a man that he has so far formed, it is correct. It would have been incorrect had he drawn three arms instead of two. Hence it may be said that there is an abstract drawing equally with an abstract thinking, and we should distinguish between a picture which must be beautiful and a diagram which need only be correct. And the measure of this correctness is in itself relative and sub¬ jective. What the child’s visual representation contains will be reproduced and fixed by his drawing. A botanist who draws a diagram of a flower proceeds in the child’s manner. He wishes to show the number of petals and sepals, their mode of union, etc. ; all else is indifferent to him; he is not making a picture of the flower. TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 309 This is exactly tlic case with map drawing. Maps and profiles arc not pictures; they are diagrams, abstract representations of the region studied. Obviously there maybe grades of abstraction in these representations — greater or less amount of detail and exactness of form. I wish to show my friend where I live; I draw a rough plan which indicates well enough the position of my home, although the measurements may be anything but correct. So a child should not make a detailed copy of the map in his atlas, but should represent the leading features that he has abstracted from it. So in the words of Wagner wo observe the object — in the present case a map — fix the things observed by drawing, and so give evidence of what we have seen. Since younger pupils have less trained powers of observation than older ones — since the maps studied in the lower grades should be simpler than those studied in the higher — it follows that grades exist in map drawing. The youngest pupils can draw a diagram showing the relative positions of a few localities, the course of two or three rivers, only a simple geometrical figure for the contour of a country. They will thus exercise their self-activity and represent only what they have observed upon the map. I have aimed to indicate very clearly that, according to the views of some leading German writers upon methods in geography, map drawing is a result of geograph¬ ical study, serving, indeed, to fix and associate the ideas obtained from map reading, but yet presupposing a knowledge of the facts represented. Observing the map, describing the map, precede representing, however closely they may tread upon each others heels. When the Pestalozzian reform called attention to the importance of making all early teaching objective and the child’s formal and material culture an outgrowth of this free self- activity, it effected, among other things, a revolution in geographical teaching. Not the least important feature of this revolution was its insistence upon the importance of graphic reproduction of geographical knowl¬ edge by map drawing, not that the value of map drawing had not been recognized before the time of Pestalozzi, but to him is owing the full jmreeption of its true importance. Unfortunately, however, some of Pestalozzi’s followers transferred map drawing from its true position of the servant to that of the master, the all in all of geographical instruction. The usual reaction followed, and this valuable aid was condemned and neglected as a result of the over-zealousness of its advocates. The current phrase, “Teaching geography by map drawing,” is ambiguous. If it means that the teacher should constantly' accompanyT his instructions by drawing before his pupils the country studied, there can be no doubt of the value of such a cour.-e. But if it means that geographical ideas can be conveyTed in the first instance by mapping on the part of the pupil, its truth is questionable. At best, such work would be map copying, and of course geographical facts could be learned by' the proc¬ ess. This, however, would not be map drawing. A pupil can intelligently deline¬ ate that only of which he has a clear concept. Never can the graphic representation of a concept precede its formation; geographical forms can not be drawn unless they are known. The various lines of a map have a meaning only when duly inter¬ preted. A pupil’s map is simply a review, valuable as an evidence that he has clear and vivid concepts, and, like every review, serving to confirm them. But a pupil can never originate a knowledge of geographical relations by drawing. In the words of Yon Sydow: “ He must so work that each stroke drawn is a pictured thought, and the picture itself which he projects a result of his own intuition.” Theodore von Liechtenstein, a celebrated teacher of geography in the Berlin Cadet School, says: “Map drawing has value only in so far as the jdiysical relations of a country are delineated in the most time-sparing manner. * * * It will tend most to geo¬ graphical culture if the pupil, after memorizing and reciting the matter, projects in rapid outlines the country under consideration; or in the presence of the teacher, as a recapitulation, sketches it with chalk upon a blackboard.” As Dr. Abbenrode remarks : “Map drawing, a valuable aid to geographical instruction, is not that instruction itself;” and Professor Heiland, of Weimar : “Drawing must not.be the starting point of the study of a country, but its result.” It was remarked above that map drawing should be graded. The map drawn by a pupil of the primary^ grade may, like the child’s picture of a man, be a mere dia¬ gram, and yet may adequately represent the ideas formed from the study of the wall map. Professor Gopfert, in an article upon first-year work in geography, remarks that “ Geographical training and understanding does not depend so much in the first instance upon exact knowledge of the outline of a land as upon a knowledge of its position in regard to neighboring lands, seas, etc. It is not at first important to know that France has ten peninsulas. Rather should the pupil’s attention be directed to the fact that France lies between two seas and two countries; for in this consists its importance. So the isolation of Spain, the insular character of England, the position of Germany in the heart of Europe are facts of prime importance? For the sharp apprehension of these relations it is desirable to disregard all unrelated facts. Hence it is necessary only to note certain important limiting points given upon the map, as that the northeast boundary point of Germany if continued east- 310 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. ward would bisect Russia, and the .southwest continued westward, France. So, also, the northeast point of Spain continued northward bisects France. These funda¬ mental points in the position of these lands once fixed, much would be gained. Further — the relative proportions — Russia equals one-half of Europe, etc. — are readily noted from the map, as also the smallness of Europe compared with Asia and Africa and the position of the Mediterranean Sea.'’ A pupil’s map representing the knowl¬ edge obtained up to this point (Scandinavia, Denmark, Italy, and the Balkan Penin¬ sula have not yet been studied), a mere diagram representingposition and proportions, would be something like the following figure : If the pupil has noted the triangular form, direction of shores, and isthmus connec¬ tion of North and South America, the following figure would express his knowledge: If at first these maps, or rather diagrams, appear strange, a little consideration will show that they are a fair expression of the pupil’s supposed knowledge at this stage. The detailed contour of a country it would be impossible for him to fix in mind; position and proportion are possible to him, and his diagram represents just what he has observed. These figures are in fact but a simplified form of the graphic work described in the preceding paper and are but a slight remove from the dia¬ grams in everyday use among statisticians and others. They would seem to admit of development into a practical and simple system of elementary map drawing. VII. Map drawing. — \Fe now pass to filling up the outline. Since the rivers have already been noted in reading and representing the coast, Professor Heiland takes them up before the relief. (See Art. Ill, p. 293.) The maxi reading shows that four great rivers traverse the peninsula of Farther India from north to south — Irawaddy, Saluen, Menam, Mekoag — and that their direc¬ tion is determined by live meridian mountain chains, diverging southward. Passing north we find that the first, second, and fourth named rivers rise near together, north of the west part of the tropic of Capricorn, Distance estimated and drawn. Irawaddy traced and drawn to Mandalay (halfway down); westward curve of river below Mandalay noted and drawn. Branching of delta noted and drawn. Other rivers similarly located. Mountain chains studied and drawn. Close by profile across the peninsula from west to east. Repetition by all pupils on blackboard. Drawing on paper at seats without reference to wall or hand max>. If this last can be worked out in color so much the better. TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 311 As a second example, avo will take Dr. Jarz’s method of drawing tlie outline of Africa. He lirst notes the relation of Africa to the parallel of 10° north latitude and the meridian of 40 east longitude from Ferro (20° east from Greenwich, would answer the same purpose). The length of the meridian betAveen 10° north coast is used as a unit of measure. This unit is laid off from the point of intersection twice south, once and one-fifth east, once and a half west. This determines, in addition to the north coast, Cape Agulhas, Capo Verde, Capo Gardafui. The map is then read from Bengazi to Cape lion and draAvn. Then from Bengazi to Rosetta, Rosetta to Strait of Bal)-cl-Mandeb, Bab-el-Mandeb to Mozambique, etc. Dr. Steiner’s drawing of the Alps will furnish an excellent example of fhe treat¬ ment of a complex mountain system. The position of the Alps in a northeasterly curve from the Mediterranean to Vienna is first read from the Avail map and then the coast of the Mediterranean from the Rhone mouth to the Gulf of Qnarnero is read, draAvn on the board, and reproduced by pupils. The eastern limit of the Alps is then read and drawn and the difference in width between west and east being noted the general form is put in with the length of the crayon resting on the board. The Ar alleys arc then read and wiped out from the broad belt on the board; so, also, the division into three main parallel chains and the chief rivers are noted and drawn. The leading passes, cities, railroads, etc., are in succession read and drawn, and finally political divisions. Each step in the teacher’s drawing is followed by description and drawing by the pupils. Matzat's method has some peculiarities which deserA’e mention. It is based on the idea of the 4 ‘ compass charts ” used by sailors before the introduction of maps based on parallels and meridians. “But a Aery small number of points on the earth’s surface are astronomically determined according to latitude and longitude. The position of the rest is fixed, either through triangulation or by a survey of routes, either in compass directions or time distances. * * * The net of parallels and meridians aims only to fix the position occupied by each terrestrial space in relation to the entire surface of the earth. If the terrestrial space is considered by itself this net of lines may be dispensed with. The history of cartography shows this to be true. Useful maps with parallels and meridians were a product of the beginning of the last century: but there were good maps before that time. The ancients had maps with such lines, but A ery incomplete, because they were based merely on estimated distances. When the navigators of the Mediterranean dis¬ covered the means of determining direction, they made without parallels and merid¬ ians maps which are even now surprisingly accurate. Upon these two primary elements of all specific geographical localization, distance, and direction, in brief, the principle of the compass charts, I found the geographical drawing of pupils.*’ After the map is read Matzat directs the teacher to name the point from Avhich the drawing shall begin. In countries near home this will be the schoolhouse or the native town — in distant countries its chief city, the distance and direction of which, hoAvever, from the native toAvn, must be first determined. The distance and direc¬ tion from this central point of the first feature to be represented is determined by the pupils by measurement on the map. The distance is taken with a pair of dividers, and with this radius a circle described from the central point upon the Avail map. Features which touch or are near to this circle and their direction from the central point arc then noted. The central point is then marked upon the black¬ board, the circle described upon an agreed scale, and the features noted are drawn. This process is repeated by the pupils upon their slates or paper. For the sake of completeness it should bo noted that the use of map drawing is not Avitliout its opponents. The most emphatic of these is Dr. Bdttcher. director of the Real Gymnasium of Burg. In the Easter programme (1884) of this institution he publishes an essay, “ Vorschlago zur Methodik des geographischen Unterriclites mit Beispielen aus der Schulpraxis.” The first part of this assay is an attack upon the use of map drawing. His chief points are that it is an error to assume that map drawing is the only way to lead pupils to a knowledge of the map; that it robs the subject of time out of all proportion to the results reached, and that may be better used otherwise; that the maps drawn by children are horrible caricatures of the reality and tend to destroy the truer concej)ts formed from the study of good wall and hand maps; that but feAv teachers are able to draw e\’en passable maps on the blackboard. Bdttcher proposes his “descriptive method” as superior in eAery respect to the ‘•map-draAving method.” This is briefly a careful reading of the map and a full, clear statement of the results guided by the teacher’s questions. Dr. Bdttcher has recently expanded his essay into a work on Methods in Geography. The school section of the Fir.st German Geographical Congress, June 7, 8, 1881, adopted the following resolutions after an animated discussion of the subject of map drawing : 1 (1) The German Geographical Congress recommends drawing in geographical instruction as an indispensable means to the promotion of clear intuitions and as a powerful aid to a weakening the self-activity of pupils. 312 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. (21 It declares itself most positively against tlie widespread evil practice of setting pupils to drawmaps as a home task without fitting them for the work by a gradually progressive training. (3) It condemns the use of straight lines to express the lines of a map (Lohse’s method), since this plan is not adapted to develop the pupil’s sense of form, but rather debases his taste in regard to map representations. (4) It most positively condemns the systematic carrying out of the so-called con¬ structive method, since it requires an artificial system of aids (lines and points), the knowledge of which is in the main of no value to the pupil, and burdens liis memory heavily in a useless way. (5) Condemns special preliminary courses of topograj)hieal drawing as aside from the purposes of the common school. (6) It recommends the method of free sketches of single terrestrial spaces as repro¬ ductions of typical relations studied from the map, since these can be adapted in amount of detail and mode of execution to the capacity and skill of the pupils. I close this subject with the following extracts from “ Ten theses concerning draw¬ ing in geographical instruction,” adopted at a recent meeting of the teachers and inspectors of Vienna : “ A moderate application of drawing in teaching geography is a pedagogically valuable, but by no means indispensable, means to right apprehension and memoriz¬ ing the map. Drawing is only a means, never an end in itself. * * * The geographical drawings of the pupils is limited by the degree of their skill in draw¬ ing, the representability of geographical objects and the special aim of the instruc¬ tion in geography. * * . * The pupils’ drawing is restricted to the representation of geographical specialties (single rivers, reciprocal positions of places, mountains, etc.). Political boundaries, long coast lines, whole countries, and grand divisions are excluded. * * * The requirement that at the end of a year the pupil should by way of review be able to draw from memory the maps of the year is condemned on account of the resulting overburdening.” VIII. Belief work — The graphic representation of relief. — Ordinary maps furnish a fairly accurate representation of two out of the three dimensions of terrestrial spaces— length and breadth. If the principle of the projection used is taken into account, they also include the element of curvature of the earth's surface. This is true whether the projection aims at equivalence or at conformity. But when the third dimension, thickness or relief, is to be represented, the case is somewhat dif¬ ferent. The signs employed are in a certain sense conventional, yet are at the same time a generalization from observed natural facts. The conventionality consists in making a special case general. Thus, if the method of shading is used — whether in lines (hachures) or in flat tint — the light is assumed to fall vertically upon the sur¬ face to be represented. Under such conditions all horizontal surfaces would receive full light, and would be left white. Vertical surfaces would receive no light, and hence would be shaded absolute black. Surfaces of intermediate inclination would be lighter or darker, according to inclination. Thus, at 45° slope the shade marks would occupy half the space, leaving the remaining half white. In a slope making 30° with the plane of the horizon we should have one-third shade, two-thirds white. On the contrary, a slope of .60° would have two-thirds shade and one-third white. For exact topographical (e. g., military) maps this system is applied exactly, and a “shade scale’' attached to such maps enables the user to learn readily the slope of the country. Generalized, we have the principle the darker the shading the steeper the slope, and to this extent it should receive consideration in good school maps, especially in wall maps. Of course, as a matter of fact, it is only in certain places and at certain times that the sun light falls vertically, and it is in the assump¬ tion of this condition as universal in place and time that the conventional element in representing relief consists. In some countries map draftsmen make a modified assuption — they take the light obliquely, usually from the northwest. This is com¬ monly the case in special maps of parts of the Alps, and is justified by the prevailing greater steepness of their south and east slopes. But in a combination of hill with high mountain country this method would fail in expressing properly the hill land. French map makers employ this plan almost uniformly and with justice, as a glance at the physical structure of Franco will show — its steepness toward the valleys of the Rhine and the Rhone, its plateau and terrace structure to the west and northwest. But this convention not only serves to express the relative steepness of mountains, it also gives a clue to their form. A pupil who possesses a knowledge of the language in which a map expresses relief will be able thread from a properly made map, and to give a clear and definite account of the physical structure of the region he is studying. It is one of the objects of home geography to put the pupil in possession of this power. The need for this knowledge is also one of the reasons that make it desirable to precede grammar grade work in geography by a course in advanced home geography. To this end, also, the best German and Swiss school atlases contain one or more maps TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 313 especially designed as an ‘‘' introduction to the understanding of maps" (Zur Ein- fuhrnng ins Kartenverstanduiss). Shading expresses the form and degree of inclination of relief, but gives no knowl¬ edge of its amount. The reader is undoubtedly familiar with the method employed on physical maps for representing the difference of elevation between highland and lowland by color¬ ing one brown, the other green. This is really an application of the method explained above, since the line of separation between the two colors is a line of elevation ; it is also a contour line. On Professor Guy ot’s wall maps the depth of the mountain shading is used as index of height. This is objectionable, since this ele¬ ment has already been employed, as stated, to represent the degree of slope. It, however, points to a method largely used in Europe as an adjunct to contour maps. The spaces between the contours are colored either with different colors for each degree of elevation or with different tones of the same color. Usually in the latter case a warm yellow brown is used, increasing in depth as the height increases. Accessible examples of this are the hypsometric United States map in Scribner’s Statistical Atlas, and a similar map in Yol. I of the Tenth Census. A good example of this use of combined contour and color for school purposes is Dr. Carl Vogel’s Schui-atlas, published by Hiurichs, Leipsic. On his map of Europe, for instance, four tones of brown are used. The lightest represents lowland, the others suc¬ cessively 250, 1,500, 3,000 feet, the snow region being left white. A very beautiful modernexample is an “ Orographical Map of Scotland," by John Bartholomew, in Yol. I (1885) of the Scottish Geographical Magazine. A large scale edition of this (22 by 29 inches, or 10 miles to an inch) has been published by Black, of Edin¬ burgh. In the small sketch maps illustrating E. v. Seydlitz’s Scliul Geographie the same idea is carried out, using horizontal shade lines of different depths instead of color. This is, of course, not quite so effective, but Still it gives a fair idea of gradations of elevations. In some of the more recent German school atlases shading to represent slope and form has been combined with contour lines and color to represent elevation. This would seem to leave nothing more to be desired. As an example may be cited ‘ • Debbe’s Schui-atlas fur die mittleren Unterrichtsstufen” (equivalent to our grammar school) in 33 maps. In these maps, in addition to the mountain shading, the zones of eleva¬ tion are marked as follows : Depressions, green ; sea level to 200 meters, light green; 200-500 meters, light yellow; 500-1,500 meters, light brown; 1,500-5,000 meters, brown ; above 5,000 meters, gray green. As these colors are transparent the mountain shading shows distinctly through them. The cost of this atlas of 33 maps (including an ethnological and a language map of Europe) is 1.25 marks — about 35 cents. A supplement of 16 physical maps (climatic, geological, ethnological, etc.) costs 1.75 marks, about 45 cents. Moreover, the pupil can buy the maps one by one as needed at a slight advance on the price of the entire set. In the foregoing my purpose has been to show the great importance attached by European teachers of geography to an adequate representation of relief and the care taken to insure its realization by the pupil under the three points of view, form, degree of slope, and elevation. It is interesting to see how these teachers pass from accurate graphic representation of relief to accurate tangible representation — a very different thing from the indiscriminate mud-pie making from inaccurate maps that passes muster as relief work in many American schools. PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS. A few excerpts from the writings of an American teacher (published in “ European Schools’ ) who visited German schools may here be inserted, since they show the actual status of geographical teaching as he observed it. These, notes lay no claim to systematic arrangement, for they were gathered as occasion offered, and published in various journals. Hcmeology. — “Heimatliskunde,” knowledge of home and its surroundings, is what they term primary geography in Germany. In order to give the reader an idea of what is done in the primary grades, a few suggestions may suffice. Some lessons in “homeology” were heard in Hamburg and enjoyed very much. The results of the lesson were fixed in the form of a sketch map. This map was made on the hoard as the lesson proceeded. Teacher. In what direction is our school from the inner Alster. or Alster Basin? What street on this side of the basin? On the opposite side? On the third? fourth? What separates the inner from the outer Alster? What bridge? What monuments are erected on the esplanade? In what direction from the basin is the Nicolai church? The new polytechnicum? The theater? The Berlin depot? On what side of the Alster Basin is the new hotel, the Hamburger Hof, situated, ? etc. Some streets were sketched in order to make the picture more vivid. 314 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Every new item was inserted in the sketch oil the hoard drawn hy the teacher. Thus tiic sketch of a city plan grew hy degrees, and the pupils drew or imitated this plan on their slates. One can not imagine a more attentive group of young children than these were. Each one was eager to suggest new points known to him. The sketch was copied as the lesson progressed, and its simplicity spoke for itself. No teacher can hide liis unwillingness to follow suit behind so flimsy an excuse as “I can't draw,” for the drawing of such a sketch presupposes no training nor special skill in drawing. When the geographical part of the lesson was well disposed of the teacher gave a new zest to the pupils hy asking, “To whom belongs the theater, the school, the bridge,” etc. ? In the most natural way possible the pupils learned something of governmental relations and laid the foundation for the subsequent study of history. It caused a merry interruption when a little boy thought the sclioolhouse belonged to Mr. - , the janitor. In a higher grade of the same school the geography of Germany was the topic of the day. It was still “ homeology,” only with a wider horizon. The teacher began by making a few simple lines representing the so-called ‘"mountain cross” in cen¬ tral Europe. After flrst drawing the Fichtel Mountains, the center of the figure, he added the Erz Mountains toward the northeast, the Franconian and Thuriugina forest toward the northwest, the Bohemian and Bavarian forest toward the southeast, the Franconian and Swabian Jura toward the southwest. A few peaks were men¬ tioned, as were also the characteristics of these mountains. Thus, for instance, the silver mines in Saxony, the dense forests in Bohemia, the lovely scenery in Thur¬ ingia, the caves of the Jura, etc., came in for a few well-remembered remarks. The teacher always knew when to stop ; he was discretion personified. Now the teacher drew the four livers which rise in the Fichtel Mountains — namely, Main, Saale, Eger, and Naab — showing and indicating on the map into what main rivers they empty. A fevr important cities and the countries around the cross were named. All this information was partly given, partly asked for, as the case sug¬ gested. Now the complete map, a printed one, was hung up, and all the information just gained was looked up. Each item was noted, and it made the children fairly glow with enthusiasm when they were able to corroborate the facts of the two maps. In a few points the map on the board was corrected, improved, and completed; then the lesson closed, and now followed the recitation — that is to say, the pupils were called upon to state, in answer to leading questions, what they remembered of the lesson. It was a pleasure to hear them speak out, not like human parrots who had memo¬ rized, but like rational beings who had learned by experience. The hour was brought to a close by an imaginary journey all over the section the acquaintance of which they had just made. Many little items of information were added on this journey. Photographic views of rocks and mountain scenery were exhibited, and they proved to be of intense interest to these children, who have no opportunities of seeing a mountain “ in natura.” Ideal teaching in geography. — It was in a preparatory school in the city of D - where ideal teaching in geography wras heard. The school was provided with all possible means in form of maps. The matter of instruction could be graded just as is done in arithmetic, reading, etc. Geographical knowledge has for ages been wrested from overstocked maps. The child has to search painfully among a bewildering mass of data and facts for those which were to be learned. A systematic or method¬ ical progress step by step was, if not impossible, certainly very difficult. Just as little as a teacher would give into the hands of a child a copy of Webster’s Unabridged or of Shakespeare’s complete works when he begins to learn the art of reading, just as little can it be rational in the teaching of geography to place before him a complete map stocked with a bewildering number of details. This difficulty was removed in the school referred to. Outline maps were used; first river maps. All the water courses and the ocean were colored blue, while the land appeared black. Below each map was given a profile, or longitudinal vertical section on certain given lines. The pupils drew the map on paper and then inserted the elevations. Then followed another outline map containing the elevations and a few boundary lines. By degrees more items of information were added, such as cities, trunk roads, canals, etc. The principle of Father Pestalozzi, “ One difficulty at onetime,” was carefully heeded, and the pupils were not bothered with maps such as we use in America, which blur the children’s mental picture by their multiplicity of detail. Teachers are apt to labor under the misapprehension that a map is a good one when it contains much. This is an error. According to that argument a school reader would bo a good one only when it contained the whole literature from Alfred’s time to the present day. Outline maps, silhouette maps, and such means for teach¬ ing geography rationally arc coming into use in Europe as well as with us in America. TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 315 Tlic school referred to was lavishly provided with maps and charts. There were outline, silhouette, and complete maps, geographical, historical, physiological, phys¬ ical, and astronomical maps and charts. What a wealth there was ! And what a joy it must be to teach in such a school ! Silhouette practice maps. — The silhouette practice maps facilitate the grading of the matter of instruction and present opportunities for the gradual upbuilding of geo¬ graphical knowledge as gained item by item by the child. Upon these maps may be entered as upon a blackboard tho data to be learned, first by the teacher, afterwards by the pupils, and thus an opportunity is afforded to the child to become a self-active participator in tho lesson. When the lesson is completed, all marks or names can be erased with a moist sponge or cloth, and the map is. ready for a new lesson or a review. The silhouette practice maps enable the instructor in history to illustrate with colored crayon changes in political boundaries at different periods. Students of ancient history, as well as general and modem history, can use these maps with great advantage. They do not make common wall maps superfluous, but supplement them. * * * These maps [as sometimes made] are printed on heavy tack cardboard and covered with a durable waterproof cleansable surface, adapted to receive a succession of markings and cleansings. The shaded space represents the water surfaces. Oceans, lakes, and rivers appear in blue on these maps, the land in black ; hence their name, silhouette maps. They are called practice maps because the pupil can practice on them with crayon geography as he does arithmetic. Cause and effect in geography. — The Popular Educator, of Boston, published in 1887-88 some excellent contributions which offered in words and pictures the present status of geography teaching in Germany. These articles leave but little to say on that subject. One thing can bo done, though, and it is done willingly, namely, to say that the statements made in those articles are correct. German "teachers, not only in Saxony, where the author evidently gathered his information, but also in other parts of the Empire, do teach geography as there stated ; if modified somewhat, perhaps, essentially the same methods arc pursued, and that with wonderful results. One would like to transfer to Germany some of our American teachers who can not imagine a geography lesson without verbatim memorizing of the printed text. One would like to show them rational teaching. The fact is well known that we, too, have good teachers, and not a few, either; but it must please a visitor greatly to find every teacher, good and poor, following well-established principles of method. That is tiie true state of affairs in the city of D - . Even the poor teachers are not without professional training. There is, however, a deep shadow on this bright picture. Many schools arc very jioorly equipped vrith means of instruction, such as maps and charts. A lesson in geography was listened to in a German school where 70 boys sat together like sardines in a box. Tho teacher had nothing better than a medium- sized wail map made by himself. His mode of marking elevations was very simple and comprehensive, one which is well worth imitating. With pencil or pen lie shaded the map by means of lines crossing each other at various angles. Thus he represented the topography of a country in a remarkably accurate manner, and this easy method enabled his pupils to judge at a glance as to the height of the land. They saw why certain rivers took such and such a course and no other; why certain cities were cold, others warm; why a river was navigable or not, according to the abruptness of the slope; why certain rivers flowing from great heights had a straigliter course than those which had little fall and meandered through the plain; why certain lands are blessed with mild climates, being sheltered on the north side by high and steep mountain ranges, others had a rough climate, being exposed to the north wind. The teacher was well informed and gave information in such a manner that it agreed with the children’s mental stomachs. Example: The Erz-Gebirge (Ore Mountains) were once full of silver mines. At the time of Martin Luther (at the beginning of the sixteenth century) these mines drew a great number of people to Saxony, and particularly to that range of moun¬ tains. When the mines ceased to yield, the population, not being so fluctuating as it is now, was obliged to seize upon other modes of occupation. The slopes of the mountains being well provided with various kinds of wood, offered material for a variety of woodworking industries. The slopes being steep, the mountain brooks were turbulent and gave an opportunity to build mills, which were first used for various purposes. Lately, when tho textile industry grew, this water power was utilized to serve that industry. The woods soon disappeared on the Erz Mountains ; they were literally used up. So the people had to resort to manufacturing pursuits almost entirely, agriculture being impossible. To-day the population of the King¬ dom of Saxony is the densest' of all Germany, and, aside from that in Belgium, the densest in all Europe. It was cause and effect constantly, and the attention and responsiveness of the boys were truly delightful. 316 EDUCATION REPORT, 1392-93. One other hint was received in this school. When the oral lesson closed, the teacher sent a hoy to the blackboard to make a sketch of the map which the other boys were told to make on their slates. Then he showed that distances which he could cover with the span of his hand should be made 1 inch long on the slate or 6 inches on the blackboard. Now he measured off certain points on the map by spans, and thus gave the pupils a simple scale by means of which they could furnish a free-hand map which was not out of proportion. This procedure leads the way to a more accurate scale and to the thorough comprehension of scales as such. Afterwards even this measuring by spans would be discontinued, and mere eye measuring would be substituted. It was a fine lesson, indeed a fruitful lesson. Concentric extension of the geographical horizon. — It is always attended with a feel¬ ing of satisfaction when one observes an idea consistently carried through the dif¬ ferent stages of the curriculum, especially if that consistency is in strict compliance with educational maxims and principles. In Berlin a truly refreshing example of consistency is offered in the schoolbook used in the study of geography, which book is an atlas pure and simple, not a text-book. It may not be without interest to read an account of what that book contains, for it is gotten u}3 with undeniable skill. The reader must kindly bear in mind that the atlas is made expressly for use in the elementary (or communal) schools of Berlin. The idea which is so consistently car¬ ried through in it is expressed in the above heading. Page 1 contains six pictures and plans. The first figure is a perspective view of the inside of a schoolroom, and side by side with it is a map plan of that room. This is nothing new in America. Many American text-books of geography contain a sim¬ ilar illustration. It is here mentioned for no other reason than to present an unbroken chain of methodical links. Notice that the atlas does not begin with the hemispheres. The picture with its attendant plan represents the first circle of the pupil’s geographical horizon and is drawn on a scale of 1 to 100. Then follows a perspective view of the whole schoolhouse and a map plan of the building. These form the second circle. Scale: 1 to 300. The bird’s-eye view of the figure is certainly an ingenious contrivance. This is followed by a perspective view of a portion of a city and its map plan. The schoolhouse is again found on this map. These two figures form the third circle of the pupil’s horizon. Scale: 1 to 1,500. Page 2 contains a larger perspective view of a landscape accompanied by a map plan. We find the same schoolhouse and portion of the town represented in the two figures which form the fourth circle. Scale: 1 to 7*500. Page 3. This extension of the horizon is followed on page 3 by a picture of an imaginary landscape which is inserted for the purpose of teaching the most vital topographical ideas. This picture also is accompanied by a map plan. Page 4 contains a minute city plan of Berlin, which forms the fifth circle of the horizon. Scale: 1 to 36,000. Page 5 is Berlin and vicinity, the same city plan but much reduced in size and surrounded by many villages, hamlets, etc., within a radius of 12 kilometers. This forms the sixth circle. Scale : 1 to 100,000. Page 6 is a map of the governmental district of Potsdam, in the center of which Berlin is situated, this being the seventh circle. Scale: 1 to 1,000,000. Page 7 is a physical map of the province of Brandenburg (center Berlin). Eighth circle of horizon. Scale of map : 1 to 1,260,000. Map contains also a local map exhibiting the railroads entering Berlin. Page 8 is a political map of the same province. Scale tho same. Local map of the city of Potsdam. Page 9 is a phvsical map of Germany. Ninth circle of horizon. Scale: 1 to 4,000,000. Page 10 is a political map of Germany. Same circle; same scale. Local map of the Thuringian principalities. Page 11 is a physical map of Europe. Tenth circle of horizon. Scale: 1 to 15,000,000. Page 12 contains the political map of Europe. Same circle ; same scale. Page 13 contains the map of Asia. Scale: 1 to 50,000,000. Page 14 contains the map of Africa. Scale: 1 to 40,000,000. Local maps of the Nile Delta, Cape Colony, and Cape Town*. Page 15 contains the map of North America. Scale: 1 to 35,000,000. Page 16 contains the map of South America. Same scale. Page 17 contains the map of Australia and Oceanica, with local map of Victoria Land, and an illustration of the formation of coral reefs. Scale of main map : 1 to 50,000,000. The foregoing five maps may be considered the eleventh circle. Page 18 is again a local map, namely, that of Palestine, a map which is very use¬ ful to teachers and pupils in tho study of biblical history. Page 19 contains the twelfth circle" of geographical horizon, namely, the Eastern Hemisphere. TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 317 Page 20. Tlio Western Hemisphere. Scale not stated. Page 21 directs tho pupils look upward to the heavens. It contains a representa¬ tion of the northern sky, with the most important constellations and the milky way. Page 22, the last one in the hook, is devoted to mathematical geography. It con¬ tains illustrations of the eclipses, of the earth’s orhit, the solar system, "the phases of the moon, and various very useful devices of similar nature. These, then, are the contents of the elementary geography in use in the city of Berlin. One may, perhaps, advance objections to this, that, or another item; may object, for iustance, to the picture of the quaint city as being fore'gn to our pupils’ surroundings. It must be repeated, for his benefit, that the atlas is not made for American children, but for the children in Berlin. It might be jiossible to present a series of pictures and accompanying map plans which could be used in large cities, such as New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. One may, perhaps, consider it somewhat of a strait-jacket to be tied down to such a course, one which will not give the precocious child a chance to look beyond the 11 board fence of the circle.” To him it maybe said: There is no objection at all for any precocious child to look at the next pages and ask questions about them, but the regular, methodical course is here prescribed according to the principle “From the near to the remote.” If he desires to deviate from the course, he may skip a few pages, and return to them whenever he sees fit. But the consistency with which the principle of education that presupposes con¬ centric growth is carried out deserves commendation. We are too often talking of principles and shunning to apply them. Here is a sample of that consistency which does what it preaches. Whether we like it or not, we may at least be just, and find it praiseworthy as such. Cause and effect in geography.— It was a spirited lesson in geography that was heard in Munich, and is worth sketching. The children were of the same age as our pupils in the highest grade of the grammar-school course — 13 or 14 years of age, jjerhaps. Maps were there in abundance, and a handsome large globe was brought in. The teacher first stated the fact that the heat equator is not synonymous with the mathematical equator; that it is an irregular line lying on an average of 10° north of the actual equator. Now he led the pupils to find causes for this apparently sin¬ gular fact. Did not the sun strike the earth with equal force north and south of the equator? With the aid of a large globe, on which the j>revalence of water on the Southern Hemisphere could be seen distinctly by all the pupils of the class, the fact was soon established that this prevalence of water caused more evaporation than on the Northern Hemisphere. Evaporation, however, they knew from the little study of physics they had had, caused absorption of heat, while land would radiate the heat it received, and thus cause a higher degree of temperature in the atmosphere. Now proofs of this fact were searched for, and it was interesting to see how quickly the pupils reasoned backward from effect to cause. In tho deserts of Sahara and Gobi they thought that they found the effect of great heat on large bodies of land. In the indented coast line of Europe they found the cause of a temperate climate and an absence of dreary wastes of deserts. Then the climate of the different continents was discussed and the general rule established, (a) that gTeat bodies of land have hot summers and fierce winters; proofs, inner North America, inner Asia, inner Australia, even Russia in Europe; (&) much water was the cause of cool summers and mild winters : Proofs, Western Eu¬ rope, South America, Southern Africa, and the Asiatic isles and peninsulas. Water tempers the climate. This lesson was truly admirable, but only its bare results can be given. The latitude, it was easily inferred, caused the climate. But the latter was greatly modified — that is, made milder or fiercer — by the situation or elevation of the country. A plateau would naturally be cooler than a low j)lain under tho same latitude. Quito in Ecuador, and Para in Brazil, both almost under the equator, were yet very different in their climates, the former being situated 10,000 feet above the level of the sea, the latter almost on a level with it. Mountain chains like the Andes, the Rockies, the Himalayas, the Alps, etc., are also causes of great differences in climate, as they may protect the laud from certain atmospheric currents and other influences. This was proved by the great fertility of the eastern slope and the rainless western slope of the Andes, also by the two slopes of the Rockies. These different considerations were summed up in this: Latitude, formation, and elevation of a country condition its climate. But climate alone does not make a country a desirable place to dwell in. Other things are needed to make it fertile, otherwise Australia ought to be overcrowded, whereas it is but thinly populated. Irrigation is an important condition. Look at Western and Central Europe, and the United States : these countries are admirably irrigated — i. e., watered and drained. The teacher dwelt on this by showing that the United States have in their Mississippi Valley the granary of the world, a most 318 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. ideally irrigated, fertile region. Fertility was traced to irrigation in France, Ger¬ many, Italy, Turkey, and Spain. Tlic latter country served as an example to prove that climate, elevation, and irrigation will not suffico to maintain life if the soil is not favorable. In Spain the forests that used to crown the lovely mountains, and constantly feed the picturesque and nagivable rivers meandering through the valleys, have been uprooted. Ruthless extermination of the forests had made the hills bare, the rain had washed the fer¬ tile soil from the unprotected mountain sides, and the rivers now dry up in summer and threaten death and destruction in spring, when the melting of the snow tills the river beds and causes inundations. So, then, proper soil is another condition of life, and we have the principle that- climate is caused by latitude, formation, and elevation of the country; that proper climate, favorable irrigation, and good soil condition an exuberant vegetation. Vegetation, of course, is a condition necessary for the animal kingdom. But, while the latter depends for subsistence upon vegetation, the former is in no small degree dependent upon animal matter for subsistence. So, again, we have cause and effect. And the chain lengthens; latitude and elevation cause climate; climate and irriga¬ tion condition vegetation. All these are necessary to support the animal kingdom. Where all these conditions are favorable human existence is assured, and the human population of a country stands in exact proportion to the j)resence or absence of these conditions. This was conclusively demonstrated by the population of North America. The United States, situated in the temperate zone, traversed by lofty mountain ranges which afford admirable irrigation, possessing on the whole a very fertile soil, had all the conditions of an exuberant vegetation and support of animal and human beings. Consequently we find them populated by about 60,000,000, while north and south of them, in Canada and Mexico, the population is comparatively sparse. The pupils were almost breathless with attention, and, -when called upon, gave geographical facts in -support of the teacher’s assertions quite readily. This was a review lesson, w'liich, wTiile offering new vistas into the science of geography, caused the pupils to brush up their knowledge of geographical facts. The task given out for the next lesson was: “ Find proofs for the truths we have discovered to-day.” “Will they be able,” asked the visitor, “to find more proofs?” “I should think so,” was the reply of the teacher. “They worry their fathers, mothers, uncles, and aunts for further proofs ; they consult the libraries ; they ransack every source of information, until they find proofs. A truth thus discovered, as we did in this lesson, acts like leaven; it grows and induces the learner to proceed in his investigations. And it will scarcely be necessary to recapitulate these facts, for indigenous thoughts are like words engraved w'ith steel into granite, while borrowed thoughts, such as arc learned by heart from the printed page, arc words written with a reed on dry sand; the next rain will wash them out.” conclusion. In connection Avitli the foregoing it avouIcI seem proper to mention seA'eral deArices recently brought out in this country. They consist of relief maps for the use of schools. All relief work in sand, clay, and putty on a large scale, done by pupils, must necessarily remain crude and imperfect. Sand maps inA'ariably exhibit incor¬ rect outlines, exaggerated eleA'ations, and various other imperfections, Avhich tend to vitiate the geographical image in the mind of the child and thus perpetuate incorrect impressions. Map dra wing Avhich, of necessity, has to be dono quickly, owing to the short time that can be devoted to it, is not likely to facilitate the acqui¬ sition of correct geographical knoAvledge. For the purpose of obviating both these difficulties, and to adhere to the principle that Ave learn by doing, embossed relief maps are designed. It is intended that the child shall use these maps as supplements to its text-book. Being made of cardboard of the same size of the text-book, he can slip) the relief map into his book, carry it home and use it as a geographical slate. These maps are manufactured like embossed floAvers, and covered with a washable, cieansablo surface, which permits a succession of pencil markings and cleansings. Being very durable, these maps can bo used as long as the instruction on a continent or country lasts. The chief excellence of these maps lies in the fact that the pupils have before them nothing but the coast lines of the continent, the eleA'ations and the rivers, and no names whateA'er, hence the maps can not bo charged with containing a multiplicity of detail that might bewilder the child. He can enter all geograph- TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 319 ical data as lie is made acquainted witli them; lie can trace with pencil the coast lines, boundary lines, river courses, elevations, etc. ; ho can locate cities, battlefields, railroads, harbors, islands, peaks, etc. ; ho can perform geographical tasks as he solves his problems in arithmetic, on a slate, and then erase them with a sponge as he cleanses his slate. The geographical instruction can thus be made a step by step procedure. The teacher can eliminate that part of know ledge wffiick is not suitable at a given ago of the pupil; in other words, she can grade the instruction as she does the difficulties in arithmetic and grammar. These cleansable relief maps pre¬ vent wrong impressions concerning the outlines, since they are made according to approved models in form of Hat surface maps. Of course they can not be as correct as relief maps on a large scale might be, hut they are sufficiently clear and distinct without showing too great exaggerations of elevations. Relief maps are also made of plaster and other hard material in this country on a much larger scale than those described in the foregoing paragraph. They repre¬ sent the curvature of the earth’s surface, are excellently executed, and will doubt¬ less facilitate the teaching of geography. Relief wall maps of papier inaeke are also published in America on a large scale. These attempts supersede the flat surfaced wall map by giving names and boundary lines in color. They are set in wooden frames and can be suspended on the wall. And, lastly, a relief globe is published which shows the elevations and depressions on laud as w'ell as the depressions of the bottom of the sea. It is a superb piece of workmanship, and will doubtless contribute to the acquisition of correct geograph¬ ical concepts. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (a) Methods of teaching geography . Oberliinder, Herm. “Der geographische Unterricht nach den Grundsatzen Ritters.” 4th edition, edited by L. Gabler. Grimma. Trunk, H. “Die Auschaulichkeit des geographischen Unterrichts.” 3d edition. Vienna. De-litsch, O. “ Beitrag zur Metliodik des geographischen Unterrichts.” 2d edition. Leipzig. Nickter, J. W. O. “ Der geographische Unterricht, besonders auf hdheren Seliulen.” Vienna. Coordes, G. “Gedanken liber den geographischen Unterricht.’’ 3d edition. Metz. Stauber, A. “ Das Studimn der Geographic in und ausser der Sckule.” Prize essay. Augsburg. Hummel, A. “ Hilfsbuck fur den Unterricht in der Erdkunde.” Matzat. “Metliodik des geographischen Unterrichts.” Berlin. Lehmann, R. “ Vorlesungen iiber Hiilfsmittel und Metliode des geographischen Unterrichts.” Halle. ( b ) Knowledge of home. Finger, F. A. “Anweisung znm Unterriclite in der Heimatskunde, gegeben an dem Beispiele der Gegend von Weinheim an der Bergstrasse. ” 6th edition. Berlin. Diefenbach, C. “Anleitung zum Unterriclite in der Heimatskunde.” Frank¬ furt on the Main. Goppert, E. “Ueber den Unterricht in der Heimatskunde.” 2d edition. Annaberg. Stoy, K. V. “Von der Heimatskunde, Sendschreiben an die badisclien Lelirer.” Jena. Rommel, E. A. “ Leitfaden d er Heimatskunde von Leipzig.” 4tli edition prepared by Manger. Leipzig. Steinliauser, A. “Einleitung in die Heimatskunde.” Vienna. 320 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. (c) Mathematical geography. Diesterweg, A. “Populare Himmelskunde,” edited by F. and L. Striibing. JOth edition. Berlin. Bartholomai, F. “Astronomische Geograpkie in Fragen und Aufgaben fiir den ersten Unterricht.” 2d edition prepared by Heckenkayn. Langensalza. Pick, A. J. “Die elementaren Grundlagen der astronomiscben Geograpbie gemein- verstandlicb dargestellt.” Vienna. Mart us, H. C. E. “Astronomiseke Geograpbie. Ein Lehrbucb angewandter Matkematik.” 2d edition. Mollinger, O. “ Lehrbucb der Astrognosie.” 3d edition. Zurich. - (cl) Map projection and surveying. Steinkauser, A. “Grundziige der matbematiscben Geograpbie und Landkarteu- Projection.” 3d edition. Vienna. Coordes, G. “ Kleines Lehrbucb der Landkartenprojection.” Kassel. Zaffauk, J. “Anleitung zum Croquiren des Terrains mit und ohne Instrumente.” Vienna. Reitzner, V. von. “Die Terrainlekre.” 5tb edition. Vienna. Beust, IT. “Das Relief in der Sckule.” Zurich. ( e ) Physical geography. Supan, A. “ Gruudziige der pbysiscben Erdkunde.” Leipzig. Hann, J., Hochstetter, F. L., Pokorny, A. “Allgemeine Erdkunde, ein Leitfaden der astronomiscben Geograpbie, Meteorologie, Geologic und Biologie.” 4th edition. Prague. Geistbeck, M. “Leitfaden der matbematisch-pbysikaliscben Geograpbie.” 4th edition. Freiburg. Ratzel, F. “ Die Erde in 24 gemeinTerstiindlicben Abbandlungen liber allgemeine Erdkunde.” Stuttgart. (/) Ethnology. Muller, F. “Allgemeine Ethnograpkie.” 2d edition. Vienna. Pescbel, O. “ Volkerkunde.” 6tb edition. Leipzig. Oberliinder, R. “ Der Menscb vormals und beute.” Leipzig. Geistbeck, M. “ Bilder aus der Volkerkunde.” Breslau. Hellwald, F. “ Die Erde und ibre Vblker.” Stuttgart. Hobirk, F. “ Wanderungen auf dem Gebiete der Lander und Volkerkunde.” Detmold. Krizeli, W. “ Volker und Spracbeustamme der Erde.” Tabor. Scbbppuer, E. “ Hausschatz der Lander und Vdlkerkunde.” Leipzig. Ratzel, IT. “ Volkerkunde.” Leij)zig. (g) Text-hool's, political geography. Guthe, H. “Lehrbucb der Geograpbie.” 5tk edition prepared by H. "Wagner. 2 vols. Daniel, H. A. “ Illustrirtes kleineres Handbucb' der Geograpbie. 2d editiou. Leipzig. Andree, Iv. “ Geograpbiscbes Handbucb mit Beriicksicbtigung der commerzielleu, statistiscben und politiscben Verbiiltnisse.” Bielefeld. Egli, J. J. “Neue Erdkunde fiir bdbere Schulen.” 7tb edition. St. Gallen. Kircbboff, A. “Scbulgeograpbie.” 7tb edition. Halle. Supan, A. “Lehrbucb der Geograpbie nacb den Prinzipien der neueren Wissen- scbaft.” 6tb edition. Laibach. Paulitsckke, P. “Leitfaden der geograpbiscben Verkehrslckre,” supplement to E. v. Seydlitz’s Geograpbie. Breslau. TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 321 Rothaug, J. G. “Lehrbucli der Geograpliie fiir Biirgerscliulen.” Rothaug, J. G. “ Leitfaden der Geograpliie fiir Volksschulen.” Seibert, A. E. “Schulgeograpliie,” in 3 parts. Same for elementary schools. Rusch, G. “Leitfaden der Geographic.” in 3 parts. {lx) Geographical pictures and poetry. Grube, A. W. “ Geograpliische Charakterbilder. 17th edition. Leipzig. Piitz, W. “ Charakteristiken zur vergleichenden Erd- und Volkerkunde.” Cologne. Mauer. “ Geographische Bilder.” 13th edition. Langensalza. Jiracek, von. “ Geographische Dichterbilder.” Vienna. (i) Geography of separate States. Geistbeck, M. “ Das Konigreich Bayern.” Munich. Spiess, F. “ Physikalische Topographie von Thiiringen.” Weimar. Umlauft, F. “ Die dsterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic.” Vienna. Mayer. “Geographic von Oesterreich-Ungarn.” Prague. (Jc) Periodicals. “Zeitschrift fiir Scliulgeographie,” edited by A. Seibert, 12 nos. a year. Vienna. Peterinann’s (Dr. A.) “ Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes’ geographischer Anstalt,” edited by Dr. A. Supan. Gotha. “Aus alien Welttheilen,” illustrirtes Familienblatt. Leipzig. ED 93 - 21 CHAPTER VIII. THE COMMON SCHOOL SYSTEM OF BAVARIA. [A brief statement by Lorenz Reiser, teacher in Munich.] After tlie treaty at Versailles, [November 23, 1870, tlie Kingdom of Bavaria was invited, with the other twenty-four German States, to form the present German Empire (Deutsches Beich). For a number of concerns, such as industry and its protection, traffic, and duties, a com¬ mon system of values, weights, and measures, railroad, telegraph, and postal service, army and navy, sanitary and veterinary police, etc., the laws for the entire Empire are made by an imperial council (Bundes- rath), together with the imperial diet or parliament (Beichstag), and published, if they find the sanction of the Emperor, in the national governmental journal (Beichsanzeiger). But outside of these things Bavaria is independent as regards the mating of its own laws with respect to home and property, as well as the management of its rail¬ road, postal and telegraph system (Wiirtemberg also has this right reserved), and during peace the chief command of the army remains in the hands of its own king. The schools, and especially the common school system, are left to the government of each separate state, with the exception that the imperial laws retain certain general rights relating to them. For instance, the national regulation of industry (Beichsgewerbeordnung) of July 7, 1883, in article 135, states : Children under 13 years of age shall not he employed in factories. Children over 13 years may only he employed in factories when they are no longer required to attend the common schools. The length of time for the employment of children nnder 14 years of age shall not he more than six hours a day. Young persons between 14 and 16 years of age shall not he employed in factory work longer than ten hours a day. Article 62 states : u In the pursuit of the peddling business, traveling from place to place, it is forbidden to employ children under 14 years of age.” According to the law of compulsory vaccination (Impfgesetz), enacted April 8, 1874, for the entire Empire, every child on entering the common school must present a certificate of vaccination, and every pupil attending either a public or private school must undergo a second vaccination sometime during his twelfth year of age. According to 323 324 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. article 35 of tlie national criminal code (Reich sstrafgesetzbuch) no child under 12 years of age shall be subjected to any punishment under criminal law. According to article 123 of the same law entering a school by any person without authority or a permit is prohibited. Throughout the Empire the general law of compulsory education has been established, but in the different states the age of entering and leaving the common school is not the same. The various school systems of Germany are divided on denomina¬ tional lines. The local superintendency of the common schools rests chiefly in the hands of the clergy, but as exceptions may be noted the public (common) schools of Baden according to the law of October, 1860 (amended in 1862 and 1868), were separated from the church. The same was done in Hessia according to a law passed June 16, 1874. The denominational schools of Wiirtemberg, which have had their own school laws since 1836 (amended in 1858 and 1865), have a combined state and ecclesiastical superintendency. The Duchies of Anhalt and Saxe- Coburg- Gotha also have their own school laws. The efforts of the Prussian Government to organize the public school system of that Kingdom by a general organic law have not yet been successful, and the bills to this effect which have been submitted to the House of Dep¬ uties (Abgeordnetenhaus) for the last few decades (repeated January 14, 1892) have not found the approval of the house. The public school, as proposed in this bill, was in future to be religious in character with¬ out exception. The school was to be surrendered to the church. When the bill was submitted it called forth a great commotion through¬ out the whole country, which expressed itself in innumerable press comments, all strongly condemning the bill. Prof. Felix Dahn, of Breslau, published a pamphlet criticising the bill, in which he said : It is one of the saddest and most hazardous attempts made in Prussia, or in the whole Empire, since Prince Bismarck has been put out of office, and the thought of enacting this proposition into a law is depressing. The progressive ideas of the year 1848 tended in Bavaria toward a necessary improvement of school education, which resulted in an increase in the teacher’s salary. Before this time the schoolhouse served both for school purposes and as the home of the teacher, who had his sleeping quarters in the garret. Afterwards the school build¬ ings were changed into suitable residences and recitation rooms were newly erected. The normal regulations of Hay 15, 1887, laid down new principles for the training of school teachers. The diet (Landtag) of 1861 expected to pass a new law by means of which the entire public school system was to be regulated. Instead of this there was enacted the school- endowment law (Schuldotationsgesetz) of Kovember 10, 1861, as the first step toward legislation in behalf of the public school, thereby regulating external conditions of the school, especially the payment and pensioning of teachers. COMMON SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA. 325 A few years later, October 31, 18G7, a school bill was proposed to the diet, in which a general school law was intended, which was to rest on the fundamental principles of modern education and statesmanship. But the second chamber (Beiclisratskammer) refused its sanction, believing that the proposed law tended too much toward a diminution of the church’s influence as well as containing the germ of the separa¬ tion of the school from the church. The bill assailed especially the organization known as the district board of trustees. According to article 115 every province (Bavaria is divided- into eight provinces, Kreise or Regierungsbezirke) should be divided into a certain number of districts, and for each district one of the best qualified teachers should be appointed by the Government as school inspector. Hence, legislation having failed in Bavaria, there are now only a few points in the public school system, such as defrayment of the school expenditure (Schulaufwand), home relations of teachers, lawful punish¬ ment for neglect, etc., which are regulated by law. School affairs are dependent, first, upon a number of ministerial resolutions and ordi¬ nances (i. e., such orders as the head of the State, without the coopera¬ tion of the Diet, can make, with ministerial counter signature) which are not organically combined, and, second, upon a great number of special regulations and orders, issued by the head of the department, by means of which, from the beginning of this century up to tbe present time, the public schools were regulated and their management changed from time to time. As many as 6,857, or 95.3 per cent, of the common schools of the Kingdom are found in the country, according to official reports. The present description relates principally to these schools in the seven contiguous provinces of Bavaria, for in the Bavarian Palatinate, which yet retains many laws and civil institutions peculiar to itself from the former French rule, there are also some peculiarities in the school sys¬ tem. The city schools of Munich have been governed by a local ordi¬ nance since January 1, 1872, known as the u Schulstatut ” of Munich. This report would become too extensive if the Munich city school system were considered. Before the Reformation there were no municipal schools. The edu¬ cation of the young lay entirely in the hands of priests and monks. The State for the first time entered into school matters in 1548, under Duke William IY, who in that year issued the first school ordinances of Bavaria. A real separation between the German and Latin school system had not yet taken place. For the first time in a voluminous school law of the year 1569 the Latin and German schools became officially separated in the principalities of Upper and Lower Bavaria. Also, in 1659, under Ferdinand Maria (1651-1679), there appeared a reg¬ ulation for school discipline for both German and Latin teachers and pupils. A more extensive and effectual organization, which touched upon the true relationship of school and state, came into existence with 326 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. and took the form of the Bavarian common school system (Volksscliule) during the reign of Elector Max Joseph III (1745-1777). Influential men of this period of reorganization were Freiherr Adam von Tokstatt and the Benedictine friar Heinrich Brarun, whose convent was in Tegernsee. He prepared, in obedience to the wish of the elector, the school plan (Schulplan) of 1770. The real fundamental document for the purpose of newly organizing the public school system may be con¬ sidered to be the ordinance of December 13, 1802, by means of which compulsory education during the age from G to 12 years and an exami¬ nation at leaving the school were established. An order was issued in the following year for children to attend Sunday and holiday schools during the age from 12 to 18. Bavaria was one of the first German States to establish Sunday schools. (See p. 331.) During the years from 1804 to 1806 a plan of instruction was issued for elementary schools, both in the country and in the cities, but this plan far exceeded all possibilities of carrying it into effect. The new edition of this plan, published in 1811, was drawn up in six sections ; in the first division the real purpose of school education was expressed; the second provided for an institution for the training of teachers, and contains both general and special regulations and maxims; the third division, which was added in 1810, contained a more particular defini¬ tion of the teacher’s duties in the three different grades of the school. As regards the arrangement of the matter of instruction, the plan depends upon the ideas of Pestalozzi; as regards the mode of teaching, upon those of Basedow. But if we go into particulars, there may be found traces of almost all the numerous school reformers of that age. The entire plan is an example of pedagogical eclecticism. The require¬ ment of the kind and number of subjects to be taught is quit exact. For the first grade were prescribed the most important subjects, includ¬ ing the three leading principles, viz, “God, language, number and measure” — that is, religious instruction, reading, writing, and arith¬ metic. In the second grade were added the subjects conducive to the public good, so called because a certain knowledge and skill in these is necessary for most imrposes and advantages in various callings of life. This course contained the three subjects, “man, nature, and art,” represented by history, geography, and natural history, as well as drawing and regular exercises in singing. In 1856 seven years of attendance in the public school was made general. It was then declared that the matter prescribed for the pub¬ lic school should not be increased, for the extension of the school term was intended only for a better training in the branches already pre¬ scribed. At present the above general school plan, which yet serves as the basis of instruction in the public schools, has been replaced by other special plans, which, during the last twenty years, have been prescribed for separate provinces (Kreislehrplane). They adhere without excep- COMMON SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA. 327 tion to the inductive inetliod and the principle of concentration in the matter of instruction. Instruction in the natural sciences must depend entirely upon the established text-book. Nearly all the provincial plans begin geograph¬ ical instruction as a continuation of the first three years’ instruction in object lessons and local geography, taking up the regular study of geographyin the fourth school year. In some quo vinces instruction in history begins in the fourth school year, in some in the fifth, and still others in the sixth. Instruction in natural history, which is really begun in the form of object lessons during the first three school years, is generally taken up as a regular study during the fourth school year. Physics is mostly assigned to the last three years of the course. Singing exercises are given regularly. The songs prac¬ ticed are partly juvenile, popular and national, and partly religious songs, which are learned by ear, and, if possible, from notes. Munich has a central singing school with a three years’ course of four les¬ sons a week. Drawing is taught in several provinces (Ober und Knterfranken) as an optional subject 5 in others (Oberpfalz) this study is made obligatory. The provincial plans intend to make gymnastics general and games (Jugendturnspiele) are encouraged. Por the city schools of Munich gymnastics were made obligatory, according to article 5 of the city school statute of 1871, for both girls and boys. The schools of Munich have had a separate plan since 1871, which was changed and amended in 1872 and 1880. This city school course requires high attainments. Every country school in Bavaria must have its own special school garden for the purpose of giving instruction in gardening and planting. In most of the provinces instruction in female handiwork is required, for which a female teacher is employed. The Kingdom of Bavaria had in 1892-93 as many as 7,492 school buildings, in which there were 13,688 school or recitation rooms. (a) In the ordinary schools (Werktagesschulen) : 822,175 pupils; 402,990, or 49 per cent, male; 419,185, or 51 per cent, female; 143,825 in the cities; 678,350 in the country. (b) In the holiday schools: 314,605 pupils ; 139,036, or 42.2 per cent, boys; 175,569, or 55.8 per cent, girls; 36,372 in the cities; 278,233 in the country. Of all the German recruits, both land and naval, the number who could neither read nor write was as follows : 1881-82. 1891- 92. 1892- 93, Year. X umber. 715 Per cent. 1. 54 .45 .38 328 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Illiterate recruits in 1891-92. Xumber. Per cent. Prussia. . . - . . . . . - . . . . 790 0.69 .01 .01 .03 .35 Bavaria . . . . . ...... _ ........................ 3 Saxony ..... ...... _ .......... _ ............................ _ .... .... 1 Wiirteinberg . . . - . . 2 Alsace-Lorraine . - . . 19 By an edict of September 5, 1808, the school boards were newly organized. Their decisions were made dependent upon the department of the interior (Ministerium des Innern), section for public educa¬ tional institutions and training schools. The provincial governments (Kreisregierungen), with their school superintendents (Kreisscliulrate), were appointed to become intermediate agencies, and into their charge was given the supervision of the district boards and local trustees. According to a resolution of the Diet of 1825, the office of provincial school superintendent, was abolished, and in its place a pedagogical advisory board for every province was appointed (Kreisscholarchat). This board consists in every province of four Kreisscholarchen and two assistants, who are appointed from among the leading professors, inspectors, and teachers. They attend the meetings of the provincial government when leading questions of public instruction are discussed and decided, and they perform their functions without pay. The department of educational and ecclesiastical affairs (Ministe¬ rium fiir Kirchen- und Schulangelegenheiten) was established Febru¬ ary 27, 1847, and even to-day it exercises legislative as well as executive power over the school system of the Kingdom. For the common school system a councilor is appointed (koniglicher Ober-Regierungsrat). The department has the right of proposing school laws and ordinances and of issuing executive instructions or granting permission to use cer¬ tain text-books and other material for the public and normal schools. It has the right of proposing measures to be adopted by the King regard¬ ing the removal of the Kreisscholarchen, jnovincial inspectors, and teachers in the normal schools (Sckullehrseminarien). It also has the management of the funds for institutions of learning and of that of the establishment for the publication of text-books. This latter insti¬ tution was founded in 1785 with the purpose of printing and publish¬ ing uniform schoolbooks and furnishing, cheap stationery and such other articles as are necessary for supplying the schools without creat¬ ing a monopoly. At present the publication is not done by the Gov¬ ernment, but since January 1, 1874, has been leased to E. Oldeubourg, in Munich. The books prepared by this establishment are not allowed to be used in the public schools unless the department has approved them. The use of slates and copy books ruled crosswise is prohibited because injurious to the eyes. On this account drawing lessons accord¬ ing to the u stygmographic” method must not be given, and the using of colored pencils on slates is not allowed on account of the danger of poisoning. COMMON SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA. 329 The supervision of all the schools of a province is in the hands of the provincial government, the department of the interior. The manage¬ ment of school affairs is generally transferred to a governmental coun¬ cilor (Kreisscliulreferent), who represents the provincial government in all technical questions concerning the common school system. Since 1873 a teacher has acted as county school inspector (Kreisschulin- spector) for each province, and some provinces have two or three. To the duties of the provincial government belong the preparation of a provincial course of instruction; the issuing of orders and regu¬ lations (these are executive instructions and orders based upon existing laws, ordinances, and general decrees of the department) ; the establish¬ ment of school districts and schools proper ; the visiting of the schools ; the superintendence of the normal schools ; the appointment, discharge, and pensioning of teachers; the holding of state examinations (Anstel- lungspriif ungen) of teachers, and the appointing of district inspectors (Districtsschulinspectoren). These immediate assistants of the pro¬ vincial governments are, as a rule, taken from the Catholic or Protestant clergy. Their business is to oversee the several schools in their dis¬ tricts and to watch the conduct of the local trustees (Lokalschulin- spectoren) and teachers. The district school inspector has to make one official visit to each school every year. It is also his duty to release those pupils from school who have passed the age of compulsory attend¬ ance. This examination generally takes place in the country schools at the end of the winter term (March or April). In the so-called “ imme¬ diate ” cities, 50 in number (these are cities which are subordinated, not to the district administration, but to that of the provincial government), the power of district trustees is intrusted to a city school commission. For the next lower directing power there is in every school ward (Schul- sprengel) a local board (Lokalschulinspection), whose chairman is a clergyman (Lokalschulinspector). The membership consists of the mayor and two or three delegates of the community. In the Palati¬ nate the mayor is chairman. The supervision of instruction is entirely within the hands of the local school inspector. The local board must see to it at the begin¬ ning of each school year that all the pupils are supplied with the adopted schoolbooks and stationery. For poor children the local charity board supplies the means for such necessities. The school inspector is chairman of the local board, and he determines the date of the monthly meetings of the local school board, which principally occupies its time with cases of neglect of school. The parents, foster parents, tutors, or masters of those failing in attendance in either the week-day or Sunday schools are summoned to appear before this board, and when the excuses are found to be insufficient (i. e., if the absence is not caused by sickness, storm, death in family, etc.) the case is ready for action. The first time the offending party is simply warned, but for each subsequent neglect during that year there is a fine imposed of 330 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. from 10 to 50 pfennigs for each day of absence. If the absence without sufficient cause is prolonged, the case is reported to the civil court (Amtsgericht) and punished according to the higher law with a pen¬ alty of imprisonment not to exceed eight days or with a payment to the extent of 45 marks ($10 to $11). Obligatory school attendance begins for both boys and girls with the completed sixth year of age and regularly covers ten years, seven years in the day school (Werktagsschule) and three in the Sunday school. The compulsory law includes not only the native-born chil¬ dren, but also foreign- born children (without regard to nationality) who are living in Bavaria during school age. The causes that may release children from compulsory attendance are — (a) Private instruction (with permission from the local trustees). (b) Attendance in a higher public institution of learning or a school for abnormal children. In order to establish any private institution which is intended to replace, either entirely or in part, the regular public school, permission must first be obtained. This permission is granted by the district trus¬ tees, in whose hands rests the supervision of private schools, and who must see that they conform to law. Among 7,173 day schools there were in 1891-92 only 52 private schools. In order that children not old enough to attend the public schools may receive shelter, support, and care, public nurseries (Kleinkinder- bewahranstalten) have been established in cities and in the country. Kindergartens are found in the larger cities for children from 3 to 6 years of age. Asylums for those of a more tender age, from 1 to 3 years, exist in manufacturing towns, and are called Krippen. In 1891 the number of private nurseries for small children was 179 ; the number of public nurseries during the same year was 34. The kin¬ dergarten is not permitted to become a substitute for the public school 5 it is not organically united with the elementary school 5 it can neither give lessons as in the public school nor otherwise encroach upon the public school work; it is unconditionally forbidden to give instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic. The manner of occupation is so arranged that the children are continually employed at play. Both State and community are awaiting results from the kindergarten. In certain cities there are also institutions, Knaben- und Madchen- horte,” which give to children during vacation suitable employment and maintenance and keep them under control; also manual and trade schools for boys ( Schuler- Werkstatte) are established. During the school year 1893-94 there were 42 boys and 37 girls attending this class of institutions. The department of the interior has power to decide concerning the introduction of convent schools. Moreover, such schools can not be established without the consent of the people in the commu¬ nity where they are to be located. In the year 1891-92 there were among 13,501 professional teachers 29 monks and 978 nuns. Kims as COMMON SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA. 331 teachers liave to fulfill certain prescribed conditions in order to enter upon public school work. Xo woman can be appointed a public teacher unless unmarried. Pupils who have finished the fourth public school grade may under¬ take an examination for the u Lateinschule 77 and u Eealschule.77 After a six years7 course in the u Eealschule 77 and two in the “ Industrie- schule77 comes the u Polytechnicum.77 The u Lateinschule77 has a course of five years, immediately following which is the u Gymnasium,77 with four grades. A certificate showing that the candidate has completed the course in the latter institution authorizes the bearer to enter the university. He who has passed the examinations in the first three classes of the u Lateinschule 77 can enter the “ Realgymnasium,77 and after having completed the course of six years and passed the exami¬ nation called “Absolu tori urn 77 has the right to enter the u Polytech¬ nicum.77 After seven years7 attendance in the common schools and a successful examination, the releasing of the pupil from the public school takes place. Pupils who in examination do not show sufficient attainments, especially if they were negligent in their attendance, can be required to remain in school another year. In order to be released from the Sunday and holiday school, each one must also first attain a certain standing in the annual examinations. The two hours7 instruction on Sundays and holidays is, as a rule, held during the early hours of the afternoon. One- third of the time is given to grammar of the mother tongue, one-third to arithmetic, and one- third to nature studies. For written exercises the use of slates is forbidden. Religious instruction is given in the church by the clergy. All persons of the age requiring the attendance at Sunday school are compelled to be present. In place of the boys7 holiday school, Munich has maintained since 1877 an industrial continuation school (gewerbliche Fortbildungsschule) of nine exercises per week, each lasting an hour. The Bavarian common school houses are, as a rule, built and fur¬ nished to accommodate the children of parents of the ruling religious belief. The religious character of the schools is, as a rule, preserved. According to a ministerial ordinance, however, issued August 26, 1893, there may be established in extraordinary cases schools of mixed relig¬ ious faith (Simultanschulen). The school statistics of the year 1891-92 show that there are 134 of such mixed schools among 7,225 common schools. The school year in rural schools commences with the beginning of the summer term, generally on the 1st of May; in city schools with the beginning of the winter term, usually on the 1st or 15th of September. The beginning and the end of the vacation are different in the several provinces. The vacation lasts from four to eight weeks. In every week of the school year there are two afternoons free, generally on Wednes¬ days and Saturdays. On account of local circumstances, an entire day 332 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. (Saturday) may be given free. The instruction lasts five or six hours a day, three in the forenoon and two in the afternoon. In the country the school hours during the summer are in the forenoon, and do not exceed four hours. In the cities the arrangement of the school hours is the same throughout all the seasons. In Munich the hours in the forenoon are from 8 to 12 o’clock, in the afternoon from 2 to 4; the first (lowest) grade has twenty-three hours per week, the seventh thirty- two. If during the hot season of the year the daily temperature stands at 77° F. in the shade, the school hours are limited to the forenoon. School discipline is left entirely in the hands of the teacher. He determines upon and administers the punishment, and is answerable for any excess of punishment. For the prevention of common mis¬ demeanors and offenses and their punishment, there are brought into effect warning, threatening (before the class), reproofs (in private or before the school), and unfavorable report (the report makes known to parents or guardians the standing of their children: I, very good; II, good; III, satisfactory; IY, unsatisfactory. Further punishments are, standing on the floor, placing the offender for a time on a special- punishment seat, setting of tasks that must be prepared at home, keep¬ ing indoors during intermission without luncheon (under supervision). For grosser offenses which imply wickedness of heart, for persistent laziness which has not yielded to other methods, and especially for mis¬ leading other pupils, corporal punishment is made use of. For this the instrument is a rod or a switch. All other forms of chastisement, such as boxing the ears or slapping and striking on the head, shaking by the hair, pulling the ears, etc., are strictly forbidden. Visiting beer gardens and theatrical entertainments is for school children only per¬ mitted when under the supervision of those to whom they belong. Attending balls (either for dancing or looking on) is unconditionally and without exception forbidden for children during their attendance in the week-day and Sunday schools. Gambling for money and the use of tobacco are also prohibited. Article 1 of the aforementioned school-endowment law of November 10, 1861, defines the common schools as local institutions (Gemeindean- stalten). Mr. Seydel, of Munich, however, defines them as State insti¬ tutions. Serving in the public school is serving the State, and not merely a locality. The common schools are from every standpoint gov¬ ernmental institutions. The State regulates the training, appointment, and pensioning of teachers; it controls school supervision by means of its trustees, levies and collects the school taxes, provides for the estab¬ lishment of new schools, and arranges the instruction. The State con¬ cerns itself with those interests only which the communities hold in common in the matter of State administration of the common school system, to the extent that it grants to them a representation in the local school boards and yields to them the selection of teachers to be appointed. In former imperial cities (Freie Eeichstadte) the candi- COMMON SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA. 333 dates’ names were presented to the provincial government for decision. The legal relation of the community to the public school is not in the sphere of management, but of finances. The obligation of defraying the school expenditure (p. 332), the means needed for establishing and maintaining schools, rests on the community in which the school is located. According to the endowment law, the communities overbur¬ dened by assessments received support from the State or the provin¬ cial funds. If the number of pupils in a common school under one teacher exceeds an average of 100 for five years, the community may be required to establish a position for a second teacher. In Munich the maximum number of pupils in a single class is limited to 60. The school superintendents, in cooperation with the provincial gov¬ ernments, determine the architecture and plans of the new school build¬ ings. The permission for carrying out the project must be granted by the provincial government. The same is also the case concerning the remodeling of existing school buildings. In making plans for the erec¬ tion of new schoolhouses the locality is especially considered. For each child at least 2 cubic meters of air are required. The heating should be so regulated that the temperature during school hours will not fall below 59° F. The community has to see to the heating and cleaning of the schoolrooms. In order to increase and facilitate the use of the best objects and appliances for school and teaching, there has been since 1875 in Munich the “ Kreislehrmittelmagazin.” This pedagogical museum has been more fortunate than the u Permanente Lehrmittelausstellung” in Yienna, which was founded about the same time (1872), or the u Museo dTstruzione e d’Educazione” in Rome, which was opened in 1874 after the same plan by Bonghi. Both of these institutions have been abandoned. The instructors in the public schools are divided into: (1) Regular teachers (wirkliche Schullehrer). These are appointed to regular life positions and receive salaries prescribed by law. They h.ave not the same rights which State officials have, but they can be removed only for cause or disability. (2) Temporary teachers (Schulverweser), who without further legal title are either placed in charge of a school instead of a regular teacher or occupy some vacant position tempo¬ rarily. (3) School assistants (Schulgehilfen) are those who have to give instruction under direction of a regular teacher, who stands responsible for their conduct. A definite position can be entered upon in about four or five years after passing the State examination: consequently, eight or nine years after graduation from the normal school. Application for appointment and change of position has to be presented to the provincial govern¬ ment by the district trustees. The appointment, as a rule, is to a place within the province, but teachers, as well as other civil officers of the 334 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. State, can petition for suitable positions in any part of the Kingdom. On account of the public nature of tlie service which teachers perforin, they are protected by articles 196 and 232 of the national penal code, which secures those serving the State against violence, insult, or slan¬ der concerning the performance of their duties. Injuries which a teacher may receive in the discharge of his duty the community con¬ cerned must make good when the damage can not be repaid by any other means. The regular teachers, by virtue of the law concerning home, marriage, and residence, acquire with their appointment the right of citizenship in the community where their school is located. A teacher in active service can not be elected to the office of mayor (Biirgermeister). He is free from being called upon to act in the capacity of justice of the peace or juror (Schoffe or Geschworne). He may accept election to the city council (Gemeindebevollmachtichter) and be appointed district or provincial councilor (Distrikts or Landrat). There are many cases in which teachers occupy such offices. At present four common school teachers are members of the Bavarian Chamber of Dep¬ uties ; the German Beichstag also has four members who are elementary teachers. Teachers subjected to military service are mustered into the infantry, the first year for ten weeks, the second for six, and the third for four weeks. In Bavaria, since 1886, a certificate for one year’s voluntary service at their own expense is given after passing the last examination in a normal school. If the teacher wishes to marry, he must apply to the provincial gov¬ ernment for an official permit. For the performance of any outside duties for which a teacher is paid (as organist in a church, local secre¬ tary, agent, or postmaster, etc.) official permission must first be secured from the district trustees. Such employments as carrying on beer saloons, retail shops, and the like, are expressly pronounced as inadmis¬ sible to the position of a public school teacher, even if such a business is in his own dwelling, outside of the locality of the school, and intended to be carried on by his wife or children ; service in the office of trustee, as attorneys, notaries, etc., is inadmissible. The State authorities are the only ones who can pronounce judgment against teachers. The local trustees can warn and the district trustees can reprove, but the provincial government alone can pass judgment on the removal to a less lucrative position, or decide upon dismissal. For fifty years of service the medal of honor (Ludwigsorden) is con¬ ferred upon the teacher. Particularly x>raiseworthy and serviceable activity is acknowledged by bestowing the silver or gold medal bearing the service cross of the Bavarian crown. Since 1887 teachers have received the service cross or service medal of the order of St. Michael. The minimum income of teachers in communities with less than 2,500 inhabitants amounts, for instance, in Upper Bavaria, to 880 marks; in more thickly inhabited communities to 1,000 marks. After 5, 10, 13, 16, COMMON SCHOOLS IN BAVARIA. 335 20, 25, etc., years after leaving tlie normal school an increase of 90 marks at each interval is paid by the State from the service fund, so that a teacher, after serving twenty years, has an addition from the Govern¬ ment of 450 marks. In communities with less than 2,500 inhabitants a dwelling with apartments suitable for a family, is to be furnished to the teacher. Tuition fees (Sehulgeld), which constitute a regular source of income of the teacher, are to be paid for all in the community who are sub¬ ject to attendance in school. The tuition fee amounts to 76 pfennigs for a pupil in the week-day school, 25 pfennigs for one in the Sunday school, for three months, which is equal to about 75 and 25 cents a year, respectively. In many communities the tuition fee has ceased and is replaced from the local treasury by means of a tax assessment. That part of the teacher’s salary which comes from the community, in cases where monthly payment is not prescribed, is paid, as a rule, quarterly, like the tuition fee. In the large cities the teachers receive better salaries. A teacher’s income after twenty years’ service amounts (with¬ out the addition from the Government of 450 marks) in Wlirzburg to 2,760 marks, in Munich to 2,700 marks, in ^Nuremberg to 2,550 marks. Leave of absence for more than a week is given by the provincial government. If mutual assistance among the teachers in the same community, in case of sickness, for instance, is not practicable, the pro¬ vincial government must appoint a school assistant, whose support is to be procured by means of contributions from provincial funds. A teacher on sick leave receives his full salary for at least half a year. Since length of service does not in itself entitle teachers to a pension who on account of some unavoidable disability can not pursue their calling, there has been established by law in every province a jmnsion union (Gesetzlicher Yerein fur Pensionierung des Lehrpersonals an den deutsehen Yolks- Schulen) which is directed (under supervision of the provincial government) by members of the union. The union receives donations and yearly contributions from State and provincial funds. All teachers are subject to assessments for pension purposes. The initiation fee and the yearly dues are different in the various provinces; for instance, there is to be paid in Lower Bavaria 24 marks initiation fee, and 12 marks annually. The amount of pension paid ranges in the various provinces from 1,000 to 1 ,400 marks. Besides this, there are in the cities special civil j>ension bureaus. Hence a pensioned teacher of Munich, after a service of twenty-one years, may receive a yearly income of 1,440 + 915 = 2,355 marks. For the support of widows and orphans of deceased teachers there are established societies (Schul- lehrer-Witwen- und Waisenunterstiitzungs-Yereine) which in the dif¬ ferent provinces are differently organized. All teachers have to pay, besides 10 per cent of an entire year’s income, an initiation fee of 60 marks and yearly dues up to 30 marks. These unions receive also contributions from the Central Schoolbook Publishing Company. By 336 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. means of this relief society the widows draw an average yearly pen¬ sion of 200 marks ; each minor orphan receives one-third or one-fourth of the pension of the mother. Since 187 6 a teacher’s widow obtains from the state treasury a yearly income of 180 marks $ orphans receive 80 marks each. For the support and education of teachers’ orphans an orphans’ foundation (Lehrer- Waisenstift), whose property amounts to a million marks, has been established by the public school teachers’ union (Bayerischer Yolks- scliullehrer-Verein). Orphans who have neither father nor mother receive 54 marks per year • if the mother is alive they receive 26 marks. In most provinces the teachers have treasury unions for cases of death (Sterbekassevereine). In many places the widows and orphans of teachers receive support from a local pension union $ in Munich, for instance, from the private widows’ and orphans’ aid society (Privat- Witwen- und TTaisen-Unterstiitzungsverein). The widow of a Munich teacher who died in his forty-fifth year, would receive, if she had a 15-year-old daughter and a 17-year-old son, a yearly income of 2,550 marks. Such enterprises, of course, can only be carried on with sac¬ rifices ; a Munich teacher pays ever year in taxes, dues, and society contributions an average of 140 marks, or nearly $40. CHAPTER IX. EDUCATION IX URUGUAY.1 The Republic of Uruguay, formerly a part of the vice-royalty of Spain and subsequently a province of Brazil, declared its independ¬ ence August 25, 1825, which was recognized by the treaty of Monte¬ video, signed August 2?, 1828. The constitution2 for the new Republic was ratified on July 18, 1830. The Republic, which had in 1892 a population of 728,147, scattered over an area of 72,110 English square miles, is divided into nineteen depart¬ ments or provinces. The department of Montevideo, which has the smallest superficial area (25G square miles), has a population of 238,080, or nearly one-third of the people of Uruguay. The population to the square mile for the whole of Uruguay is 10.1; for Montevideo, 933.9. The people consist of many nationalities; 70 per cent are native born; the remainder are Spaniards, Italians, French, Brazilians, and Argen¬ tines, with very few French and Germans. The earliest traces of education are attributed to the Franciscan Brothers, who established a school in Montevideo in 1744, and to the Jesuits, who opened the first college, which was closed, however, in 1767. With the advent of the Republic appeared the public school, which originated from a decree of May 16, 1827, signed by the governor, who ordered the establishment of a school in each of the chief towns of the department, and who created a junta, or body of inspectors for such schools. In 1831 three public schools had been established in Monte¬ video and two others in the principal towns of that province. In 1839 this number had increased to six in different parts of the Republic, with 400 pupils. In the year 1847 an institute for public instruction was created, which body established provisional regulations for the governmental schools, formulated methods of appointing teachers, and selected classical text- 'Prepared by Miss Frances Graham French, specialist in the school systems of Northern and Eastern Europe. 2Larousse: Dictionnaire Universel, v. 15; La Republique Orientale de FUruguay par le Comte do Saint-Foix; Buisson: Dictionnaire de Pedagogie et destruction primaire. ED 93 -22 337 338 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. books. Tlie efforts of tliis institute or commission, to elate of 1831, brought about the establishment of 14 public schools (9 for boys and 5 for girls) with 700 pupils; but, for want of funds, some of these schools were closed later. These numbers increased to 19 public schools with 2,313 pupils in 1862, but the political events of 1863 and 1864 again prevented the development of elementary instruction. In 1868 Don Pedro Yarela established a Society1 of Friends of Pop¬ ular Instruction, which had great influence upon the condition of edu¬ cation in Uruguay. In 1877 Sehor Yarela, who is considered to be the Horace Mann of Uruguay, formulated a general law of education by which public instruction was to be greatly centralized. His system was based upon the best2 types of schools in the United States, and his aim was to follow American methods as far as possible. It was through his efforts that various text-books from the United States were translated for the use of schools and schoolmasters. According to the law of August 24, 1877, elementary education was definitely3 organized, a general department for the carrying on of public schools was estab¬ lished, and in each province a committee of citizens, serving gratu¬ itously, endeavored to see that the school law was carried out, while a school inspector had the direct supervision of si hools throughout the province. The Catholic religion is the State4 religion, and instruction therein is - obligatory in all schools, but there is toleration of all religious creeds. Prior to the presentation of the educational system it may be well to state that the Uruguayan authorities have various reform movements on the tapis, which may lead to modifications of this presentation within the next few years. Following the lead of other countries, some of the well-known educators have been investigating developments in peda¬ gogical science on the Continent, and the articles appearing from month to month in the “Boletin de Ensehanza Primaria,” organ of the depart¬ ment of public instruction, indicate the introduction of manual and physical training — a graduated series of gymnastic exercises — and the addition of the kindergarten to the school system. Whether these innovations will become a permanent part of the modus operandiof the present system remains to be seen. THE SYSTEM OE EDUCATION. Establishment. — The school system of Uruguay, established accord¬ ing to a law of 1877, with modifications at later dates, consists of three JTho Oriental Republic of Uruguay at the World’s Columbian Exhibition; Chicago; 1893; by Carlos Maria de Pena and Honore Roustan. 2Boletin de Ensehanza Primaria, July, 1889. 3 La Instrnccion Piiblica del Uruguay en la Exposicion Colombina de Chicago. 4Legislacion Escolar de la Republica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda; The Ori¬ ental Republic of Uruguay at the World’s Columbian Exhibition, Chicago, 1893, by Carlos Maria de Pena and Honore Roustan. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 339 grades of schools — elementary,1 secondary, and higher (escuelas prima- rias, secnndarias, y superior) — the lowest grade to be established in every locality where there are 50 pupils between G and 14 years, the limit of school age (edad de la obligaeion escolar). Within the past two years2 kindergartens (jardines de infantes) have been opened as a kind of preparatory division for the elementary grades, but to date •these are very few in number. Education is compulsory and gratuitous in precept, although a study of the subject indicates that fees are paid in certain schools. Parents and guardians are at liberty to have their children educated either in public or private schools (escuelas publi- cas y privadas). The law requires the establishment of normal schools (escuelas normales) and school libraries, the giving of pedagogical lec¬ tures,3 and the publishing of a school journal. Persons desirous of teaching (aspirantes al titulo de maestros) are required to obtain a certificate of qualification (diploma de maestro) for such a position except when they are to teach in a private school (escuela privada). The programme of study, as required by law, includes object lessons, reading, writing, composition, grammar and rhetoric, geography, cosmography and history, bookkeeping and busi¬ ness rules, the duties of citizenship, arithmetic, elementary algebra and geometry, physiology and hygiene, natural history, agriculture, drawing, gymnastics, and singing, sewing, cutting of garments, and the management of the sewing machine in schools for girls. The secondary schools4 5 aim to complete or supplement the studies of the elementary grades, and to prepare for scientific and literary careers. While the secondary schools (escuelas secnndarias) are free, the examination fees for entrance vary from $1 to $2, in accordance with the desire on the part of the pupil to take an elective ($1) or obligatory ($2) course of study. A completion of the obligatory course entitles to a diploma of bachelor of science or letters, on payment of 50 pesos f poor students have a remission of these fees, however. The higher schools include the faculty of law and social sciences, the faculty of medicine and its subsidiary branches, faculty of mathematics and its branches. The diploma of bachelor of science or letters is required for entrance to these university studies 'except for the study of pharmacy, dentistry, and sur¬ veying; students intending to pursue these studies are required to pass an examination. Four dollars is required as an entrance fee for superior instruction, and $150 upon obtaining the degree of either of the faculties. For a more detailed account of the subdivisions of the elementary (or primary) schools, and of the studies included in the classes leading to the secondary grades, see Courses of study. 2Memoria correspondiente al ano 1892, presentada ala Direccion General de Instruc¬ tion Publica, por el Inspector Nacional de Instruccion Primaria, Urhano Chucarro; Boletin de Ensenanza Primaria, 1890-92. sLa Instruccion Publica del Uruguay en la Exposicion Colomhina de Chicago. 4Leyes y Reglamento General de Ensenanza Secundaria y Superior. 5The peso is equivalent to 96.5 cents, hence is frequently reckoned as $1. 340 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. A school of arts and trades and a military school complete the school system. State control. — The general superintendence of all the scholastic authorities in the Republic is placed in charge of the department of public instruction,1 which, created in 1877, has for its presiding officer* a minister of the Government (Ministro de Justicia, Culto e Instruccion Publica) ; for its first vice-president, the national inspector of primary instruction (Inspector ilacional de Instruccion Primaria) ; for its second vice-president, the director of the normal school. There are four other members appointed by the Government. The duties of both State and local school authorities2 will be described under Supervision. Local control. — As aids to the State officials are the departmental (provincial) school insfiectors, and the school committees, who, through their reports to the central authorities, keep these State officials informed in regard to educational affairs throughout the Republic. Maintenance. — The schools are maintained by the Central Government and local authorities. The Uruguayans consider the education of the masses to be obligatory upon them, hence they set aside a large pro¬ portion of the revenues accruing from custom duties, taxation, etc., for the purpose of maintaining enough schools for all practical purposes. To be a citizen of the Republic of Uruguay the person must be able to read and write. It is intended that the schools of elementary, second¬ ary, and superior grades be free to all, and any individual is at liberty to found such3 schools, provided authoritative inspection is permitted in matters of hygiene, fundamental principles of law, and morality. The State is expected to maintain as many schools of all grades as are required to give the proper instruction to the youth of Uruguay. STATISTICS. Uruguay had a population in 1892 of 728,447, an enrollment in ele¬ mentary schools of 67,009, and an average attendance of 51,583; that is, the ratio of enrollment in these lower grades to total population is 9.25; that of average attendance to enrollment is 76.97. The national inspector of elementary instruction, Senor Urbano Chucarro, presents the following statistics for the year 1892 : Elementary schools. Boys. Girls. Both sexes. Total. Public schools . . . . 76 44 371 491 Private schools _ - _ _ _ 106 43 264 413 Total _ 182 87 635 904 iThis department was a part of the ministry of the Government and foreign affairs until 1884, when the ministry of justice, worship, and instruction was created. 2Legislacion Escolar de la Repdblica O. del Uruguay, por Julian O Miranda. 3Leyes y Reglamento General de Ensefianza Secundaria y Superior. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 341 In tlie city of Montevideo alone there were 343 schools of elementary grade, G9 of them public and 274 private schools. Elementary schools. Enrollment (alumnos inscriptos). Average at¬ tendance (asistencia media). Boys. Girls. Total. Public schools . . . 25, 491 11, 601 20, 462 9,445 45, 953 21, 056 34. 539 17, 044 Private schools . . . . . ...... Total a . . . 37, 092 29, 917 67, 009 51, 583 a The totals and individual items, do not always agree, hut it is not known wherein the variance lies. The 904 1 2 schools had an enrollment of 67,009 pupils, or an average of 75 to each school. In the private schools (eseuelas privadas 6 particu- lares) the average number of pupils (la asistencia media delos alumnos) to each school was 80. Teachers, by nationality, in elementary schools. Men. Women. Total. Uruguayans (“Orientals”) . 271 890 1,161 251 Spanish . . 191 60 Argentines . 9 61 70 Fi'ench . 70 28 98 142 Italian . . 80 62 Other nationalities . . . . . _ . 46 67 j 113 Total . 667 1, 168 1, 835 Of these teachers (personal ensenante) 1,515 were lay teachers and 320 belonged to different religious communities. In the public schools (eseuelas publicas) 638 teachers had diplomas and 241 had none. There were 541 women teachers with diplomas (diplomas de maestra) and 76 without; 94 men with diplomas and 165 without. Montevideo has a university (Universidad de la Kepublica Oriental del Uruguay) and some other institutions3 for secondary and higher education. The normal school for girls (Internato Normal de Senoritas) gave certificates in the years 1887-1891 to 143 students who were trained for the teacher’s profession. A normal school for boys has recently been established. In two years it graduated 44 students,1 and it had 12 professors in 1892. A school of arts and trades gives gratuitous instruction to 163 pupils. Although a State institution, this school is actually under the care of the national charity and public beneficence commission, and its building is large enough for 600 students. In 1891 there were 227 students enrolled and 46 professors. The course covers ordinary brandies to the third grade and carpentry, cabinet making, shoemaking, bookbinding, typography, lithography, ’Memoria eorrespondiente al ano 1892 presentada a la Direccidn General de Instruc- ci6n Publica por el Inspector Nacional de Instruccion Primaria Urbano Cbucarro. 2 Statesman’s Year Book, 1894. 342 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. silver and tin smithing,1 telegraphy, drawing, gymnastics, and music. A military college has 8 professors,2 and 61 pupils between the ages of 14 and 18. Many religious seminaries (seminarios) throughout the Eepublic have a considerable number of pupils ; indeed, it is stated that “more than 4,200 1 pupils are taught there.” The university at Montevideo1 had 668 students during the year 1891, thus distributed: In law, 337; in social science, 176 ; in medicine, 85; in mathematics, 30. Of these, 631 were natives and 37 foreigners. The professors were 75, viz: For law and social science, 14; for medicine, 23; for mathematics, 19; for preparatory studies, 19. Classed as to nationality, there were 58 natives, 12 Spaniards, 3 Italians, 1 German, and 1 Frenchman. On June 28, 1890, the Government decided to establish a higher school of agriculture (escuela superior de agricultura) 3 for the purpose of theoretico-practical study, leading to the title of agricultural expert (perito agronomo). A special commission, called the “Comision Directi va de la Escuela Superior de Agricultura,” is to have charge of the work of this school. FINANCE.4 Income ( recursos ). — The Government employs one-ninth of its general budget in the cause of elementary education, this proportion reachiug the sum of about 8700,000 per annum; and so great is its desire to further the cause of education that it aims to expend still more. Elementary, or, as it is usually called, primary education, is, as hereto¬ fore stated, gratuitous and obligatory throughout the Eepublic, and more, the intention is to have the examinations of all grades of public schools paid for by the State, which furnishes books and all necessary materials for carrying on the schools. The public revenues are derived from direct taxes on property, licenses to trade houses, stamped paper, stamps, import and export duties, port dues, municipal duties in the capital and in the departments or provinces, duties on indirect inher¬ itance, trade patents, etc., the customs duties furnishing the principal revenues of the Eepublic. According to the law of 1879, a general tax for school purposes is imposed on householders of cities, industrial establishments, banks, and commercial houses, in accordance with the income of these persons or establishments. The payments are required to be monthly except where the establishments are top far removed from a center; then annual payments are allowed. In rural districts a similar tax is imposed, and the funds are turned over to the authorities of the chief city of the province. 1 Tlie Oriental Republic of Uruguay at the Columbian Exhibition, Chicago, 1893. 2 Statesman’s Year Book, 1891. 3Boletin de Ensenanza Primaria, July, 1890. 4La Instruccion Publica del Uruguay; Legislacion Escolar de laRepublica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 343 Expenditure (gastos). — Each department or province is to report the annual cost of education, the teachers’ salaries, house rentals (so that the proper tax may be imposed), the proportion of the general expendi¬ tures1 required for inspection, repair of school buildings, and for pur¬ chase of school apparatus. The expenditure for schools in 1892 2 is as follows: Teachers’ salaries,3 $348,568 ; rentals, $130,432; incidentals, $19,213; administrative purposes, $29,310; school journal, $1,975; com¬ mittees and inspection, $48,103; kindergartens, $4,263; normal for girls, $39,984; normal for boys, $3,420; for the practice school, $4,962; library of pedagogical museum, $2,507; inspector’s office, $15,227. These amounts, coupled with various incidentals, give a general total of $658,276. The cost of education for each pupil enrolled, as stated in the “Estadistiea Escolar, ano 1892,” is $12.06; for each pupil in average attendance, $16.95. In 1891 it was $13.27 for each pupil enrolled and $18.29 for each pupil in average attendance. SUPERVISION AND ADMINISTRATION.1 State control. — The general supervision of all the scholastic authori¬ ties in the Republic is exercised by the department of public instruction, which, created in 1877, has for its presiding officer a minister of the Government; for its first vice-president, the national inspector of pri¬ mary instruction (inspector nacional de instruccion prim aria), who is expected to visit the schools of the chief cities and towns at least once a year; for its second vice-president, the director of the normal school. Then there are four other members appointed by the Government. The department4 of public instruction (direccion general de instruc¬ cion piibliea) has general direction of primary instruction throughout the Republic. It takes charge of the administration and direction of the normal school or schools; it supervises the different departmental inspectors,1 suggesting the best text-books to be used in the schools; it presents the diplomas of the three different grades in accordance with the results of the examinations; it formulates the school pro¬ grammes, and suggests the best means of reforms in educational mat¬ ters. The technical5 inspector of primary education (inspector tecnico de ensehanza primaria), whose jurisdiction extends through all prov¬ inces, has for his Sfiecial functions the visiting of public schools to ^egislacion Escolar de la Repuhlica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. 2Estadistica Escolar de la Repiiblica Oriental del Uruguay correspondiente al ano de 1892. 3ThA Uruguayan unit of money, tlie peso, is equivalent to 96.5 cents, lienee is reckoned at $1. 4 This department was a part of the ministry of the Government and of foreign affairs until 1881, when a ministry of justice, worship, and public instruction was created. 5Boletin de Enseuanza Primaria, Nov., 1889. 344 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. study methods of instruction, to suggest to the teachers how greater uniformity can be brought about, to organize and preside over teachers’ meetings, to keep the department of public instruction (direccion ge¬ neral de instruccion publica) informed as to organization of schools and need of school apparatus, to present to the department, in accord with the national inspector (inspector nacional de instruccion primaria), a report on the condition of schools visited, and to present a private report in regard to teachers and their aptitude for the position held. Local control 4 — Each department or province has a salaried school inspector (inspector departamental), and a committee of citizens (comi- sion departamental) serving gratuitously, to superintend local educa¬ tional affairs. The departmental inspector has for his special duties to ascertain the school population and enrollment of his special division of the Republic ; to obtain accurate information in regard to the school buildings, rentals, expenditures, etc.; to preside at teachers’ confer¬ ences, and to keep the national inspector informed as to the condition of education in his vicinity. He is aided by the local committee, which visits the schools even oftener than the inspector is expected to do. This committee aids him in keeping a chronological record of school affairs. The local officials (in spec tores departamentales y comisiones departamentales) see that the orders of the central administration are carried out as regards the distribution of school material, text-books, etc. The committee makes its report every fifteen days to the depart¬ mental inspector, and he in turn reports each trimester in regard to the progress or needs of the schools. The aim of the local officials is to further the cause of education as far as it is within their power. During the year 1892 the number of visits made by these officials was 2,678; the number of hours given to such work, 7,464; the cost of visits (including railroad, steamboat, and other expenses), $8,035. The supervision of secondary and superior1 2 instruction (instruccion secundaria y superior) is regulated as follows: A council for second¬ ary and superior instruction (consejo de instruccion secundaria y superior) has for its presiding officer the official in charge of education in the ministry of justice, worship, and public instruction; for its vice- president (usually acting as president) the rector of the university (rector de la universidad). Its members consist of the deans of the secondary sections and of the university faculties (decanos de la sec- cion de ensenanza secundaria y de las facultades de la universidad), and an equal number of members elected by a majority of votes, by citizens registered in the university, or universities, who have the degrees of licentiate or doctor, provided such persons are approved by the executive power. These last-mentioned members must be citizens of at least 25 years of age. The length of term is four years. The 1 Legislacion Escolar de la Republica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. 2Leyes y reglamento general de ensenanza secundaria y superior. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 345 duties of tlie council for secondary and superior instruction (consejo de instruccion secundaria y superior) are to formulate general regula¬ tions for secondary schools ; to approve the university regulations; to regulafe university rentals, and to suggest to the executive power the amounts of annual expenditures; to organize the faculties, and to determine conditions of admission for other universities; to organize a body of professors for secondary and superior instruction for the pur¬ pose of filling vacancies; to arrange for the inspection of private insti¬ tutions; to see that the regulations (arranged by law) are carried out; to formulate special regulations for private establishments, so that the studies may tend toward the courses of public secondary and superior institutions. TEACHERS. 1 Preparation and examinations. — By law of 1877 normal schools, one for each sex, were to be established in Montevideo for the proper training of a corps of persons to fill the position of teacher wherever required. By that law and by a later one of 1882, each province was to be allowed to send three persons to the normal school, providing such persons had successfully accomplished the studies of the sixth grade of an elementary school, and, if a woman, she must have reached the thirteenth year of age; if a man, the sixteenth year of age. These special regulations, decrees of January 26, 1882, also required the physi¬ cal condition to be excellent and required certificates of the provincial committee on education stating the nationality of the persons desiring to enter the normal schools, the nationality, profession, and residence of parents. In order to appear for the examinations leading to a diploma gen¬ eral regulations required women to have passed the sixteenth year and men the eighteenth. Ten pesos a month and 10 for admission were to be guaranteed for each student, and a stay of one year in the normal was requisite except in case of illness. In the normal for girls2 (inter¬ nal o normal de senoritas), established in the early part of 1882, there are both day and boarding pupils. A practice school (escuela de aplicacion) is connected with this institution. According to a decree of March 30, 1889, no man over 21 years of age will be allowed to enter a normal school and no woman over 23 years of age. As soon as the normal student has obtained the teacher’s diploma of the first grade (diploma de maestro de primer grado) he (or she) is expected to return to the department or province from which sent to serve as teacher, unless by special request he be allowed to continue < ’Legislacidn Escolar de la Republica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. Leyes y reglamentos general de enseliauza secundaria y superior. Memoria correspon- diente al afio 1892 presentada a la direcciou general de instruccion publica por el inspector nacional de instruccion primaria Urbano Cbucarro. 2Boletin de Ensenanza Primaria, July, 1889. 346 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93, the studies for the diploma entitling him to teach in the second grade1 (diploma de maestro de seeuudo grado). If the student leaves the normal school prior to the close of a year of study he must forfeit 150 pesos if he be a boarder, and one-half of that sum if he be a day pupil. The length of the normal course, decree of March 30, 1889, is two years, in order to obtain the diploma of a first-grade teacher, and of three years for the women and two for the men who desire the diploma permitting them to teach in the second grade. The graduates are expected to teach at least two years ; if not, there must be remittal of funds to the State in the following proportions : 10 pesos for day pupils for every month under instruction in the normal, and 30 pesos for boarding pupils. Classified according to diplomas,2 in 1892 there were 363 certificated teachers of the first grade; women with diplomas, 544; without diplo¬ mas, 165. The reason of this lack of certificated teachers was stated to be on account of overpressure of work among the departmental com¬ mittees (comisiones departamentales), and the employment ad interim of many men who had not for this reason, or for lack of preparation, passed the requisite examinations. Special courses in pedagogy3 are given in some institutions for the benefit of persons desiring to be teachers, but who are not situated so as to attend normal schools. Appointment. — The department of public instruction (direction general de instruccion publica) has the appointing power of teachers after public competition for the position, but in case of a lack of teach¬ ers having normal school diplomas the departmental committees (comi¬ siones 6 sub-comisiones de instruccion publica) may appoint well trained persons to the positions provisionally. Assistant teachers receive their appointments either through the central department of public instruc¬ tion or through the local authorities. A teacher’s certificate is not necessary in private4 schools. Salaries. — Teachers4 in public schools are paid by the State; in pri¬ vate schools they are paid by private individuals or associations. The average pay3 of teachers is $35.91 a month. The assistants of the first grade, $21 to $25; those of the second grade, $28 to $31.66; the direct¬ ors of the first grade, from $40 to $56; those of the second grade, $40 to $63, and as high as $90 for those of the third grade. Lodging1 is also furnished to teachers, and when possible in direct connection with the school building, or as near as possible to the post of duty. The ^egislacion Escolar de la Republica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. 2Memoria, ano 1892, presentada por Senor Urbano Cbucarro. 3Boletin de Enseiianza Primaria, July, 1889. 4La Instruccion Publica del Uruguay en la Exposicion Colombina de Chicago. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 347 minimum 1 annual salary suggested in 1890 by J. IT. Figucira, technical inspector of primary instruction, for urban schools is — First grade : First class . $3G0 Second class . 420 Third class . 480 Fourth class . 5l0 Director * . 600 Second grade : Fifth class . 600 Sixth class . 660 Seventh class . * - 720 Eighth class . 780 Director 2 . 840 Third grade : Ninth class . 780 Tenth class . 840 Director2 . 1,200 Teachers’ institutes. — In accordance with a law of May 6, 1881, these pedagogical conferences (conferencias pedagogicas) are to be held annu¬ ally, from the 5th to the 16th of June, in the capital of each province or department. They are for the benefit of both rural and urban teachers. The evenings are to be devoted to the theoretical part, that is, to discussions as to best methods,3 etc. All teachers of the city are expected to be present at these meetings, so that there may be an interchange of thought between the urban and rural teachers. During the daytime visits are to be made to the schools of the city, and the inspectors and teachers are to carry on a programme in accord¬ ance with the discussions of the evening sessions, thus having a series of object lessons. The committees, departmental inspectors, and some¬ times members of the central administration of public instruction aim to be present to conduct the discussions. Prizes are to be given annu¬ ally to those who have shown the greatest amount of thought and study along the lines designated. The first prize is a diploma of honor, which admits of drawing 40 pesos from the treasury. The second prize is considered as equivalent to an “accesit.” The department of public instruction also calls together its inspectors of primary instruction4 and they form a “Congreso de Inspectores de Instmccion Prim aria” for the discussion of better school methods, hours of study in summer and winter, extension of programmes, etc. ^oletin de EnseBanza Pnmaria, May, 1890. 2Directors also have free lodging. 3Legislacion Escolar de la Republica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. 4 Boletm de EnseBanza Prnnaria, Oetoher-November, 1890. 348 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93, COURSES OF STUDY.1 Witliin tlie last two years, 1890-1892, the effort has been made to have the kindergarten2 precede the elementary grades in the school system of Uruguay, but very few such schools are yet in existence. In the elementary grades the pupils have in the first or lowest class, reading, phonetics, formation of words, arithmetic, object lessons con¬ cerning color, plants, animals, parts of the body, relative position of objects, etc. ; drawing, combination of points and lines 5 daily singing of melodies; the scale; physical exercises,3 marching and simple move¬ ments; penmanship; moral teachings in form of short narratives ; culti¬ vation of fundamental systematic habits, truthfulness, obedience, self- reliance; Christian doctrine. In the second and third classes there is a continuation of the same studies with steady advancement toward the fourth class, where the elements of geography are added. In the fifth class there is revision of previous studies and a continuation of the same, while needlework is added for the girls. Grammar and composition are found in the sixth class, also mental and written arithmetic; geography showing the form of the earth, its magnitude and grand divisions, with physical and de¬ scriptive geography; the object lessons tend toward elementary geom¬ etry, physiology, and nutrition. Zoology, with fourteen subdivisions, botany, mineralogy, drawing (geometric), are added to the earlier branches, and the girls commence instruction on the sewing machine. The seventh class continues the branches of the preceding years and adds domestic economy for girls. With the eighth class comes history, as far as it appertains to the South American countries, and a study of the constitution; the elements of scientific study lead the student into physics, astronomy, and plane geometry, always with a continuation of the studies of the preceding years. ’Memoria correspondiento al afio 1892, por el Inspector Nacional de Instrucciou Primaria ; Programa para las Escuelas Publicas de la Republica ; Legislacion Escolar de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay, por Julian O. Miranda; Boletin de Ensenanza Primaria, February-Marcb, 1892. ‘-A report was made upon these schools by Dona Enriqueta Compte y Rique, who investigated the subject in Europe, and who has been appointed as directress of such schools. In the four classes of the kindergarten the aim is to train children between 3 and 7 years of age, to have progressive exercises from class to class. A mixed class is to include children from 3 to 6 years of age, who come in during the term, and who, by degrees, are prepared to euter one of the other classes. The class for children from 6 to 7 years of age is to be preparatory to the lowest grade of the elementary school. cIn 1892 the technical inspector of primary instruction suggested a graduated series of gymnastic exercises for the public schools of Uruguay. Fifty-one move¬ ments were given, a classification according to sex and age being noticeable. Chil¬ dren from 6 to 9 years of age are to have Nos. 1 to 20, inclusive; girls from 10 to 14 years extend the exercises through No. 38; boys from 10 to 14 take the whole 51 exer¬ cises (These exercises are described in Boletin de Ensenanza Primaria, August, 1892, pp. 98-117.) EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 349 In the ninth class geography and history tend toward a knowledge of the other divisions of the earth’s surface — the voyage of Columbus is referred to and a chronological review of the Spanish rulers, witli the wars for independence against the Spaniards, is given 5 the scientific branches cover mechanics and meteorology, and the term moral teach¬ ings includes duties to the family, to society, and toward the governing powers. The tenth class leads the pupil on to rhetoric, with application to practical exercises; algebra and geometry; bookkeeping; physics (including optics, magnetism, and electricity) ; history, extending to the Greeks, the reforms brought about by religious wars, the French revo¬ lution, unity of Germany and Italy; advanced study in physical geog¬ raphy, with illustrative diagrams; advanced astronomy; wdiile ordinary gymnastics develop into regular physical training, wdiich includes twenty- six1 different phases. Such was the course developed in 1880 for training in ten classes of the school system. Subdivided as to grade, the first covers classes 1 to 4; 2 the second grade, classes 5 to 8, and the third grade, classes 9 to 10. The laws for secondary and superior 3 instruction, official publication of 1890, state that these grades, similar to the elementary grades, are free throughout Uruguay. Secondary studies are obligatory and optional and there are fees, as heretofore stated, for entrance to either course, but these are remitted in case of poverty. The studies enumer¬ ated under the heading u Secondary studies iii the university,” are arithmetic, algebra, and Castilian grammar (one year’s study each); physics, chemistry; natural, universal, national, and American history; Latin, philosophy, general literature, French, English, and linear draw¬ ing (each a two years’ course), and gymnastics during a five years’ period. The course for the baccalaureate in science and letters lasts six years, and the degree is obtainable only as the student passes the examina¬ tion in the obligatory course of the secondary grade. This degree is required for entrance into either of the three faculties : I. Law and social sciences. II. Medicine and its attendant branches. III. Mathematics and its divisions. There are stated fees for entrance into the faculty for the examina¬ tions, and the obtaining of degrees of bachelor and doctor; the term licentiate is considered simply as a certificate of study which may lead to doctor. I11 the faculty of law and social sciences, the five years’ course for obtaining the doctor’s degree (titulo de Doctor) includes: I. Philosophy of law, Roman, civil, and constitutional law. II. Civil and constitutional law (second course), penal and public international laws. 1 See note 3 on preceding page. 2Legislaci6n Eseolar de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. 3Leyes y Reglauiento General de Ensefianza Secundaria y Superior. 350 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. III. Civil law (third course), penal law (second course), political economy, commercial law, judicial proceedings. I V. Civil law (fourth course), political economy, commercial law, and judicial proceedings (second course), forensic practice. Y. Administrative law,1 private international law, legal medicine, forensic practice (second course). The faculty of medicine and surgery has a six years’ course ; that of pharmacy, three years; of odontology, two years; of obstetrics, three years. The regular medical course includes : I. Physics, chemistry and pharmaceutics, anatomy and dissection. II. Add to these medical history, biological chemistry. III. Physiology, pathological anatomy and general pathology, clin¬ ical semeiology. IV. Medical and chirurgical pathology, therapeutics, medical and chirurgical clinics. Y. In this year obstetrics and gynecology with clinical work and hygiene are added to the studies of the preceding year. YI. Topographic anatomy and operations, legal medicine, astalmo- logical clinics, medical, surgical, obstetrical, and gynecological clinics, and diseases of children. The faculty of mathematics has a four years’ course in civil engin¬ eering, leading to “ingeniero de puentes y caminos,” and the same in architecture ; a three *ycars’ course for geographical engineer ; a two years’ course as surveyor (agrimensor), and two years’ course for contractors and builders (maestro de obras). Eegular attendance is expected in whatever course the student enters, complaint on the part of the university authorities bringing upon the students reprimands and at last expulsion.1 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND METHODS OF DISCIPLINE. A pamphlet presented at the Columbian Exposition in regard to the character of the instruction given in the public schools indicates that it is u educational, rational, appropriate, rigorously graded, and there¬ fore progressive,2 * * * and above all practical,” and that it is u grounded upon solid bases.” The u methods generally adopted are either analytical or synthetical, according to the requirements of the subjects included in the school programme;” the child is taught to think and execute at the same time. 44 As regards procedure, form, and manner of teaching, they are such as are recommended by modern pedagogy, in which intuition and oral instruction take the first place.” It states furthermore that 44 the simultaneous system employed in the public schools enables the masters to teach a great many pupils at the same time, but the number of the latter who receive direct instruction 1 Leyes y Reglainento General de Ensenanza Secundaria y Superior. 2La Instruccion Publica del Uruguay en la Exposicidn Colombina de Chicago. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 351 never exceeds 30, 40, 50, or GO per teacher, the general average for tlie entire Republic being 36 scholars to each master.*7 As the public schools (escuelas publicas) are essentially for the people, “both rich and poor alike attend them, without the least distinction being made; thus by the side of a child of the white race another may be seen of the African race, so that in infancy ideas of equality and democracy are inculcated.” In order to carry on an analytical synthetic1 method of instruction, detailed suggestions are given to teachers as to the best methods to employ with pupils of the lowest grades when instruction is given in orthography and reading. Special regulations are also made as to physical exercises,2 so that they may neither be too many nor too few for the size and strength of the pupils. The boys and girls should be allowed perfect freedom during the recess, but the teachers should watch over them during rainy days, so that from a hygienic point of view they may be cared for. During the course of the recitations not more than an hour should be allowed to pass by without some form of gymnastic exercise tending to rest both body and mind. Discipline? — A teacher or director is expected to be at the school building one-half hour before the opening of school, so that in case the children appear there shall be some general supervision of them. Ho class shall be kept after school hours, no eating of fruit, cakes, etc., shall be allowed during the study hours, and only at recess when there is an expressed wish of parent or teacher, and teachers shall, as far as possible, see that the health of the pupils is not undermined by poor living at home, their influence being exerted (if need be) with the parents or guardians. Another method of keeping up the discipline among the teachers is that in case they absent themselves from their homes during vacations the school authorities be notified. Corporal * punishment is not allowable under any circumstances. If the pupil requires any admonition,3 it should take the form of depriving him of recess, giving additional tasks, detaining the individual pupil after scho.d, and reporting him to the parents. Prizes and rewards may be given for good conduct. Serious lack of discipline may be reported to the provincial school authorities and bring about suspension for a three months’ period. Continued infraction of rules may eventually be reported to the department of public instruction and expulsion may follow if that body so decide. The promotion of pupils is from class to class and grade to grade, but there is discussion as to the proper preparation of the studies in large classes for such advancement, and the technical inspector counsels4 the establishment of a classification which shall deal more especially .with 1 Boletin de Ensenanza Primaria, July, 1892. 2Boletm do Ensenanza Primaria, August, 1892. 3Legislacion Escolar de la Republica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. 4 Boletin de Ensenanza Primaria, June, 1892. 352 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tlie physical condition, character, and aptitude of the individual pupil. He also suggests a remodeling of the school programmes, so that some studies may not occupy so much of the programme, the object being to bring about better methods of study and a more correct formation of programmes so as to prepare for more practical life. These suggestions are made more especially for schools of second and third grade, and ere the result of his investigations in the countries of Europe. Thus it is seen that the educational authorities in Uruguay are endeavoring to simplify the course of study from grade to grade, and reform movements are being discussed in this South American Eepublic, even as in the United States, the Scandinavian countries, Italy, and elsewhere. The educational reformers of the present day recognize that the schools must prepare for practical life, as well as for the college, and that the body must be trained, and the mind not overtaxed by too many studies. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. Buildings and grounds . — The schools1 are reported to be generally well organized in the chief centers of population and under the charge of persons who endeavor to carry out the general regulations. In rural districts there is perhaps less inciting to progress, owing to lack of opportunity for an interchange of thought regarding new methods. Visits from the national inspector will doubtless obviate this difficulty and animate the teachers to renewed efforts. The school buildings in populous centers are well built, often of an ornamental character $ the value of school property and furniture amounts to $778, 010.2 According to a tabular presentation3 the school buildings throughout the Eepublic numbered 342 of brick or stone, 132 adobe, and 18 of wood. In 255 school buildings the flooring was of boards, in 5 of stone, in 46 of brick, in 151 of earth, and in 3 of cement. The general effort seems to be, judging from the discussions in the “Boletin de Ensenanza Prim aria,* to adopt hygienic methods, to erect schoolhouses with modern improve¬ ments, and to have desks, chairs, etc., suited to the requirements of children of different ages. Hours of school and length of recesses.4 — During the months of hDwem- ber-March the hours of school (horos de clase) in the elementary grades are from 8 to 12 o’clock, with twenty minutes recess (recreos y salidas) for physical exercise, going out into the air, etc. ; in the schools of first and second grade there may be still two other recreations of ten min¬ utes each. From April 1 to October 31, the hours from 11 to 4 o’clock are considered to be the limit of time. A recess of thirty minutes for gymnastic exercises and two recesses of fifteen minutes each for rec- reatibn prevent over fatigue of pupils. lMemoria correspondiente al ano 1892. 2La Instruccion Publica del Uruguay en la Exposicion Col6mbina de Chicago. 3Estadlstica Escolar de la Republica O. del Uruguay, ano de 1892. 4Legislacl6n Escolar de la Republica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 353 This system was in vogue in 188G and doubtless still is, as the school legislation of that day seems to be carried out throughout the Republic, as far as can be ascertained by a study of the reports and bulletins issued by the Uruguayan authorities. In 1885, 1 however, Don Jacopo A. Varela presented a bill which suggested the opening of the schools at 7 o’clock and closing them at midday during the months of October 15 to April 15, the necessary recesses being accorded during those hours. This change was to be made on account of the heated term, but whether this plan 1 was adopted is unknown. The length of vacations is not distinctly stated, but it may be observed that by decree of 1883 teachers are not to absent themselves from their residential district without due authorization, and any unexcused absence at the beginning of a new term will cause them to lose fifteen days’ pay. Compulsory attendance (edad de la obligacion escoiar) is, as hereto¬ fore stated, between the ages of 6 to 11, and failure to carry out this obligatory attendance causes a fine of from $12 to $21.2 A decree of January 11, 1882, reads, however, more explicitly. In the places where there are schools 3 of first grade the pupil is expected to attend until the completion of the fifteenth year, unless prior to that he has mas¬ tered the studies of classes 1-6, inclusive. In cities, towns, and villages where there are schools of the second grade the pupil is expected to complete the fifteenth year or to indicate that he has completed classes 1-8 of the programme. The school supply 4 may be considered as ample in the best populated communities, for the law explicitly requires the opening of school libra¬ ries; the text-books are, many of them, translations from the best in use in the United States; the school furniture, material, and appur¬ tenances as exhibited at the Columbian Exposition (either by photo¬ graph or by model) include a graduated series of settees, bookcases, blackboards, compasses, rules, numeral frames, charts, apparatus for teaching the metric decimal system, wall maps, and a general collection of apparatus used by the pupils of public schools. SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS. Libraries and museums. A— Recognized as instrumentalities of thought are the library and pedagogical museum (Biblioteca y Museo Peda- gogicos) founded in Montevideo by the minister in charge of public instruction, which “ establishment forms a permanent exhibition, not 1 Las HoraTios Escolares, por J. A. Varela. ‘Boletin de Ensenanza Primaria, June, 1892. 3Legislacion Escoiar de la Rejmblica O. del Uruguay, por J. O. Miranda. A La Instruccidn Publica del Uruguay en la Exposicion Colombina de Chicago; The Oriental Republic of Uruguay at the World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, by Carlos Maria de Pena and Honore Roustan. ED 93- - 23 354 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. only of the scholastic material employed in the schools of the country, hut also of that used in foreign countries, so that the masters may apply the graphic method in their teaching, and national and foreign manufacturers may exhibit the products of their industries.” The building, ornamental in its construction, includes didactic, theoretic, encyclopedic, geographical, and historical departments. There are also departments for school hygiene and for a kindergarten exhibit, a workshop, a public lecture hall, a lecture and working room, a depart¬ ment for catalogues, and director and secretary’s offices. Three gal¬ leries contain exhibits of school furniture, material and appliances, wall maps, etc. Public libraries are usually found in the large towns or cities of the provinces, and in Montevideo the National Library possesses 21,000 volumes and 2,500 manuscripts, besides engravings, photographs, and maps. The “Archives” are specially devoted to the presentation of records, ancient writings, and documents pertaining to the early history of Uruguay. The National Museum includes 24,226 specimens, subdivided under archaeology, numismatics, history, paleon¬ tology, geology, botany, mineralogy, fine arts, and industries. The zoological specimens number 13,741; the next in point of number is that of numismatics, 4,201. Societies.1— The Society of Friends of Popular Education (Sociedad de Amigos de la Educacion Popular), founded by Jose Pedro Yarela, gave the first impetus to the present school system in 1868. The first school established by this society was called “ Elbio Fernandez,” in honor of one of the founders. The society caused the translation of many text-books in use in the United States, for the benefit of schools and teachers in Uruguay. The educational ideas diffused by this society and by its head, Seiior Yarela, brought about a reform in school methods and was the means of organizing the administrative division of school affairs. The Patriotic Educational League (Liga Patriotica de Ensenanza Popular), in Montevideo, has for its object the promot¬ ing of the interests of all grades of instruction throughout Uruguay. Its first object was to establish farm schools and agricultural schools for the rural population, but this was eventually given up and the directive, executive, national, and departmental committees decided upon the foundation of a national college. The first report of the “ Liga Patriotica.” published in 1890, presented 245 pupils; of these, 182 were day pupils. The plans so far include manual training according to the Swedish methods; school battalions as a means of civic education in keeping with the colleges of European countries; school savings banks as a means of inculcating habits of economy and thrift. Other societies mentioned are the “Ateneo de la Mujer,”the “Ateneo Militar,” the “Com xThe Oriental Republic of Uruguay; Boletin de Ensenanza Primaria, December, 1891; Memoria de la Liga Patriotica de Ensenanza. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 355 federation Cientifica Literaria,”1 the “Tiro y Gimnasio Naeional,” and tlie “Societe Fran^aise d’Enseignement,”2 which last, founded in 1SS3, has as its object the founding of a French lyceuin iu Uruguay. The object of the French society does not seem to have been carried out, however, although 35,000 francs ($7,500) were collected and ground has been bought for the purpose. Special classes. — A decree3 of February 1G, 1891, established a class for the deaf and dumb (designated as an Instituto de Sordo-mudos) in connection with a boys’ school of secondary grade in Montevideo. This is reported in 1892, by the national inspector of primary schools, Sehor Urbano Chucarro, as a good beginning. He states, however, that instruction of the deaf and dumb has not yet reached a definite form in Uruguay. The pupils under instruction during 1891-92, numbering 25, passed a creditable examination in reading,4 writing, arithmetic, and other branches of knowledge. Special effort for the care of the blind ds not reported. 1 Tie Oriental Republic of Uruguay at the World’s Columbian Exposition, by Carlos Maria de Pena and Honore Roustan. 2La Republique Orientale de P Uruguay, par le Comte de Saint Foix. 3Boletin de Ensehauza Primaria, February, 1891, August, 1892. ^Memoria, correspondiente al ano 1892. CHAPTER X. CHILD STUDY. INTRODUCTION. Prof. Steplian Waetzolclt, of Berlin, in reporting upon the educational exhibit in Chicago, makes this remark: “What we now call history of education is not a his¬ tory of facts, but of systems and theories.” He then goes on to urge the collection of apparently insignificant facts, such as school reports of single schools, which would be valuable material for the future historian. Something like this is alleged of education itself. A large number of teachers claim that in education we start from preconceived ideas, and neglect to consider the actual condition of the child that is to be educated. While some follow theories and presume the facts upon which they should rest, others reject all theories and claim that educators must first find the facts in order to deduce underlying principles and build theories on them. Following the lead of German university professors, a school of zealous workers has sprung up in America who have made it their object to urge the study of psycholog¬ ical phenomena in children, and to study them with the view toward furnishing the world with required facts for the better teaching and training of the young. These educational workers are found among all grades of teachers, from the elementary school teacher to the university professor. They variously call their science experi¬ mental psychology, paidology, or, in plain English, child study. They represent a movement which is by no means insignificant; hence a few authoritative utterances from the leaders of the movement will, it is hoped, be welcome. A national society was formed at Chicago at the time of the educational congresses under the name of the American Association for the Study of Children, and Dr. G. Stanley Hall, the pioneer of child study in this country, was elected president. In the following summer (1891) a department of child study was formed by the National Educational Association, also under the leadership of Dr. Stanley Hall. These inves¬ tigations are thus organized upon a national basis and recognized also as having an important bearing upon the work of the public schools of our country. In view of the intrinsic importance of the subject and the widespread interest awakened, a survey of its history in this country, its scope and methods, and the claims of its leaders as to its importance is here given in the form of extracts from addresses, reports, etc. Child Study as a Basis for Psychology and Psychological Teaching. [Abstract of an address by G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Hass.] The history of the scientific study of children began in this country in 1879, when four kindergartners in Boston, acting under Mrs. Quincy Shaw’s lead, took three or four children at a time aside and endeavored to find the contents of their minds. The results of this work were published in the Princeton Review in 1880. The work showed great gaps, so great that it was dubbed “ a study of ignorance of children.” It came out that the primers were made for country children, while the great bulk of children are city born. This line of work has since been carried on into the col¬ lege ranks. As the study has already thrown light on common school problems, so, it is hoped, like aid will come to college problems. 358 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Another line of study is tho measurement of children. More children have been measured in the United States than elsewhere, hut tho results have uot been worked over so well here as in Europe. It has been found that children grow tall in spring and stocky in fall; further, that different parts of the body have different periods of best growth. Times of physical growth are also times of mental growth in acquisi¬ tion, though children then are notable to systematize well. Hence, in time of great acquisition ease up the constraint of methods; take the child to the World’s Fair, hut don’t ask him to explain it all. A third line of study is of exceptional and defective children. “Study the child” is becoming “Study this child.” The method enthusiast prides himself on results gained from stupid children; hut we must let the bright children set the pace. I would rather have a teacher who knew nothing of methods, for defective children, if he hut knew the childhood of distinguished men, to put in the model school that I should like to see established. An experiment was made a few years ago in Paris which showed that methods adapted for bright children enabled a class of average hoys to complete the six years’ course of the lycee in a little over two and one-half years, although no extra time was given. By such means I am confident we can work twice as fast with the brighter half of our classes. This is not theory; I have tried it. A fourth line of child study relates to health. The modern school is a tremendous engine to drive the child organism. Five hours a day, five days in the week, and nine months of the year — history shows no other such test of child-nature. It is irremediably had if the child’s health or system is in any way seriously impaired; better let children grow up in idyllic ignorance than vitiate their health. These are four lines of child study ; now for two points further. First, let us look ahead and see what is to come of it. As I see it, there are two movements in the air at present. One of these, shown in art, government, or other lines, is a “hack to nature,” even to primitive peoples and ways. This tendency is especially in place in our country, which is without historic background; we are freer to accept and use a good idea when found. Wagner, it is said, got his fundamental movements from the Hungarian folk songs; and he is reported to have said the next great com¬ poser would make his fame by working over the negro melodies of America. So, the school of the future must he based on original child nature. The other movement is engaged in an effort to reconstruct the grammar school course. To do this work well there is needed a union of teachers who can tell what the people will stand being taxed for and how much can he put in a course, with scientific men who can give insight into wider relations. But both of these movements are parts of a far larger one, which desires that school hours, curricula, exercise, buildings, etc., shall all be reconstructed in accordance with child nature, the true norm, in order to obvi¬ ate the dangers inherent in our present great machine. If the showing of bad bodily results made by investigators of Euroiman schools shall be found to hold good of our schools also, public opinion will no longer give them the support they now have. Our public school system is our pride; we must keep it efficient if we wish it to retain confidence. (From Proceedings of International Educational Congress.) Child Study as the Basis of Pedagogy. [Abstract of a paper by 'William H. Barabam, Clark University, Worcester, Hass.] I do not deem it necessary to maintain the thesis involved in my subject, namely, that the study of children is the basis of pedagogy; for if there he any pedagogy, what else could he the basis of it ? I wish, rather, to recount very briefly some of the pedagogical principles that seem already to have been settled by child study. And when I speak of the study of chilclreu, I use the word in the broadest way. Teachers and psychologists are by no means the only ones who have studied children. Some of the most important studies have been made by physicians, neurologists, and anthropologists. The child study, upon which pedagogy is based, should include every scientific study, wherever made, relating to a child’s mind or body. This paper will be confined chiefly to a few principles that result from psychological and anthro¬ pological study of children. The first pedagogical principle settled beyond controversy by this broad study of children is that no development is possible without the functioning of the nervous system. This is no barren truism, for it follows that tho laws which express the development and activity of the nervous mechanism must determine pedagogical principles. Among these laws, one of prime importance is the following: The fundamental is developed before the accessory. This is best seen in the development of the motor centers. The centers that control the muscles of the trunk, of the shoulders, and of the limbs are developed first; those that mediate the delicate muscles of the fingers CHILD STUDY. 359 and the vocal organs are developed later. The same is trne in general. The simple and fundamental processes are first; the fine, delicate, and complex processes come later. This law of the child’s nervous system is the basis of a most important educational principle. First the fundamental, then the accessory. This applies not only to the various forms of motor training — manual training, gymnastics, and the like — but, in general, first a strong, healthy development of the fundamental nervous }>rocesses is necessary; then may follow more delicate and complex acquisitions. A reversal of this order, the imposition of delicate, subtle, and complex occupations in the kinder¬ garten or the primary schools, may please parents and committees, but it is contrary to a law written in tho child’s nerve centers. Again, all parts of the body do not develop at the same time. Each organ has its peculiar nascent period. Moreover, there is a close relation between the function of any organ and its development, and the highest degree of skill in the use of an organ can often be acquired only during the period of growth. The acquisition of lan¬ guage, for example, is probably a case in point. If, during the period that the vocal organs and the corresponding nerve centers in the brain arc developing, attention is given to educating some other part which is not ready for training, twofold loss is likely to be the result — waste of energy or injury in case of the latter, loss of oppor¬ tunity in case of the former. So, too. if manual training be neglected in early life, during the nascent period of the motor centers, great skill can seldom be attained afterwards. Corresponding to the nascent periods of the motor organs are the periods of inter¬ est in the child’s mental growth. This year your boy has the collecting mania ; next year it will be baseball or the secret language; a third year it will be the debating society; or he may be hunting or stuffing birds and snakes. These interests are sacred. Some of them should be turned into new channels; others should be made permanent, as a part of character. But, in all cases, the time of interest is the time of opportunity; and here opportunity seldom comes twice. Special studies have shown the sequence of children’s interests. This must be considered in determining the course of study; for, as Professor James puts it: “ To determine the moment of instinctive readiness for a subject is the supreme duty of every educator.” Psychological studies have also brought into prominence the active side of child nature, and one of the most important movements to-day is the tendency to empha¬ size the active side of education. Pedagogy based upon child study seeks to use all the light that comes from the various fields of psychology, and with that light to appropriate all that is best in all the various systems of education. It admits with Pestalozzi the fundamental importance of sense perception. Things before words, the concrete before the abstract, clear perceptions before the working over concepts. With Herbart it maintains also that sense perception is not enough. There must be mental assimilation and the study of causal relations, but also there must be the expression of thought ; and, more than Pestalozzi or Herbart, it places emphasis upon the active, the productive, the creative processes in education. (From Pro¬ ceedings of International Educational Congress.) A Plea for Special Child Study. [By Prof. W. L. Bryan, University of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.J I wish in substance to make a plea for one special kind of child study, namely, that in which methods already well developed and tested in the laboratory may be carried out under the direction of experts upon large numbers of children. This is not the only kind of child study profitable. Individual teachers every¬ where, though little skilled in scientific methods, may gain great advantage for themselves by observing the children under their charge; and if the records of such observations be brought together into competent hands, important gains may be made for psychology. The proper direction of such work is at present of the utmost importance. This is the natural history of childhood, and it has certain values of its own which can not be replaced by anything else. I wish to urge the timeliness of supplementing such and all other methods by methods more systematic and strictly scientific. In the last quarter century we have had a vast amount of work in experimental psychology. The bibliography of the subject is growing at the rate of much more than one thousand titles each year. More than a dozen laboratories have been estab¬ lished in the United States within the last half dozen years. We are, in brief, on the crest of a great social movement for the regeneration of psychology. It is a fact, however, that from the highest standards the vast and invaluable work so far done has been largely of a preliminary character. This is, in part, matter of course and a necessity. Questions must be discovered; one sagacious question — one reasonably definite ignorance — is worth more than a world’s fair full of blind “Outlines for child study.” 360 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. - The laboratories of the world are engaged almost exclusively in this kind of work. It does not turn out tracts for popular enlightenment. It furnishes few recipes for teachers or preachers or mothers. It supplies few satisfying generalities to philos¬ ophy. Its outlay of published results look to the uninitiated like a mass of tedious scraps. From the standpoint of those engaged in it, this planning of questions, apparatus, and methods is for the most part not intended to furnish general laws of conscious life. Such work is essentially preliminary. The ingathering of results must follow after. But those who have been working at the foundations in experimental psychology have not been blameless, or at least their accomplishment is not blameless. I think experimental psychology has been peculiarly free from this danger. But 1 can not disguise my fear that the preliminary part of the work of which I have spoken has engrossed too large a share of attention, to the peril of our scien¬ tific and educational standing. We promise a science of conscious life. As other sciences have traced the develop¬ ment of the physical world, we promise to supplement this by giving the natural history of conscious life from its darkest beginning to the highest achievements of man. But we shall be false to all our promises, and we shall turn the confidence and sympathy which has endowed chairs and built laboratories into derision and rejec¬ tion, if we confine our science to a little round of tests in the laboratory. Ibelieve that the time is fully ripe for a rapid advance in the ingathering of results. The most important things are ready, the things that can not be hurried. There are many plans scientifically developed. There are men who have that knowledge and training which can not be extemporized, and who are eager to work. But there must be organization and there must be money. The thing most in demand is endowed research in the field of child study. What we want is a millionaire. Or, perhaps, it can come without the millionaire. The people of this country love their children. If the scientists and educational leaders whose representatives are here can make the people understand how deep a matter we have in hand, how far into the life of their children, and of all the after world this work tends, perhaps, then, from many quarters money will flow in to make possible, under the best scientific direction, a national bureau for child study. Suppose such a bureau established, under the direction of our one greatest master, manned by a corps of experts in anthropology, in child diseases, in the various departments of experimental psychology, in the mathematical treatment of results, and the like. Suppose, then, under the direction of these, a little Gideon's army of trained agqnts working everywhere in schools, high and low, in the country and in the city slums ; suppose, finally, that an innumerable army of teachers and mothers working as they were able under this direction ; whatever sane prediction we should make to day of the outcome of such an enterprise for psychology and all the sciences and arts dependent upon it, would iu a few years be surpassed. (From Proceedings of International Educational Congress.) Scope and Bearing op Child Life Study. In the introduction to his concise but very complete monograph on the Psychology of Childhood, Dr. Frederick Tracy describes the bearing and methods and scope of the study of child life as follows : The comparative method of study has commended itself to all the sciences in mod¬ ern times by its fertility in results, and is now being employed extensively in two principal directions, viz, the analogical and the genetical. The philologist, for exam¬ ple, compares his own language, on the one hand, with other languages (in the search for analogies), and on the other avails himself of all manuscripts, inscriptions, etc., which show him his language in its earliest stages, and help him to determine by the operation of what causes, and according to what laws, it has developed from its original crude and inefficient state to its present polished and complicated condition, and similarly with other sciences. In the case of psychology the application of the comparative method has led the investigator to the observation of mental manifesta¬ tions in the lower animals ; in human beings of morbid or defective mental life, such as the insane, the idiotic, the blind, deaf and dumb; in peoples of different types of culture, ancient and modern, savage and civilized; and finally to the study of men¬ tal phenomena in their genesis and early development in the life of the child. If the child is only the adult in miniature, and if society is only the individual “writ large,” then in studying the infant mind we are approaching a vantage ground from which we may catch a prophetic view not only of psychological but also of socio¬ logical phenomena. When we compare the young child with the young animal, we can not fail to be struck by the apparent superiority of the latter over the former at the beginning of life. The human infant, for example, requires weeks to attain the power of holding CHILD STUDY. 361 liis head in equilibrium, while the young chicken runs about and picks up grains of wheat before the first day of his life is over. This, however, carefully considered, is a token rather of the superiority than the inferiority of the human being. The higher you ascend in the scale of being, the more varied and complex is the environ¬ ment in which the individual moves, and to which he must adapt his movements. This adaptation requires, on the physiological side, a cerebral and nervous develop¬ ment, and on the psychic side a mental growth, for which time is an absolute neces¬ sity.’ Animals go on all their lives doing the same simple things, which require a minimum of mental activity and which, by dint of constant repetition, produce physiological adjustments that become at length hereditary; so that phenomena which seem to the casual observer the index of an astonishing degree of mental advancement, such as the “scampering” of the young chicks on a certain peculiar call of the mother, are really at bottom little more than the response of an organism, adjusted by heredity, to the action of an external stimulus. The longer and more arduous the journey, the more time is required for prepara¬ tion; the more complicated the art to be acquired, the more extended is the period of apprenticeship. So the child, having an infinitely grander life before him, and infinitely more exalted, complicated, and difficult operations to perform — mental, moral, and physical — requires a longer period of tutelage than the chicken, which on the first day of his life scratches and pecks, and to the end of his existence makes no advance upon these simple ox>erations. The young animal, before the end of the first day of his life, does what it takes the child a year to accomplish; but the child of two years does what the animal never will accomplish to the end of his days. The object of the p resent essay is to discuss infant psychology. When and how do mental phenomena take their rise in the infant consciousness? How far are they conditioned by heredity, and how far by education, including suggestion? What is the nature of the process by which the automatic and mechanical pass over into the conscious and voluntary ? These are some of the questions to which the following pages may help to furnish an answer. That they may do so, it has been thought best to gather together, so far as possible, the best work that has been done in actual observation of children up to the present time, arrange this under appropriate head¬ ings, incorporate the results of several observations made by the writer himself, and present the whole in epitomized form, with copious references and quotations. The inquiry proceeds along the line usually followed by psychologists, and treats the mental endowment, from the genetic point of view, in the following order : Sensation, emotion, intellection, volition; child language, on account of its paramount import¬ ance, being treated in a chapter by itself. It was intended at first to add a chapter on the moral nature of the child, but as the work progressed it became more and more evident that to treat this important phase of child life adequately would require not only more space than is at our disposal at present, but an advance into later stages of life than are embraced in the present work, which is intended only as a manual of infant psychology in an approximately strict sense of the words. I can not forbear calling attention in this place to one great general principle which is so constantly illustrated in the child’s mental life that it may be considered uni¬ versal. It might be appropriately named the principle of transformation, and explained as follows: Every mental phenomenon passes through a graduated ascend¬ ing series of development. At first the physiological predominates, consciousness is at a minimum, and the so-called mental phenomenon would be more accurately defined as the reaction of the nervous system to external stimuli or the organic con¬ ditions. For example, the child cries at intervals from the moment of his birth; but at first this cry is independent of his will, and possesses scarcely any mental significance, for it is made without cerebral cooperation, and, as in the case of micro- cephalic infants, even when the cerebrum is entirely absent. Later the mental aspect becomes more prominent. When the intellect and will have become suffi¬ ciently developed the child directs his attention to the act, makes it his own, and performs it voluntarily. The process perhax>s has not changed at all to outward appearance, but when viewed on the inner side it is seen to have been completely transformed in character; and one of the most difficult tasks for the- psychologist is to determine the when and the how of this transformation. The exact time at which each psychic activity makes its appearance is perhaps of less importance than the order of the various activities; yet in order to ascertain the latter the former must be carefully attended to. Hence both absolute and relative times receive considerable attention. PAIDOLOGY: THE SCIENCE OF THE CHILD. There has never been a time in the world's history in which children have been studied and cared for as at the present. The different phases of the child's life are being looked into more minutely day by day, and his protection and welfare are becoming the study of people in every branch of life. Parents are observing and 362 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. noting the doings of their children, and marking down facts that in time will he of more service to those who have to do with the child than one can calculate. Our colleges, too, are beginning to enter into this tvork, for they are putting into their courses of study as a part of the work in philosophy, in psychology, in pedagogy, that of child study. They are coming to see that the child is worthy of their atten¬ tion. True, not many colleges have work in this, and those that do have, put it under some existing department, and for the most part it is a minor subject, yet the small beginning is sufficient to shpw that the work has taken a start, and will grow as the years go by. The normal schools, also, are entering into this subject and in time will do good work in it. I do not know of any high school that has work in child study, but I am assured that in the future they likewise will wheel into line. All this work is good, and it is true, perhaps, that child study is necessarily a part of the work of the departments of philosophy and psychology, and, of course, its application properly belongs to pedagogy; and physiology, biology, anthropology, and, it may be, other sciences will each claim a portion of this field. But this is not enough. We must take a step farther. This work may be very well in these sepa¬ rate departments, but there never can be a true study of the child till there is one department in which the whole center of thought will be the child, and in which no other subject will be considered of more importance and of more milue than this. There must be a centralizing of all the work done by the other departments upon the child into this one department. In this all attention must be focused upon the child, and whatever else is studied should be only in so far as it has bearing upon the study of him. Such a department can have its specialists, its own particular and neces¬ sary apparatus, and its lines of research work. Its work for the most part must be of a purely scientific character, leaving the application of its results for the work of other departments and the arts of life. I have elsewhere suggested the formation of such a department, and used for it the term paidology. Paidology claims for itself the privilege of collecting the data in the field, classifying it, and making new investigations. Its idea is to devote all its attention to the child alone, pursuing lines of work either directly bearing upon the child or necessary to a better understanding of him. Just as there is a science of chemistry, of mathematics, and the like, so there may be a science of paidology. There is great need for such a department, and it will not come any too soon. Yet it is coming just as surely as anything can be predicted for the future. The very fact that various departments of college have found themselves compelled to take up work in child study proves that there is growing up a desire to study and to know the child. It seems that the time will come when no other science will furnish more data for practical application than will paidology. lYo other science will do more for the world, because no other will have a more important subject to work upon, for the child is the most worthy and the most precious object of regard. One concrete example may be given of what a study of children may accomplish. In a treatise on the development of the voice in children (Evoluzione della Yoce nella Infanzia, Adriano Garbini, Verona, 1892) the author states that after a careful search he has found nowhere a treatise upon the compass of the voice of children from 3 to 6 years of age. He says that the music which has been written for chil¬ dren of this period — kindergarten songs and the like — is either wrong in using a compass not at ail suited to the voices of children of these ages, or quite contrary to every law of infantile physiological pedagogy and of musical {esthetics. If we add to this the idea that is being advanced now, that the young child as found in the kindergarten is not yet fully able to make the finer and more delicate move¬ ments, as some of those of the fingers, and the constant attention upon work demand¬ ing such movements is a very great strain upon the child, then it is true that the work of the kindergarten very much needs overhauling. It is not claimed that paidology's work must be the ascertaining of such facts concerning the child, let them be applied wherever they may. Garbini thinks that this music, so faulty aud injurious to the child, is the result from failure to study individual children, as lie has done. Whether we accept his results or not we must grant that his work will do more toward bringing about a study of the compass of the voice of children from 3 to 6 years of age. than all the works prior to his investigations, because now he has opened the way and others are bound to follow him. Such investigations must result in vast good to the child. My especial task just now is to work out a laboratory course in paidology, and I am far enough along to see that such is possible. Most certainly such a course will be quite different from that in physics or in chemistry, and even in psychology, just as the child shows so many sides for examination. It may not bo a very full nor a A ery great course at first, as much time is needed to bring it into fair shape. I do not expect to complete this in a year, nor in two years. ISTo such course in any subject can be created in a day. Yet, with the opportunity of another year’s work in a laboratory with the child, I hope to arrange an outline sufficient to give young men and young women in college some insight into the life of the child. This cer- CHILD STUDY. 363 tainly •will bo a very small side of paidology, and not tlio most important side, per¬ haps, but it will bo a very interesting part of it. (Worcester, Mass., Oscar Chrisman, in Interstate School Review.) In our department here at the Stanford University we arc devoting a good deal of attention to the study of children. Tho department of education was one of the first to bo established in the university, and from tho first we have had a little experimental school connected with it where various lines of investigation can bo carried out. This little school has tho samo relation to tho department that an experimental farm would have to tho department of agriculture. The school includes a kindergarten, a primary grade, and a lower grammar grade. It is held in the university buildings and is supported by tho university funds,' as any other laboratory would bo. The teaching is done by instructors in the department of education or by advanced students in the department who wish to carry out some line of investigation. Becords are preserved showing tho physical development of the children from month to month, together with their development and power of expression along various lines, and the development of special lines of intellectual and physical activity. It would bo truer to call the little experimental school a station for preserving and recording phenomena than an experimental station. In addition to this work we are carrying on various lines of statistical study cov¬ ering this same field. During tho past two years we have carried on extension courses with the teachers of the cities of Oakland, Alameda, Santa. Cruz, Santa Bosa, San Francisco, and Stockton, and in connection with these wo have gathered wide ranges of data bearing on various phases of the child’s development. We have measured 6,000 children in Oakland and have collated the results; more than 15,000 pictures drawn by children have been collated; 1,200 children have been tested as to color, choice, and color combinations; 37,000 definitions by children have been tabulated, following Binet’s suggestions; more than 1,000 papers on theological beliefs have been examined and generalizations worked out; 2,500 papers on early historical notions have been worked up, with as many more each on the subjects of simple observation, generalization, and inference; 3,000 descriptions by children of unjust punishments suffered and as many of just punishments received ; 6,000 papers gathered on special phases of children’s rights as seen by themselves; and 2,000 papers on children’s fears. Besides this largo quantities of material have been gath¬ ered and partly interpreted bearing on children’s plays, children’s superstitions, children’s sense of form, the development of tho ideas of sex in children ; children’s poetry and children’s imaginary companions. (Palo Alto, Cal., Earl Barnes, in Interstate School Beview.) I. Suppose the outcome of the current movement for systematic child study be “ merely physiological,” shall educators ignore it or discourage it? Look over the situation. Bead Dr. Burnham’s admirable resume on “ School hygiene” (Pedagogical Seminary, Yol. IT, No. 1), on “ Mental and nervous fatigue,” on “ Period of growth,” on “ Sanitary sehoolliouses,” on “ School desks,” on “ Period of study,” on “ School diseases,” etc. Bead Hertel’s classic “ Overpressure in the schools” (McMillans, 1885), and, if you read German, Key’s “ Schulhygienische Untersuchungen,” the record of the official investigation of 17,434 school children in Sweden. Look up the modern literature of fatigue and its relation to insanity, for which you will find references in Dr. Burnham’s article. Bead, for example, Cowles’s monograph on “ Neurasthenia ” (Boston, 1891), and, if possible, Mosso's invaluable “Ermudung” (Leipzig, 1892). To read on a little way into this vast literaturo of school hygiene must bring home to you that children take their bodies to school — lungs, intestines, blood, backbone, nervous system — that the school as it exists proceeds for the most part in willful ignorance of the conditions which these and other organs demand for health, and that as a matter of demonstrated fact tho school is seriously attacking the physical vitality of the race. When you have seen these things, what is it that you will do ? You are not a phy¬ sician. You can not be expected to knowr everything. You have already a system of education or a plan or a skill or an ideal which seems to you good. Your thought is already happily engrossed in some noble spiritual idea. Do not deceive yourself. On the one hand are the sciences of help, with much of priceless value already found and eager to push further for the saving of the chil¬ dren. On the other hand are the children in need, languishing in body, and there¬ fore in mind, falling into miserable half existence, failing to attain the fullness of life which is possible for them. And between these stand you, the 11 educator.” Your position is such that you can keep the help from the children or you can hasten its coming to them. You can retard or you can cooperate with those who are com¬ petent and eager to help. You can retard or hasten the day when exxiert hygienic examination of school buildings and children will be as universal as examination of children’s memories now is. 364 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93 “Physical examinations conld not arrive at the Golden Rule.” No. But He who spoke the Golden Rule went about healing the sick. The philosophic asceticism which would withdraw from and ignore and despise the body is not of Christ. II. Is systematic child study necessarily merely physiological? 1. Is there in fact or in possibility a child psychology differing in some important respects from the psychology of your individual, educated, philosophical self? Are children to be observed at all in developing such a psychology? If you observe children at all, how will you do so, except by taking notice of some part of their bodies or some of their motions? 2. If it is worth while to observe children at all, their faces, their motions, their speech, why not observe two children — three, ten, ten thousand? If it is worth while to observe children (1) casually, (2) storing up the things observed in memory for (3) future reflection, why is it not worth while to (1) observe carefully, with 'ail possible care, with all the precision which the development of science has taught us to employ; (2) and why should we not record the observations upon paper, or if possible by some of the automatic graphic methods which exclude personal errors; (3) and why should we not, in cases where it is possible, subject our results to the scientific methods for treating statistics? What have we done in this second kind of child study that we did not do in the first, except that everything was done better? The difference is the same as the difference between physics as studied by Helmholtz and physics as studied by Plato in the Timaenus. When you watch your child play, and when you catch from its lips or gestures some new and precious glimpse of the developing life, you do not suspect yourself of materialism. What if a hundred thousand children are carefully observed with reference to some definite question, the results being examined to dis¬ cover the amount of individual variation at each age and the trend of variation with advancing age, what is it that turns this processor its results into the “ merely physiological?” We can get nothing from child or man, from Lincoln, or from Isaiah, except by muscular motions, which are in us signs of ideas. The experi¬ mental study of children is not confined to the “merely physiological” in any sense or in any degree not also true of the hearing of the Sermon on the Mount. 3. Meanwhile what is the fact as seen in the extant literature of experimental psychology? Only those who are ignorant of that literature can be unaware of its manifold contributions to many chapters in psychology. This is not the place fora catalogue of such contributions. It would be easy to mention single cases, but the value of these can only be justly appreciated by those who see them for what they are, parts of a great social movement toward the future science of psychology. III. (1) Those who wish can be directed in the observation of children with a view mainly to the psychological training of the observers themselves. This is a matter of no small importance. It may be done in such a way as to bring a very great and immediate practical improvement to the schools because of the fuller knowledge and better spirit of the teachers. (2) In some cases results of such observations may afford material for scientific generalizations, especially if the work be planned and the results be digested by a competent scholar. (3) In my opinion, the most important work of the future in this field can be done only by trained scientists. A distinguished physicist has said: “It takes twenty years to make a physicist.” The phenomena of mental development are not so much simpler that a psychologist can be extemporized. The simplest test affords innumer¬ able possibilities of vitiation. Every test used should be planned with no less scrupulous care and should be carried out with no less delicate precision than is demanded in any other science. We are at present, I fear, in peril of a flood of “results” which can not bear critical examination. The peril is the greater because the public will not distinguish between this and better work. We have, happily, a small company of men with the best training for this work which the world affords. Never before in the history of Culture, so far as I know, was there a class of scholars who were expected to know on the one hand philosophy and the history of philoso¬ phy and therewith the philosophy and history of education, and on the other hand to have expert training, not only in the results, but also in the technique of the exact sciences. Never before in a class of scholars did philosophy and science so meet. To the outsider what they have done so far may seem what it will — a heap of scraps. But all their strong and eager heads are not at work for nothing. The movement grows rich within. Presently the bloom and the fruit. Anybody who will is wel¬ come to join this company and share in this work, if he is willing to become fit. Meanwhile nothing is more necessary for all concerned than a wise patience. We can not expect great general results, much less immediately practical results, to order. We must be willing to go very slowly. We must beware of making child study a violent temporary fad. If, as many believe, modern psychology is to bring a renais¬ sance, a new illumination for the reading of all history and for the direction of all affairs, this is not a result to be achieved by firecrackers. (Indiana University, William L. Bryan, in Interstate School Review.) CHILD STUDY. 365 PRACTICAL VALUE OF CHILD STUDY. In this day and age the path to any certitude is a long and tedious one. It is indeed a rather difficult matter to become certain of anything. But in spite of this fact and notwithstanding the inclination of the human mind to revel in speculation and indulge in rambling ravings, and thereby gain a stock of figments of the imagina¬ tion. I make myself bold to say that, as a teacher and student, I am certain of at least three things. These, when stated in proportional form, are: 1. That scientific child study is uppermost in the minds of intelligent parents and teachers and is receiving careful and painstaking attention at their hands. It is certainly in the air which the average teacher respires. 2. That child study is more than a fad. 3. That it is among the most practical and practicable of studies. In the scope of this brief article I am able to speak of but one proposition only. I somehow feel called upon to speak of the third, because I deem it the most impor¬ tant of the three, and also because I am most certain (if there be degrees of absolute certainty) with respect to the truth of this third thesis, viz, that child study is one of the most practicable of all studies and it is at the same time one of the most prac¬ tical, if results count for anything as a measure of value. I always make it a point to tell those of my students just beginning work in my department that if psychology is to be of no practical value to them they should by all means leave it alone. I say to them, as I say now to the readers of this review, that they should steer clear of psychology or anything else that will not appeal to one's practical interests as a teacher and student. For it is one of the chief articles of my creed that j)sychology is a study of immense practical value, that it necessa¬ rily hinges on and joins itself to every question connected with daily life. Likewise, I make the claim that child study (one of the chapters of applied psychology) is a study of immense practical value, that it necessarily hinges on and joins itself to every question related to the question of proper methods to be employed by those intrusted with the problem of developing and unfolding the powers of the child’s mind, i. e., education, or educing from the child’s own make-up, in a more or less refined and developed form, manifestations of its inborn powers. On general principles it would be conceded that the teacher should know the nature of the child’s mind, just as the pilot should know the nature of his craft and be familiar with the waters in which he sails, for it is certain that mind develops accord¬ ing to certain immutable laws. If, then, the evolution of intelligence in the child conforms to laws, does it not follow that education can take place in the true sense only when these laws are known ? In former years the study of educational methods was confined to the perusal of mere theories, but now the wide-awake teacher sees that it is of much more importance to study the minds of his pupils as he comes in contact with them day by day in the schoolroom. It is indeed gratifying to know that this new zest for child study, this eagerness to make the child’s mind an open page, is taking the precedence of all other discussions at our educational meetings. I would say, then, that the study of children is among the most practical of all pos¬ sible studies, because it relates to the mental health and to the economy of human energy. It is almost the only thing — yes, the only thing that can give an exact basis to educational methods. Again, child study has a most excellent effect upon teachers. By careful, pains¬ taking observation of the child the attention of the teacher is divided from abstract themes and mystifying discussions and is focused upon the concrete child as he lives and moves and has his being in the schoolrooms. So noticeable has been the effect upon the teacher that Principal Russell, of the Massachusetts State normal school, has felt impelled to say that the “ practice of child study is primarily and directly for the sake of the teacher, indirectly for the sake of the child, and incidentally for the sake of science.” ‘While I can not go so far as this statement seems to sig¬ nify, I do claim that one of the best results of this sort of work is the effect upon the teacher’s own life and methods of instruction, freshening him and keeping him in loving, conscious contact with the child he is endeavoring to lead. To mention one of the subjects of fruitful investigation in child study, I have only to name the word “fatigue.” Some of us know, and every teacher should know, that the degree of fatigue varies with the condition of mind and body. Thus the child tires sooner when the work is distasteful, or when the organs are unhealthy, or when poorly nourished; and the body seems wearied quicker when the mind is tired and the mind more quickly when the body is tired. The child tires more easily at one season than at another. The condition of the atmosphere, the weather, the time of day, all these affect normal power of endurance. Also rapid growth diminishes one’s power of endurance. The child that has grown up quickly tires easily. The earliest effect of fatigue is a difficulty in fixing and holding the atten¬ tion." Fatigue causes the child’s mind to be less sensitive to interest or novelty. Also one order of studies fatigues the child more than another order of studies would. 336 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. In a later article I wish to set before the teacher the methods that anyone might employ in his investigations into the nature of the child's mind. Simple tests can be used that will be most fruitful of results. It is one of the most gratifying effects that the uneducated observer — the average parent and teacher — can, up to a certain limit, make these inquiries into the child’s mind in as thorough and satisfactory a manner as the best seasoned scientist. The vast array of teachers can furnish the scientists with material gained by close conscientious observation. Without' this material the most adept scientist can not proceed a single step. As a mere allusion to the method of procedure it might be well to note, with Dr. Burnham, all study of children falls into two great divisions — (a) psychological, (b) anthropological. The psychological study of children may be further divided into the study of sensation; the study of the higher intellectual processes; the study of the motor life of the child. Under the anthropological must be included the inves¬ tigations in regard to growth and health of school children, such as those of Bow- ditch, Peckham, and Porter. It is our claim that we should reconstruct all educational methods on the basis of the child. The living, playing, rollicking, romping child embodies all elementary psychology, and every great educational reformer whose words have been heeded has been a person who lived in closest touch with children. Some teachers fail to study the nature of the child because they regard it their business to “ impart instruction” or infuse information rather than to “educate” or unfold. Others are conceited enough to believe that they have sufficient knowledge of childhood in thc-ir own remembered experience of their early years, absolutely forgetting that these few tattered musty remnants are incidental rather than characteristic. (Cham¬ paign, Ill., William O. Krohn, in Interstate School Review.) The Study of Children. [Address by Dr. G. Stanley Hall before the Cook County, HI., Teachers’ Association, May, 1894.] My discourse this morning will be a plain, simple, homely talk on this new move¬ ment which I think promises to give education a more scientific character than it has ever had before, and to make the work of every teacher and every scholar more effective. This study of children is one of the newest movements in the field of edu¬ cation. It is scarcely a decade and a half since we began this study. It is a signifi¬ cant fact that this movement began and has had its latest career in this country, because here, more than anywhere else, we need to take a fresh hold of life. I was not surprised to read in a recent report the statement of an earnest and prominent writer that this and the next decade will be known as the age of psycliol- ogy just as the last two or three decades are known as the age of evolution. The significance of this rests in the fact that in every department of life there seems to be a tendency toward a kind of harvest home to bring the best results of science in every form to bear upon the study of man. It is in this that all the sciences seem to have come to a focus. But my study this morning is only a small section in this field. Yet, small as it is, it is far too large for a single hour. In my own university I undertook a year ago or more to give a course upon the study of children, and I am pleased to say that there seemed to be substance and interest enough to run it with graduate students, and there was meat enough for a good, sound, robust examination at the end. This movement began in this country thirteen years ago by an inventory made by six primary teachers in the Boston schools. They took three or four children at a time in a room by themselves and cross-questioned them in regard to a few of the most common objects which school children are supposed to know about, and the result was that their report seemed almost like a new revelation — a revelation of genuine ignorance. Thirty-three per cent of these children on entering school had never seen a live chicken ; 51 per cent had never seen a robin ; 75 per cent had never seen a growing strawberry ; 71 per cent of the Boston children had never seen grow¬ ing beans, even in Boston, Our school text- books are based on country life, and the city child knows nothing, in the large cities, of real country life. Here is one instance: A large per cent of these children, upon being asked how large a cow was, showed that they had little idea. One thought a cow was as large as her cat’s tail. Another thought that a cow was as big as her thumb nail. That was the first step. The next step was also taken in Boston. We undertook to measure the children of Boston. These measurements have shown first that the average girl is taller and heavier than the average boy from 13 to 144 years old. but all the rest of her life she is lighter and smaller. Another result reached was that the child’s body does not grow alike in all parts at all periods. Certain parts seem to grow and get their force and then to rest for a time. The abdomen, the hips, and even the pupil of the eye has its x>eriods of growth and periods of quiescence. So that growth in all our organs is a more or less intermittent process. CHILD STUDY. 367 Now think of tlie immense significance of that single fact for education. We have not yet effected a complete record, but as soon as we know when the adolescent period is and how long it lasts in all children, and as soon as we have the record of this nas¬ cent period, we have a basis of education which lias never been known before. Sup¬ pose wo are considering manual training, which causes a great deal of strain upon the hand and forearm. It should last through this nascent period in which the hand grows in strength more than it does before or after. Suppose manual training is delayed until after that period is past, then the force that nature gives has been allowed to run to waste. Our nervous system, the most important part of us, does not acquire its full growth until we are fourteen or sixteen years old, and after that there is a long period when our growth all centers upon function and not upon size. Then for a long time our bodies go on growing, the brain getting its functional growth long after it has attained its maximum size and weight. Before the brain has got its growth in size and begins to develop in function, education must largely consist in hints, in the suggestions of knowledge. It should be here a little and there a little when the brain is getting large. It is the time when the imagination rather than the exact¬ ness of facts meets the child's instincts. The great danger in our schools, however, arises from imperfect health. I pre¬ sume there have been 100 sx>ecial books upon the single subject of children’s health. It has become the custom in some countries that in some of the best and most pro¬ gressive city wards there are young doctors who are paid a small sum to examine every child in the lower grades of the schools. There is a little health book kept of every child. These doctors examine the child’s complexion, his muscles, his circula¬ tion," his respiration. Are the muscles strong? Eyes bright? Appetite good, etc? According to circumstances may come this direction : Put this child on a milk diet ; or, keep this child out of school for four weeks; or take this child to the oculist, or to the dentist, as the case may be. All kinds of suggestions are recorded in this book, to which the parents have access, but which the teachers keep. What would you and I not give if we had had a medical examination every six months of our school life? The results of all these examinations which have been made I can not give in detail, but I will say that 42 to 60 per cent of the children in the upper grades were found to be suffering from defective eyesight, and that this per cent of poor eye¬ sight had increased every year from the sixth year up. In regard to the ear, of course the defect was a great deal less, and it was much more difficult to detect. In the case of some children who were thought to be dull or stupid, it was found that their minds were all right, and if they were placed in the front seat perhaps they would prove to be among the brightest. So spinal curvature and other diseases were found to be connected with certain work or habits in school. But the great result of it all is this: That the modern school seems to be a force tending to physical degeneracy. It is very hard for a child to sit four or five or six hours a day during eight or ten months in a rather imperfect air, in a rather unphys- iological seat, with the only strain thrown upon the little muscles which wag the tongue. Nature has made it very hard for a healthy child to sit still; and when we consider that children the civilized world over, and in countries barely civilized, all go to school, we see what a tremendous danger there is that the race will be imper¬ fectly developed. How sad the thought that the race may, indeed almost must, degenerate in its efforts toward the realization of its loftiest ideals. I don’t know what you say; I for one believe it would be a thousand times better that the chil¬ dren should grow up in ignorance of all that our schools teach, valuable as it is, than for the race to continue in its peril of physical degeneracy, which seems inevitable under our present system. For myself, I say. What shall it profit a child if it gain the whole world of knowledge and lose its own health? Or what shall a child give in exchange for its health? This study of hygiene is setting up a new schedule wherein the work of the school is to be judged by a new standard. The work of the modem school is going to be judged by new scales, I believe, in the next few decades. You know that about half of the weight of the a verage male is muscle, and that a large per cent, carefully estimated at one-third or one-l'ourth, of all the energy of the body goes out in muscular work. The muscles are the organs of the will. No one can have, and it is a matter of observation that no one does have, a good, sound, healthy will unless the muscles are strong. But it is only lately that we have come to think that the muscles are organs of thought, and that when we study muscles in these days of manual and physical training we are studying the organs of thought. So that these studies of motor education seem to be the most important that have been made. One of the most fruitful in results has been to test the school children in this respect. For instance, “Hold up your hands something like this, just out of the range of vision.” If the hands come up unevenly, that is a sign that there is a particularly nervous disturbance in the children. “Close the eyes and stand up,” The person who has this particular disease soon begins to stagger and lose his equi¬ librium. And so from these and many other tests we reach these complaints of chil- 368 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. dren ; and we know that children have symptoms of most of the organic diseases of the adult form, and that while the healthy child goes through them all without any stress, in the child that is a little prone to disease they are quite apt to develop into actual infirmities. Some of the forms of school work seem to aggravate these troubles so that the child exhibits through life symptoms of motor and other nervous disturbances. We have forgotten that children can not sit still, but you and I know that it is one of the commands which resound in the schoolroom from morning to night. Alas for the child who can sit still for any length of time unless he is engaged in some special work. For instance, in our tests the children were requested to stand still and then to sit still. We went through the grammar grades. We only had them sit still a minute; then we reduced the time to a half minute, and we did not find a single child who could sit still one-half of a minute; limbs, tongue, hands, fingers were certain to move. Of course, with a little attention it made it all the worse. We saw the secret which has brought premature gray hairs to schoolmasters and schoolma'ams. We found that the idea that children can sit still must be abandoned, and that teachers must learn to possess their nerves and patience if the children do not sit still. We are almost compelled to say that a child can not do any such thing purely. If he ever comes to anything like pure thought it is late in life. We find that unless the muscles have full and free play you can not get any thought. If there is any¬ thing in pure thought it comes from sending out pure, unfettered motions. To illus¬ trate this close connection between thought and muscular activity, I have heard of a pianist whose fingers were made lame when he listened to good piano playing, because we can not think without moving a little our muscles of thought. For children to sit still is to repress their muscular energy, just at that stage when it ought to have its perfect work. Closely connected with this is the necessity of good muscles. Every time and everywhere that the teacher can add to muscle development and activity she is add¬ ing a new source of power. If you can have the child think when he is sitting erect it is better than when he is collapsed. But muscle culture is important not only for the production of thought ; it is important for the development of will. We are coming to realize that thought depends upon it, and I doubt not but we are going to be compelled to say that will depends upon it. I once studied the will with one of the great teachers in Germany. When I told him I wanted to study the mind he told me to study one of the seventeen muscles of the leg of a frog. I thought, “What sort of work is this? I have spent several years in the study of psychology, and now I am told to take up the study of one of the tiny muscles of a frog’s leg as a means of continuing my study,” and I was almost repelled. But I stuck to it, and after months of work I began to realize that I was studying a sample of the same stuff that has done all the wonders of man’s work in the world; that I was face to face with the material that has written all his books and achieved all his great pur¬ poses. By the end of the first year I had got interested and found there was another year’s work in that tiny muscle. I studied the muscle in a way that I had never dreamed of before. This was a new idea. So I experimented and experimented, until at last I knew I had got my result. I had passed in that single work from the standpoint of Peter Bell, of whom the poet says : A primrose by a river’s brim, A yellow primrose was to Mm, And it was nothing more. I had passed from that standpoint up to the standpoint of the seer who plucked a flower from “ the crannied wall” and realized that could he but understand what it was, “ root and all, and all in all,” he would know “what God and man is.” I had realized that thought and will and muscle were made by God, and meant to be studied together. It is a lesson which has stuck to me. It is one of the most pleasing results of modern science. My next point is a distinction in this connection of muscular activity between what is sometimes spoken of as the fundamental and what is accessory. By funda¬ mental we mean all those movements and muscles which are first developed in the growing organism. By accessory we mean those movements and muscles which are the last developed. Now, how much of our school work violates that law, the fundamental first, the accessory second? I have looked over the list of the things done in the kindergar¬ ten. No one believes more heartily in the kindergarten than I do, but I would make one important change in the kindergarten work. I think when you take 4, 5, or 6 year old children and set them at this fine work of weaving delicate strips of paper and at other like delicate processes it is putting the accessory before the fundamen¬ tal. It is reversing nature’s process. Now, suppose instead of weaving fine paper you had big strips of lead and suppose you let the children weave them. And when CHILD STUDY. 369 they sew suppose you give them a heavy needle and twine. All this kind of kinder¬ garten work is useful. The law I speak of does not involve change in a single instance in the kind of work. It does require, however, that the work should exer¬ cise first the fundamental muscles, and not tax the delicate accessory muscles at that early age. I want to see this thing applied in the kindergarten work. I want to see small writing, small figures, fine lines, and everything which puts undue strain on the deli¬ cate muscles that are not developed until a later period put away from the primary school. Dr. Hall then enlarged upon the lessening of interest and effort in school and col¬ lege in the study of natural science which has been observed during the last decade or so. Science is being studied assiduously for its commercial secrets ; but the study of science as science, out of pure love of nature, is receiving less and less attention. This difference, he said — I believe to be simply due to the fact that city life has taken children away from nature, so that the real love of the children has not been given free course. It is impos¬ sible in the large cities to teach these nature subjects as they ought to be taught. Blackboards will not do. It grieves one to see these blackboard leaves when they are the whole text of instruction in our common schools. Flowers do not grow in chalk frames. They have got to have the environment of grass and trees and sky in order to touch the soul. Nature is the first love of every child, and every child who does not feel this love is in an abnormal state. We have been cross-questioning a good many children in reference to their feeling toward nature. We found a good many who said, “this tree or this rosebush knows me or knows when I come here.” One said, “ I can see this one languish because the other one is cut down.” Another said, “I always know the difference between a fool tree and a wise tree, and I thought everybody did.” “I know,” said another one, “that trees feel it if their limbs are cut off.” We had children who talked to their doll and their pet hen. We had one child who said she understood her lamb. “I know he knows me, for when I put out my hand he sees me and puts out his hand; I shake my head, he, shakes his head.” The child philosophy a’bout all these things is a natural philosophy. The little girls who hug and kiss their pigs and are not reproved by their mothers are indeed children of nature. The children who really make friends to the flowers and whose hearts go out to the stars, they are the children who can be understood and who can understand nature’s language. Premature, pallid little Christians they will never be. You can not induct children into the love of nature by the use of the microscope and charts. There must be a previous sj^mpathetic ground work. And I say to those who love children, you must love nature and children and God together. They were never meant to be separated and can not be separated without injury to all. Religion is locked in the love.of nature, and without the love of nature and the love of God ail is sham. I am pleading for child study and am giving you a few of its results and applica¬ tions. Do not understand me to say that these results are the best of it. The best is the effect upon the teacher, and next its effect upon the children. It makes the teacher young ; it converts age into youth; and I believe there is no panacea for keeping the heart alive, and there is nothing to keep the heart on fire like great love of children. Children live in the heart. Their mind is a very small affair. Their life is there. The heart must be cultivated. The things that enter and stay are those elements which go through their mind to the will and heart. We all live for life. There is nothing so great as being alive. The joy of being is the prime element in life. Take it away and what would be left? Think of our forms of greeting. What do people ask for? Everywhere, How are you feeling? How do you do? in every language. We ask strangers, How are you? How do you feel ? That is the touchstone by which we test not only a. man’s worth to himself, but also his worth to the world. I visited incidentally, your Cook County Normal School. I go there when I can, ever since you stole Colonel Parker from us, to wind up my watch and get inspiration. I find new ideas and fresh suggestions. I find a new institution, which, if it were in Germany, would be one to which our grad¬ uates would go to wind up their watches. It abounds in the fullness of being, and this is its strength. As covering in substance the last part of his address, we condense a few sentences from one of Dr. Hall’s late articles in the Forum : There is no doubt but that at puberty the former self is in a sense broken up, and that there is a long period of stress and storm before this new creature of the phys¬ iological second birth is fully compacted, so that shelter or “safety” in school and home surroundings is the first essential. As there is a soil from which all the proc¬ esses of our physical life spring, so these spiritual impulses are the raw material out ED 93 - 24 370 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. of which all the great 'deeds, long labors of discovery, the triumphs of love and war are made. There must ho a healthy glow and flux of living, good will, elastic buoy¬ ancy, joy of living. This is the life in which our nerves must not bo scant. Those who lack this are undevitalized; they can write, perhaps, a decent burlesque or criticism, and even carry a goodly amount of culture, but they can not be creative or original. They lack the divine power of active appreciation, reverence, and sym¬ pathy. If young men fail of zeal and ardor on a high plane, they are .more prone to seek it on a low one. After the first rapid growth in weight and size, muscular power unfolds with wax¬ ing and then waning rapidity for a decade or more. Thought we now deem repressed action. Doing is also an organ of knowing. What we do pre-forms the soul. In the relations of exercise to regimen and exposure, in the dangers of an unsettled phys¬ ical condition, in the laws of training and reaction, of accessory and fundamental activities, in the dangers of precocious specialization, as the overuse of the tiny pen and tongue- wagging muscles, we now have, as at least a partial result of child study, an amazing advance within our reach in both theory and practice. (From Intelli¬ gence.) A Teacher’s Eecord of Her Pupils. In the fall of 1881 there was organized in Brooklyn a little school, christened by one of its patrons “The Froebel Academy.” The little academy grew out of the demand of some of the citizens of uptown Brooklyn for a school in their own neigh¬ borhood in which children from the kindergarten age to 12 years could receive the advantages of the more improved methods of instruction. It was my privilege to organize this work. With a board of trustees representing a very high degree of intelligence on educational subjects, and with none of the inherited limitations of an established school, we found ourselves in an atmosphere of freedom highly stimu¬ lating to best thought and highest purpose. In the first year, work in child observation was begun. It had for its object a more thorough and systematic knowledge of the child in order that efforts for his best development might be more effective and successful. The method was simple in the extreme. The teachers met to review in order each child separately — to say what were his best possibilities and his greatest needs, and to ask how the first should be realized and the last satisfied. At the close of the year the list was again reviewed, and the development of each child was carefully noted. A quotation from the record of this work will suggest its character: “(1) A persistent, careful worker; inclined to be nervous and impatient; a leader with a good influence generally. Second entry: Work in class not satisfactory; want of steadiness and persistence ; influence bad, tendency to pettiness and gossip. “ (2) A close observer of nature ; his general work greatly wanting in method and mechanical power; a fine, sensitive, pure character, exerting a quiet but very good influence. Second entry: Improvement for the year marked, especially in method of work; less dreamy than last year; influence excellent.” A high sense of honor pervaded this work. The home was not called in question. The child was taken as he was, and the problem as to how he could best develop his own powers occupied our thought. The record was for the teachers only. An admirable opportunity was lost hero, for there was organized in that first year a society of women— the mothers of our children — whose purpose was mainly that of intelligently uniting the interests of the school and the home. Had the work been frankly shared with them its value to all interested would have been much greater. No thoughtful teacher can long continue a systematic observation of the life and growth of a child without concluding that he is largely influenced by three power¬ ful agents — the home, the school, and the neighborhood. Too often some of these three influences are in conflict, with the result that the child is always the loser. Given intelligent cooperation between the first two, the third is largely controlled; but not until this is done can there be any least hope of making the harmonious education of the child a comparatively certain thing. As I recall the results of this work I see that they were twofold, for it affected both the children and the teachers. The even development of the child was less accidental as efforts for him became more cooperative. The undeveloped power that wo had agreed that a boy possessed found by more united effort increased opportu¬ nity for activity and bad mental habits received more consistent check. The work of one teacher was not undone by another because of ignorance of his purposes for the child. The teacher shared more of the parent’s feeling for the child, and human interest and symjiathy increased. The subject-matter of the lesson no longer held the leading place in thought, for the teacher had a living subject, and lessons became a means, not an end. The work grew in interest, freedom was given for individual growth, routine was banished, and something of the home atmosphere entered with the home feeling. CHILD STUDY. 371 Seven years liave passed, but tbeso children live in my mind as if I had parted with them yesterday. Clearly defined and individualized they hold their place in memory as no other children have done, and I feel that, through all the intervening changes I know them to-day as an artist, who has clearly seen the strongly blocked outlines of the unfinished statue, recognizes it at once, though many finishing strokes have been added by other hands. Last year this work was applied in a somewhat modified from in the practice department of the State normal school at Platteville, AVis. Meetings are held quarterly, attended by the pupil teachers of the class in review and by the depart¬ ment principal. The growth and work of each child is carefully reviewed and recorded. First place is given to the young teachers in the discussion. Their insight into child mind is a good test of their native power in this direction and of the faithfulness of their work. I copy from this present record : “(1) October 1: Age 6 years; bright, but lacks continuity and power of concen¬ tration; does not seem to think at all in number work. November 15: Perceptive powers very active, but no power of concentration; nothing is assimilated; his teachers are working faithfully to gain habits of attention. January 13: Marked improvement ; a good growth in attention and concentration ; more thoughtful in his bearing; memory much improved. March 8 : Has been absent and lost ground; his work as a rule is good. May 23 : Is growing beautifully; inclined to distrust him¬ self; a helpful child, sympathetic, interested in others. “(2) October 1: Age 8 years; good mind, sensitive, reticent, sometimes covers this with an air of bravado; a careless worker. January 17 : Improved habits in work, in conduct, and in thought ; realizing his possibilities rapidly. March 18: Has been doing good, even work; much interested in natural science. May 24: Not working up to the level of his power; careless about form; all handwork poorly done; fre¬ quent laj>ses in attention; a child who lives in a world of his own. “(3) October 1 : Age 10 years; heavy-eyed, not well, hearing and sight slightly defective; wanting in self-trust. January 9: Marked improvement ; very uneven in his work; inclined to be self-distrustful. March 8 : Marked improvement ; still self¬ distrustful and uneven; influence not always good. May 23: Progress for the year excellent; has gained in power to think; much improved in bearing; interested in the work of others; gaining the respect of the class; still wanting in self-trust. u (5) October 13: Age 11 years; a child of unusual beauty in face and form; excel¬ lent possibilities in mind and character; habits of attention rather poor; wanting in self-trust. January 21: Excellent progress; a gain in self-trust; always tries. Mcn'ch 22: Shows an inclination to be fussy over little things, a danger toward selfishness; shows the symptoms of the indulged child; general work good. May 4: Good work; inclined to be a little languid sometimes; a danger toward self- indulgence. “(7) October 20 : Age 15 years; good natural ability, with good general knowl¬ edge; an observing mind; thoughtless in manner; always truthful. January 25: Has improved in work, but has not improved in self-control; inclined to try for leadership among his boy companions. March 24: No moral growth; inclined to think too well of himself; marked symptons of forwardness and conceit.” Modern science asks that the subject be studied in the object. Slowly modern education is recognizing that its subject is not learning, but the learner ; slowly it is awaking to the fact that this learner is not to be studied in the books alone, but in his own proper person, in his own rightful place, to be known as he is. The indi¬ viduality of the child is now recognized as something to be carefully preserved and developed. That he shall come into possession of his own best powers, that his per¬ sonality shall find freedom for expression and all-round growth, is for him a matter of vitai importance. To meet this need the school must give the child liberty to do his own thinking. Such liberty is doubtless one of the demands of modern educa¬ tion, but it can by no means be given indiscriminately. On the contrary, it must be constantly readjusted to suit the growing power of the individual or class to use it well. In this view of the child as an independent entity the teacher necessarily becomes and remains a student. Preconceived theory must often be abandoned, and routine and dogma banished, while he learns from the patient observation of the lives of chil¬ dren what are the needs of thoselives, and what conditions give happiest, most truly fortunate development. Everything, then, that helps the young teacher to become a practical daily student of child nature is for him the best possible training in the science and art of education. This work was taken up for the benefit of the child only, but it has proved itself of great value to the pupil teachers. Doubtless one of the evils of practice work is its tendency to induce self-conscious¬ ness on the part of the teacher ; his careful training in method exposes him to the danger of fixing his thought on the subject to the exclusion of the child. All this is opposed to that sympathetic relation between teacher and child which characterizes all best teaching. But I believe that the observation of children has helped to con- 372 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. centrate the thought of the young teacher on its legitimate object — the child. It has tended to form the habit of working for the child as an individual, and it ren¬ ders such work more intelligent and effective. Simple as the record is, it affords material for answering many questions respect¬ ing the character and growth of children. It is a constant reminder of the effect, good or had, of the school. It promises in time to afford an interesting history of the development of individual children, a history that will doubtless be valuable in answering questions as to the flexibility of the child mind and character, as to his vast possibilities for growth or retrogression. It suggests that the best growth is attended with its own dangers; that one-sided development is easy and almost sure to attend defective conditions; that the complex child nature requires a very whole life to supply its needs. The intellectual stimulus is not enough, but active partic¬ ipation in the common life of all, sympathetic interest in nature and in the activi¬ ties and interests of the industrial and social world, all are needed to secure the beautiful all-sided growth of a little child. This plan will be adopted and adapted by some of the public schools in the fol¬ lowing manner: Teachers in the various grades will make a record of those children who for any reason stand out most conspicuously in their classes. These records will be given to the superintendent and kept from year to year. The plan meets the obvious difficulty of dealing with large numbers in the public schools, and it renders character study necessary in those marked cases with which teachers must deal directly and individually." (Mary E. Laihn, in The Forum.) Paidology or Child Study. Supt. H. E. Kratz, of the &ioux City public schools, furnishes the results of a deeply interesting investigation he has lately been making among the primary pupils of the schools of the city. Professor Kratz says : A new word has been coined recently, which stands for an exceedingly interesting andlielpfulline of study, andhas in it the promise of increasing greatly the efficiency of educational work. Wishing to make a slight beginning in the direction of ascertaining the contents of a child’s mind at the age of 5 years, I made out a list of questions to be asked separately of the pupils who were for the first time admitted to the public schools. The questions were designed to draw out the child’s knowledge of number, color, his power of observation, how well he had stored his mind with general ideas of things seen every day, and his general intelligence. The following is the list of questions asked of 133 children from all parts of the city. The per cent of correct answers only is given : 1. Pick out two objects, 95 per cent. Four objects, 69 per cent. Three objects, 76 per cent. 2. What is a brook? Eighteen per cent. 3. What is a pond? Fifty-four per cent. 4. What is a river? Eighty-one per cent. 5. What is a hill? Seventy-eight per cent. 6. What is dew? Fifteen per cent. 7. What season is this ? Forty-eight per cent. 8. Have you seen the sun rise ? Sixty-niue per cent. 9. Have you seen the moon? Ninety-two per cent. 10. Where are the stars? Eighty-six per cent. 11. Pick out a green card, 79 per cent. A blue card, 73 per cent. A red card, 86 per cent. 12. Which is your right hand? Seventy-one per cent. 13. Where is your cheek? Seventy-one per cent. 14. What is a frog? Fifty-seven per cent. 15. What is a chicken? Seventy -nine per cent. 16. What is a cow? Seventy-six per cent. 17. What is a tree? Sixty-three per cent. 18. How does corn grow? Fifty-six per cent. 19. Where do pears grow? Fifty-two per cent. 20. Where do beans grow? Forty-seven per cent. 21. Where do potatoes grow? Sixty-nine per cent. 22. Where do apples grow ? Eighty per cent. 23. Where does milk come from ? Eighty-six per cent. 24. From what is leather made? Ten per cent. 25. From what is flour made? Sixteen per cent. 26. Where does wood come from? Fifty per cent. 27. Where does ham come from? Sixteen per cent. 28. From what is butter made? Forty-six per cent. CHILD STUDY. 373 29. From what is your coat or dres3 made? Sixty per cent. 30. Where is God? Eighty-nine per cent. 31. What is right? Forty-seven per cent. 32. What is a school? Seventy-three per cent. The above summary, although covering the answers of a limited number of pupils, is, nevertheless, an interesting study and highly suggestive to the teacher. Ninety- five per cent of these beginners know the number two, and three-fourths the number three. This indicates that time may be wasted in developing both these numbers. The following are a few of the many characteristic answers given : To question 2. “ A stream of water.” “ Water that has flies on.” “ A little thing that water runs in.” 3. “ Where there are frogs.” “Round and water stays in it.” “ To set on and fish.” 4. “ Place where brother fishes.” “Aflood.” “ Great big one where water stays.” 5. “ Steep place.” “ Big steep dirt.” “A place to slide down.” “A big, big place of earth.” “A bump.” G. “ Wet on the grass.” “ Frost.” “ Is misty, sprinkles.” 10. “ In a paper.” “ Up in the moon.” “ By our house.” “ Up to Jesus.” 14. “A hop toad.” “ Like a nigger.” “A hopping thing.” “A jumper.” “Some¬ thing that can eat you up.” 15. “ Got feathers on.” “Good to eat.” “Makes eggs.” “ Can lay eggs and wear feathers.” 16. “Has a tail.” “'Get hair on.” “It’s a bossy.” “Hooks people.” “Some¬ thing like a mule with horns.” 17. “Got roots and limbs.” “To sit under.” “To climb upon.” “To make the wind blow.” 18. “ On big cobs.” 19. “On flowers.” “In Minneapolis.” 20. “Under the ground.” “On trees.” “At the store.” 21. “ On trees.” “Potatoes don’t grow.” 22. “On flowers.” 23. “Milkman.” 24. “From wood.” “Paper.” “From a shoe.” “Rubber.” “Out of a kan¬ garoo.” 25. “Snow.” “Grass.” “Salt.” “Yeast.” “Paper.” *“Eggs.” “Milk.” “Corn.” 26. “Coal office.” “From the river.” “ From trees and com palaces.” “Chopped down trees.” “God made it.” 27. “ Out of lard.” “Store.” “Packinghouse.” “Killing cows.” 28. “From a churn.” “Buttermilk.” “Lard.” “Grease.” “Apples.” 29. “Thread.” “Rags.” 30. “In another world.” “ Up on the hill.” “ Up in the moon.” “In my prayer.” 31. “Not to be naughty.” “To work.” “To behave.” “To work and be nice and kind.” “To mind mamma.” “To set the table.” “ Not to run away.” “When he don’t lie or steal.” 32. “Schoolhouse.” “Show you A, B, C.” “Where children come.” “To learn lessons.” “To spell and read.” “Its here.” “To put little kids in.” (From New York School Journal.) The Language of Children. [By F. Tracy, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass.] Having spent considerable time on the study of the language of children just learning to speak, I feel justified in laying before this congress one or two points which seem to me of the greatest interest and importance. Several studies have already been made upon child vocabularies, and results pub¬ lished, but, so far as I know, one essential point has always hitherto been overlooked, viz, the phonetic arrangement of the words; that is to say, the consideration of the sounds rather than the letters. The child’s words have been classified according to the initial letter, on the basis of the traditional English alphabet. It is obvious that such an arrangement is entirely misleading as regards the real nature of the sounds uttered by the child. For example, in such a classification many words beginning with the sound of k are classified under c because they are spelt with a c (such as “corner,” “come,” “crown,” and the like). And so the list of k appears small, and the conclusion is hastily drawn that this is a difficult sound for the child to make because he has but few words beginning with it as initial letter. Several other false conclusions of a similar nature are reached. It is very desirable that those who classify child words henceforth should take the greatest pains to arrange them not alphabetically, but phonetically. In a careful study of some 25 child vocabularies, comprising nearly 6,000 words, some facts have come to light different from what might ordinarily be expected, as 374 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. a result of tliis phonetic arrangement. The 1c sound turns out to he not at all a diffi¬ cult sound for the average child. As an initial sound it occupies third place in order of frequency, standing indeed above m, which is usually supposed to be one of the easiest of sounds. I have several times met with the remark that the young child learns to speak largely by watching the lips of those who speak in his presence, and imitating the movements which are there visible. Hence, on this theory, those sounds will be best and earliest learned the movements involved in which are most plainly visible, and therefore most easily imitated, such as the labials for example. This theory is not at all borne out by ray observations. The 1c sound, whose movements are abso¬ lutely out of sight, is learned more readily than some other sounds whose move¬ ments are plainly visible, such as ih in “ think.” So far as I am able to judge, the earliest vocal movements are not imitative at all, or only so to a very limited extent, and are what Preyer would call impulsive move¬ ments. The child utters sounds before he is of an age to be able to appreciate and imitate the sounds and movements of others. He combines these sounds afterwards in imitation of others, but the faculty of imitation seems to play little or no part in the first beginnings of infant articulation. The consideration of the relative frequency of the different parts of speech in the vocabulary of the child also yields some interesting and valuable results. Among those who have studied the language of children it has generally been supposed that substantives, names of things, are more readily learned than predica¬ tive words, inasmuch as they are usually more numerous than the latter in the speech of children. But it is obvious that we must take into account not only absolute but relative frequency; that is, we must not only compare the number of nouns in the child’s speech with the number of verbs, but also compare tho speech of the child with that of the adult, and prove that he has acquired a larger proportion of his future substantive vocabulary than of his future verb vocabulary. But according to the child words examined by me, the opposite is the case. In the vocabulary of the child of 2 years of age (taking the average of my 25 cases), 60 per cent of the words are nouns and 20 per cent are verbs. But in the vocabulary of the ordinary adult, 60 per cent of the words are nouus, while only 11 per cent are verbs. In other words, the child of 2 years has made nearly twice as much progress, rela¬ tively, in the acquisition of those words that are associated with movements (verbs), as he lias with the acquisition of those words that are merely names of objects. The same is true, even to a more striking extent, when we compare the acquisition of adverbs with that of verbs. The average child makes nearly four times as rapid relative progress with the adverbs as with the verbs. It is interesting in this con¬ nection to remember that Max Muller says that the primitive Sanskrit roots of all our Indo-Germanic words originally indicated actions, and not objects. The principle itself is one that is revolutionizing modern pedagogic methods. Its germ may be found as far back as Aristotle, whose whole ethicai system is based upon tho formation of good habits by constant training of the activities, and who has said that even as we learn to play on the harp by playing on the harp, so we become virtuous by doing actions of virtue, and just and brave by doing actions of bravery and justice. (From Proceedings of International Educational Congress.) The Theological Life of a California Child. [Bv Prof. Earl Barnes, of Belaud Stanford Junior University, California.] This study is not intended in any sense as an inquiry into the child’s religious life and feeling. It is intended simply to show the theological atmosphere in which California children live, and their mental attitude toward their theology at different ages. The materials on which the study is based are: I. One thousand and ninety-one compositions written by children from 6 to 20 years old in the various schools of California, on the subjects of heaven and hell. They were simply given the subjects and asked to write compositions in the presence of their teachers, without suggestion or comment. II. Sixteen reminiscences prepared by adults, in which they tried simply to recall and state their early beliefs. III. Twenty-seven studies on young children made by mothers and teachers through conversations, working along tire lines of this syllabus : God — Where is He? What does He do? Why can not we see Him? Death — Why do people die? Where do they go? Heaven — Where is it? Who goes there? What do people do there? What will children have there? Hell — What must a person do to go there? What is it like? Angels — What do they do? CHILD STUDY. 375 Ghosts — ’Why are people afraid of them? Witches — Wliat can they do? Prayer — Why do we pray? What do we pray for? Why do we not always get what we pray for? Peligious ceremonies — Why do we celebrate Christmas? Why do we go to church? Every variety of faith was represented in the papers — Catholics, Methodists, Pres¬ byterians, Universalists, Christian Scientists, Mormons, Baptists, Adventists, and Spiritualists. With only two or three exceptions the children treated the questions seriously, and the papers bear internal evidence of honest effort to express the truth. The data were collated in the following groups : God, His appearance and activities. The devil, his appearance and activities. Heaven, its location, its inhabitants, and their appearance and activities. Hell, its location, its inhabitants, and their appearance and activities. Indications of a critical attitude; acts which take people to heaven; acts which keep them out of heaven. Since the children were not answering any set questions, we can not state tvliat proportion accepted any particular idea, but only how many of the children who mentioned an idea accepted or rejected it. In studying the data an attempt was first made to bring together the theological conceptions expressed in the compositions, and then to determine the attitude of the children toward these conceptions. The central figure in the theology is naturally God. The pictures drawn of Him are often misty and indistinct, but more than half the papers represent Him as a great and good man. He is so large that “He could stand with His feet on the ground and touch the clouds with His arms upraised.” “He is a man that has six hands and feet and eyes;” or, “Ho is a huge being with numerous- limbs spread out all over the sky.” He is generally an old man, with a long white beard and flowing white garments, often He is represented as having wiugs and a crown on His head. Ho is most often described as good and kind ; the stern quality is seldom apparent, but the whole figure is shadowy, unreal, and indistinct. A considerable number of children speak of Him as being able to do anything, as being everywhere, and as knowing everything. Omnipresence seems hard for the children to conceive, and it probably accounts for his being represented with several heads and members. Omniscience is easier: “God can see everything you do and hear everything you say, even if you are inside of a house.” “I have thought and been told that He can see through anything; it makes no difference if it is iron, steel, glass, wood, or any¬ thing.” Many of the children feel that God is watching them, and some say “He writes it all down.” Omnipotence is mentioned by many children, but there are few concrete instances given. One girl of 12 says that “God could have an earthquake at any time.” His activities are seldom described; less than 5 per cent of the children speak of Him as ruling the universe, making things grow or caring for our material needs. One boy of 10 says in perfect earnestness that “God is bossing the world.” Christ is seldom mentioned, and his relation to the Father is rarely brought out; where it is, in one-fourth of the cases the relation is reversed and God is spoken of as the Son of Christ. The Trinity is mentioned by only two children. Christ is mentioned as our Redeemer by some twenty-five children. Heaven is generally, even with children up to the age of 12 and beyond, simply an improved earth. More than 500 children locate it “in the sky,” “in the clouds,” or “up.” The next most common location is “where the good go” or “where God is,” while a few say it is “in the earth,” “all about us,” “ on some star,” or “in the cast,” “and no one in a balloon could reach it, it is so far away.” More arguments are produced to prove the location of heaven than to prove any other one point. Christ, they say, ascended; Elijah went up, and several close the argument for locat¬ ing it in the sky by saying : “ Besides, where else could it be ? ” Among' those who are in heaven, 482 mention angels; 367, God; 412, the redeemed; and 64, Christ. A few mention dead relatives, the saints, Santa Claus, and unborn babies. Heaven is most commonly described as “a beautiful place,” but large numbers describe it as “a city,” “a mansion,” “a palace,” “a fine house,” “a garden,” or “ a park.” It has streets and gates, plants, flowers, birds, and trees. The concrete particular most commonly mentioned is gold. The streets are of gold, the walks are of gold, the houses are of gold, and one boy has the angels eat gold bread. Several say there is no night, and opinion is about equally divided as to whether there are animals m heaven. The redeemed and the angels are generally the same. Three hundred and forty- six children mention their wings; nearly the same number speak of them as looking 376 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1892-93. like people dressed in wliite. A considerable number say they are women, because they never heard of any men being' angels, while a few say they are fairies, birds, ghosts, or little babies. Several think of them as always small, others as having “just babies’ heads and wings.’7 The appearance is sometimes carefully described, as when a girl of 13 says: “I think they wear white gowns shirred around the neck;” and she adds: “'I should think the boys and girls would wear their hair alike.” Another says: “I thought angels were all the same size; that even if before they died they were fat, they grew thin.” The activities of the redeemed, or the angels, furnish the most difficult detail in the children’s theology. Several say they do not know what the angels do, but most of the papers represent them as flying around, playing on harps, and singing praises to God. Sometimes they are said to help God, and a very few have them help the people on earth. Children of 12 or 13 often mention the monotony of the life. Several mention the angels as carrying the souls of the dead to heaven, and bring¬ ing babies to the earth. Some of the children declare that the angels work, while an equal number say no one works in heaven. To some of the children this freedom from work is the chief attraction. The evil spirit and his abode are pictured far less often and with less detail than is given to the abode of the blest, but there is much greater uniformity in the descriptions. The general type of devil is well described by a boy who says : u I thought the devil had a man's head, with a long hooked nose and a pointed chin, with an ox's ears and horns. He had a man’s body, and one leg like a man and the other like that of an ox. He had a tail with a ball of three points at the end. ’ He carried a spear with three prongs, the same as his tail. He could spit Are, and had a tongue like a snake.” Often lie is black, sometimes red; three or four speak of him as a fallen angel ; a few as a serpent or monster. His activities are tempting and fooling people, and killing and burning people. Some say he bites and scares people, or carries off children. Generally, however, the children do not go into any detail about him, but simply say he is a bad man who tempts people. Hell is generally located under the earth, or below us. It is a place of fire, some say like a furnace, and very few add snakes and darkness; but hell and the devil play a small part in the compositions, and disappear almost entirely from the com¬ positions written by children over 10 years old. In all this scheme of theology natural phenomena plays but a small part. The stars and moon are a very few times spoken of as lighting heaven. In two or three cases the clouds support or hide heaven. Two or three speak of God as like a cloud, and one says the devil is like smoke; but there is little connection in the composi¬ tions between the celestial hierarchy and the mountains and hills, the plains and woods, the deserts and oceans of this world. Thunder and lightning, birth and death are hardly mentioned in these connections. God is certainly not seen in His works by our ordinary school children. To summarize briefly the theological ideas of California children, we should say: The world of spirits is for the most part attractive; there is very little dark and forbidding imagery; terror is unknown; the ideas are generally vague, and the standard theological beliefs are often quoted in ways that show that the children have had little or no teaching. The attitude that children of different ages take toward this theology is an impor¬ tant question for the educator. The young children under 6 examined by mothers and teachers almost always accept what they have been told without question or comment. They, however, recast their theology into forms that appeal to their experience and their modes of thought. The spirit world is simply a beautiful playroom or playground where children have what they want; God is a more serious form of papa, the angels are playfellows, and satan is simply a ab*oogie,” while hell is a dark closet. From 7 to 10 there are occasional vague questionings, but under 10 years old there are few indications of a questioning or doubting frame of mind. From that time on, however, questions arise ; the children try to reason things out and to relate their theology to what they have learned through experience and through their studies. This critical spirit seems to culminate at 13 or 14, and criticisms are far more persist¬ ent and severe at this time than later. Of course, in this work, as in all studies on children, we must recognize the fact that some children develop much more rapidly than others, so that there are many exceptions ; but there is a clearly marked dif¬ ference between the compositions of children of 11 and of 13 which must strike even the most careless observer. One sees this difference even when the children are doing the same grade of school work; age marks differences better than school gradations do. CHILD STUDY. 377 Forty papers were selected at random from 1,000 to illustrate the critical attitude. Ninety per cent of them were written hy children between 12 and 14 years old. The critical spirit first appears in an effort to place the responsibility for the doc¬ trines stated in the compositions. Thus, at 11 and 12 there begiu to appear in the compositions such phrases as, “ I think,” “ Fve been told,” “my idea was.” “the Bible says,” “I was taught in Sunday school,” or “they say.” By 13 or 14 these phrases become, “ we imagine,” “ I used to believe,” “I doubt,” etc. A girl of 13 modifies her statements as follows: “We can not exactly tell who is in heaven, but it is supposed that everyone that serves Him probably goes there.” And a girl of 12 thus tries to place the responsibility for the statements slio offers: “ If heaven is a place where you are said to be always happy, I think it must be very beautiful. One of the most lovely things to beautify a place is flowers, and it is my opinion that we will find lovely flowers there. It is said that the people that go there, who aro angels, have wings, and dress in white. Of course, I have never seen them. So I don’t really know how they do look.” The most common form of criticism is that which appears in efforts to harmonize theology with experience. Thus one boy says : “I used to believe that the air was full of bad spirits which would hurt you, but I don’t believe it now, because they don’t hurt.” A girl of 15 says: “I don’t see how people can stay in heaven forever, without nothing to do except to play and sing, but people might be different there from what they are here.” The new desire to exercise the critical judgment seems at times the only reason one can find for the questions raised. Thus a boy of 14 says : “I thought that the devil and all the other things were just as they say they are in the Bible, from which Igotmyinrpressions, but beyond that allis a mystery. My idea of heaven has changed, and now I think that heaven is space. But if that is so, how could the heavens open, as it says they did in the Bible ? ” And a boy of 14 says : “ I think it is strange that when one dies his soul goes to heaven if he is good, and if he is bad his soul does not go to heaven ; and I don’t see what good it does for your soul to get to heaven, because when you are dead you know nothing of it.” The children at this age also try to make their theology harmonize with their humanitarian feelings and their sense of justice. One boy of 14 says : “I think when a mother sees her son, if such things happen, left among the bad, she will not be very happy for a while.” Frequently the children of this age say they do not believe that savages and babies will go to hell, while very many who accept the standard theology for God, the angels, and heaven, declare that they do not believe there is any devil or hell. This, of course, may be due simply to their teaching, but it sel¬ dom appears in compositions by children under 11 or 12 years old. A very few assert their disbelief in any form of theology, but these few atheistic statements are more dogmatic in general than the statements of orthodox Sunday- school children, and bear all the marks of having been simply accepted from parents or others. For example, a girl of 11 writes : “ Heaven is our dear mother and father, and heaven don’t help to grow, nor he don’t give us breadnor anything.” And, again: i “When people die they put them in a hole and put some ground on them and leave them there— -and they don’t go up in heaven or any place ; they always stay in that same place.” After children pass 15 they generally avoid telling what they believe,, by saying : “I used to believe,” or, “When I was little I believed,” etc. If they express their present beliefs they raise very few concrete doubts. They use more abstract terms, describing God as a great, all-powerful spirit, and heaven as a beautiful abode of the blest. Angels are celestial spirits and the devil is the great evil influence in the world. One can not help thinking that they have accepted an abstraction and a name, and have, temporarily at least, laid the questions that perplexed them aside. Certainly from 15 to 18 there is no such persistent exercise of the critical judgment in matters theological as there is between 12 and 15. In all these reasoning processes the Bible is only occasionally referred to as an authority, and in citing it the children show a very great ignorance of the most common biblical allusions. Incidentally this study throws a strong side light on what children are taught to consider good and bad acts. Naturally most of the children say that to go to heaven we must be good, and that if we are not good we do not go to heaven ; but in many cases they specify virtues and vices supposed to be especially prominent. Next to being good, the virtue most commonly named is obeying God, and then comes in order of importance: “Keeping the commandments,” “believing in God,” “loving God,” “praying,” “trusting God,” “obeying parents,” and “telling truth.” Less than 1 per cent of the children mention “going to church and Sunday school,” “reading the Bible,” “keeping Sunday,” “working hard,” and “being baptized.” A boy of 4 says: “You must be good on the earth and be quiet;” while a boy of 10 sums up the virtues with : “ God wants you to obey your parents and to do what they say, and he wants you to be polite to everybody you meet on the street.” 378 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Tho whole career of a good man is summed up as follows hy a hoy of 12: “The good man will first join the church on probation, and then in six months he will join the church and bo a member. He will push the work of God along as much as ho can, help tho poor and tho church, and probably be successful in heaven. He will die a happy man and go to heaven.” Among the bad qualities, next to being bad, the children mention “disobeying God.” Very fewr concreto sins are mentioned; less than one in a hundred mention “swearing,” “lying,” “talking dirty talk,” “drinking,” and “using tobacco.” Many allusions also throw light on the sources of the theological ideas which the children hold. Many say: “My mother has told me,” “I have heard in Sunday school,” or, “they say in church;” not one mentions what his teachers have told him. Evidently the effort to secularize our schools has been but too successful. One boy says ho got his ideas of the devil from a Punch and Judy show; two say their ideas of tho devil came from tho pictures on deviled ham. Several mention the hired girl as an authority, and a largo number say their ideas came from prictures. From the study of the data in hand it would seem that wre could safely draw the following conclusions : If young children are to be taught a theology it must be in anthropomorphic and realistic form. We may teach that God is a spirit, but the child’s mind at once invests him with a form and human attributes. If we do not furnish exalted and worthy imagery, the child fills out the form with random pic¬ tures, Punch and Judy impressions, and images of grocery labels. Since pictures furnish so much of this imagery, children should be surrounded with worthy pictures — e. g., Raphael’s Sistine Madonna. Through confidential conversation with the child grotesque images should be detected and corrected. Many California children seem to be ignorant of the most common and most gen¬ erally accepted ‘theological conceptions of Christian people. They should be given this knowledge, if for no other reason, because it is essential to an intelligent under¬ standing of the literary and artistic life of our times. The period of most intense critical activity is the period of puberty. Some special effort should be made at that time to assist the child in rearranging and adjusting his philosophical and theological conceptions. In the schools literary, historical, and scientific studies should be dealt with in a large and philosophic spirit. The child’s desire to grasp the universe should be encouraged, not discouraged. Later he will settle to detailed work. Tho general absence of references to nature would seem to indicate that children are accepting scientific explanations as final. It would seem that the schools should lead them to feel and realize that Greater PowTer which lies back of our superficial explanations and makes this a sane universe. (From Proceedings of International Educational Congress. ) Methods of Laboratory Mind Study. Scientific or laboratory psychology has found a rapid development in America, but very little has been said of its practical bearings. Our investigators have discov¬ ered, and are steadily discovering, innumerable facts and laws that are of inestim¬ able value to practical educators, teachers, and all who educate or influence others or themselves. Of this practical side of the new psychology I wish to give a few examples, in the anticipation that before long the science of education, the arts and all tho technical pursuits in which mental ability is involved, will pay as careful attention to the discoveries of experimental psychology as mechanical and electrical technology pay to the discoveries of physics. One of the most fruitful fields of the psychological work has been found in meas¬ urements of the time required for mental acts. Let a dozen or twenty persons take hold of hands in a ring, each is to press the hand of his right hand neighbor as soon as he receives a pressure from the left. One person starts tho pressure going, and at the same instant observes the position of the second hand of a watch. The pres¬ sure passes all around the circle, and when it arrives at the originator he notes how many seconds were required for the given number of persons in succession to receive an impression and make up their minds to act in response. The total time is then divided by the number of persons. This is a crude illustration of the reaction time which we measure with great accuracy on single persons. As the mental portion of the reaction time becomes more complicated, the time becomes longer. For example, the processes of mental discrimination and choice require time of their own. The way we get at these “higher” mental processes can bo illustrated in a simple way : A iierson placed in a quiet room is to tap a telegraph key every time ho sees a red light, which can be produced at the will of the experi¬ menter in the recording room. The interval of time between the actual appearance of tho light and the moment the key is tapped is accurately measured. For a while nothing but the red light is used, this to obtain the simple reaction time. Then red CHILD STUDY. 379 and yellow lights are turned on in irregular succession. The person has now to dis¬ criminate between two colors, and to choose between action and nonaction. The increase of time required over the simple reaction time gives tlio discrimination time lor two colors. In another set of experiments three colors are used; then four colors. As tlio discrimination and choice become more complicated, more time is required. The importance of rapid and accurate reaction and discrimination is evident. Astronomers have difficulty in recording the moment at which a star passes a line in the telescope. The sportsman must pull the trigger at just the proper moment. The football player, the fencer, and the boxer are trained in rapidity of discrimina¬ tion and reaction. It is very evident that a player or a pugilist who takes a long time for discrimination, choice, and volition will give a decided advantage to a quick opponent. A most interesting subject of psychological work is the association of ideas. While passing along the street you catch a glimpse of good things to eat in a restaurant window, and at once you remember the fine dinner you had yesterday. I say “at once,” but the association is really not instantaneous, a few thousandths of a second elapse before your sight of the food and the memory of the dinner. The extra time required for an associated idea to rise is called the association time. You may wonder how we can measure this time. The only proper thing to do is to go to a laboratory and see it done. Nevertheless I can perhaps indicate with suffi¬ cient clearness the method of operation. Suppose I have obtained, in the manner previously explained, your simple reaction time, discrimination time, and choice time for visible objects, e. g. pictures. Now, if on seeing a picture you do not react at once, but on the contrary wait for some idea to associate itself before doing so, you have added the j)rocess of association. If you subtract the time required in the former case from the time required when association is added, you will get the association time. The practical importance of a more careful use of our knowledge of association time is evident. A mail who can think twice as fast as another will live just twice as long, although he will live just the same number of years. To-day mental phenomena occur at a much more rapid rate than they occurred a century ago. The difference between the sluggish Englishman of mediteval times and the quick Yhnkee of to-day is delightfully told in Mark Twain's “King Arthur.” If it were possible to bring Sir Launcelot into the laboratory, his association time would be found to be much longer than that of a trained Yale graduate. When the country boy first comes to the schoolroom every mental act, every thought requires a longer time than it will require after proper training. Arithmetic is mainly a matter of association of ideas. So much time is given for doing a problem; at a signal all pencils must be dropped. The children are taught that slowness of thought means failure. Another fruitful line of investigation is that of time memory. How can we train this ability in the best way? Rhythmic action, for example, involves time memory and reaction time. The conditions of greatest accuracy, the individual differences, the most common faults, the best methods of correcting them, can all bo determined without difficulty. What is rhythmic action from a practical point of view? It is keeping step in marching and dancing, keeping time in playing musical instruments and singing, pulling an oar in exact time with the stroke. A proper knowledge of the laws of rhythmic action might make a change in the winning of a boat race. I respectfully suggest to the oft-defeated Harvard crew that they all take a course iu experimental psjchology with special attention to reaction time and time memory. Indeed, it might not be a bad thing to give all our college boys a little more mental training. If j>sychology is practically applied in this way the bulletins of the twen¬ tieth century may read in this fashion : “Yale was at this time half a length ahead, but gradually fell behind for some reason. After the race an examination of the automatic record made by each oar revealed that the rhythmic movements of No. 2's oar had dropj)ed below the required regularity. The mean error from the average was great enough to cause a decided loss of power.” We may also read: “Mr. Ik, of the Chicago eleven, has lately made several bad plays in passing the ball. Tests at the psychological laboratory revealed a large increase in discrimination time.” Again, “The noted sprint runner, X, has a reaction time of 0.13 of a second, which gives him an advantage of more than 0.1 second over his competitor.” Many a truth is spoken in jest. Such a recording apparatus for oarsmen has been planned, but has not been carried out because of the expense of preliminary experiments. Records on the reaction time of runners have been made in my laboratory. The subject of voluntary motor ability is at present one of the most rapidly advancing departments of psychology. Given the will, or the A’olition, to perform an act, what will be the result? Our rapidity and accuracy of action dex^end on attention, fatigue, and habit. Ra pidity is required by the typewriter, the typesetter, the stenographer, the violin and piano player, the runner, and even the cigarette 380 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. girl, who works by tbe piece. Accuracy is the essential for the mechanic, the car¬ penter, the draftsman, the chemist, the billiard player, the blacksmith, and endless others. Gracefulness in voluntary action is the proper adjustment of rapidity and extent of movement ; it is almost entirely a psychological affair. Gracefulness is the condition sine qua non for the artist, the decorator, the orator, the actor, the dancer, and every society man and woman. "What would be more natural than for such persons to inquire of psychology con¬ cerning the laws covering rapidity, accuracy, and gracefulness? Since the advent of the new psychology such inquiries do not remain entirely unanswered. What a mistake it is to train a child to an occupation for which he has no qualifications ! Xo one would expect a color-blind boy to become a great artist, or a girl with a swelling on the vocal cord to become a great singer. Yet we never think of inquir¬ ing if the boy who is studying to be a telegraph operator or the girl who goes to the expense of learning typewriting can possibly succeed. There are certain boys men¬ tally and bodily so constituted that the manipulation of the telegraph key is almost certain, sooner or later, to end in the telegrapher’s cramp, which puts an end to all future use of the key. There are girls so constituted that the mental processes involved in typewriting can never be made to go fast enough to insure a respectable living. There are mechanics who can never obtain sufficient control over their fingeis to do any accurate work. 1 received not long ago a letter calling attention to the fact that large numbers of compositors were being thrown out of work by the introduction of typesetting machines. The question was asked, Could the psychologists give information regarding the qualities necessary for a successful operator of these machines? I suppose the idea was to test the men before encouraging them to learn a new trade. I am almost ashamed to repeat the reply that I was forced to give to one of the first practical bread-and-butter questions that have ever been put to the psychologist. The only reply possible was that we had in our laboratories the means of investi¬ gating and measuring nearly every mental and physical element involved in the case, e. g., action, reaction, discrimination, association, attention, fatigue; that number¬ less investigations on just those elements had been made ; that with a machine and a man to experiment on we could give clear and definite replies on every point, but that no psychologist had ever thought it worth while to inquire how rapidity and accuracy in mental operations could be developed by training. The judgment of distances by the eye has received much attention. Suppose we take a line with two dots on it and try to put another dot on it just half way between the two. An error is made every time. The average of the errors made in a set of experiments *s characteristic of the person making them. It will vary with differ¬ ent persons, different training, fatigue, worry, inattention, and so on. The practical man or woman must seek to reduce this error as much as possible. Every free-hand artist, decorator, sign painter, tinsmith, and bricklayer depends for his success on his accuracy of eye. A surgeon with a large average error will be liable to cut an artery thatought not to be touched; a seamstress will make uneven stitches. More than half the value of manual training lies in the education of the eye in this respect. I have thus far apparently had little to say of the directly educational applica¬ tions of psychology. The reason is this: By education we usually mean the word- cram and mind-deformation that characterize many of our schools, whereas we ought to include every lesson, exercise, game, play, sport, or occupation that develops and improves our mental and bodily powers. There is as much education in play¬ ing (not in watching) a game of football as in construing a book of Virgil. Who will say that training in rhythmic action and gracefulness shall not have places in school beside percentage and syntax? The close connection that has arisen between the psychological laboratory and the gymnasium is an event whose importance can not be fully foreseen. The education of men, instead of bookworms and mummies, will perhaps find, as it found in Greece, one of its chief exponents in the mental and physical training of the gymnasium. The new psychology has not hitherto bothered itself with practical affairs, and has left the old psychology in full possession of the schools. Being convinced that the future of laboratory psychology in America depends on the recognition of its value in practical school work, I set one of the members of the laboratory at work on an extensive investigation of the laws of mental development in school children. This subject was chosen as being the first object of attack; for before we can with clear consciences attempt to train the mental abilities of the child we must know how the child’s mind acts and how it grows. Considerable work has been done on very young children, but although the school children have been repeatedly meas¬ ured m height, weight, and so on, their mental powers were uninvestigated. We have for the first time carried out careful measurements on the mental abilities of school children. The experiments include color discrimination, muscle sense, reac¬ tion time, discrimination time, time memory, suggestibility, rapidity of repeated movement, fatigue in voluntary movement, and the usual three physical measure- CHILD STUDY. 381 ments. Tlie results, when arranged according to age, show new and unexpected laws of mental development. There is another way in Avhich experimental psychology can he directly serviceable to education. It is possible in many cases to determine by actual experiment the best methods to be used in instruction. Suppose, for example, that a number of foreign words are to be associated with a number of English words ; it is not enough for the educator to know how this is usually done, he must know liow to learn to do it in the shortest time and with the least effort. With this in view I once made a few experiments, not with the idea of obtaining any definite results, but merely to try if there might not be a way of “experimental education.” On each of eight cards I pasted a picture and a Japanese word in ordinary roman letters : on eight more I put a German word (the experiments were made in Leipzig) and a Japanese word. These were shown successively several times to another person. Two days afterwards half of each card was shown him, and he was asked to tell what was on the other half — e. g., he saw a picture, and had to give the Japanese word belonging to it. The results, for which I do notin the least claim scientific accuracy, can be arranged as follows: When the picture was shown alone and the word demanded, the correct answer was given three times out of eight; when the German word was shown, not a single time could the Japanese word be given; when the Japanese word was shown and the picture demanded, it was correctly given in every case but one, whereas the Japanese word was able to call up a German word only three times out of eight. Now suppose that this series of experiments, instead of being limited to a single occasion, had been extended till the results could claim the authority of numbers, then we could lay down the law that in teaching the vocabularies of foreign lan¬ guages morethan three times as rapid progress can be made by learning from pictures as from merely placing the words side by side. That is what everybody would expect ; but, although we have Ollendorff's, Ahn’s, and a dozen more, no one has yet produced a reading book of a foreign langauge in which the vocabulary is taught by arranging the words beside little pictures. Now that the new psychology has opened the way in a new education, we may hope that, before long, thoroughly scientific methods of instruction will be intro¬ duced; that the worthless subjects taught will give place to a training where all the powers of mind will be properly cultivated; that the pounding of facts into the children will be replaced by a gentle but thorough development of their natural abilities — in short, that school will no longer be a blight to child life, but a fostering institution in which our boys and girls will bloom into full manhood and womanhood, fitted to be citizens of our country and to succeed in the pursuits and occupations that await them. It is a trite saying that education must be based on psychology, but no one familiar with our present educational methods would suspect that the fact had ever been dis¬ covered. Scientific psychologists have not troubled themselves about every day practical affairs, and educators have been content with the antiquated English and German psychology served up to them. The unbroken series of magnificent discov¬ eries of experimental psychology are unknown outside of a limited circle, and Her- bartian psychology is considered the very newest thing for educators. Now, Herbart was the John the Baptist of the new psychology, and to him more than to any psychologist of the past, except Sir William Hamilton, do we owe the freedom of psy¬ chology from mystical metaphysical shackles — the freedom that rendered the very existence of a science of psychology possible. But Herbart died in 1841, and the last edition of his great work on psychology was published in 1834. Think of using a text-book on chemistry printed sixty years ago! Would you for a bodily ailment call in a physician to whom the medical discoveries of the last half century were unknown? The very spirit of Herbart was against such stagnation; his true dis¬ ciples are not to be found in the ranks of slavish readers of .his works, but in oui laboratories. Although an experimentalist in the strictest sense, I, at least, am will¬ ing to go on record as an ardent admirer of his inestimable services to psychology and pedagogy. As for the English psychology, the less said the better. The new psychology has arisen within the last forty years. From Aristotle and the Stoics to Fechner, Helmholtz, and Wundt, there is practically an unfilled gap in the history of psychology. The subject shows, as education must also soon show, the influence of the modern scientific awakening that has already transformed mathematics, physics, and chemistry from scholastic disputations into live sciences. Twenty or thirty years ago it was supposed that a short cut to a knowledge of men¬ tal life had been found in physiological experiments and brain dissections. Cerebral physiology, however, has contributed nothing whatever to introspective psychology. On the contrary, physiological psychology — that more interesting of all sciences which treats of the relations of mind and brain — presupposes not only a minute anatomical knowledge of the brain, but also a well-developed introspective psychol¬ ogy with carefully ascertained and accurately measured facts. The confusion of the psychological laboratory with neurological laboratory, and of experimental 382 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. psychology witli physiological psychology, has led to the popular belief that we experimentalists are merely disguised materialists. This belief has been fostered by many noupsychological writers. The fundamental method of the new or laboratory psychologists does not differ from the method of Aristotle, namely, direct observation of facts. Galileo modified this method for jffiysics by introducing careful experiment and measurement; Fech- ner did the same for psychology. The characteristic of the new psychology does not lie in supplanting introspection by some materialistic theory, but in the substi¬ tution of accurate and trustworthy introspective methods for the guesswork and speculation of the past. To the seeker for knowledge the mediaeval psychology had nothing to offer but vague and wordy discussions of the ego, the self, the nature of mind, the continuity of consciousness during sleep, etc., which were as far removed from affairs as medi¬ aeval metaj)hysics. We Americans are a practical people and apply the standard of usefulness even in scientific pursuits. The new psychology, however, is not afraid of being tested in this way. With the proper laboratory equipment (we need as good accommodations and apparatus as a physical laboratory) and with enough earnest scientific workers (of whom we have not half enough), we can do as much for education and mental life in general as physics does for railroads, bridges, and electrical engineering. (E. W. Scripture, in The Forum.) Education by Plays axd Games. One of the most important recent contributions to the literature of child-life study is the monograph on education by plays and games, by G. E. Johnson, of Clark Uni¬ versity. The paper presents a list of 440 plays and games, accompanied by the writer’s estimate of their nature as instruments of mental and physical training. In his introduction, the author says as to the nature of play per se : ‘‘ ‘Play is the first poetry of the human being. It is the working off at once of the overflow of both mental and physical powers.’ Thus Eicliter defines play. Froebel says it is the self-active representation of the inner from inner necessity and im¬ pulse. The distinctive characteristic of play is spontaneity. In the above, Richter emphasizes the spontaneity which is dependent upon physical conditions. Froe¬ bel, that which is dependent upon the mental attitude. In the healthy child there is a constant storing up and expenditure of energy. The overfilled or rested cells must discharge. They may bo likened to an intermittent spring which, becoming so full, must empty. This rhythmic sequence of anabolism and katabolisin seems to be nature’s method of activity for the securing of growth and development. When katabolism follows spontaneously upon completed anabolism, the discharge is accom¬ panied with pleasure. This is the exuberance of life wliiclr impels the young child to leap and dance with no apparent object but that of motion. The very discharge is a joy, a relief. When anabolism is incomplete and katabolism takes place, or when katabolism is induced by force of will or fear, the accompanying conscious¬ ness is one of unpleasantness or pain. Compel a child to jump rope after fatigue has set in, and it is no longer pleasurable but painful. 'Spontaneity is gone. “The mental attitude is no less important than the physical conditions in the spontaneity of an activity. The physical conditions being favorable, the distinction between play and what is not play is wholly subjective, a question of ‘mental attitude.’ Just what this mental attitude is, is not easy to define. It is often capricious. It is coincident with an expectation of pleasure, Mark Twain gives an illustration in ‘How Tom Sawyer got his fence whitewashed.’ Whitewash was grinding drudgery to Tom, but when anticipations of pleasure had been aroused in his playmates and they had taken the brush at the sacrifice of sundry trinkets, whitewashing had become play. It generally involves imagination. To Mr. Bolton is due this story of a stone pile which a father found much difficulty in getting his boys to remove : Two weeks had passed and the pile had not perceptibly diminished. Kindling a brush fire in the ditch where the stones were to be thrown, and impro¬ vising a fire engine out of a cart, he exclaimed: ‘ Come, boys, here’s a fire! Let’s be firemen and put it out. This is the engine and these are buckets of water (pointing to the stones). Come on! ’ And, with shouting and whistling and puffing, the stones CHILD STUDY. 383 wero dragged and dumped until tlie pile liad disappeared. 1 There is always an accompanying mental excitement which, especially in games, is largely due to an uncertainty in the outcome. Take this entirely out of a game and tlio play becomes insipid monotony. On the other hand, I have known a hoy to relieve truly drudg¬ ing labor by fixing beforehand the amount to be done at a certain hour and racing against time. It must await present interest. Compel a boy to continue quietly his game of marbles after an alarm of fire has sounded in his neighborhood and play has changed, to labor. “In play, pleasure always accompanies the activity. There may or may not be some additional reward resulting from the activity. In labor, the reward does not accompany but follows the activity. A boy plays ball and pleasure attends every movement. There may also result greatly improved health and skill of hand and eye, sometimes even a pecuniary reward. A boy saws wood and the reward is the increase of strength and the money received. Work (effort directed to ail end — Webster) is involved in both, generally to a greater degree in play.” Passing then to the educational importance of play, the author continues : “A clear understanding of the nature of play is of the highest importance to teachers. Play is deserving of better repute than that in which it is sometimes held, and labor receives often a praise that is hardly due. There is no virtue in labor for the sake of labor any more than there is virtue in self-denial for self-denial’s sake, or virtue in beiug miserable. Work is the honor term. Every good thing accomplished in life is accomplished by work, but this work may often be the work of play quite as well as the work of labor. Work does not thereby accomplish more because it is laborious and irksome. As Dr. Brinton says: ‘The measure of value of work is the amount of play there is in it, and the measure of value of play is the amount of work there is in it.7 “From the very fact that joyonsness aids the anabolic processes, while pain retards, the more play the more work and the more power to work, the more labor the less work and the less power to work. Every effort to make attractive and inter¬ esting the school work of children, every effort to bring the order of studies into line with the child’s present interest and stage of development, is a recognition of this. For the success of teaching, both as to amount of knowledge acquired and the discipline received, it is essential that there be all possible play in the work. Nobody will deny that the intensity of the activity in any exercise and the benefi¬ cence of its results increase with the pleasure involved. It is a platitude to say that no one ever made marked progress in a study he detested, or rose high in a profes¬ sion he never enjoyed. The men who have stood high have been those who played, as well as plied their trades and professions. Stupidity is but another name for ennui, and brightness for interest. ‘All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy,7 is as true a pedagogical aphorism as ever was written. To acquire alert minds chil¬ dren must be alert, and the young child can be alert only as his play instinct is aroused. Shut out the play instinct of a young child and you stunt his growth; neglect to draw it out and you lessen his possibilities for strength. “It is to be regretted that in our public school system the play instinct of the child does not find more room for expression. In many schools the office of the play¬ ground is to counteract the stultifying effects of the schoolroom. ‘ If,7 as Schiller says, ‘man is wholly man only when he plays,7 we err in hoping to make a child more of a man while we force him from tho truest expression of himself. “ It will no doubt be objected that tho child should early be taught to distinguish between play and labor and bravely undergo the latter, for he must labor and not play through life; that great men have always, ‘ while others slept, toiled upward in the night.7 Certainly work must be done at all hazards; if not in play, then in ^liis story was taken from the records of children in possession of the Graduates’ Association of the State Normal School at Worcester, Mass. 384 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. labor. But the child should not be led to expect a. life of toil. Rather he should be taught that a life of play-work is the ideal, and that it is his privilege to seek it. “There is no proof that great men ‘toiled upward in the night/ except as they were borne over the drudgery in the eagerness of their interest, as a tennis player again and again ‘shacks’ the widely-batted tennis ball. It was the labor involved in play. It is doubtful if a great man ever accomplished his life work without having reached a play interest in it. The power of work and endurance said to be acquired by the conscientious student in undergoing drudgery never equals that which is his when his work is no longer labor, but play. Mr. Yoder, in ki3 Study of the Boyhood of Great Men, shows that as boys they not only revolted sometimes against the routine of uninteresting work and followed their own inclinations, but, much more, they found play in a work or work in a play that disciplined those pow¬ ers which made them famous as men. Dickens playing for days that he was some character of whom he had read, Darwin with his passion for collections, Stephenson with his boilers, Tennyson and Emerson writing rhymes for fun, Washington play¬ ing soldier, Kingsley preaching little sermons, Miss Alcott with pencil and paper, are illustrations. “Much has been said by educators in regard to the importance of the play instinct in education. Plato : ‘ Education should begin with the right direction of children’s sports.’ 1 ‘The plays of children should be subject to laws.’2 ‘The plays of chil¬ dren should be along the line of their future occupations.’1 ‘Do not use compul¬ sion, but let education be a sort of amusement.’ 3 Aristotle: ‘Children should have entertaining employment.’ 4 Quintilian: ‘Instruction should be amusing to the child.’ Fenelon : ‘Plays are efficacious in education.’5 Rabelais : ‘Studies should be made amusing and interesting.’ Locke : ‘ The chief art is to make all that children have to do sport and play.’6 Richter: ‘The plays of children are as serious aud full of meaning in themselves and in reference to their future as ours are to us.’7 Froebel : 8 ‘Play is the purest, most spiritual activity of men at this stage, and at the same time typical of human life as a whole, of inner hidden natural life in men and all things. It holds the sources of all that is good. The plays of children are the germinal leaves of all later life.’” Maws, I, 613. 'Laws, VII, 797. JRep., VII, 537. 4Pol. Book, VII, 17. 5 For this and following see translator’s note, Froebel’s Education of Man, Inter¬ national Education Series, pp. 22, 23. ‘Locke, as well as Basedow, invented games for teaching letters and reading, and suggested others. 7Levana, Chap. Ill, Frag. III. Education of Man, § 30. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CHILD STUDIO Abbott, Jacob. Early development of the imagination, and the aid which may he derived from this faculty in the government and instruction of the young. Maine Normal, 1 : 315, Adler, (Mrs.) Helen. Hints for the scientific observation and study of children. New York, 1891. 12°. pp. 15. Allen, Margaret A. A mother’s journal. Babyhood, March, 1885. - Notes on the development of a child’s language. Mother’s Nursery Guide, Feb,, 1893. Arnold, Sarah L. A phase of child study. Jour. Ed. (New Eng. and Nat.), 40 : 219. Babcock, W. H. 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Beobachtungen fiber die geistige Entwickelung des Menschcn in den ersten Lebensjahren. 2te Ausgabe. 2 Bde., 1886. Part I. Describes tbe development of each sense. Part II. The development of the will, as shown in impulsive, reflex, instinctive, imitative, expressive, and reflective muscular movements. Part III,. The development of the understanding, especially devoted to language. - Die speeielle Physiologie des Embryos. Leipzig, 1884. pp. 320. - Mental development in the child. Tr. from the German by H. W. Brown. (International Education Series, ed. by Wm. T. Harris, Yol. XXIY.) New York, 1893. 12°. pp. 170. - Psychogenesis. Jour. Spec. Philos., April, 1881. - The development of the intellect. Observations concerning the mental devel¬ opment of the human being in the first years of life. (Part II of “The mind of the child.”) Tr. from the German by H. W. Brown. New York, 1890. 41-f-317 pp. 12°. (International Education Series, ed. by Wm. T. Harris, Yol. IX.) - The senses and the will. (Part I of “ The mind of the child.”) Tr. by H. W. Brown. New York, 1890. 25-j-346pp. 12°. (International Education Series, ed. by Wm. T. Haris, Yol. VII.) Quain's anatomy. Yol. II. London, 1882. Queyrat, Fr. L’imagination et ses vari4t6s chez l’enfant. Paris, 1893. (Biblio¬ theque de Philosophie Contemporaine.) Radestock. Habit and its importance in education. Boston, 1886. Raehlmann, E. Physiologiseh-psychologische Studien fiber die Entwickelung der Gesichtswahrnehmunge'n bei Ivindern und bei operierten Blindgeborenen. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, 2ter Band (1891), Seite, 53-96, 390 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Rau, H. Geschichte tier Entwickelung des mensclilieh.cn Geistes. pp. : ltcr Th., 390; 2tcr, 469. Neustadt a. d. Haardt, 1882. Raux, M. Etude sur l’enfant eoupable. Paris, 1890. pp. 268. Riecke, G. A. Erziehungslehre. Stuttgart, 1874. pp. 350. Rigutixi, G. Psieologia e pedagogia dell’ infanzia. Milano, 1885. pp. 72. Robinson, Louis. The primitive child. No. Amer. Rev., 159 : 467. Romanes, G. J. Psychological development in children. Nature, 26: 497. Royce, Josiah. Imitative functions and their place in human nature. Cent., 48 : 137. - Mental defect and disorder from the teacher’s point of view. I. II, III. Ed. Rev., 6 : 209, 322, 449. Russell, E. Harlow. Exceptional children in school. Ed. Rev., 6: 431. - The study of children at the State Normal School, Worcester, Mass. Ped. Sem., 2: 343. Sanford, E. C. Notes on studies of the language of children. Ped. Sem., 1: 257. Sanz Del Rio. Psieologia del nino. Boletin de la Institucidn libre de Ensehanza, 1893, pp. 17-19 (No. 383), (and a former article in No. 372). Savage, Mixot J. Rights of children. Arena, 6 : 8. Schallenberger, Margaret E. A study of children’s rights. Ped. Sem., 3:87. Schmerz, Lc Unsere Kinder. Wien, 1882. pp. 318. Schroder. Die erste Anregung des Musiksinnes. Weimar, 1873. Schultheiss, W. K. Das Kind in der Entwickelungszeit des Geistes. Niirnberg, 1862. Schultz, F. Die Sprache des Kindes. Leipzig, 1880. pp. 46. (Reviewed by F. Pollock in Mind, 6: 436.) Scripture, E. W. Aims and status of child study. Ed. R., 8 : 236. Seguix, E. Prenatal and infantile culture. Pop. Sci. Mo., 10: 38. Semmig, H. Das Kind. Tagebuck eines Yaters. 2. Aufl. Leipzig, 1876. pp. 270. Shinn, Milicent W. Notes on the development of a child. I and II. University of California studies, pp. 88, 89-178. Berkeley, 1893, 1894. 8°. Sigismund, B. Kind und Welt. Yatern, Miittern, und Kiuderfreunden gewidmet. Braunschweig, 1856. pp. 221. Sikorski. Du developpement du lan gage chez les enfants. Paris: Archiv. de Neurol. VI, 1884, p. 319, etc. - L’bvolution psychique de l’enfant. Rev. Phil., Mar. and May, 1885. Sollier, Paul. Physiologie cle l’idiot et de I’imbbcile. Rev. Int. de 1’Ens., 15 fev. 1891, p. 213. Sozinskey, T. S. Mental aspects of infantile unfoldment. Med. and Surg. Reporter, Philadelphia, 1882, 26 : 309. Stadtisches Jahrbuch. Yierter Jahrgang. Berlin, 1870. pp. 59. Steintiial, II. Der Ursprung der Sprache im Zusainmenliangc mit den letzten Fragen alles Wissens. 4. Aufl. Berlin: F. Dummler, 1888. Stetson, W. W. Child-study. Jour. Ed. (New Eng. and Nat.), 40 : 98. Stevenson, A. Jealousy in an infant. Science, Oct. 28, 1892. - The speech of children. Science, Mar. 3, 1893. Study of children’s spontaneous drawings, submitted by Earl Barnes (professor of education, Leland Stanford, jr., University) for teachers’ meeting (Alameda, Cal.), Feb. 10, 1893. 1 page. Also list of subjects to be taken up. 1 page. (Alameda, Cal., jmblic schools, Circ. No. 19.) Study of color sense in children. (Plan submitted by Earl Barnes for public school use, with blanks for giving results of trial.) Oakland, Cal., public schools, 1891. Santa Cruz, Cal., 1892. Sully, Jas. Babies and science. Cornhill Mag., May, 1881. - Baby linguistics. Eng. Ill. Mag., May and Nov., 1884. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CHILD STUDY. 391 Sully, Jas. Studies of childhood. I. The ago of imagination. II. The imaginative side of play. III. The questioning age. IV. The child’s thoughts about nature. Pop. Sci. Mo., 45: 323, 577, 733. 46: 186. Taine, H. Acquisition du language. Rev. de Philos., 1876. (See also Mind, 2: 252.) - - De Pintelligencc. London, 1871. Vol. 1, pp. 357-395. Talbot, (Mrs.) E. Papers on infant development. Published by the education department of the American Social Science Association. Boston, 1882. Tarde, G. Lcs lois de Limitation, 6tude sociologique. Paris, 1890. 8°. (Revue Internationale do l’Enseigncment, No. 8, 1890, p. 222.) Taylor, Henry Ling. American childhood from a medical standpoint. Jour. Soc. Sci., No. XXX, 1892, pp. 44-55 Tiedemann. Die vier ersten Jahre meiner Kinder. (German original not known, but translated in Jour. General d’Instrnc. Publique, Apiil, 1863; also trans¬ lated into English by Dr. L. F. Soldan. Syracuse.) Tracy, Frederick. The psychology of childhood. Boston, 1894. pp. 94. Tubby, A. H. The influence of heredity on the physical and moral training of children. Parents’ Rev. (London), 2:293. Ufek, Ch. Ueber Geistesstorungen in der Schule. Wiesbaden, 1891. Vierordt, H. Das Gehen des Menschen. Tubingen, 1881. Ward, (Mrs.) James. The development of strength of character in children. Par¬ ents’ Rev. (London), 2:24. Warner, Francis. Report of the British Medical Association and Charity Organi¬ zation Society of London, on the physical and mental condition of 50,000 children seen in 106 schools of London. Reprinted in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, for 1890-91, vol. 2, pp. 1081-1138. - The children : how to study them. London, 1887. 16°. 80 pp. Weber, T. Die Luge der Kinder und deren Beliandlung in Schule und Haus. Ber¬ lin. pp. 43. West, G. M. Eye tests of children. Amer. Jour. Psy., 4: 4. Wiggin, Kate Douglas. Children’s rights. A book of nursery logic. Boston and New York, 1892. 12°. pp. 235. Wilderspin, S. Infant system for developing the intellectual and moral powers of children from 1 to 7 years of age. London, 1840. 7th ed. 12°. WiNsniP, A. E. Child study. Truthfulness, habits of speech, behavior, companions, and memory. Jour. Ed. (New Eng. & Nat.), 40: 9. Wolfe, H. K. On the color-vocabulary of children. Nebraska University Studies, July, 1890, pp. 205-234. Wycicoff, Adelaide E. Constitutional bad spellers. Ped. Sem., 2: 448. - Infant study in the class room. Ped. Sem., 2 : 454. Yoder, A. H. The story of the boyhood of great men. Ped. Sem., 3: 134. CHAPTER XI. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HERBABTIAMSM. GEKMAN. Ackermann, E., editor. Padagogisckc Fragen. Quarterly. - Ueber Konzentration. (In Piidag. Fragen.) Ballauff, L. Elemente der Psycliologie. 1877. Bartels, Friedr. Die Anwendbarkeit der Herbart-Ziller-Stoy’schen didactischen Grundsiitze. 1885. Bartholomai, Friedr. Herbart’s Leben und piidagogiscbe Scbriften. 1884. Beyer, O. W. Die Naturwissenscbaften in der Erzieliungsscliule. 1885. Bode, Friedrich. Erziebungsaufgaben der Yolkssebule. 1888. Doring, E. Dio Erziehungsschule nacb psycliologiscken Grundsatzen. 1891. Dorpfeld, Fr. W. Beitriige zur piidagogiscken Psycbologie. I. Ueber Denken und Gedacktniss. ■ - - Der didaktiscbe Mater ialismus. 1888. - - Grundlinien eincr Tlieorie des Lelirpians. Drbal, M. A. Lehrbucb der empiriscben Psycliologie. 1885. Drobisch, M. W. Empirisclie Psycbologie nacb naturwissenscbaftlicber Metbode. 1842. Eberhardt, — . Die Poesie in der Yolkssebule. Engel, M. E. Grundsatze der Erziebung und des Unterricbts. 1887. Flugel, O., and W. Kein, editors. Zeitscbrift fiir Pbilosopbie und Padagogik. 1894. Monthly. Foltz, — . Metaphysische Grundlagen der Herbart’scben Psycbologie. Free, Heinrich. Die Lebre Herbart’s yon der menscblicben Seele. 1891. Frick, O., and Fridel. In wieweit sind die Herbart-Ziller-Stoy’scbeu didaktiseben Grundsatze fur den Unterricbt an boberen Schulen zu verwertben? 1883. Frick, O., and H. Meier, editors. Lehrproben und Lebrgiinge. Quarterly. Fricke, Fr. W.- Erziebungs- und Unterricbtslebre. 1884. Frohlich, Gust. Die wissensebaftliebe Padagogik. 1889. - Lindners allgemeine Erziebungs- und Unterricbtslebre. 1891. * - Stoys Leben, Lebre und Wirkeu. 1887. Gleichmann. Ueber Herbart’s Lebre von den formalen Stufen. 1889. 'Grossler. Das vielseitige Interesse. 1884. Hartenstein, G., editor. Herbart’s sammtliche \Yerke. 13 vols. Hartmann, Berthold. Analyse des kindlicben Gedankenganges. 1891. Helm, Johann. Grundzuge der empiriscben Psycbologie und Logik. 1879. — - - Handbuck der ailgemeinen Padagogik. 1894. Herbart, Johann Friedr. Sammtliche Werke,” edited by E. Hartenstein. 13 vols. (Last vol. publ. in 1893.) Hostinksy, O. Herbart’s Aestbetik. 1891. Just, Karl, editor. Die Praxis der Erziebungsscbule. 1894. Bimonthly. ' - Ueber die Form des Unterricbts. - Ueber Konzentration. 1880. (In Barth’s Erziebungsscbule,) 393 S94 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Kern, Herm. Grundriss der Padagogik. 1887. Kozle, Joh. Fr. G. Die padagogische Schule Herbart’s mid iliro Lelire. Gekrdnte Preissclirift. 1889. Krause, F. W. D. Die Kant-Herbart’sclie Etbik. 1889. Lange, Karl. Blatter der Erinneriing an Tuiskon Ziller. 1887. - Ueber Appcrzeption. 1886. Translated into English by the Herbart Club in the United States. 1893. Lazarus, M. Das Leben der Seele. 1885. Leutz, Ferd. Lehrbuch der Erziehung und des Unterrichts. 18£0. Linder, G. A. Allgeineine Erziehungslehre. Edited by Gust. Frohlich. 1891. - Allgemeine Unterrichtslelire. Edited by Gust. Frohlich. 1891. - Lehrbuch der empirischen Psychologic als inductiver Wissenschaft. 1885. Transl. by Pres. Charles De Garmo. Boston, 1890. Lomberg, August. Ueber Scliulwanderungen im Sinne des erziehenden Unter¬ richts. 1893. Maier, Gottfried. Padagogische Psychologie fur Schule und Hans. 1894. Martin, P., and H. Wigge. Die Unnatur der modernen Schule. 1888. Matzat. Methodik des geographischen Unterrichts. 1886. Meier, H., and O. Frick, editors. Lchrproben und Lehrgange. Quarterly. Ostermann, W. Die hauptsiichlichsten Irrthiimer der Herbartischen Psychologie. 1893. - Zur Herbart-Frage. 1893. Pfisterer, G. Fr. Padagogische Psychologie. 1889. Pickel, Scheller, and Rein. Tlieoric und Praxis des Tolkssehulunterrichts. 1888. Preyer, W. Die Seele des Kindes. (Translated into English, Kew York.) Regener, Friedrich. Grundziigc einer allgemeinen Methodenlehrc des Unter¬ richts. 1893. Reich. Die Theorie der Formalstufen. 1889. Rein, W. Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik. 1894. - Gesinnungsunterricht und Kulturgeschichte. (In Piidag. Studien. 1888.) - Herbart’s Regierung, Zucht und Unterriclit. - Padagog'gik im Grundriss. 1890. (Translated into English, Syracuse, 1893.) - editor. Padagogische Studien. Quarterly, 15th yoL, 1894. Rein, W., and O. Flugel. Zeitschrift fiir Philosophic und Padagogik. 1894- Monthly. Rein, Picked, and Scheller. Theorie und Praxis des Yolksschul unterrichts. 1888. Richter, Albert. Die Konzentration des Unterrichts. 1865. Richter, Karl. Die Herbart-ZilleUschen forinalen Stufen. 1888. Rompler, Herm. Fr. Die Form des Unterrichts. 1891. Sallwurk, E. v. Gesinnungsunterricht und Kulturgeschichte. 1887. Scheller, Rein, and Pickel. Theorie und Praxis des Tolkssehulunterrichts. 1888. Schiller, Herm. Handbuch der practischen Padagogik. 1890. Schilling, G. Lehrbuch der Psychologie. 1851. Schreiber, Felix. Herbart’s Unterscheidung der Begriffe, Regierung und Zucht. Inauguralschrift. 1889. Spielmann, C. Konzentration des Unterrichts. 1890. Staude, R. Diekultur-historischen Stufen im Unterrichte. 1891. (In Rein’s Piidag. Studien.) Steinthal, H. Allgemeine Ethik, 1885. Stoy", K. V. Encyclopiidie, Methodologie und Literatur der Padagogik. With index. 1878. - — Organisation des Lehrerseminars. 1869. — - Psychologie in gedriingter Darstellnng. 1870. Strumpell, Ludmhg. Das System der Padagogik Herbart’s. 1894. - Die Hauxitpunkte der Herbart’schen Metaplrysik. - Erziehungsfragen. 1869. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HERBARTIANISM. 395 Strum pell, Ludwig. Grundriss tier Psychologic. 1884. - Psycliologisclie Piidagogik. 1880. Thrandorf, L. Konzentration oder konzentrisclie Methode. Ufer, Christian. Yorschulo der Piidagogik Herbart’s. 1888. Yieth. Darf viclseitiges Interesse als Unterrichtsziel hingesrellt werden? 1886. Yogel, August. Herbart oder Pestalozzi? Ivritiscke Darstellung. 1887. - Systematische Encyclopadie der Piidagogik. 1890. Yogt, Theodor. Jalirbucli desYereins fiir wissensekaftlicke Piidagogik. 26 vols., each accompanied by Erliiutenmgen. Last vol. 1894. Yoigt, G. Die Bedeutnng der Herbart’schen Piidagogik. 1891. Yolkmann, W. Lebrbucb der Psychologic vom Standpuukte des Realismas nack genetischer Methode. 1885. Wagner, E. Die Praxis der Herbartianer. 1888. - Yollstandige Darstellung der Lehre Herbarts. 1886. Waitz, Theodor. Allgemeine Piidagogik. Edited by Otto Willmann. 1875. - Lehrbuch der Psychologic als Naturwissensehaft. 1849. Walsemann, A. Das Interesse. 1884. Wesendonck, E. Die Schnle Herbart- Zi Hers . Wiedemann, Franz. Leitlinien fiir die Unterri cbtspraxis . 1894. Wiessner, Eduard. Herbart’s Piidagogik. 1891. Wiget, Theodor. Die formalen Stufen des Unterri edits. 1888. Wigge, H., and P. Martin. Die Unnatur der modernen Schule. 1888. Willmann, Otto. Didaktik als Bildungslehre. 1882. - Herbart’s padagogische Schriften. 1886,. - Padagogische Yortriige. 1869. - Waits’s allgemeine Piidagogik. 1875. Wundt, W. Grnndziige der pkysiologisclien Psychologie. 1880. Ziller, Tuiscon. Allgemeine philosophische Ethik. 1886. - Die Regiernng der Kinder. 1857. - Grnndlegung zur Lehre vom erziehenden Unterricht. 1884. - Yorlesungen iiber allgemeine Piidagogik. 1876. Zillig. Geschichtsunterricht in der Erziehungsschule. AMERICAN. Brown, Geo. P. Public School Journal. Monthly. Bloomington, Ill. (Advocates Herbartian principles.) Brown, H. W. Preyer’s Mental Development of the Child. A translation. New Y^ork, 1893. ^ - Preyer’s Mind of the Child. 2 vols. Entitled, “The Senses and the Will,” and “ The Development of the Intellect.” A translation. New York. Butler, Nigh. Murry. Educational Review. Monthly. New lYxrk. (Contains occasional articles on ILerbartianism.) De Garmo, editor. Apperception, by Karl Lange. Translated by the Herbart Club. Boston, 1893. De Garmo, Chas. Lindner’s Empirical Psychology. A translation. Boston, 1890. - The Essentials of Method. Philadelphia, 1891. - The Herbartian System of Pedagogics. (In Educ. Review, 1891.) - Herbart and the Herbartians. New Y'ork, 1895. Felkin, Heney M., and Emmie. Science of Education, by Joh. Fr. Herbart. (A translation.) Boston, 1893. Findlay, J. J. Herbartian Literature in English. (In School and College, 1892.) Haanel, Hugo. Herbart’s Ideas on Education, by Dr. Karl Schmidt. (A transla¬ tion.) ( Journ. Speculative Philos., vol. 10.) Harris, W. T. Herbart and Pestalozzi compared. (In Educ. Review., vol. 5, 1893.) 396* EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Herbart, Johann Fr. Science of Education. Translated by Henry M. and Emmie Felkin. Boston, 1893. - Psychology. Translated by Margaret Iv. Smith. New York, 1891. Jackman, Wm. S. Number Work in Nature Study. Chicago, 1893. Kellogg, Amos, editor. School Journal. New York. Weekly. (Contains brief articles on Herbartianism.) * Klemm, L. R. European Schools. New York, 1890. (Contains description of lessons conducted by Herbartians.) Lange, Karl. Apperception. Translated by the Herbart Club; edited by Presi¬ dent Charles De Garmo. Boston, 1893. Lukens and Noss. Outlines of Psychology and Pedagogy. Pittsburg, 1890. McMtjrry, C. A. A Geography Plan for the Grades of the Common School. Winona, Wis., 1891. - How to Conduct a Recitation. New York, 1891. Noss and Li kens. Outlines of Psychology and Pedagogy. Pittsburg, 1890. Parker, F. A. Talks on Pedagogics. New York, 1894. Preyer, W. The Development of the Intellect. (Part II of The Mind of the Child.) Translated by H. W. Brown. New York. - The Senses and the Will. (Part I of The Mind of the Child.) Translated by H. W. Brown, New York. - Mental Development of the Child. Translated by H. W. Brown. New York, 1893. Prince, John T, Methods in the Schools of Germany. Boston, 1892. Rein, W. Outlines of Pedagogics. Translated by C. C. Van Liew. Syracuse, 1893. Schmidt, Dr. Karl. Plerbart’s Ideas on Education. Translated by Hugo Haanel. (In Journ. Speculative Philos., vol. 10.) Smith, Margaret K. Herbart’s Life. (In Journal of Education.) Boston, 1892. - A Textbook in Psychology. By Johann Fr. Herbart. (A translation.) New York, 1891. Van Liew, C. C. Rein’s Outlines of Pedagogics. A translation. Syracuse, 1893. Winship, A. E., editor. Journal of Education. Boston. Weekly. (Contains brief articles on Herbartianism.) CHAPTER XII. MME REGISTER.1 I. — Chief State School Officers. Name. Address. Official designation. Joint 0. Turner . Montgomery. Ala . State superintendent of educa¬ tion. Sheldon Jackson . Sitka, Alaska . General agent of education. Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. F. J. Netherton . Mesa, Ariz . Jnnins Jordan . Little Rock, Ark . State superintendent of public instruction. Samuel T. Black . Sacramento, Cal . Do. Mrs. A. J. Peavey . Denver, Colo . Do. C. D. Hine . Hartford, Conn . Secretary of State board of edu¬ cation. C. C. Tin dal . Dover, Del . Do. W. B. Powell . Washington, D. C . . Superintendent of District schools. W. N. Sheats . Tallahassee, Fla . State superintendent of public instruction. Gustavus R. Glenn _ _ _ Atlanta, Ga . State school commissioner. C. A. Forseman . Boise City, Idaho . ►State superintendent of public instruction. Samuel M. Inglis . Springfield, Ill . Do. D. M. Gee tin g . Indianapolis, Ind . Do. Henry Sabin . Des Moines, Iowa . Do. Edmund Stanley . Topeka, Ivans . Do. Ed. Porter Thompson.. . Frankfort, Ky . Do. A. D. Lafargue . J Baton Rouge, La . j State superintendent of educa¬ tion. W. W. Stetson . Augusta, Me . State superintendent of common schools. E. B. Prettyman . Baltimore, Md . ! State superintendent of public instruction. Frank A. Hill . Boston, Mass . Secretary of State board of edu¬ cation. Henry R. Pattengill _ ! Lansing, Mich . State superintendent of public instruction. W. W. Pendergast . St. Paul, Minn . Do. J. R. Preston . Jackson, Miss . State superintendent of educa¬ tion. John R. Kirk . Jefferson City, Mo . 1 State superintendent of public j schools. E. A. Steere . Helena, Mont _ _ _ State superintendent of public instruction. H. R. Corbett . Lincoln, Nebr . Do. H.C. Cutting . Carson Citv, Nev . Do. Fred. Gowing . Concord, N. H . Do. A. B. Poland . Trenton, N. J . Do. including all changes reported to the Bureau up to May, 1895. 397 398 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. I. — Chief State School Officers — Continued. Name. Address. Official designation. Amado Chaves . Sante Fe, N. Mex . Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. Charles R. Skinner . Albany, N. Y . State superintendent of public instruction. John C. Scarborough . .. Raleigh, N. C . Do. Miss Emma F. Bates - Bismarck, N. Dak . Do. Oscar T. Corson . Columbus, Ohio . State commissioner of common schools. E. D. Cameron . Guthrie, Okla . Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. G. M. Irwin . Salem, Oreg . State superintendent of public instruction. Nathan C. Schaeffer . Harrisburg, Pa . Do. Thomas B. Stockwell . . . Providence, R. I . Commissioner of public schools. W. D. Mayfield . Columbia, S. C . State superintendent of educa¬ tion. Frank Crane . Pierre, S. Dak . State superintendent of public instruction. Frank M. Smith . Nashville, Tenn . State superintendent of public schools. J. M. Carlisle . Austin, Tex . State superintendent of public instruction. T. B. Lewis . Ogden, Utah . Commissioner of schools. Mason S. Stone . Montpelier, Yt . State superintendent of educa¬ tion. John E. Massey . Richmond, Ya . 1 State superintendent of public 1 instruction. C. W. Bean . Olympia, Wash . Do. Yirgil A. Lewis . Charleston, W. Ya . State superintendent of free schools. J. Q. Emery . Madison, Wis . State superintendent of public schools. Miss Estelle Reel . . . Cheyenne, Wyo . State superintendent of public instruction. II. — City Superintendents. ALABAMA . Anniston, H. C. Gunnels.1 Bessemer, W. H. Harwell. Birmingham, J. H. Phillips. Eufaula, William D. Jelks. Florence, H. C. Gilbert. Huntsville, Sydney J. Mayhew. Mobile, John D. Yerby. Montgomery, C. L. Floyd. Selma, Louis E. Jeffries. Tuscaloosa, James H. Foster. ARIZONA. Tucson, ARKANSAS. Fort Smith, J. L. Holloway. Little Rock, J. R. Riglitsell. Helena, John Caldwell Davidson. Pine Bluff, Mrs. Ruth McBride. Hot Springs, George B. Cook. Principal. CITY SUPERINTENDENTS. 399 Alameda, D. J. Sullivan. Berkeley, S. D. Waterman. Eureka, G. W. Warren. Fresno, T. L. Heaton. Los Angeles, P. W. Search. Napa City, J. L. Shearer.1 Oakland, J. W. McClymonds. Pasadena, James D. Graham. Riverside, Eli F. Brown. Sacramento, O. W. Erlewine. CALIFORNIA. I San Bernardino, W. Scott Thomas., j San Diego, Eugene DeBurn. j San Francisco, Andrew J. Moulder. { San Jose, Frank P. Russell, i Santa Barbara, C. Y. Boop. | Santa Cruz, D. C. Clark. Santa Rosa, Frederic L. Burk. I Stockton, James A. Barr, j Vallejo, L. G. Harrier. COLORADO. Aspen. John F. Keating. Colorado Springs, P. K. Pattison. Denver : District No. 1, Aaron Gove. District No. 2, L. C. Greenlee. District No. 17, J. H. Van j Sickle. Leadville, J. P. Jackson. Pueblo- District No. 1, James S. Me Clung. District No. 20, H. E. Robbins. Trinidad, Eugene C. Stevens. CONNECTICUT. Ansonia, W. H. Angleton. Bridgeport, Charles W. Deane. Bristol, James F. Williams. Danbury, A. C. Hubbard. - Derby, J. W. Peck. Enfield, James B. Houston.2 Greenwich, George P. Fisher. Hartford. John H. Brocklesby. Manchester, Robert P. Bissell. Meriden, J. T. Pettec. Middletown. Walter B. Ferguson. New Britain, J. N. Bartlett. [ New Haven, Virgil G. Curtis. New London, Charles B. Jennings.3 Norwalk, Charles Olmstead.2 Norwich, N. L. Bishop. I Rockville, I. M. Agard. Stamford, Everett C. Willard. Torrington, Edwin H. Forbes. Wallingford, Daniel R. Knight.4 Waterbary, M. S. Crosby. Windham, George L. Storrs.2 j Winchester, George F. Prentiss.2 DELAWARE. New Castle, Allen H. Knapp. Wilmington, David W. Harlan. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Washington, William B. Powell (super- Washington, G. F. T. Cook ( superin - intendent of public schools). | tendent of colored schools). Jacksonville, Joel D. Mead.5 Key West, C. F. Kemp.5 Pensacola, N. B. Cook.5 FLORIDA. j St. Augustine, Walter E. Knibloe. Tampa, L. W. Buckkolz.5 Albany, J. S. Davis. Americas, William Harper. Athens, G. G. Bond. Atlanta, W. F. Slaton. Augusta, Lawton B. Evans. Brunswick. A. I. Branham. GEORGIA. Columbus, Homer Wright. Griffin, Botkwell Graham. Macon, D. Q. Abbott. Rome, James C. Harris. Savannah, W. H. Baker. Tliomasville, K. T. MacLean.5 1 Principal. 2 Secretary board of school visitors. 3 Acting school visitor. 4 Superintendent of central district. 5 County superintendent. 400 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. illi: Alton. Robert A. Haight. Aurora: District No. 5 (East Side), J. H. Freeman. District No. 4 (West Side), A. Y. Greenman. Austin, Newell D. Gilbert. Beardstown, M. Moore. Belleville, II. D. Updike. Bloomington, E. M. Van Petten. Braidwood, C. F. Van Doren. Cairo, Taylor C. Clendenen. Canton, C. M. Bardwell. Centralia, D. AY. Creekmur. Champaign, C. A. Bowsker. Charleston, J. AV. Henninger. Chicago, Albert G. Lane. Danville, Joseph Carter. Decatur, E. A. Gastman. Dixon, W. IT. AA7illiamson. Duquoin, J. E. AVooters. East St. Louis: District No. 1, James P. Slade. District No. 2, range 9, Harry Todd.1 District No. 2, range 10, T. J. McDonough.1 Elgin, H. F. Derr. Evanston : District No. 1, Homer H. Kingsley. District No. 2, F. AY. Nichols. District No. 3, A. J . Snyder. Anderson, John AW Carr. Bloomington, D. AY. Leonard. Brazil, John C. Gregg. Columbus, John A. Carnagey. Connersville, AY. F. L. Sanders. Crawfordsville, Isaac M. AVellington. Elkhart, D. AAr. Thomas. Evansville, AATilliam A. Hester. Fort AArayne, John S. Irwin. Frankfort, Benjamin F. Moore. Goshen, AVilliam H. Sims. Greencastle, Robert A. Ogg. Hammond, AY. C. Belman. Huntington, Robert I. Hamilton. Indianapolis, D. K. Goss. Jeffersonville, P. P. Stultz. Kokomo, H. G. AVoodv. La Fayette, Edward Ayres. Laporte, James F. Knight. rois. Freeport, F. T. Oldt. Galena, I. C. Baker. Galesburg, AVilliam L. Steele. Jacksonville, John R. Long. Joliet, - . Kankakee, F. N. Tracy. Kewanee, E. C. Rosseter. 'La Salle, L. A. Thomas. Lincoln, A. L. Anderson. Litchfield, J. E. Bryan. Macomb, S. F. Halh Mattoon, B. F. Armitage. Moline, H. M. Slausou. Monmouth, James C. Burns. Oak Park, AV. H. Hatch. Ottawa, - . Pana: West Side, L. S. Ham.2 East Side, AY. T. Gooden.2 Paris, W. W. Black. Pekin, F. AV. Reubelt. Peoria, Newton Charles Dougherty. Peru, Fred. W. Smedley. Quincy, T. AY. Maefall. Rock Island, S. S. Kemble. Rockford, P. R. Walker. Springfield, J. H. Collins. Sterling: District No. 1, AY. T. Tuttle. District No. 3, II. L. Chaplin. District No. 8, S. B. Hurst. Streator, J. N. Patrick. AVaukegan, Frank H. Hall. Lawrenceburg, AV. H. Rucker. Logansport, Albert H. Douglass. Madison, David M. Geeting. Marion, AY. D. AVeaver. Michigan City, Edward Boyle. Mount Afornon, H. P. Leavenworth. Muncie, AY. R. Snyder. New Albany, AY. H. Hershman. Peru, AV. R. J. Stratford. Richmond, Justin N. Study. Seymour, H. C. Montgomery Shelby ville, J. H. Tomlin. South Bend, Calvin Moon. Terre Haute, William IT. AAriley. A7alparaiso, William H. Banta. ATncennes, Albert E. Humke. Wabash, M. AV. Harrison. AVashington, AV. F. Axtell. 1 Principal. Supervising principal. CITY SUPERINTENDENTS. 401 IOWA. Atlantic, H. G. Lamson. Boone, George I. Miller. Burlington, Charles Eldred Slielton. Cedar Rapids, J. F. Merrill. Clinton, O. P. Bostwick. Council Bluffs, Hugh W. Sawyer. Creston, H. B. Larrabee. Davenport, J. B. Young. Des Moines : East Side, Amos Hiatt. West Side, Frank B. Cooper. North Side, O. E. Smith. Dubuque, Thomas Hardie.1 Fort Dodge, F. C. Wildes. Fort Madison, C. H. Morrill. Iowa City, W. F. Cramer. Keokuk, O. W. Weyer. LeMars, E. N. Coleman. Lyons, E. T. Fitch. Marshalltown, C. P. Rogers. Mason City, A. R. Sale. Muscatine, F. M. Witter. Oskaloosa, Orion C. Scott. Ottumwa, A. W. Stuart. Sioux City, H. E. Kratz. Waterloo : East Side, F. J. Sessions. West Side, George A. Bateman. KANSAS. Newton, J. W. Cooper. Ottawa, Frank P. Smith. Parsons, - - . Pittsburg, D. A. Cooper. Salina, - . Topeka, William M. Davidson. Wellington, H. F. M. Bear. Wichita, William Richardson. Winfield, J. W. Spindler. KENTUCKY. Argentine, Charles R. Sator. Arkansas City, T. W. Conway. Atchison, J. H. Glotfelter. Emporia, John Dietrich. Fort Scott, Guy P. Benton. Hutchinson, George W. Winans. Junction City, George W. Kendrick. Kansas City, L. L. L. Hanks. Lawrence, Edmund Stanley. Leavenworth, James E. Klock. Ashland, John G. Crabbe. Bowling Green, W. B. Wylie. Covington, W. C. Warfield. Dayton, R. M. Mitchell. Frankfort, McHenry Rhoads. Henderson, Edward S. Clark. Hopkinsville, Charles H. Dietrich. Lexington, William Rogers Clay. Louisville, George H. Tingley, jr. Maysville, J. H. Blatteman. Newport, John Burke. Owensboro, James McGinniss. Paducah, George O. McBroom. Paris, E. W. Weaver. Richmond, J. D. Clark. Winchester, C. E. Lyddane. 2 LOUISIANA . Baton Rouge, Fred J. Tunnard. 3 New Orleans, Warren Easton. Auburn, W. W. Stetson. Augusta, J. Frank Leland. 4 Bangor, Miss Mary S. Snow. Bath, J. C. Phillips. Belfast, O. C. Evans. Biddeford, Royal E. Gould. Brewer, George Curtis. Calais, S. E. Webber. j Shreveport, John L. Hargrove. MAINE. Ellsworth, E. W. Lord. Gardiner, James M. Larrahee. 4 Lewiston, W. W. Stetson. Portland, Orlando M. Lord. Rockland, John R. Dunton. Saco, John S. Locke. Waterville, J. H. Blanchard. 1 Secretary of the board of education. 3 Parish superintendent. 2 County superintendent. 4 Supervisor. ed 93—26 402 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. mar: Annapolis, John C. Bannon. 1 Baltimore, Henry A. Wise. Cambridge, James L. Bryan. 1 MASSAC Adams, Walter P. Beckwith. Amesbury, Frank Savage. 2 Attleboro, J. O. Tiffany. Beverly, Adelbert Leon Safford. Boston, Edwin P. Seaver. Brockton, B. B. Bussell. Brookline, Samuel T. Dutton. Cambridge, Francis Cogswell. Chelsea, Eben IT. Davis. Chicopee, E. H. Perkins. Clinton, Charles L. Hunt. Danvers, W. A. Baldwin. Dedham, Eoderick Whittelsey Hine. Everett, Kandall J. Condon. Fall River, William C. Bates. Fitchburg, Joseph G. Edgerley. Framingham, Orville W. Collins. Gardner, Louis P. Nash. Gloucester, Freeman Putney. Haverhill, Albert L. Bartlett. Holyoke, Edwin L. Kirtland. Hyde Park, Richard M. Johnson. 3 Lawrence, John E. Burke. Lowell, Arthur K. Whitcomb. Lynn, Orsamus B. Bruce. Malden, Charles A. Daniels. Marblehead, Henry M. Walradt. .MIC] Adrian, George AY. Walker. Alpena, L. S. Norton. Ann Arbor, AYalter S. Perry. Au Sable, E. M. Hartman. Battle Creek, F. AY. Arbury. Bay City, John A. Stewart. Big Rapids, James E. Miller. Cadillac, George R. Catton. Cheboygan, William C. Thompson. Coldwater, Egbert L. Briggs. Detroit, AY. E. Robinson. Escanaba, S. Sterrett Beggs. Flint, H. R. Hathaway. Grand Haven, J. B. Estabrook. Grand Rapids, W. AV. Chalmers. Ionia, C. L. Bemis. Iron Mountain, E. F. Abernethy. Ironwood, L. L. AYright. Ishpeming, - . Jackson : District No. 1, Thomas L. Evans. District No. 17, M. L. Palmer. nAXD. Cumberland, H. G. AYeimer. 1 Frederick, Ephraim L. Boblitz. 1 Hagerstown, George C. Pearson. 1 :usetts. Marlboro, B. W. Tinker. Medford, Ephraim Hunt. Melrose, Benjamin F. Robinson. Milford, S. F. Blodgett. Natick, Frank E. Purlin. New Bedford, AATlliam E. Hatch. Newburyport, AYilliaunP. Lunt. Newton, George I. Aldrich. North Adams, Mrs. Julia, M. Dewey. Northampton, Alvin F. Pease. Peabody, John B. Gifford. Pittsfield, Eugene Bouten. Plymouth, Francis J. Heavens. Quincy, H. W. Lull. Salem, John AY. Perkins. Somerville, Gordon A. Southworth. Southbridge, John T. Clarke. Spencer, WymarnC. Fickett. Springfield, Thomas M. Balliet. Stoneham, Sarah A. Lynde. 3 Taunton, C.'F.Boyden. AY altham, Henry AVliittemore. AVatertown, George R. Dwelley. AYestfield, G. H. Danforth. AYey mouth, I. M. Norcross. AYoburn, Thomas Emerson. AForcester, Clarence E. Carroll. Kalamazoo, O. E. Latham. Lansing, Charles O. Ilpyt. Ludington, H. T. Blodgett. Manistee, Albert Jennings. Marquette, Anna M. Chandler. Menominee, O. J. AYoodley. Monroe, A. AY. Tressler. Mount Clemens, F. C. Price. Muskegon, David MacKenzie. Negaunee, F. D. Davis. Niles, J. D. Schiller. Owosso, J. AY. Simmons. Pontiac, F. E. Converse. Port Huron, James H. Beazell. Saginaw: East Side, A. S. AYhitney. West-Side, Edwin C. Thompson. Sault Ste. Marie, A. Jay Murray. Traverse City, Charles T. Grawn AYcst Bay City, - . l’psilanti, M. A. AAEitney. County school examiner . 2 Chairman of the school committee. 3 Secretary of the school committee. CITY SUPERINTENDENTS. 403 MINNESOTA . Anoka, Zenas N. Vaughn. Brainerd, B. T. Hathaway. Duluth. Robert E. Denfield. Faribault, George A. Franklin. Mankato, George F. Kenaston. Minneapolis, C. M. Jordan. Red Wing, G. O. Brohough. Rochester, F. D. Budlong. St. Cloud, S. S. Parr. St. Paul, Charles B. Gilbert. Stillwater, M. A. Stone. Winona, Buel T. Davis. MISSISSIPPI. Columbus, J. M. Barrow. Greenville, E. E. Bass. Jackson, - . Meridian, Andrew A. Kineannon. Natchez, I. W. Henderson. Vicksburg, Charles Pendleton Kemper. MISSOURI. Boonville, F. W. Ploger. Brookfield, E. L. Joyce. Cape Girardeau, T. E. Joyce. Carthage, J. M. White. Chillicothe, W. F. Jamison. Clinton, Charles B. Reynolds. Columbia, James S. Stokes. Fulton, John Patrick Goss. Hannibal, R. B. D. Simonson. Independence, William F. Bahlmann. Jefferson City, J. U. White. Joplin, - Brown. Kansas City, James M. Greenwood. Lexington, H. D. Demand. Louisiana, A. P. Settle. Butte City, J. P. Hendricks. Beatrice, Carroll G. Pearse. Fremont, Daniel Miller. Grand Island, Robert J. Barr. Hastings, Edwin N. Brown. Kearney, Jesse T. Morey. Marshall, R. H. Emberson. i Maryville, A. E. Clarendon. Mexico, D. A. McMillan. Moberly, J. T. Muir. Nevada, W. J. Hawkins. Rich Hill, J. P. Thurman. St. Charles, George W. Jones. St. Joseph, Edward B. Neely. St. Louis, Edward H. Long. Sedalia, George V. Buchanan. Springfield, Jonathan Fairbanks. Trenton, H. E. DuBois. ; Warre nsburg, F.E. Hoi id a y . Webb City, W. J. Stevens. MONTANA. Helena, R. G. Young. NEBRASKA. Lincoln, Frank Strong. Nebraska City, W. H. Skinner. Omaha, Albert P. Marble. Plattsmouth, Frank C. McClellan. South Omaha, A. A. Monroe. NEVADA. Virginia City, C. E. Mack. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Concord, Louis J. Rundlett. Dover, Ckanning Folsom. Keene, T. W. Harris. Manchester, William E. Buck. Nashua, James H. Fassett. Portsmouth, J. Clifford Simpson. Rochester, Henry Kimball. 404 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. NEW JERSEY. Atlantic City, William B. Londenslager. Bayonne, Charles M. Davis. Bordentown, William Macfarland.1 Bridgeton, Jolin S. Turner. Burlington, Wilbur Watts.1 Camden, Martin’V. Bergen. Elizabeth, Warren R. Dix. Gloucester City, J. C. Stiuson. Elackensack, C. D. Bogart.1 Harrison, John Dwyer.1 Hoboken, David E. Rue. Jersey City, Henry Snyder. Lambertville, Levi Brown. Long Branch, C. Gregory. Millville, E. C. Stokes. Morristown, W. L. R. Haven. NEW A Santa Fe, U NEW Albany, Charles W. Cole. Albion, Freeman A. Greene. Amsterdam, District No. 8, J. W. Kimball. District No. 11, John G. Ser- viss. Auburn, Benjamin B. Snow. Batavia, John Kennedy. Binghamton, Marcus W. Scott. Brooklyn, William H. Maxwell. Buffalo, Henry P. Emerson. Canandaigua, Henry L. Taylor. Cat skill, Edwin S. Harris Cohoes, George E. Dixon. College Point, Mary L. Lyles. Corning, Leigh R. Hunt. Cortland, C. Y. Coon. Dunkirk, John W. Babcock. Edgewater, District No. 2, J. Hall Bur¬ dick.4 District 1, J. W. Barris.5 District No. — , S. J. Pardee. Elmira, Elias J. Beardsley. Flushing, John J. Chickering. Fulton, B. G. Clapp.1 Geneva, William H. Truesdale. Glens Falls, Sherman Williams. Gloversville, James A. Estee. Greenbush, H. R. Jolley. Green Island, James Heatly. New Brunswick, George G. Ryan. Newark, William N. Barringer. Orange, Usher W. Cutts. Passaic, H. H. Hutton. Paterson, J. A. Reinhart. Perth Amboy, Adrian Lyon. Phillipsburg, H. Budd Howell. Plainfield, Henry M. Maxson. Rahway, H. B. Rollinson. Red Bank, Charles D. AYarner. Salem, Morris H. Stratton. South Amboy, W7. L. Heineken.1 Trenton, Leslie C. Pierson; B.C. Gregory. 2 Town of Union (Hudson County), Otto Ortel.:} . T. Curran. YORK. Haverstraw, L. 0. Markham.1 Hempstead, Wallace S. Newton.1 Hoosick Falls, Arthur G. Clement. Hornellsville, William R. Prentice. Hudson, William S. Hallenbeck. Ilion, Judson I. Wood. Ithaca, Luther C. Foster. Jamaica, District No. 4, William J. Bal¬ lard. District No. 7, Cyrus E. Smith.7 Jamestown, Rovillus R. Rogers. Johnstown, William S. Snyder. Kingston, Kingston School District,” Charles M. Ryon. District No. 2, - . District No. 3, Henry Powers.1 District No. 4, Egbert Lewis.1 Lausingburg, George F. Sawyer. Little Falls, Thomas A. Caswell. Lockport, Emmet Belknap. Long Island City, John E. Shull. Lyons, W. H. Kinney. Malone, Sarah L. Perry. Matteawan, G. R. Miller.1 Medina, Henry Pease. Middletown, James F. Tuthill. Mount Yernon, Charles E. Nichols. New Brighton, Julia K. West.8 New Rochelle, Isaac E. Young. 1 Principal. 2 Supervising principal. 3 Post-office, Weehawken. 4 Post-office, Stapleton. 5 Post-office, TkompkinsviJle. c Post office, Eosekank. 7 Post-office, Woodliaven. 8 School commissioner. CITY SUPERINTENDENTS. 405 NEW YORK- New York, John Jasper. Newburgh E. V. K. Montfort. Niagara Falls, N. L. Benham. North Tonawantla, Clinton S. Marsh. Norwich, Elbert W. Griffith. Nyack, Ira H. Lawton. Ogtlensbnrg, Barney Whitney. Olean, Fox Holden. Oneida, Frank W. Jennings. Oneonta, Nathaniel N. Bull. Oswego, George E. Bullis. Owego, Edwin P. Recordon. Peekskill, District No. 7 (Drum Hill Dis¬ trict), John Millar. District No. 8 (Oakside Dis¬ trict), A. D. Dunbar. Penn Yan, F. T. Shultz. Plattsburg, James G. Riggs. Port Chester, John C. Rockwell. Port Jervis, John M. Dolpli. Port Richmond, Orry H. Hoag. NORTH c Asheville, J. D. Eggleston, jr. Charlotte, Alexander Graham. Concord, J. F. Shinn. Durham, C. W. Toms. Fayetteville, B. C. Mclver. Goldsboro, Logan D. Howell. -continued. Poughkeepsie, Edward Burgess. Rochester, Milton Noyes. Rome, W. D. Manro. Saratoga Springs, Thomas R. Kneil. Saugerties, Fred. N. Moulton. Schenectady, S. B. Howe. Seneca Falls, F. S. Porter. Sing Sing, J. Irving Gorton. Syracuse, A. B. Blodgett. Tonawanda, F. J. Diamond. Troy, Edwin E. Ashley. Utica, George Griffith. Waterford, Alexander Falconer. Waterloo, Thomas C. Wilber.1 Watertown, William G. Williams. Waverly, P. M. Hull.1 Westchester, Michael E. Devlin. West Troy, James R. Main.2 White Plains, Ralph A. Stewart. Whitehall, W. W. Howe. Yonkers, Charles E. Gorton. ROLINA. Henderson, J. B. White. 3 Newborn, John S. Long. Raleigh, Edward P. Moses. Salisbury, R. G. Kizer. Wilmington, M. C. S. Noble. Winston, John J. Blair. NORTH DAKOTA. Fargo, Darius Steward. Akron, Elias Fraunfelter. Alliance, John E. Morris. Ashtabula, J. S. Lowe. Avondale, A. B. Johnson. Bellaire, Benjamin T. Jones. Bellefontaine, Henry Whitworth. Brooklyn, Charles M. Knight. Bucyrus, F. M. Hamilton. Cambridge, E. L. Abbey. Canton, James J. Burns. Chillicothe, - . Cincinnati, William H. Morgan. Circleville, M. II. Lewis. Cleveland, Lewis H. Jones. . Columbus, J. A. Shaw an. Dayton, W. J. White. Defiance, J. W. Mclnnis. Delaware, D. E. Cow gill. | Grand Forks, William J. Pringle. OHIO. Delphos, E. W. Hastings. East Liverpool, S. D. Sanor. Elyria, Henry M. Parker. Findlay, J. W. Zeller. Fostoria, II. L. Frank. Fremont, W. W. Ross. Galion, A. W. Lewis. Gallipolis, J. B. Moliler. Greenville, F. Gillum Cromer. Hamilton, C. C. Miller. Ironton, M. C. Smith. Jackson, J. E. Kinnison. Kenton, E. P. Dean. Lancaster, Elijah Burgess. Lima, J. M. Greenslade. Lorain, F. D. Ward. Mansfield, James W. Knott. Marietta, W. W. Boyd. ^Principal. 2 School commissioner ; post-office, GhiiMerland. Chairman school committee. 406 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Ohio — con tinned. Marion, Arthur Powell. Martins Ferry, AY. H. Stewart. Massillon, E. A. Jones. Middletown, B. B. Harlan. Mount A^ernon, Lewis D. Bonebrake. Nelsonville, Fletcher S. Coultrap. New Philadelphia, G. C. Maurer. Newark, J. C. Hartzler. Niles, F. J. Roller. Norwalk, A. D. Bcechy. Oberlin, George AY. AAkiite. Painesville, George AY. Ready. Piqua, C. W. Bennett. Pomeroy, Morris Bowers. Portsmouth, Thomas Yickers. Salem, M. E. Hard. Sandusky, E. J. Skives. | Sidney, E. S. Cox. I Springfield, Carey Boggess. | Steubenville, Henry Ney Mertz. Tiffin, J. H. Snyder. ! Toledo, Harvey AAT. Compton. I Troy, C. L. Yan Clevc. ! Urbana, AYilliam McK. A'ance. ! Akin AYert, AAT. T. Bushman. | AYarrcn, R. S. Thomas. AYashington C. H., N. H. Chaney. ! AArellston, Timothy S. Hogan. AYellsviile, J. L. MacDonald. | AYest Cleveland, J. M. Talbott. AYooster, Charles Haupert. Xenia, Edwin B. Cox. Youngstown, F. Treudlcy. | Zanesville, AY. D. Lash. OKLAHOMA. Oklahoma, E. L. Hallock. Astoria, - — Portland, Irving AAh Pratt. OPvEGON. I Salem, E. II. Anderson. PENNSYLVANIA. Allegheny, John Morrow. Allentown, Francis D. Raub. Altoona, D. S. Keith. Archbald, R. N. Davis. Ashland, AYilliam C. Estler. Beaver Falls, J. M. Reed. Bethlehem, Thomas Farquliar. Bloomsburg, L. P. Sterner. Brad dock, John S. Keefer. Bradford, E. E. Miller. Bristol, Matilda S. Booz. Butler, Ebenezcr Maekay. Carbondale, John J. Forbes. Carlisle, C. P. Humrick.1 Chambersburg, AAHliam H. Hockenberry. Chester, Charles F. Foster. Columbia, S. H. Hoffman. Connellsville, AY. G. Gans.2 Conshohoeken, J. Horace Landis. Corry, A. D. Colegrove. Danville, W. D. Stcinbacli. Dubois, C. P. Garrison. Dunmore, John E. Williams. Easton, AYilliam AY. Cottingham. Erie, H. C. Missimer. Franklin, N. P. Kinsley. Greensburg, H. B. Twitmyer. I Harrisburg, Lemuel O. Foose. i Hazleton, David A. Harman, j Homestead, John C. Kendall. ! Huntingdon, AYilliam M. Benson, i Johnstown, T. B. Johnston. Lancaster, R. K. Buehrle. j Lansford, I. K. AYitmer. I Lebanon, Cyrus Boger. j Lock Haven, John A. Robb. McKeesport, H. F. Brooks. | Makanoy City, Frank Seward Miller. | Mauch Chunk, James J. Be van. i Meadville, Henry Ar. Hotchkiss. Middletown, H. H. Weber. Milton, Lewis A. Beardsley. Monongahela City, E. W. Dalby.2 Mount Carmel, Samuel H. Dean. Nanticoke, Clarence B. Miller. New Brighton, J. Burdqtte Richey. New Castle, AYilliam J. Shearer. Norristown, Joseph Iv. Gotwals. Oil City, C. A. Babcock. Olyphant, M. W. Cumming. Philadelphia, Edward Brooks, rkcenixville, Harry L. Leister. Pittsburg, George J. Luckey. Pittston, Robert Shield Secretary of school hoard. Principal. 3 Supervising principal. CITY SUPERINTENDENTS, 407 Pennsylvania — continued. Plymouth (borough), Irving A. Heikes.1 2 Pottstown, William M. Rupert. Pottsville, B. F. Patterson. Reading, Samuel A. £aer. Reno vo, Janies J. Palmer. Scranton, George W. Phillips. Shamokin, William F. Harpel. Sharon, J. W. Cannon. Sharps'!) nrg, E. B. Me Roberts. Shenandoah, Martin P. Whitaker. South Bethlehem, Oven R. Wilt. South Chester,- A. G. C. Smith.3 South Easton, Samuel E. Shull.4 Steelton, L. E. McGinnis. RHODE Bristol, J. P. Reynolds. East Providence, J. E. C. Farnham. Johnston, Nathan M. Wright.6 Lincoln, Frank O. Draper.7 Newport, Benjamin Baker. j Sunburv, C. D. Oberdorf. Tam aqua, Robert F. Dit.ehburn. Tarcntum, B. S. Hunnell . Titusville, Robert D. Crawford, i Towanda, Minor Terry.5 Tyrone, C. E. Kauffman, i Uniontown, Lee Smith.5 I Warren, W. L. MaeGo wan. j Washington, A. G. Braden . ' West Chester, Addison Jones. Wilkes Barre, James M. Coughlin. | Wilkinsburg, J. D. Anderson. Williamsport, Samuel Transeau. York, Atreus Wanner. ISLAND. Pawtucket, Gilman C. Fisher. Providence, Horace S. Tarbell. Westerly, W. R. Whittle.5 Woonsocket, F. E. McFee. SOUTH CAROLINA. Charleston, Henry P. Archer. Greenville, E. L. Hughes. Columbia, - . Spartanburg, P. T. Brodie. SOUTH DAKOTA. Sioux Falls, Alexander M. Rowe. TENNESSEE. Chattanooga, A. T. Barrett. Clarksville, J. W. Graham. Columbia, J. D. Meadors. Jackson, Thomas H. Paine. TE Austin, John B. Winn. Brenham, E. W. Tarrant. Brownsville, J. F. Cummings. Coipus Christi, Charles W. Crossley. Corsicana, J. T. Hand. Dallas, J. L. Long. Denison, William Gay. El Paso, W. K. Savage. Fort Worth, Alexander Hogg. Gainesville, E. F. Comegys. Galveston, Oscar H. Cooper. 17 Logan, John T. Caine, jr. Ogden City, R. S. Page.1 Johnson City, R. H. Freeland. Knoxville, Albert Ruth. Memphis, George W. Gordon. Nashville, Z. H. Brown. *.s. Greenville, J. H. Tan Amburgh. Houston, W. S. Sutton. Laredo, F. A. Parker. Marshall, Chesley F. Adams. Palestine, P. V. Pennybacker. Paris, J. G. Wooten. San Antonio, J. E. Smith. Sherman, W. Leonard Lemmon. Temple, J. E. Blair. Tyler, John A. Boon. Waco, Charles T. Alexander. H. Provo City, William S. Rawlings. Salt Lake City, J. F Millspaugh. 1 Supervising principal. 2 Post-office, Chester. 3 County superintendent ; post-office, Media. 4 Post-office, Easton. 5 Principal. 6 Post-office, Olneyviile. 7 Post-office, Central Falls. 408 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Barre, Darwin S. Waterman. Brattleboro, James H. Babbitt. Burlington, Henry O. Wheeler. Alexandria, Kosciusko Kemper. Charlottesville, F. W. Lane. Danville, Abner Anderson. Fredericksburg, E. M. Crutchfield. Lynchburg, E. C. Glass. Manchester, A. H. Fitzgerald. 1 Newport News, J. H. Crafford. 2 Fairhaven, C. W. Albright. New Whatcom, Harry Pattison. Olympia, W. H. Beeler. Port Townsend, O. B. Grant. VERMONT. Rutland, Alfred Turner. St. Albans, Frank W. Whippen. VIRGINIA. Norfolk, K. C. Murray. Petersburg, D. M. Brown. Portsmouth, — . Jacobs. Richmond, William F. Fox. Roanoke, B. Rust. Staunton, John H. Bader. Winchester, Maurice M. Lynch. WASHINGTON. Seattle, Frank J. Barnard. Spokane Falls, D. Bemiss. Tacoma, H. M. James. Walla Walla, R. C. Kerr. WEST VIRGINIA. Charleston, George S. Laidley. Parkersburg, W. M. Straus. Huntington, James M. Lee. Wheeling, W. H. Anderson. Martinsburg, J. A. Cox. WISCONSIN. Antigo, John E. Martin. Appleton, Carrie E. Morgan. Ashland, Joseph M. Turner. Baraboo, J. E. Necollins. Beaver Dam, James J. Dick. Beloit, C. W. Merriman. Berlin, Perry Niskern. Chippewa Falls, R. L. Barton. Eau Claire, J. K. McGregor. Fond du Lac, Ed. McLoughlin. Fort Howard, A. W. Burton. Green Bay, M. H. McMahon. Janesville, D. D. Mayne. Kaukanna, Hampton Corlett. Kenosha, E. L. Grant. La Crosse, Albert Hardy. Madison, R. B. Dudgeon. Manitowoc, H. Evans. Marinette, J. T. Edwards. Menasha, Joseph L. Fieweger. Menominee, Judson E. Hoyt. Merrill, James H. Heal. Milwaukee, George W. Peckham. Neenah, J. N. Stone. Oconto, Elmer E. Carr. Oshkosh, Rufus H. Halsey. Portage, William Fulton. Racine, O. C. Seelye. Sheboygan, George Heller. Stevens Point, Henry A. SimonGs. Superior, A. W. Rankin. Watertown, C. F. Viebahn. Waukesha, H. L. Terry. Wausau, William R. Moss. White Water, E. W. Walker. WYOMING. Cheyenne, James O. Churchill. Laramie, Frank W. Lee. Principal. 2 County superintendent; post-office. Lee Hall. COLLEGE PRESIDENTS. 409 III. — College Presidents. I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts. . j Name of president. ! University or college. Address. J. H. Patterson . Arthur W. McGalia, D. D . John O. Keener, D. D . George R. McNeill, A. M . . . Henry J. Willingham, A. B - J.M. Bledsoe . C. S. Dinkins . James Lonergan, S. J . j R. C. Jones, LL. D . Theo. B. Comstock, Sc. D . G. C. Jones, A. M . John W. Conger, A. M . Eugene R. Long, Ph. D . j Jas. A. Langhlin . Blount College . Howard College . Southern University . Lafayette College . Lineville College . Scottshoro College . Selma University . Spring Hill College . University of Alabama . University of Arizona . Arkadelphia Methodist Col¬ lege. Ouachita Baptist College .... Arkansas College . Arkansas Cumberland Col¬ Blountsville, Ala. East Lake, Ala. Greensboro, Ala. Lafayette, Ala. Lineville, Ala. Scottsboro, Ala. Selma, Ala. Spring Hill, Ala. University, Ala. Tucson, Ariz. Arkadelphia, Ark. Do. Batesville, Ark. Clarksville, Ark. A. C. Millar, A. M . Joseph A. Booker, A. M . William F. Shedd . Thomas Mason, A. M., D. D - Martin Kellogg, A. M., LL. D . . Wm. Henslee, A. B . W. C. Sawyer, Ph. D., acting. . . E. N. Condit . J. W. Hickey . j J. N. Beard, D. D . S. B. Morse, D. D . I Brother Bettelin . C. H. Keyes, A. B . Edward Allen, S. J . 1 Joseph Riordan, S. J . i J. S. Austin, A. M . D. S. Jordan, Ph. D., LL. D .... J. P. Widney, A. M., M. D . W. J. Ham, A. M . ; Henry D. McAneney, A. M . James H. Baker, LL. D . Wm. F. Slocum, jr., LL. D . Horatio S. Beavis, A. M., Ph. B. Wm. F. McDowell, Ph. D.. S. T. B. Geo. W. Smith, D. D., LL. D . . . B. P. Raymond, D. D., LL. D. . . Timothv Dwight, D. D., LL. D . Albert N. Raub, Ph. D . . . S. H. Greene, D. D., acting . J. Havens Richards, S. J . J. E. Rankin, D. D., LL. D . E. M. Gallaudet, Ph. D., LL. D . Jdhn F. Forbes, Ph. D . W. F. Melton, A. M . A. F. Lewis, A. M . Charles G. Fairchild . Wm. E. Boggs, D. D.. LL. D . .. Horace Bumstead, D. D . C. O. Stubbs, A. M . lege. Hendrix College. . . Arkansas Baptist College.... Little Rock University . Philander Smith College . | University of California . | Pierce Christian College . 1 University of the Pacific . j Occidental College . St. Yin cent’s College . i Napa College . California College . St. Mary’s College . 1 Throop Polytechnic Institute. St. Ignatius College . Santa Clara College . Pacific Methodist College _ Leland Stanford Junior Uni¬ versity. University of Southern C ali- fornia. San Joaquin Valley College. . j Hesperian College . j University of Colorado . Colorado College . Presbyterian College of the Southwest. University of Denver . Trinity College . I Wesleyan University . Yale University . : Delaware College . Columbian University . j Georgetown University . I Howard University . j Gallaudet College? . i John B. Stetson University .. Florida Conference College .. Seminary West of the Su¬ wannee River. Rollins College . University of Georgia . Atlanta University . Bowdon College . Conway, Ark. Little Rock, Ark. Do. Do. Berkeley, Cal. College City, Cal. College Park, Cal. Los Angeles, Cal. Do. Napa, Cal. Oakland, Cal. Do. Pasadena, Cal. San Francisco, Cal. Santa Clara, Cal. Santa Rosa, Cal. Stanford University, Cal. Lhiiversity, Cal. Woodbridge, Cal. Woodland, Cal. Boulder, Colo. Colorado Springs, Colo. Del Norte, Colo. University Park, Colo. Hartford, Conn. Middletown, Conn. New Haven, Conn. Newark, Del. Washington, D. C. Do. Do. Do. De Land, Fla. Leesburg, Fla. Tallahassee, Fla. Winter Park, Fla. Athens, Ga. Atlanta* Ga. Bowdon, Ga. 410 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. I. — Colleges for males, etc. — Continued. Name of president. University or college. j Address. J. B. Gainbrell, D. D . W. A. Candler, D. D . D. C. Jolin, D. D . W. F. Robinson . . Franklin B. Gault, M. S . . J. G. Evans, D. D., LL. D . Wm. H. Wilder, A. M., D. D _ M. J. Marsile, C. S. V . Jas. E. Rogers, D. D., Pli. D . . . . Holmes Dysinger, D. D . Andrew S. Draper, LL. D . Thomas S. Fitzgerald, S. J . Wm. R. Harper, Ph. D., D. D .. i W. E. Lugenbeel . Daniel Irion . Carl Johann, A. M., LL. D . Henry W. Rogers, LL. D . J. A. Leavitt . J. H. Breese,Pk. D„ . J.H. Finley, A. M . John Y. N. Standisk, Ph. D _ Wm. H. Monroe, A. M . John E. Bradley, Ph. D . J. M. Coulter, Ph. D., LL. D . . . M. H. Chamberlin, A. M., LL. B. A. E. Turner, A. M . J. B. McMichael, D. D _ H. J. Kiekhoefor, A. M . B AY. Baker, A. M. . Nicholas Leonard, O. S. F . Olof Olsson, D. D., Ph. D . j Hugo-line Storff,0. S. F . ! Austen K. de Blois, Ph. D . W.H. Klinefelter, D.D . | Chas. A. Blanchard . . i Joseph Swain, LL. D . Geo. S. Burroughs, Ph. D . - Jos. Schmidt . William T. Stott, J). D - John P. D. John, D. D . [ D. AY. Fisher, D. D., LL. D _ AY. II. Davis . . Scot Butler, A. M . L. J. Aldrich, A.M., D. D _ John H. Martin, A. M., D. D. .. Andrew Morrissey, C. S. C . Joseph J. Mills, A. M., LL. D. . Geo. Hindley, B. D . . Fin tan Mund wrier, O. S. B - T. C.Reade, D.D . . James Marshall, A. M., D. D. .. J. Frederick Hirsck, A. M . P. AY. Jenkins . . Mercer University . j Emory College . ! Clark University . ! l'oung Harris College . . . j University of Idaho . . Hedding College . ! Illinois Wesleyan University. I St. Aua.teur’s College . . . | Blackburn University . Carthage College . . University of Illinois . St. Ignatius College . . University of Chicago . Austin College.- . Evangelical Proseminary _ Eureka College . Northwestern University Ewing College . . Northern Illinois College _ Knox College . . . . Lombard University . I Greer College . . . Illinois College . - . ------ Lake Forest University _ McKendree College . Lincoln University . Monmouth College . . I Northwestern College _ _ _ Chaddoek College . . ! St. Francis Solanns College . . Augustan a College . St. Joseph's Diocesan College. Shur tie If College-. . AVestlield College . . AVlieaton College . Indiana University. . AATab ash College . . . . Concordia College . | F ranklin College . . I De Panw University . Hanover College . . Harts ville College. . Butler University . . Union Christian College _ Moores Hill College . University of Notre Dame _ Earlham College . Ridge ville College . , St. Meinrad’s College - Taylor University . . Coe College . . German English College . Amity College _ _ Macon, Ga. Oxford, Ga. South Atlanta, Ga. Young Harris, Ga. Moscow, Idaho. Abingdon, Ill. Bloomington, Ill. Bonrhonnais, Ill. Carlinville, Ill. Carthage, 111. Champaign, Ill. Chicago, Ill. Do. Effingham, Ill. Elmhurst, Ill. Eureka, III. Evanston. Ill. Ewing, Ill. Fulton, Ill. Galesburg, III. Do. Hoopeston, Ill. Jacksonville, Ill. Lake Forest, Ill. Lebanon, Ill. Lincoln, Ill. Monmouth, Ill. Naperville, Ill. Quincv, Ill. Do. Rock Island. Ill. Teutopolis, Ill. Upper Alton, 111. AA'hstheld, Ill. AVkeaton, Ill. Bloomington, Iud. Crawfords ville, Ind. Fort Wayne, Ind. Franklin, Ind. Greencastle, Ind. Hanover, Ind. Hartsville, Ind. Irvington. Ind. Moroni, Ind. Moores Hill, Ind. Notre Dame, Ind. Richmond, Ind. Ridgeville. Ind. St. Meinrad, Ind. Upland, Ind. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Charles City, Iowa. C ollege S prings Iowa. AA7 m. S. Perry, D. D., LL. D - Griswold College . Davenport, Iowa. Laur. Larsen . Luther College . Decorah, Iowa. H. L. Stetson, D.D . Des Moines College . Des Moines, Iowa. B. O. Aylesworth. LL. D . Drake University . . Do. Ambrose C. Smith, D. D . Parsons College . Fairfield, Iowa. John AAk Bissell, A. INI., D. D. . . Upper Iowa University . Fayette, Iowa. George A. Gates, D. D . . Iowa College. . . . . . - Grinnell, Iowa. Hugh Robinson, A. M . . . Lenox College . . Hopkinton, Iowa. Fletcher Brown, A. M., B. D.. . Simpson College . Indianola, Iowa. Charles A. Schaeffer, Ph. D . . . . State University of Iowa . . . . I Iowa City, Iowa COLLEGE PRESIDENTS. 411 I. — Colleges for males, etc. — Continued. Name of president. i University or college. j Address. Fricdricli Munz, A. M . C. L. Stafford, D. D . Wm. F. King, LL. D . J. M. Atwater, A. M . A. Rosenberger, A. B., LL. B . - . John Stuart, B. D., Ph. D . George TV. Carr . Wm.M. Brooks, A. M . L. Bookwalter . George Grossman . Jacob A. Clutz, D. D . Innocent TVolf, O. S. B.,D. D. .. L.H.Murlin, A.B., S.T.B . E. H. Yanglian, Pb. D . J.D. Hewitt, D. D . J. A. Weller, D. D . S. Ensminger, acting . E. J. Hoenshel . F. H. Snow, Ph. B., LL. D . C. M. Brooke, A. M . C. A. Swensson, A. M . F. TV. Colegrave, A. M . Edward A. Higgins, S. J . Edward TV . Mueller, A. M . F. M. Spencer, D. D . Peter McViear, A. M., D. D _ A. S. Vaughan . . . Wm. N. Rice, A. M . Daniel Stevenson, D. D . TVm. G. Fr.ost, Ph. D . TVm. A. Obenchain, A. M . TV. C. Young, D.D., LL. D . TV. S. Giltner, A. M . A. C. Davidson, D. D . J. TV. Hardy . Milton Elliott . Charles L. Loos . L. H. Blanton, D. D . TV. S. Ryland, D. D . J ohn L. Steffan, D. D., Ph. D . . . B. T. Spencer, A. M . J. TV. Nicholson, LL. D . . . James H. Blenk, S. M . C. TV. Carter . C. W. Tomkies . Henry L. Hubbell, D. D . D. McKiniry, S. J . E. C. Mitchell, D.D . L. G. Adkinson, D.D . Oscar Atwood, A. M . TVm. P. Johnston, LL. D . William De Witt Hyde, D. D . . George C. Chase, A. M . B. L. Whitman, A. M . Thomas Fell, Ph. D., LL. D. . .. D. C. Gilman, LL. D . J ohn A. Morgan, S. J . Francis J. Wagner, D. D . Charles TV. Reid, Ph. D. . ; . ! German College . Iowa Wesleyan University.. . j Cornell College . Oskaloosa College . Penn College . Central University of Iowa. . . University of the Northwest. Buena Vista College . Tabor College . Western College . Wart burg College . Midland College . St. Benedict’s College . Baker University . Soule College . College of Emporia . Central College . Highland University . Campbell University . University of Kansas . Lane University . Bethany College . Ottawa University . St. Mary’s College . Kansas Wesleyan University . Cooper Memorial College . Washburn College . Wichita University . Southwest Kansas College . . . Union College . . Berea College . Ogden College . Centre College . Eminence College . Georgetown College . South Kentucky College . Garrard College . Kentucky University . Central University . Bethel College . St. Marys College . Kentucky Wesleyan College. . Louisiana State University. .. Jefferson College . Centenary College of Loui¬ siana. Keaeliie College . . Lake Charles College . College of the Immaculate Conception. Leland University . New Orleans University . Straight University. . . . Tulane University . Bowdoin College . Bates College . Colby University . St. John’s College . | Johns Hopkins University Loyola College . Morgan College . Washington College Mount Pleasant, Iowa. Do. Mount Vernon, Iowa. Oskaloosa, Iowa. Do. | Pella, Iowa. Sioux City, Iowa. ! Storm Lake, Iowa, j Tabor, Iowa, i Toledo, Iowa, j TVaverly, Iowa. Atchison, Kans. Do. Baldwin, Kans. Dodge City, Kans. Emporia, Kans. Enterprise, Kans. Highland, Kans. ; Holton, Kans. Lawrence, Kans. Lecompton, Kans. Lindsborg, Kans. Ottawa, Kans. St. Marys, Kans. Salina, Kans. Sterling, Kans. Topeka, Kans. Wichita, Kans. Winfield, Kans. Barbourville, Ky. Berea, Ky. Bowling Green, Ky. Danville, Ky. Eminence, Ky. Georgetown, Ky. Hopkinsville, Ky. Lancaster, Ky. Lexington, Ky. Richmond, Ky. Russellville, Ky. St. Marys, Ky. Winchester, Ky. Baton Rouge, La. Convent, La. Jackson, La. ! Keaeliie, La. Lake Charles, La. New Orleans, La. Do. Do. Do. Do. Brunswick, Me. Lewiston, Me. | Waterville, Me. | Annapolis, Md. Baltimore, Md. Do. Do. ] Chestertown, Md. 412 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. I. — Colleges for males , etc. — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Brother Maurice . C.B.Rex, D. D . Edward P. Allen, D. D . William IT. Purnell, LL. D . . . . Thomas H. Lewis, A. M., D. 1). Merrill E. Gates, Ph. D., LL. D.,L.H.D. William F. Warren, LL. D . . . . Charles W. Eliot, LL. D . Samuel H. Lee . Elmer H. Capen, D. D . F. Carter, Ph. D., LL. D . G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D., LL. D , Edward A. McGnrk, S. J . Denison C. Thomas, Ph. D . L. R. Fiske, D.D.,LL.D . August F. Bruske, D. D . James B. Angell, LL. D . George W. Caviness, A. M . M. A. Breed, A. B . . . H. A. Schapman, S. J . George F. Mosher, LL. D . Gerrit J. Kollen, A. M . A. G. Slocum, LL. D . W. G. Sperry, D.D . Bernard Locnikar, O. S. B . Lewis A. Pier, A. M . George H. Bridgman, D. D _ Georg Sverdrup . . . Cyrus Northrop, LL. D . James W. Strong, D. D . Thorbjdrn N. Mohn . Adam Ringland, D. D . Emil Uhl . Matthias Wahlstrom, A. M _ Gideon A. Burgess, A. M . R. A. Venable, D. D . C. A. Huddleston, A. M . Charles E. Libbey, S. T. D . W. B. Murrah, D" D . Robert B. Fulton, A. M . E. J. Gantz . W. H. Pritchett, A. M . R. E.L. Burks, A. M...1 . R. E. Downing, B. Sur . S. M. Dick, Ph., D . B. H. Smith, LL. D . J. J. Murray, C. M . Richard H. Jesse, LL. D. . . Geo. W. Mitchell . J. D. Hammond, D. D . Edward C. Gordon, D. D . Chas. C. Hemenway . J.H.Selden, A.M/ . Nannie S. Coleman . J.F. Cook, A. M., LL. D . H. G. King . J. P. Greene, D. D.; LL. D . Wm. H. Black, D. D . Rock Hill College . St. Charles College . . ; . Mount St. Marys College . ... New Windsor College . Western Maryland College.. . Amherst College . Boston College . Boston University . Harvard University . French Protestant College . .. Tufts College . Williams College . Clark University . College of the Holy Cross. . . . Adrian College . . Albion College . Alma College . University of Michigan . Battle Creek College . Benzonia College . Detroit College . Hillsdale College . Hope College . Kalamazoo College . Olivet College . St. John’s University . Northwestern Christian Col¬ lege. Hamline University . Augsburg Seminary . University of Minnesota . Carleton College . St. Olaf College . Macalester College . St. Paul’s College . . Gustavus Adolphus College.. Parker College . Mississippi College . Cooper-Huddleston College.. Rust University . Millsaps College . University of Mississippi .... Central Christian College.... Northwest Missouri College.. Southwest Baptist College... Pike College . Missouri Wesleyan College. .. Christian University . St. Vincent’s College . University of the State of Missouri. GraDd River College . Central College . Westminster College . . Pritchett School Institute. .. . Ozark College . Western College . La Grange College . La wson Presbyterian College. William Jewell College . Missouri Valley College Ellicott City, Md. Do. Maunt St. Marys, Md. New Windsor, Md. Westminster, Md. Amherst, Mass. Boston, Mass. Do. Cambridge, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Tufts College, Mass. Williamstown, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Do. Adrian, Mich. Albion, Mich. Alma, Mich. jAnn Arbor, Mich. Battle Creek, Mich. Benzonia, Mich. Detroit, Mich. Hillsdale, Mieh. Holland, Mich. Kalamazoo, Mich. Olivet, Mich. Collegeville, Minn. Excelsior, Minn. Hamline, Minn. Minneapolis, Minn. Do. Northfield, Minn. Do. St. Paul, Minn. St. Paul Park, Minn. St. Peter, Minn. Winnebago City, Minn. Clinton, Miss. Daleville, Miss. Holly Springs, Miss. Jackson, Miss. University, Miss. Albany, Mo. Do. Bolivar, Mo. Bowling Green, Mo. Cameron, Mo. Canton, Mo. Cape Girardeau, Mo. Columbia, Mo. Edinburg, Mo. Fayette, Mo. Fulton, Mo. Glasgow, Mo. Greenfield, Mo. La Belle, Mo. La Grange, Mo. Lawson, Mo. Liberty, Mo. Marshall, Mo. COLLEGE PRESIDENTS. 413 I. — Colleges for males , etc. — Continued. Name of president. J. B. Ellis. University or college. C. C. Woods, D. D . L. M. McAfee. . James A. Lanins . Brother Paulian, F. S. C . Joseph Grimmelsman, S. J . Winfield S. Chaplin, LL. D - Homer T. Fuller, Ph. D . J. A. Thompson, A. M . F. A. Z. Kumler, A. M . H. A. Koch, D. D . G. F. Danforth, Ph. B . David R. Kerr, Ph. D., D. D - David R. Dungan, A. M . David B. Perry, A. M . A. J. Mercer, A. M . James H. Canfield, LL. D . J.F. Ellis, D.D . James F. X. Hceffer, S. J . Isaac Crook, D. D . 1 J. George, A. M . Stephen A. Jones, Ph. D . W. J. Tucker, D. D., LL. D, - Ernest Helmstetter . Austin Scott, Ph. D., LL. D - F. L. Patton. D. D., LL. D . Wm. F. Marshall, A. M . F. H. Guicheteau, S. P. M . E. S. Stover . Arthur E. Main, D. D . Joseph F. Butler, O. S. F . R B. Fairbairn, D. D., LL. D . . D. H. Cochran, Ph. D., LL. D . . . Brother Jerome, O.S.F . J. A. Hartnett, C. M . John I. Zahm, S. J . AlpheusB. Hervey, Ph. D . M. Woolsey Stryker, D. D . E. N. Potter, S. T. D., LL. D., D.C.L. N. L. Andrews . J. G. Schurman, Sc. D., LL. D . . George H. Ball, D.D./ . Thomas E. Murphy, S. J . Alexander S.Webb, LL. D . Seth Low, LL. D . . Brother Justin, A. M . Thomas J. Ganuon, S. J . . H. M. MacCracken, D. D., LL. D. P. S. MacHale, C. M . David J. Hill, LL. D . A. Y. Y. Raymond, D.D . James R. Day, D. D . George T. Winston, LL. D . D. J. Sanders, D.D . J. B. Shearer, D. D., LL. D . John C. Kilgo . Morrisville College . Scarritt Collegiate Institute . Park College . St. Charles College . College of the Christian Brothers. St. Louis University . Washington University . Drury College . Tarkio College . Avalon College . ! Central Wesleyan College College of Montana . j University of Omaha . J Cotner University . j Doane College . j Fairfield College . University of Nebraska . J Gates College . | Creighton University . ; Nebraska Wesleyan Uni¬ versity. York College . ■ State University of Nevada.. Dartmouth College . St. Benedict’s College . i Rutgers College . j College of New Jersey . ■ Seton Hall College . ! College of the Sacred Heart.. I University of New Mexico. .. Alfred University . I St. Bonaventure’s College _ St. Stephen’s College . 1 Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. St. Francis College . St. John’s College . Canisius College . St. Lawrence University . Hamilton College . Hobart College . Colgate University . Cornell University . j College of St. Francis Xavier. | College of the City of New j York. I Columbia College . i Manhattan College . j St.John’s College. . . University of the City of New York. | Niagara University . University of Rochester . ! Union University . | Syracuse University . ; Lbiiversity of North Carolina- Bid die University . I Davidson College . I Trinity College . Address. Morrisville, Mo. Neosho, Mo. Parkville, Mo. St. Charles, Mo. St. Louis, Mo. Do. Do. Springfield, Mo. Tarkio, Mo. Trenton, Mo. Warrenton, Mo. Deer Lodge, Mont. Bellevue, Nebr. Bethany, Nebr. Crete, Nebr. Fairfield, Nebr. Lincoln, Nebr. Neligh, Nebr. Omaha, Nebr. U ni versity Place, Nebr. York, Nebr. Reno, Nev. Hanover, N. H. Newark, N. J. New Brunswick, N. J. Princeton, N. J. South Orange, N. J. Vineland, N. J. Albuquerque, N. Mex. Alfred Center, N. Y. Allegany, N. Y. Aunandale, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Do. Do. Buffalo, N. Y. Canton, N. Y. Clinton, N. Y. Geneva, N. Y. Hamilton, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. Keuka College, N. Y. New York, N. Y. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Niagara University, N. Y. Rochester, N. Y. Schenectady, N. Y. Syracuse, N. Y. Chapel Hill, N. C. Charlotte, N. C. Davidson, N. C. Durham, N. C. 414 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. I. — Colleges for males , etc. — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. L. Lyndon Hobbs, A. M Robert A. Yoder, A. M . J. D. Sbirey, A. M . J. C. Clapp, D. D . Cbas. F. Meserve, A. M . Gnilford College . Lenoir College . North Carolina College Catawba College . Shaw University . Rutherford College Guilford College, N.C. Hickory, N. C. Mount Pleasant, N.C. Newton, N. C. Raleigh, N. C. Rutherford College, N. C. William H. Goler, D. D . C. E. Taylor, D. D., Litt. B . M. A. Yost, A. M . . ! Henry C. Simmons . ! Wm. H. Becker, LL. B . 1 W. Merri field, A. M . ! M. Y. B. Knox, D. D . I Orello Cone, D. D . I Tamerlane P. Marsh, D. D _ J. M. Tombaugh, A. M . ; Chas. W. Super, Ph. D . j JosephE. Stubbs, D. I)., LL. D. C. Riemenschneider, Ph. D - James Rogers, C. S. C . . . A. J. Burrowes, S. J . W. O. Sproull, Ph. D., LL. D .. H. J. Ruetenik, D. D . Chas. F. Thwing, D. D . C. II. L. Selmette, A. M . Wm. H. Scott, LL. D . ! A. Grabowski, Ph. D . ! James W. Bashford, Ph. D . Wm. N. Yates, acting . Theodore Sterling, LL. D . Crvon G. Brown, A. M . D. B. Purinton, A. M., LL. D . . . Fenton Gall, B. S . Ely Y. Zollars, LL. D . J. M. Jamieson, D. D . Carl Ackerman . John AY. Simpson, D. D., LL.D. AY. A. AVilliams, D. D . Jesse Johnson . AYm. G. Ballantino,D.D.,LL.D. AYm. O. Thompson, D. D . Geo. AAk MacMillan, Ph.D.,D.D. John M. Davis, Ph. D . R. M. Freshwater, D. D., acting. Samuel A. Ort, D. D . John A. Peters, D. D . Thomas F. Moses, A. M., M. D. . Thomas J. Sanders, Ph. D . S. T. Mitchell, A. M., LL. D . . . . James B. Unthank, M. S . S. F. Scovel, D. D . Daniel A. Long, D. D., LL. D . . D. R. Boyd, A. M . Chas. H. Chapman, Ph. D . Thomas McClelland, D. D . T. G. Brownson . Thomas Newlin, . P. O. Bonebrake . AVillis C. Hawley, A. M . AY. J. Holland, Ph. D., D. D . . . . Theodore L. Seip, D. D . I Livingstone College . AVake Forest College . AVeavcrville College . Fargo College . Rolla University . University of North Dakota . Red River Ar alley University . Buchtel College . Mount Union College . Ashland University . Ohio University . Baldwin University . German AYallace College . St. Joseph’s College . St. Xavier College . University of Cincinnati _ Calvin College . AA^ester n Reservo University . Capital University . Ohio State University . Defiance College . Ohio AATesleyan University... Findlay College . Kenyon College . Twin AYilley College . Denison University . Hillsboro College . Hiram College . Hopedale Normal College .. .. Lima College . Marietta College . Franklin College . Muskingum College . . . Oberlin College . Miami University . Richmond College . Rio Grande College . Scio College . AAHttenberg College . Heidelberg LYiiversity . Urbana University . Otterbein University _ Wilberforce University . AVilmington College . University of AArooster . Antioch College . University of Oklahoma . ; University of Oregon . i Pacific University . ' McMinnville College . ■ Pacific College . I Philomath College . j AVillainette University . ' AArestern University of Penn- j sylvania, Muhlenberg College . [ Salisbury, N. C. AYako Forest, N. C. AYeaverville, N. C. Fargo, N. Dak. Rolla, N. Dak. University, N. Dak. AYahpeton, N. Dak. Akron, Ohio. Alliance, Ohio. Ashland, Ohio. Athens, Ohio. Berea, Ohio. Do. Cincinnati, Ohio. Do. Do. Cleveland, Ohio. Do. Columbus, Ohio. Do. Defiance, Ohio. Delaware, Ohio. Findlay, Ohio. Gambier, Ohio. Germantown, Ohio. Granville, Ohio. Hillsboro, Ohio. Hiram, Ohio. Hopedale, Ohio. Lima, Ohio. Marietta, Ohio. 'New Athens, Ohio. New Concord, Ohio. Oberlin, Ohio. Oxford, Ohio. Richmond, Ohio. Rio Grande, Ohio. Scio, Ohio. Springfield, Ohio. Tiffin, Ohio. Urbana, Ohio. AVesterville, Ohio. AATilberforce, Ohio. AVilmington, Ohio. AArooster, Ohio. Yellow Springs, Ohio. Norman, Okla. Eugene, Oreg. Forest Grove, Oreg. McMinnville, Oreg. Newberg, Oreg. Philomath, Oreg. Salem, Oreg. Allegheny, Pa . Allentown, Pa. COLLEGE PRESIDENTS. 415 I. — Colleges for males, etc. — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. E. B. I>iorman,Ph. D : . Leander Sehnerr . W. P. Johnston, A. M . Aug. Schultz, D. D . George E. Reed, D. D., LL. D.. C. E. Hyatt, C.E — . HenrvT. Spangler, D. D . E. D. Warfield, LL. D . H. W. McKnight, D. D., LL. D . Theo. B. Roth, D. D . Isaac C. Ketler, Ph. D . .. . . Isaac Sharpless, Sc. D., LL. D . Lebanon Valley College St. Vincent College _ Geneva College . Moravian College . Dickinson College - Pennsylvania Military lege. Ursinus College . Lafayette College . Pennsylvania College . . Thiel College . Grove City College .. ~ Haverford College. - Col- Annvillc, Pa. Beatty, Pa. Beaver Falls, Pa. Bethlehem, Pa. Carlisle, Pa. Chester, Pa. Collegeville, Pa. Easton, Pa. Gettysburg, Pa. Greenville, Pa. Grove City, Pa. Haverford College Pa. W. W. Goodwin . . John S. Stahr, Ph. D.,D. D - Monongahela College . Tefferson, Pa. Franklin and Marshall Col- Lancaster, Pa. John FI. Harris, Ph. D. Isaac N. Rendall, 1). D lege. Bucknell University Lincoln University . Lewis burg, Pa. Lincoln University, Pa. Brother Athanasius . Wm. H. Crawford, D. D . . . Aaron E. Gobble, A. M - - E. G. Ferguson. 1). 1) - .... - R. E. Thompson, D. D _ Brother Isidore . . . Charles C. Harrison, acting .. . J. M. Wisman, A. M . John T. Murphy, C. S. Sp . Charles De Garmo, Ph.D . C. A. McEvoy, O. S. A _ ... James D. Moffat, D. D . . E. B. Andrews, D. D., LL. D . . . H. E. Shepherd, A. M., LL. D . . John I. Clelantl, A. M _ _ _ John Q. Johnson, A. B., B. D _ Jas. Woodrow, Ph.D., LL. D .. W. M. Grier, D. D . . Charles Manly, D. D . G. W. Holland, Ph. D., D. D . . . . L. M. Dunton, D. D . . James H. Carlisle, LL. D . Wm. M. Blackburn, D. D . J. W. Hancher, M. S., A. M . W. I. Graham, A. M . . I. P. Patch . Joseph W. Mauck, A. M _ _ Albert T. Free, A. M . J. Albert Wallace, D. D . . Isaac W. Joyce, D. D., LL. D . . George Sumrney, D. D . J. F. Spence, S. T. D., LL. D . . . . S. G. Gilbreath, B. S. . G. M. Savage, A. M., LL. D . J. S. McCulloch, D. D . Chas. W. Dabney, ir., Ph. D., LL. D. St. Francis College . Allegheny College . . Central Pennsylvania College Westminster College . . Central High School . La Salle College . . University of Pennsylvania Duquesne College . Holy Ghost College . Swarthmore College . Villanova College . . Washington and Jefferson College. Brown University _ _ College-of Charleston _ Presbyterian Col lege of South Carolina. Allen University - - - South Carolina College _ Erskine College - - Furman University . Newberry College . Clafl in University . . W offosxl C oil egc . . Pierre University.. . Black Hills College . . Dakota9University . Eedtield College . . University of South Dakota . Yankton College. . . King College . U. S. Grant University . Southwestern Presbyterian University. American Temperance Uni¬ versity. H i wassee C ollege . . Southwestern Baptist Uni¬ versity. Knoxville College . University of Tennessee _ _ Loretto, Pa. Meadville, Pa. New Berlin, Pa. New Wilmington, Pa. Philadelphia, Pa. Do. Do. Pittsburg, Pa. Do. Swarthmore, Pa. Yillanova, Pa. Washington, Pa. Providence, R. I. C h ar 1 est on , S . C . Clinton, S. C. Columbia, S. C. Do. Due West, S. C. Greenville, S. C. Newberry, S. C. Orangeburg, S. C. Spartanburg, S. C. East Pierre, S. Dak. Hot Springs, S. Dak. Mitchell, S. Dak. Eedfield, S. Dak. Vermillion, S. Dak. Yankton, S. Dak. Bristol, Tenn. Chattanooga, Tenn. Clarksville, Tenn. Harriman, Tenn. Hi wassee College, Tenn. Jackson, Tenn. Knoxville, Tenn. Do. 416 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. I. — Colleges for males , etc. — Continued, Name of president. X. Green, LL. D . T. W. Cannon, A. B . S. W. Boardman, LL. D . Brother Manrelian . „ . S. Hop wood, A.M . J. T. Henderson, A. M . J. Braden, D. D . E. M. Cravatli, D. D . Alfred Owen, D. D . James H. Kirkland, Pk. D . B. Lawton Wiggins, A. M . W. N. Billingsley, A.M . J. L. Bachman, A. M . Jere Moore, D. D . James T. Cooter, A. B . Thomas S. Miller . G. Langner . J. D. Robnett, D. D . Oscar L. Fisher, A. M., B. D ... John O’Shanahan, S. j . John H. McLean, A. M., D. D I. B. Scott, D. D . S. M. Lnckett, D. D . B. D. Cockrill . Addison Clark, LL. D . R. C. Burleson, D. D., LL. D _ n. T. Kealing, A. M . James E. Talmage, Sc. D., Ph. D. Matthew H. Buckham, D. D. . . Ezra Brain erd, LL. D . Wm. W. Smith, LL. D . W. B. Yount . Wm. M. Thornton, LL. D . R. G. Waterhouse, D. D . Richard Mcllwaine, D. D . G. W. C. Lee, LL. D . F. W. Boatwright, A. M . Julius D. Dreher, Ph. D . A. C. Jones . F.N. English, A.M . E. A. Sutherland . B. W. Brintnall . J. W. Heston, Ph. D . Thos. M. Gatch, Ph. D . Calvin W. Stewart, D. D . C. R. Thoburn . Aegidius Junger, D. D . James F. Eaton . Robert W. Doutkafc . H. McDearmid, A. M . Hayward Fleming, acting P. B. Reynolds, acting . Samuel Plantz, Ph. D., D. D . . . E. D. Eatou, D. D., LL. D . . H. A. Muehlmeier, D. D . F. P. Dalrymple, A. M . Chas. K. Adams, LL. D . University or college. Address. Cumberland University . Bethel College . Maryville College . Christian Brothers’ College .. Milligan College . Carson and Newman College . Central Tennessee College . . . Fisk University . Roger Williams University . . Vanderbilt University . University of the South . Burritt College . Sweetwater College . Green eville and Tusculum College. Washington College . i University of Texas . Evangelical Lutheran Col- : lege. Howard Payne College . ; Fort W orth University . St. Mary’s University . Southwestern University Wiley University . j Austin College . j Trinity University . A.dd-Ran Christian Univer- | sity. Baylor University . Paul Quinn College . University of Utah . Lebanon, Tenn. McKenzie, Tenn. Maryville, Tenn. Memphis, Tenn. Milligan, Tenn. Mossy Creek, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. Do. Do. Do. Sewanee, Tenn. Spencer, Tenn. Sweetwater, Tenn. Tusculum, Tenn. Washington College, Tenn. Austin, Tex. Brenham, Tex. Brownwood, Tex. Fort Worth, Tex. Galveston, Tex. Georgetown, Tex. Marshall, Tex. Sherman, Tex. Teliuacana, Tex. Thorp Spring, Tex. Waco, Tex. Do. Salt Lake City, Utah. University of Vermont _ Middlehury College . Randolph-Macon College _ Bridgewater College . j University of Virginia . Emory and Henry College. .. j Hampden-Sidney College - Washington and Lee Univer- | sity. Richmond College . j Roanoke College . J Vaslion College . j Colfax College . ' Walla Walla College . 1 Olympic University . j University of Seattle . ' University of Washington...1 Whitworth College . Puget Sound University . St. James College . j Whitman College . j Barboursville College . ; Bethany College . ! West Virginia College . j W est Virginia University Lawrence University . Beloit College . Mission House . I Gale College . University of Wisconsin . | Burlington, Vt. Middlehury, Vt. Ashland, Va. Bridgewater, Va. Charlottesville, Va. Emory, Va. Hampden-Sidney, Va. Lexington, Va. Richmond, Va. Salem, Va. Burton, Wash. Colfax, Wash. College Place, Wash. Olympia, Wash. Seattle, Wash. Seattle, Wash. Sumner, Wash. Tacoma, Wash. Vancouver, Wash. Walla Walla, Wash. Barboursville, W.Va. Bethany, W. Va. Flemington, W. Va. Morgantown, W. Var Appleton, Wis. Beloit, Wis. Franklin, Wis. Galesville, Wis. Madison, Wis. COLLEGE PRESIDENTS. 417 I. — Colleges for males , etc. — Continued. Name of president. University or college. Address. Wm. C. Whitford, D. D . Leopold Bushart, S. J . Rufus C. Flagg, D. D . Joseph Rainer . A. F. Ernst . A. A. Johnson, D. D . Milton College . Marquette College . Ripon College . Seminary of St. Francis of Sales. Northwestern University Universitv of Wyoming . Milton, Wis. Milwaukee, Wis. Ripon, Wis. St. Francis, Wis. Watertown, Wis. Laramie, Wyo. II. — Colleges for women. Y. O. Hawkins . Henry A. Moody, M. D - Solomon Palmer, Ph. D . . . T. J. Simmons, A. M . Mrs. H. E. Stone . A. B. Jones, D. D., LL.D. . S. W. Averett, LL. D . Jas. D. Wade, A. M . P. P. Winn, A. M . E. H. Mur free . Alonzo Hill, A. M . John Massey, LL. D . Mrs. C.T. Mills . . Sister Mary Bornardine . . W. A. Finley, D. D . Miss M. Rutherford . P. S. Twitty . G. J.Orr . Rev. James E. Powell _ A. W. Van Hoose . Rufus W. Smith, A. M _ Chas. C. Cox, A. M . Wm. C. Bass . J. Harris Chappell . A. J. Battle, D. D., LL. D . John E. Baker . Joseph R. Harker, Ph. D . . E. F. Bullard, A. M . C.W. Leffingwell, D. D _ Sarah F. Anderson . J ohn M. Duncan, A. M . . . . J. F. Hendy, D. D . Annie J. Hooley . Benj. F. Cahell . Edward K. Chandler, D. D Miss C. A. Campbell . J. M. Bruce . E. W. Elrod . J. R. Baumes . J. B. Skinner . . H. B. McClellan, A. M _ Cadesman Pope . Mrs. B. W. Vineyard . A. C. Goodwin . G. B. Perry . Athens Female College . Bailey Springs University _ East Lake Athenaeum . Union Female College . . Synodical Female College _ Huntsville Female College... Judson Female Institute . Marion Female Seminary.... Isbell College . . Central Female College - - Tuskaloosa Female College.. Alabama Conference Female College. Mills College . College of Notre Dame . Santa Rosa Seminary . Lucy Cobb Institute . Andrew Female College . Dalton Female College . Monroe Female College . Georgia Female Seminary .... LaGrange Female College .... Southern Female College . Wesleyan Female College.... Georgia Normal and Indus- , trial College. Shorter College . Young Female College . j Illinois Female College . : Jacksonville Female Acad- j emy. St. Mary’s School . | Rockford College . | Coates College . College lor Young Ladies .... College of the Sisters of Beth¬ any. Potter College . Clinton College . Caldwell Coliege . Liberty Female College . Lynnland Female College - Daughters College . Hamilton Female College.. .. Sayre Female Institute . Miilersburg Female College. . Jessamine Female Institute. . Owensboro Female College _ Kentucky College for Young Ladies. Athens, Ala. Bailey Springs, Ala. East Lake, Ala. Eufaula, Ala. Florence, Ala. Huntsville, Ala. Marion, Ala. Do. Talladega, Ala. Tuskaioosa, Ala. Do. Tuskegee, Ala. Mills College, CaL San Jose, Cal. Santa Rosa, CaL Athens, Ga. Cuthbert, Ga. Dalton, Ga. Forsyth, Ga. Gainesville, Ga. La Grange, Ga. Do. Macon, Ga. Milled geville, Ga. Rome, Ga. Thomasville, Ga. Jacksonville, Ill. Do. Knoxville, Ill. Rockford, Ill. Terre Haute, Inropeily bo treated in sculp- • EDUCATION AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. . 431 turc, and wliat more properly belong to painting. Prof. AY. M. I?. French, director of the Art Institute of Chicago, Prof. J. F. Weir, of Yale University, and Miss Emily Sartain, of Philadelphia. Discussion. 2. Thesis: Should drawing commence from the beginning with light and shade, or should it bo outline drawing for the first year or more ? Miss Josephino C. Locko, of Chicago, Miss Hannah J. Carter, of Drexel Institute, Philadelphia,. and Prof. J.Ward Stimson, of the New York School of Fine Arts. Discussion. INSTRUCTION IN VOCAL MUSIC. Wednesday, July 26, 9.30 a. m. General topic: The course of study, or what the pupil should learn of vocal music in the elementary schools for children aged 5 to 15 years. Address by Prof. F. W. Root, president of the department. 1. In what grades of .the elementary school should the children learn pieces of music by rote (or by car only), and in what grades should they commence to learn to read musical notation ? Discussion. 2. In what grades or at what ages should pupils be required to take up part sing¬ ing or learn other jiarta besides the soprano or melody 1 Discussion. 3. What music is especially adapted to children from 5 to 10, and what from 10 to 15 years? AYhat rule should guide the selection from popular songs ? from classic composers? A discussion of the characteristics of the compositions of such song writers as II. G. Niigcli, Fr. Silcher, C. H. Rink, Fr. Kuecken, and the higher classical composers, Beethoven, Mozart, Mendelssohn, Schubert, Yon Weber, Handel, Schu¬ mann, Ivreutzcr, Abt, Haydn, Rossini, and others^ who furnish the best selections for pupils in their fifteenth year and upward. 4. The feasibility of forming a library of pieces of music of permanent value for the different ages of youth — say, for example, selections from such composers as Nagel i for pupils from 5 to 10 years, and from such as Mendelssohn for pupils from 11 to 15 years. Discussion. 5. The danger of confining the course of study in music for a too long period to reading and singing mere mechanical exercises devoid of artistic merit and empty of all thought and feeling. Discussion. 6. The importance of including in the child’s musical course popular songs of a permanent character, such as the national patriotic airs, the great religious hymns, the emotional utterance of pure sentiments, like love of home, friendship, gener¬ osity, industry, sobriety, respect for others, self-denial, and general right doing. Discussion. Thursday, July 27, 9.30 a. m. General topic : The qualifications requisite for a teacher of vocal music. 1. His knowledge of the physiology and hygiene of the vocal organs; the degree of strain that the vocal chords will bear without injury at the periods of growth from 5 to 15 years. Discussion. 2. His ability to accompany the voice with some instrument, say the piano or violin. Discussion. 3. His knowledge of classic music and of the best course of study to lead up to it. Discussion. 4. His knowledge of methods of instruction. Discussion. 5. Is a knowledge of the higher science of counterpoint essential to the special teacher of vocal music, in view of the alleged fact that if ho lacks such knowledge he will not be able to direct the course of musical study progressively from the ele¬ ments toward a sufficiently high goal? Discussion. 6. What musical studies in the great masters should the teacher keep up from year to year for the sake of his own improvement and culture? Discussion. Friday, July 28, 9.30 a. m. General topic: The methods of teaching and learning vocal music. 1. What are the respective functions of the regular class teacher and the special teacher of vocal music? Discussion. 2. The relative importance of correcting errors in musical enunciation ; in keeping time; in proper expression; in proper posture of the body; opening the mouth; breathing; in attempting to sing notes of too high or too low a pitch for the degree of physical development. Discussion. 432 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 3. Tlie clanger of laying too much stress on the mechanical part of singing to the neglect of musical expression. Discussion. 4. The systems of musical notation — tonic sol-fa — “movable do” and “fixed do” systems. Discussion. 5. What pupils, if any, should he excused from the musical exercises of the school¬ room? Discussion. TECHNOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. First Session, Wednesday, July 26, 9.30 a. m. Address by Gen. Francis A. Walker, president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, president of the department. Thesis : How far do the technological schools, as they are at present organized, accomplish the training of men for the scientific professions, and how far and for what reasons do they fail to accomplish their primary purpose ? Prof. R. H. Thurston, of Cornell University, and Prof. John M. Ordway, Tulane University, New Orleans. Discussion. Second Session, Thursday, July 27, 9.30 a. m. General topic : Educational value of technical study. 1. Thesis : Workshop practice as an educational means. President Henry Morton, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. Discussion. 2. Thesis: The educational value of the study and practice of chemistry. Prof. Ira Remsen, of Johns Hopkins University. Discussion. 3. Thesis: The early history and organization of the Sheffield Scientific School at New Haven. Discussion. 4. Thesis: The educational value of laboratory work in exact measurement. Prof. A. M. Mayer, of Stevens Institute. Discussion. 5. Thesis : The educational value of the laboratory study of electricity. Discus¬ sion. Third Session, Friday, July 28, 9.30 a. m. 1. Thesis. The educational value of work in mechanical dra wing and architectural drawing. Prof. G. Lanza, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Discussion. 2. Thesis : Shop work and drawing as a means of developing slow pupils. Prof. R. H. Richards. Discussion. 3. Thesis: The educational value of natural science. Discussion. 4. Thesis: The educational value of applied mathematics, including engineering. Prof. F. R. Hutton, of New York City. Discussion. 5. Thesis: On the educational value of pure mathematics. Prof. H. T. Eddy. Discussion. 6. Thesis: On the educational process of training an engineer. Discussion. INDUSTRIAL AND MANUAL INSTRUCTION. First Session, Wednesday, July 26, 9.30 a. m. Introductory address by the president of the department, Prof. J. D. Runkle. 1. Thesis: The new demands which the world’s industries make upon the elemen¬ tary schools. This question will be considered under the heads of ethics, education, economics. Prof. C. M. Woodward, LL. D., of' Washington University, St. Louis. Discussion. 2. Thesis: In courses of mechanic arts instruction in wood and metals, consider the relative educational values of (a) a series of graded models embracing the fun¬ damental principles of the art; (Z>) a series of completed and more or less useful articles; (c) a shorter course in the arts, and then a specialization with reference to some definite industrial pursuit, as in the French schools. M. Eugene Martin, directeur de l’ecole primaire sup&rieure, Paris. Discussion. Second Session, Thursday, July 27, 9.30 a. m. 1. Thesis: The claims of the two systems of manual training known as: (a) The Russian. M. Kovalevsky, official delegate from Russia, Dr. H. H. Belfield, of the Chicago manual training school. (&) The Swedish, or SlOjd. Prof. Gustaf Larsson, principal of the Slqjd training school of Boston. Discussion. 2. Thesis: Since all industrial products involve form, it follows that all industrial instruction should have an Eesthetic basis in the study of the general principles which underlie all tasteful and graceful forms, and this study should be regarded and ranked as of equal educational value with the mechanic art processes. Discus¬ sion. EDUCATION AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 433 Third Session, Friday, July 28, 9.30 a. m. 1. Thesis: Primary schools. Into what grades and with what snhjects should industrial and manual instruction he introduced? lion. W. B. Powell, superintend¬ ent of schools, Washington, D. C. Discussion. 2. Thesis: Primary schools. In these grades should hoys and girls receive the same instruction? Discussion. 3. Thesis: Grammar schools. Should hoys and girls have the same industrial and manual instruction in all the grades? If not, what should the difference he? Mr. Edward Boos- Jegher, official delegate of the Swiss Confederation to the Columbian Exposition. Discussion. 4. Thesis : Mechanic art high schools. The place such schools hold in a public edu¬ cational system. If they are regarded as special technical schools, to what extent may they he used as fitting schools for industrial pursuits ? Discussion. BUSINESS EDUCATION. First Session, Wednesday, July 26, 9.30 a. m. [Persons whose names are marked thus * are not expected to he present.] 1. Hon. C. C. Bonney, president of the World’s Congress Auxiliary, and Mrs. Potter Palmer, president of the woman’s department, will address the congress some time during its sessions. 2. Opening address by the president of the department, Prof. Silas S. Packard, Packard's Business College, New York City, on the “Evolution of the business col¬ lege.” 3. “Practical advantages of business college training,” Col. George Soule, Soule’iE Business College, New Orleans. Discussion. 4. “Business college teachers and their equipment," Prof. J. M. Mehan, principal Capital City Commercial College, Des Moines, Iowa. Discussion. 5. “Reciprocal relations and benefits of business colleges and other departments of education,” Hon. Ira Mayhew, LL. D.. Detroit. Discussion. 6. “The relation of business college instruction to industrial, commercial, and financial interests,” Prof. A. D. Wilt, principal of Miami Commercial College, Daytop, Ohio. Discussion. Second Session, Wednesday, July 26, 2 r. m. [Hod. Ira Mayhew, LL. D., will preside ] 1. “Graded courses in business education,” Prof. H. M. Rowe, Ph. D., president Curry University, Pittsburg, Pa. Discussion. 2. “Limitations of business college instruction,” Prof. W. E. McCord, principal Peoria Business College, Peoria, Ill. Discussion. 3. “Business college training in countingroom work,” Prof. G. W. Elliott, princi¬ pal of Elliott’s Business College, Burlington, Iowa. Discussion. 4. “Higher aspects of business education,” Prof. R. E. Galleghar, principal of Canadian Business College, Hamilton, Ontario. Discussion. Third Session, Thursday, July 27, 9.30 a. m. [Col. George Soule, New Orleans, will preside.] 1. “Business colleges and the art of writing,” Prof. Daniel T. Ames, editor Pen¬ man’s Art Journal, New York City. Discussion. 2. “The businesswoman as daughter, wife, mother, and friend,” Mrs. Sarah A. Spencer, principal Spencerian Business College, Washington, D. C. Discussion. 3. “The value of a business education to women,” Mrs. Charlotte Emerson Brown,* president General Confederation of Women’s Clubs, East Orange, N. J. Discussion- 4. “ Business training for the world’s charities,” Miss Clara Barton,* president of the Society of the Red Cross, Washington, D. C. Discussion. Fourth Session, Thursday, July 27, 2 p. m. [Prof. E. E. Galleghar, Hamilton, Ontario, will preside.] 1. “Stenography and typewriting as branches of business education,” Isaac $. Dement, Chicago, Ill. Discussion. 2. “Teaching morals and manners through shorthand instruction,” Mrs. S. S. Packard, Packard’s Business College, New York City. Discussion. 3. “ What stenographers and the business community demand of business colleges in shorthand and typewriting instruction,” J. L. Bennet, president World’s Congress of Stenographers. ED 93 -28 434 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Fifth Session, Friday, July 28, 9.30 a. m. [Prof. J. M. Mehax, Des Moines, Iowa, will preside.] 1. “ Economics and social science in business education/’ Edmund J. James,* Wharton School of Economy and Finance, Philadelphia; Dr. Richard T. Ely,* department of economics, social science, and history, University of Wisconsin, and Prof. Fred W. Spiers, superintendent People’s Institute, Milwaukee, Wis. 2. “A merchant’s view of the business college,” H. N. Higginbotham, president World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago. Discussion. 3. “A banker’s view of the business college,” Lyman J. Gage, treasurer World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago. Discussion. 4. “The science of civics,” Henry Randall Waite, Ph. D., president American Institute of Civics. 5. It is hoped that the concluding address of the congress will be delivered by Dr. James MacAlister, president Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. PHYSICAL EDUCATION. First Session, Wednesday, July 26, 9.30 a. m. Address by Dr. Edward M. Hartwell, director of physical training, public schools, Boston, Mass., president of the department. 1. Thesis: Some unsolved problems in physical education. Dr. T. D. Wood, pro¬ fessor of hygiene and physical training, Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, Cal. Discussion. 2. Thesis : The cultivation of the human body. Dr. Angelo Mosso, professor of physiology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy. Discussion. 3. Thesis: The psychological aspects of exercise with and without apparatus. Dr. G. W. Fitz, instructor in physiology and hygiene, Harvard University, Cam¬ bridge, Mass. Discussion. 4. Thesis: Should medical schools teach physical training? Dr. Lena Y. Ingra¬ ham, Boston, Mass. Discussion. 5. Thesis : Supervision of school gymnastics by qualified physicians. Dr. Helen C. Putnam, Providence, R. T. Discussion. 6. Thesis: The Royal Central Gymnastic Institute of Stockholm — its aims and work. Prof. L. M. Torngren, director of Royal Central Gymnastic Institute, Stock¬ holm, Sweden. Discussion. 7. Thesis : How should physical exercises for school purposes be selected and graded? Dr. J. Gardner Smith, supervisor of physical training in public schools, New York City. Discussion. Second Session, Thursday, July 27, 9.30 a. m. 1. Thesis: The revival of Greek gymnastics in Germany. Jaro Pawel, university teacher, Vienna, Austria. 2. Thesis : The movement for promoting popular and youthful sports in Germany. James L. Hughes, inspector of schools, Toronto, Ontario. Discussion. 3. Thesis: English experience in providing the poor of cities with out-of-door facilities for exercise. The Right Honorable the Earl of Meath, London, England. Discussion. 4. Thesis: The athletic movement in France. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, Paris, France. Discussion. 5. Thesis : The observation and study of movement and mental states. Dr. Fran¬ cis Warner, physician to London Hospital, London, England. 6. Thesis: The relation of physical training to other forms of education. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, jmesident Clark University, Worcester, Mass. Discussion. 7. The physical training of deaf mutes. A. Gutzmann, instructor in City Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, Berlin, Prussia. 8. Thesis: The physical training of criminals. Dr. PI. D. Wey, State Reformatory, Elmira, N. Y. Discussion. . Third Session, Friday, July 28, 9.30 a. m. 1. Thesis: The North American Turnerbund; its history, aims, and achievements. H. Muench, ex-president North American Turnerbund, St. Louis, Mo. 2. Thesis: The normal school of the North American Turnerbund. J. Toensfeldt, St. Louis, Mo. 3. Thesis : The physiology of the German system of gymnastics. Hans Ballin, Sandusky, Ohio. EDUCATION AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 435 4. Thesis: School gymnastics in the Kingdom of Saxony. Moritz Zettler, teacher in gymnasium in Chemnitz, Saxony. 5. Thesis: Swedish school gymnastics in England. Mine. Bergman, Oes ter berg, London, England. Discussion. 6. Thesis: Swedish military gymnastics. Capt. Carl Silow, instructor, Royal Cen¬ tral Gymnastic Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. Discussion. 7. Thesis: The laws of muscular and nervous fatigue and their relation to physical education. Dr. Warren P. Lombard, professor of physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Discussion. 8. Thesis: Physical education in the South. Dr. William A. Lambeth, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. 9. Thesis: Physical education in Canada. Dr. R. Tait, Mackenzie, McGill Univer¬ sity, Montreal, Canada. 10. Discussion: How far is it desirable to attempt to secure State legislation (in the United States) making physical training compulsory in the public schools? RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION. First Session, Wednesday, July 26, 9.30 a. m. Address by the president of the department, Rev. James McCosh, D. D. Topic: Reality— What place has it in philosophy ? Discussion. 11.30 A. M. Thesis : Can psychology be founded on consciousness alone, or does it need physi¬ ology? Prof. Josiah Royce, of Harvard University. Discussion. Second Session, Thursday, July 27, 9.30 a.m. Thesis: Perception, conception, and primitive truth. Prof. G. T. Ormond, of Princeton University. Discussion. 11.30 A. M. Thesis: Aristotle’s doctrine of a first principle, as set forth in the eleventh book of his Metaphysics. The Very Rev. A. F. Hewifc, D. D. , of the Catholic University of America; Discussion. Third Session, Friday, July 28, 9.30 a. m. Thesis : Self-activity in education. Dr. J. Gould Schurman, resident of Cornell University. Discussion. 11.30 A. M. Thesis: Wundt’s Psychology of the Will. Prof. E. B. Titchener, of Cornell Univer¬ sity. Discussion. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION. It has been decided, after much consideration and wide conference, to devote the entire three days to the subject of child study. Within a very few years several societies have been formed for this purpose; several journals have been started; the school children in many cities of this country and Europe have been measured or tested as to the rate of growth of body and muscular and mental power; various classes of defect of sense, limb, mind, character, form of error in school work and of ignorance on entering school, have been tabulated. From these results a new body of literature is being developed, which throws much light upon the controllable causes, Avhether of excellence or defect, and contains many suggestions on the method and matter of teaching, and promises to show how instruction can be made more effective as well as to point out the true beginning of instructions in the entire group of psychological subjects. It is hoped that not only all teachers, anthropologists, and physicians interested in this work, but parents and others representing, different lines of study and from locations widely separated, may here meet, stimulate, and encourage each other by personal acquaintance, mutual suggestion, and plans for future cooperation. The organization of a national society with officers from different States will bo considered. All papers are strictly limited to twenty minutes. It is expected that discussions and reports will be confined to ten minutes each, in the hope that many workers may be heard from and results and methods from many sources may be recorded. G. Stanley" Hall, President of Department. 436 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. First Session, Wednesday, July 26, 9.30 a. m. 1. Thesis: Child study as a basis for psychology and psychological teaching, by G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass. Twenty minutes. Discussion. 2. Thesis: The imaginations of children, by E. Harlow Russell, principal of the State Normal School, Worcester, Mass. Twenty minutes. Discussion. 3. Thesis : Mental waste and economy, by Prof. G. T. W. Patrick, State University of Iowa. Twenty minutes. Discussion. 4. Thesis: Exercise of the will in children, by Prof. Charles McMurry, State Normal School, Normal, Ill. Fifteen minutes. Discussion. 5. Dominent seventh in education, by, Miss H. E. Hunt, Pli. D., Brookline, Mass. Ten minutes. Discussion. 6. Dreams, by Prof. James Sully, London, England. Read by abstract. Ten min¬ utes. Discussion. Second Session, Thursday, July 27, 9.30 a. m. 1. Thesis: A study of children’s theology, by Prof. Earl Barnes, Leland Stanford Junior University. Twenty minutes. Discussion. 2. Thesis: Chiid study as a basis for pedagogy, by W. H. Burnham, instructor iu pedagogy, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. Twenty minutes. Discussion. 3. Thesis: The new psychology in normal schools, by Miss Lillie A. Williams, State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. Fifteen minutes. Discussion. 4. Constitutionally bad spellers, by Miss Adelaide E. Wyckoff, Packer Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. Fifteen minutes. 5. Principles of physical training and their application to the prevention of stut¬ tering in children, by E. M. Hartwell, M. D., director of physical training, Boston public schools. Third Session, Friday, July 28, 9.30 a. m. 1. Thesis : On the observation and study of movements and mental states, based on the examination of some 50,000 children, by Francis Warner, M. D., of London, England. Twenty minutes. Discussion. 2. Thesis : Development of motor ability in school children, by Prof. W. L. Bryan, University of Indiana. Twenty minutes. Discussion. 3. Thesis: Attention and association in children, by T. N. Balliet, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass. 4. Self-consciousness in children, by F. W. Parker, president Cook County Normal School. Twenty minutes. Discussion. 5. A pedagogical need, by Dr. E. F. Buchner, lecturer on pedagogy, Yale Univer¬ sity. Fifteen minutes. Discussion. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. First Session, Thursday, July 27, 9 a. m. Topic : Present ideals in educational journalism. Address of welcome, Hon. Henry Barnard, editor of the American Journal or Edu¬ cation, Present ideals in educational journalism. Paper by C. C. Rounds, principal of the State normal school, Plymouth, N. H. From the superintendent’s point of view. Paper by Andrew S. Draper, LL. D., superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio. The educational press and the public. Address by Col. J. B. Merwin, editor of The American Journal of Education, St. Louis. Discussion. The following gentlemen have kindly consented to take part: Amos M. Kellogg, editor of the New York School Journal; W. A. Bell, editor of the Indiana School Journal; R. J. Guinn, assistant state school commissioner, Georgia, and editor of The Southern Educational Journal; Monsieur B. Buisson, director of the College Alaoni, Tunis, late French commissioner to the expositions at New Orleans and Mel¬ bourne; Foster Watson, esq., London; Joseph H. Cowham, principal Wesleyan Training College, London; J. E. Wells, editor of The Educational Journal, Toronto; Ramon Manterola, Ministerio de Gobcrnacion, editor del Boletin Bibliografico y Escolar, Tacubaya, Mexico. EDUCATION AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 437 Second Session, Friday, July 28. Topic : The history of educational journalism. In France, M. G. Compayre, rector of the Academie de Poitiers, and president of the French pedagogic delegation to the World's Fair. In Germany (Hanover), H. Wanner, Reallehrer, Hanover, recently editor of the Hanover Sclmlzeitung. In Bohemia, Joseph Klika, Kedakce, Paedegogickych Rozhleclu, Prague. In Italy, Sr. Piero Barbera, editor, Florence. In Mexico, Sr. V. Guzman, editor of La Educacion Moderna. In Canada, James L. Hughes, inspector of schools, Toronto. In the United States : In New England, W. A. Mowry, Ph. D., superintendent of schools, Salem, Mass. Dr. Barnard's American Journal of Education, Will S. Monroe, Leland Stanford Junior, University. In New York and New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and Mary¬ land, C. W. Bardeen, editor of The School Bulletin. In the Carolinas and the Gulf States, James K. Powers, president of the State Normal College, Florence, Ala. In Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas, Prof. Henry E. Chambers, Tulane University, New Orleans. In Kentucky and Tennessee, R. H. Carothers, editor of The Educational Courant, Louisville. In Ohio, Samuel Findley, editor of The Ohio Educational Journal. In Michigan, Henry A. Ford, Pontiac. In Indiana, George F. Bass, editor of Indiana Young People. In Illinois, John W. Cook. LL. D., president of Normal University. In l'owa, Henry Sabin, editor of The Iowa Journal of Education. In Wisconsin, Prof. J. W. Stearns, University of Wisconsin, editor of The Wiscon¬ sin Journal of Education. In Minnesota and the Dakotas, S. S. Parr, superintendent of schools, St. Cloud, Minn. In Missouri, Howard A. Gass, editor of The Missouri School Journal. In Kansas, Colorado, and Utah, John MacDonald, editor of The Western School Journal. In Nebraska, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, J. H. Miller, editor of The North¬ western Journal of Education. In California, Washington, and Oregon, John Swett, superintendent of schools, San Francisco, Cal. Special and class journals, W. N. Hailman, superintendent of schools, Laporte, Ind. II.— ADDRESSES OF WELCOME. ADDRESS BY CHARLES G. BONNEY. PRESIDENT OF THE WORLD'S CONGRESS AUXILIARY. Friends of Universal Education, Educators of Many Lands : I hid you wel¬ come to the International Congress of Education. The special educational congresses which have occupied the past eight days are closed, and the International Congress of Education, in which the leading depart¬ ments of education will have appropriate presentation, is about to open. That the eighty-six sessions of the fourteen congresses held in this building during the time specified have more than realized the expectations entertained in regard to them, is agreed by all whose opinions I have heard expressed. We have enjoyed a series of gratifying surprises in the attendance given, the interest manifested, and the high character of the proceedings. Most noteworthy has been the spirit of peace and progress, which has reigned supreme. Distinguished educators from many countries have met together as old friends to consider common interests and aims. If the special congresses have been so satisfactory, what may we not expect from the International Congress of Education, in which all will take a part, with its fifteen separate department congresses, presenting a programme with forty-seven sessions? The original announcement of the World's Congresses of 1893, issued in September, 1889, included, among other subjects, “ Educational systems, their advantages and their defects, and the means by which they may best be adapted to the enormous increase in all departments of knowledge." The educational systems of the past have been outgrown. This fact is so obvious that it needs neither argument nor illustration. Those systems were but local and temporary, and could not permanently endure. The old education had no place for 438 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. those important departments which, are the peculiar glory of the new. The kinder¬ garten, manual and art training, technological instruction, business education, practical psychology, are new gifts to the educational world. Modern science is itself a new world, created within the memory of living men. In all of the old branches of learning there has been a wonderful increase of knowl¬ edge. There is now more of language and literature; more of natural science; more of political and social science; more of moral and intellectual science; more of technological and constructive science, and more of other important branches of knowledge, than can be mastered during the school years. AYhat can be done to meet this emergency ? The cruelty of cramming has been tried and abandoned as worse than utterly use¬ less. The liberty of election has been enlarged and reenlarged without fully satis¬ factory results. But the difficulty not only remains, it increases. We can not meet it by suppressing knowledge; we must endeavor to do so by enlarging the means and improving the system of education. The old curriculum was a panrphlet; the new curriculum is a volume, growing larger from year to year. While the learned world ponders the new educational problems and seeks a means of their solution, a new and tremendous influence enters the held and asks attention. It is the spirit of the new age, demanding international fraternity and cooperation in every department of civilized life. The institutions of learning have more than willingly responded to this call, and have manifested a desire to accede to it so far as sound reason may lead the way. A true and enduring educational system must have its national and international as well as its local relations. The time has come to discriminate the universal from the particular, the require¬ ments of all from the needs of the few, and form an educational system in which those discriminations will be preserved. The programmes of the educational con¬ gresses held during the past eight days, and those which are now to follow, show that the elements of a true educational system are at last at command. To some extent the characteristics of the new education may already be discerned. (1) While in the primary schools the kindergarten and the first rudiments of manual and art training will lay the foundation for future culture, the instruction will, for the most part, be limited to such knowledge as is universally necessary for intelligent human relations. In a word, the instruction imperatively demanded for the everyday needs of all classes will bo the chief object of the primary schools. (2) In the secondary schools will be given a knowledge of the existence and nature of all the sciences, arts, and callings, so far as may be necessary to enable the learner to select those in which he will be most likely to find his appropriate life work. The learner must know that there is such a science as chemistry, such an art as engineering, and their general nature and scope, to enable him to decide whether in either of them, or in some other pursuit, he will be likely to be most serviceable to himself and his fellow-men. (3) In the higher institutions of learning will naturally be given that thorough and prolonged culture in a carefully selected course of study, chosen with reference to a proposed life occupation, that careful and efficient training and discipline which will qualify the studeut for the best discharge of the duties of that occupation. (4) In the professional and technological schools there will be given both a theo¬ retical and a practical training for the particular requirements and duties of a selected calling, such as law, medicine, engineering, agriculture, or any other. Thus may be secured, in a rational order, that general knowledge which intelli¬ gent persons in all countries should possess; that mental culture and discipline of the brain which correspond to the skill and accuracy of the artisan’s accomplished hand, and that special and adequate preparation required for the successful pursuit of a special calling. Among the signs of the times which distinguish the new education from the old, a few may be briefly noticed. First in order and importance I namo the kindergarten, which for the first time in the whole history of the race actually established in the world the great idea that the schoolroom can and should be made a place’ of delight, and that a love of learn¬ ing is vital to its attainment. Next may be mentioned the training of the hand to perform what the mind has been taught to conceive and plan, thus providing against that “pathetic helpless¬ ness” sometimes found in very learned men. Another important sign of substantial progress is in the introduction of practical psychology, to give both teacher and student that knowledge of the mind, its con¬ stitution, faculties, and operations, without which serious errors can not bo avoided. Equally important is the idea, now well established, that the farmer, the manu¬ facturer, the merchant, or other business man, needs a thorough education for his calling quite as much as do the professional classes for theirs. Modern experience has abundantly shown that a farm abandoned by ignorant incompetence as worn-out and worthless can be made to blossom like the rose under an application of intelli- EDUCATION AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 439 gent skill and scientific knowledge sucli as the kigker institutions of learning impart. Of vast importance and significance is tko new movement of colleges and univer¬ sities, under tko name of university extension, to ally tkemsclvcs witk tko people. That alliance will prove of inestimable value to both. In tkc liigkest sense, tkero is kut one education; of wkick all sckools and all instruction should form appropriate parts. If one cannot ke a master of pkilology, or astronomy, or geology, or arckitecture, or engineering, it skould, nevertkeless, kc kis privilege to know enougk of eack to follow witk pleasure and witk kenefit tkc ackievements of its leaders. In tke new education we skall miss many things witk wkick we kave keen familiar in tke old. Among them will ke tke incrediklo folly of attempting to eradicate tke natural differences of mental endowment, and to. reduce all to tko dead level of tke average attainments. We skall miss tke karkaric system of rewards and puniskments, under wkick tke most keroie efforts to overcome natural dekciences were visited witk kumiliation, wkile merely natural gifts, witkout merit in tkeir application, were conspicuously rewarded. Tke new education will endure, kecausc it will rest upon correct and eternal prin¬ ciples; kecause it will ke supported ky an enligktened puklic opinion, and ky tke settled puklic policy of tke enligktened nations of tke world. Tke “basis of tkis puklic policy is tke truth tkat tke true wealtk of nations is in tkeir men, and tkat as a mere matter of self-interest tkey must provide for all, even tko humblest, enougk education to stimulate tke development of latent genius. Tke new education, extended as it will ke throughout the wmrld, will do as muck as, if not more than, any otker agency to promote tkc unity and peace of man¬ kind. For ky education we mean not merely tke training of tke intellect; wo mean also tke culture of tke lreart and tke kand. Tke golden circle of education emkracesnot only literature, science, and art, kut it includes as well tke wkole kroad domain of virtue, morals, and religion. In conclusion, I extend to tkis World’s Educational Congress my kigkest wiskes for its success in every department, witk many regrets tkat tkc arrangements for tke congresses to ke held during tke montk of August will prevent mo from attend¬ ing tke sessions, in tke proceedings of wkick I skall nevertkeless feel a profound interest. REPORT OE COMMITTEE OE ARRANGEMENTS, NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIA¬ TION. OX INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATION. BY HON. WILLIAM T. HARRIS. CHAIRMAN. To the World's Congress Auxiliary of the World's Columbian Exposition : Tke committee on international congress of education, appointed at your sugges¬ tion ky tke National Educational Association of tke United States, keg leave liere- witk to report tkat tkey kave extended due invitations to tke friends of education and tke workers in its several fields, in all foreign countries, and in tke several States and Territories of tke United States. Sympathetic response has keen made every¬ where to these imitations, and tke numker of tkose expressing intention to ke present is larger tkan we kad reason to kope, wken we consider tke numker of foreign delegates enrolled at world’s congresses kitkertokeld ; and tkis, too, witkout making any deduction for tke muck greater distances to ke passed over to reach Ckicago tkan to reack London, or Brussels, or Paris, or New York, from tke centers of popu¬ lation. In preparation for tke discussions to take place tkis w'eek, tke committee kas endeavored to select questions of international interest — questions tkat affect tke management of sckools in all countries, wkerever tkey are. And tke renewred and increasing interest in sekool education in all civilized countries at tkis time is an occasion for congratulation among all friends of kuman progress. Tke central place of sekool education among tke great regenerating movements of modern civilization is okvious wken one looks over tke list represented in tke series of congresses wkick kave keld tkeir sessions in tkis edifice since its opening in May, or are to follow Between tkis and tke middle of October. Tke common character¬ istic of movements tkat kelp forward civilization is tkat tkey increase self-kelp in tke individual. There is no institution tkat does so muck for increasing tke power of self-kelp as tke good school. It uses tke time of youth — tkc time not yet of full value for productive industry, and yet most fruitful for growth in intellect and power of will. Education gives directive power — the powder to combine tkings, and tkc power to combine men. It is therefore witk a strong show of reason tkat tke teachers of our sckools point to the exhibits in tke vast aggregate of tke World’s Fair, and claim a large share in tke development of tke producing causes tkat kave furnished the display of industry and skill and taste. 440 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. It is confidently hoped that the discussions of these congresses -will help make clear to us not only the strong points of our school systems, hut also the needs and defects which exist and prevent the highest achievement. The fifteen departments of this congress, which hold their sessions in the morn¬ ings of Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of this week, represent, in equal propor¬ tions, the new and the old; one-half devoted to understanding and explaining what is already established and in vogue, the other half devoted to showing the claims of what is new, and urging its adoption into the school system. The educational problems are all to he discussed, if wisely discussed, in the light of these two sides or tendencies. The committees on programmes have kept this in view. In the department of higher education the distinction between the college and the university is brought prominently forward, and the relation of a course of study such as the old college furnished, namely, for discipline, and for giving the student a survey of the whole field of human learning— the relation of this to the speciali¬ zation of the activities of the student in lines of original research. One party in higher education will contend that the old college course should be retained, and held to its purpose of giving unity and consistency to the knowledge of the student before he enters on his specialties, whether law, medicine, divinity, or some special branch of science or art; the other party will contend for a policy that discounts the so-called liberal education, and the boasted advantages of a prolonged study of the classical languages and pure mathematics, and contend for the earlier introduc¬ tion of specialization. The department congress of technology has prepared for itself a highly valuable series of discussions on the educational value of such branches as workshop prac¬ tice, laboratory work in exact measurement, in chemistry, in electricity; what the student gets from mechanical and architectual drawing, and from pure and applied mathematics, what from natural science, and what from his training for an engineer. These studies in educational values have a direct bearing on the most fundamental question of higher education — the question whether the course of study in our col¬ leges merits the high claims made for it as being one of a specially high educational value ; as being, in fact, the course that enlightens the student, and gives him bal¬ ance of mind and a judicial habit of thought. To this great question in higher education, also, the congress of secondary educa¬ tion .contributes its quota by setting in the foreground questions of the practical value of science as an educative study as compared with language, and, further¬ more, the value of the modern languages as compared with Latin and Greek. This question of the educational value of the classic and modern studies, of the lan¬ guages versus the sciences and mathematics, is not a local one, of interest only to our people, but a question more and more coming to the front in France and England, and even in Germany; and we are fortunate in having with us distinguished dele¬ gates from all those countries who have weighty -words to say in its discussion. A kindred question occupies a portion of the programme of the congress of ele¬ mentary education. What branches of science and what branches of industrial instruction should be introduced into the elementary schools, and how far may the old course of study in language, numbers, geography, and history be made to recede to give room for the new branches? The department congresses of industrial and manual instruction, together with the congresses on art instruction and music, emphasizes this question in elementary education, and repeat in many new phases the demand for broadening the course of study in elementary schools. The National Geographic Society has been invited to occupy the programme of Thursday in the elementary department, and valuable discussions are provided to bring out the needs and defects of the present methods of instruction, together with the desired remedies. But the discussions of the third day in the elementary congress relate to the most important of all topics, that of citizenship and morals. Those familiar with the -work of the directors of popular education abroad, especially in England, France, and Germany, know the stress that is laid on morals and citizenship, and the interest that is shown in questions of religious education as an essential item on the programmes of the schools. There are two parties of earnest men and women, the one holding that the separation of church and state should be carried so far as to make the schools entirely secular, and the other hold¬ ing that instruction in religion should be placed on the programme side by side with instruction in language and science. Somewhat related to this question of ethical and civic instruction are most of the questions taken up in the kindergarten congress. The kindergarten attempts to pro¬ vide a course of instruction that is half school and half family nurture, in order that the rigid discipline in obedience to law and order which characterized, and, I may say, still characterizes, the old-time primary school, may not have the effect of chill¬ ing the enthusiasm of the young child and arresting his development along lines of growth that tend to a completer individuality and a higher typo of manhood and EDUCATION AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 441 womanhood. In tlie discussions of the week tliero is a largo space given to the very important differences between the epochs of childhood, say from 4 to 6 years, and the epoch of youth, say from 7 to 14 years. The transition of the mind from the so-called symbolic stage of childhood to the stage in which the child can readily learn the conventional methods of representing language and numbers is the topic which needs most illumination in the study of methods of the primary school. The kindergar¬ ten, moreover, as containing the beginnings of all that is to he unfolded in the later schools, takes up again the question of the educative value of hand occupations, so often discussed in other departments and found to he so attractive a topic in the educational conferences of all nations. The congress on the professional training of teachers has as its most important topic the difference between the normal school which prepares teachers for the work of the elementary schools and the college. or university which gives the degree of doctor of pedagogy. The course of study in the regular normal school, on the other hand, is defined hy contrast with the ordinary high school or academy (second¬ ary schools), and it is claimed that the normal school introduces comparative study — like the college, seeking to understand each branch in the light of the other branches of human learning — while secondary education usually teaches its branches as steps to higher studies, and not by a comparative method. The college or university course in pedagogy, it is contended, should make its degree stand for original work of investigation in the lines of the literature and history of education as well as in lines of investigation into the growth or develop¬ ment of the child physically and mentally. No more important topics than these are on the programme for the week as regards the improvement of our teachers. But there are two department congresses auxiliary to this department of profes¬ sional training, the one on rational psychology, which considers the transient and permanent characteristics of mind, seeks to discover the fundamental characteristics which contradistinguish mind from mere biological phenomena — the mind as know¬ ing primitive truth and as pure self-activity. The other congress, that of experi¬ mental psychology, devotes all its discussions to questions of child study in physical, emotional, intellectual, and volitional aspects. The teacher, it is said, should understand psychology because he deals with the growth of the mind. It is quite recent that a great revival has begun in this country of the study of psycho! ogjn The supervision of schools, which becomes every day more important as people come to live more and more in cities and A'illages, discusses the questions relating to the organization of schools, especially such as relate to the examination of teachers and the improvement of their work. An interesting question/especially interesting in the presence of this great World’s Exposition of the products of human industry, is that of the relation of technical skill and manual processes to the training of the aesthetic sense — the cultivation of the taste for the beautiful. This question is brought out in many of its phases in the congress on art instruc¬ tion, and still more of its phases are taken up in the congress ou industrial and manual instruction. The difference between the great systems of training — those of the Swedish Sldjd, the Bussian school-shop, and the French system — will be better understood, it is believed, at the close of these discussions, and that this will lead to more profitable methods of preparation for our industries. The department congresses of physical education, of educational publications, of vocal music, and of business education, have prepared pointed questions relating to methods and modes of management, and their programmes will invite large audiences of interested teachers. With this brief sketch of the points in the programme herewith presented, I beg leave to thank you, Mr. President of the World’s Congress Auxiliary, and through you, your aids and assistants in the local committees of education, for your uniform kindness and helpfulness in arranging the details of this congress. I thank you in behalf of the committee of arrangements, and in behalf of the National Educational Association. ADDRESS BY DR. JAMES B. ANGELL, PERMANENT CHAIRMAX. I think you will all agree with me that the work of these educational congresses underlies, in some sense, the work of all the other congresses which have been or which may be held at this time. Perhaps I might better say that the work of this congress overarches, enfolds, and encompasses the work of all the other congresses, as the sky encompasses and enfolds the earth ; for all art, and all sciences — what hope of progress have these, what hope of perpetuity have they, except as the moral and intellectual discipline which we are engaged in cultivating is preserved? 442 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-83. As wc walk through the avenues of the “ White City/”’ and stand fascinated and enchanted with the splendid architecture upon the right hand and upon the left, and behold the marvelous collection of the works of industry and of art from all parts of the civilized and from many parts of the uncivilized world, think 7 oil there is not one of ns who has not at times felt the inexpressible pathos of the thought which has brought tears to so many eyes-^the thought that in four short months all this architecture and all this marvelous collection of all the treasures of industry and of art shall have vanished forever, like the unsubstantial fabric of a vision/leav- ing not a rack behind? But the intelligence which has formed them, the genius which has fashioned them, the great ideas which are incorporated in them — these abide and shall abide forever and forever ; and it is to these that you and I and every teacher address our work day by day. Wo work in that which is eternal and which shall never pass away. Therefore it is, I think, that the interest in education is so abiding, is so widespread, is so universal to-day in every part of the civilized globe. Therefore it is that to-day onr distinguished friends come to us, having made the dreary voyage across the wide waste of seas, and having made the journey across half the continent, to speak to us, in sympathy and in love, of those things which are dear to us and dear to them. We are glad for their presence here to-night; avc desire to thank them for their kindness in coming to us. The names and Avorks of some of them haA'c long been known tons, and ayo gfre them thanks, and we gh'e God thanks that now their faces and their voices are to bo familiar to us, to grre us an inspiration, here and now, which shall be with us as a joyous memory and a help forevermore. Never before was interest in educational things so Avidespread Avithin the borders of our own land. The last two decades have been creative deeades in the work of education. Ea’cu in the South, which so long lagged behind the North and West, what a change there has been since the war! Out of the A'ery depths of a misery and a poArerty which we in the North can not begin to understand, they too have taken up these great ideas of public education, and have taxed themselAes, with a generosity which wo can not but admire, for the education both of the white andthe black. [Applause.] It Avas not long since that I had a conversation with a gentleman who has done more than almost any other for the promotion of education in the South ; a prolonged conversation, running until midnight, discussing the j>ractical and difficult problems of the South with a pathos and an earnestness which I shall never forget. At the close of the hours I said to him : “ What remedy liaA'c you for these terrible problems with which you are confronted there ?” He arose, Avith an expression of anguish, through which yet there was a ray of hope in his face, and with a ferA'or and an earnestness which I shall ne\'er forget, stamping his foot upon the floor, said : “It is very dark ; wo can hardly see an arm’s length before us ; but one thing I know ; it must be eternally right to educate the negro, to educate and Christianize the negro.” [Applause.] . In no subject has there been greater advancement made in the last two decades than in education: how it has been studied historically; how it has been studied psychologically ; how it has been studied experimentally. Scientific education has been really created in the United States within the last thirty years. The changes in the college methods of education have been so great within thirty years as to bo described by no other name, justly, except that of reAudution. Now all the larger colleges and universities are bending their energies to the cultivation of graduate work, that wo may achieve something that may truly be called university work in our larger and stronger institutions. And no wl hope, as we haArc come here, Ave shall get many results from this meeting. Nevur was there a programme, I believe, prepared with such care and Avith such promise as that into which our distinguished friend, Dr. Harris, has thrown his genius and his labor. [Applause.] Where, if ever, has there been such an assemblage of men and women distinguished by experience and study to instruct us in the discus¬ sion of the subjects of that programme ? And I hope that among all the other results that we shall gain we shall gain this one, viz : to feel the common consciousness of unity among all the grades and ranks of teachers from the highest to the lowest. Let us feel that our work is one work. We lia\'C wrought too much in this country in sections, and at cross-purposes, and with a lack of common consciousness and unity of aim. The old-fashioned college, when I was a boy, Avas a sort of mythical institution that stood away in the clouds, remote from connection with the common schools, and even with the secondary schools, and the great mass of boys and girls had not a much more distinct idea of what went on within its walls than they liaA^e of what goes on in the mosque at Mecca to-night. Thank God that day of isolation of the college is passed. But we still haA'e room to draw the ranks closer together all the way iroin the women in the kindergarten up to the A'ery highest teacher in the university, and to haA’e a consecutiveness of purpose and of aim and methods that shall bring us all EDUCATION AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 443 to ouo result. For my own part, I never looked upon a woman teaching a primary class of 20 pupils, or a woman teaching a class of a like number in the kindergarten, without having a feeling akin to reverence for her in her work, and I have often said that it seems to me that many of them display more genius than I have ever been able to show in trying to manage a university. 1 have great respect for them, and I hope that we shall go out from these meetings with a stronger feeling than we have ever had beforo that our work is one work from the beginning to the end. Therefore let us go back to our schoolhouses and to our class rooms with a strength and an inspiration of that mighty consciousness, that we are, everyone of us, a part of the great army whose thundering tread is shaking the land. Let us go feeling this power, and that we are working as a part of it. [Applause.] I want even our humble teachers to have some higher appreciation of the honor and dignity that belongs to their work. As they come here and see the noble army of men and women engaged in it, I can not but think that they may return to their work with some new pride in it. Let them reflect for a moment what is the dignity and grandeur of the material upon which they work. It is the soul, the mind of the child, infinitely nobler than the canvass on which Raphael painted the Madonna with a purity born in heaven, purer and nobler than the whitest Italian marble from which Michael Angelo freed fromits imprisonment the form of a Moses or of a David. The materials with which they work are not the mere pigments of the painter or the chisel of the sculptor, but the humblest “schoolmarm,” the humblest kindergartner that is trying to teach her child some idea of geometrical forms, should remember that she is planting forever in his mind one of the great ideas by which God has builded the world. The humblest “schoolmarm ” in the remotest log house in north¬ ern Michigan or Wisconsin should remember that when she is teaching the A-B’s to the stammering boy at her feet she is placing before him a ladder on which he may yet climb to the stars. That is the work in which you are engaged. Be proud of it ! Never be ashamed of it ! The rewards in money are small, but the rewards in grati¬ tude and love of your disciples are beyond the purchasing power of gold. The teacher’s profession is a fountain of youth. I have seen many a teacher with gray . hairs, and some with bald heads, but I never saw an old teacher yet. The smile and play of youth are ever on his face, because he is ever associated with the child and thinking the glad and happy thoughts of children. We are apt \o think that our work is too transitory and that to-morrow it is for¬ gotten; put please remember that the most enduring institutions which the human race has ever established on earth are the schools, colleges, and universities. Great royal houses have risen and fallen, but schools have survived them. Winchester and Eton, Oxford and Cambridge have survived how many a royal line in England ! The educational institutions of France have outlived how many a change of government, monarchical and republican ! The educational institutions of Europe have seen the map of that country made and remade how many times ! Everything in Europe has changed over and over again except the great schools, colleges, and universities; but there, they stand, and there they arc destined to stand so long as civilization endures. 1 hope that I am right as a prophet when I venture to predict that even though nothing else shall endure in these United States, beyond all the changes of political parties, beyond all the changes of society, beyond all the changes of other human affairs, the one thing that is to endure, in my judgment, is our great, free, generous system of public instruction. [Applause.] Parties may come and parties may go, but woe be to any party or any company or any society that with ruthless and profane hands dares to lay hold of that institution for its injury or destruction! [Applause.] And, my friends, we are proud to come here to-night, representative of many lands, representative of many States in this land, all fired with the same love of this one great theme. May all see the vision of blessings to come in the future from our toil ! Let us, I pray you, address ourselves to this work in this high and hopeful spirit to-niglit, believing that God’s blessing will rest with it even to the end. [Applause.] CHAPTER II. AMERICAN VIEWS AND COMMENTS ON THE EDUCA¬ TIONAL EXHIBITS. Contents. — 11 The exhibit of education at the Columbian Exposition ,” by Hon. John Eaton. — “The educational exhibit at the World’s Columbian Exposition ,” by Selim H. Peabody — “ The World’s Fair ,” from New England Journal of Education — “ What the educational exhibit shows,” from New England Journal of Education — “ Educational exhibits at the Columbian Exposition,” by Bichard Waterman, jr. — “ Some echoes from the exposition,” by “ S.” in Education — “World’s educational exhibits,” by Will S. Monroe — “Catholic education at the World’s Fair,” by John J. O’Shea — “ The Catholic school exhibit,” by a professor of pedagogy. THE EXHIBIT OF EDUCATION AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. By Dr. John Eaton, Ex-United States Commissioner of Education. Educators largely occupied with eternal verities may "become too much absorbed in what the past is supposed to have fixed, and thus fail to meet current demands, or, as the phrase has it, to keep up with the times. They may well recall that no body in the stellar world, coursing through its orbit according to immutable laws, fails to respond to the influence of the most capricious comet that crosses its course. Nor should educators be less ready to gain all possible benefits from the events which cross their path. They can not afford to ignore the epoch-making Columbian Fair. For the teacher it has not only the lessons it offers to all ; it has also the great studies in his special duties. In speaking with this emphasis, do not let me be understood as implying that he will experience no disappointments. If we expect it to be ideally perfect our disappointments will be many. If we expect all nations to be officially present or those which participate to exhibit all their attainments propor¬ tionately, we will carry away with us a very different idea. While we hear in connection with it so much of progress, we must not forget that motives of gain, of selfishness, will be present as in all human affairs. It will cost money and money must be made. But we shall be able to see more than ever before of what man has accomplished in his various spheres of activity. We might take a trip around the world and fail of opportunities to study great human conditions offered hero. We may sec specimens of minerals, soils, plants, animals, wild and domestic, races of men, their dress, their houses, something of their family life and vocations, the products of their industries, their modes of travel, their science and art. Suppose we have studied the max), located the buildings, and taken a ride around on the intramural electric railway, and sought to familiarize our eyes with the grounds and the exterior of the buildings. What a transformation of the lagoons and sand banks of a few years ago. Whatever the management may have lacked, they had the sense to employ the best skill in landscape architecture and responsive skill in the erection of the buildings, and the result is a white city, to be while it lasts the marvel of the world and wheu it disairpears an inspiring memory as long as the idea of its combination of land and water, of surface and form and ornamen¬ tation abide in human thought. 445 446 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1892-93. We shall not fail to understand that we have undertaken a most serious task, when we learn that the exhibits inviting our study fill buildings with a floor space of 210 acres. If we undertake our educational study on an ordinary day, we find ourselves in the midst of a moving tide of people of all ages and all conditions of intelligence, but uniformly bearing the marks of freedom and comfort, a good- natured, eager, orderly crowd, embodying for the educator more suggestive thoughts than all else around. We can neither mingle in the throng nor look upon it without being filled with meditations upon the deepest educational problems and the effects of their solutions upon man’s destiny. These are the people that have made the Fair possible, nay, they have made it what it is, and they have come here to gather its fruits — to determine what its educative force shall be for this and coming gen¬ erations'; and these people are the workmanship of the Almighty and education. In them we may study the work of the teacher as nowhere else. If the date on which we approach the educational exhibit is Chicago day, then our thoughts can find no adequate expression. Seven hundred and fifty thousand men, women, and children brought together in so few hours in so limited a space for such an object. There was never a parallel. Have we ever given up our souls to the influence of the mighty forces of nature— the influence of the boundless forest, the measureless prairie, the torrent of Niagara, or the fathomless ocean? Here in this presence not only a mighty material mass lays upon us a resistless, unutterable power, but we feel that there is in it a spirit with a destiny above it — a spirit to abide when all else that is visible disappears, to triumph over the wreck of worlds, godlike in its possibilities and godward in its aspirations, which it is our duty to promote. For this purpose we are teachers. Leaving the grounds that evening, my route lead me by the model Sunday-school house, located on the side of the street opposite the grounds of the Fair, in which Mr. Moody, or some of his assistants, held evening services. On entering I found a large and attentive worshiping assembly, in spite of the tide that had brought the multitudes together within the exhibition as waters rush into an irresistible whirl¬ pool. Here, I said, is a lesson in the power of religion in American education, and not unlike that other manifestation of that religious sentiment which surprised so many by rejecting Sunday opening. Before leaving this thought of the effect of education upon the multitudes of visitors, you will pardon mo in giving this personal testimony, that, in my duties about the Fair, from the middle of July until the end of November, I never saw a case of disorder or a drunken person on the grounds, and I may add that officials reported that the total number of arrests during the progress of the Exposition did not reach 150. Although all I am saying is about the Exposition and education, we are after something more specifically educational. Where shall we look for it? Where shall we find the exhibit of the vocation of education in which so large numbers are engaged all over the world in overy civilized land, in whose hands are not the materials or machinery of mineral, agricultural, or manufactured products, but the children — the real, veritable children being taught throughout the world — and through whose hands, as clay in the hands of the potter, all these have been taught, whose acquirements are now triumphant in the exhibits of enterprise, patience, skill, and art installed around us? Where shall we find the exhibit of this the teachers’ vocation — the conditions, appliances, results of this vocation, so central and causative to all other human callings and activities? Already we have found our way through the Administration Building. Before us is the grand plaza, tho court of nations, the statue of Columbus and of the Eepnblic, the marvelous fountains — beautiful, wonderful. But there are no educational exhibits here. Looking to the left, to the entrance of that great building, we see a statue of a man of marked intelligence and aspirations; perhaps he was a schoolmaster, but we see a kite in his hand, and know it is Franklin. He is just calling lightning from heaven, and around him are other names pointing to tho scientific results of educa- AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 447 tion. This great building is devoted to electricity. What a story it tells of the progress of half a generation ! What have the teachers of electricity accom¬ plished? — but there is no room for them here. We must hunt their place. They will be given at least a corner, or a tent, or a tree, as were teachers with their con¬ trabands. If there is any teaching actually on exhibition, if there are any live illustrations, we are ready to hunt them. We will call a Columbian guard, who knows and will tell -where everything is. Yes, we will find kindergarten in opera¬ tion in the Illinois Building and in the Children’s Building, and there, too, wo may study the creche or day nursery and Miss Huntington’s kitchen garden in full oper¬ ation. Also, the instruction in sloyd, aided by Mrs. Shaw; and in another room that triumph of patience and pedagogical skill, Miss McGowan’s school for teaching deaf mutes to speak in infancy, or that of Miss Garret, of Philadelphia, now sup¬ ported by the State of Pennsylvania. l"es, here too lively boys are practising in a gymnasium. Then, tramping down near Krupp’s guns, we may inspect a swimming school, and over the way, in a Government building, an Indian school in actual operation. After another long tramp, we find, near the Swedish pavilion, the Ling system of physical culture. We want healthy bodies for our people, and yet we can hardly delay to hear that in this system the movements, in their nature and their number, are founded on the human organisms’ natural means of exercise, and the possibility of its perfect development to health and capability of work. Gymnas¬ tics can also preserve a development already gained. The aim of these gymnastics is to obtain as perfect health as possible ; that is, a harmony between the different Organs and their functions. Skillfulness, that is, lifting a given weight or the like, has but a secondary place, but it is obvious that the human body will best receive the harmonious development for which it is fitted when the organism itself is used in its own perfection in relation to physiological laws. On this princijile the exer¬ cises are grouped and classified. Ling believed that he could discriminate 11,000 separate muscular movements. I^e believed that health was promoted by their exercise, and said if the person is too feeble, or the will is unable to direct the exer¬ cise, then the production of that exercise or motion by another person, or by machinery, will promote health or perhaps prevent disease, and hence comes massage. We can not pause further to study the several systems of physical culture that challenge our attention. Perhaps now we will take a turn in Midway. Here in the Irish Village and in Donegal Castle we may examine the much-needed application of instruction to the improvement of Irish industries. In the school in the Streets of Cairo the pupils are seated on the floor, after the oriental fashion, and studying aloud. If we choose, before leaving Midway we may compare the influence of training upon wild animals, such as the lion and ostrich. Perhaps this is the hour to cross the grounds and witness the training in the Life-Saving Service; or under the War Department, the instruction in making firearms, or in signaling by the use of the balloon, or of the sunlight, that flashes its messages to the distance of 100 miles. Now it may be the hour for lunch, and we will hasten to the Rum ford Kitchen and take a lesson in Mrs. Richards’s scientific cookery, and before leaving this section we will listen to the attempt to establish instruction in road building, and witness Professor Hazen’s efforts to train engineers in the destruction of sewage or of the ’waste of cities, which is so consummately conducted for the benefit of the health of all visitors at the Fair. Already we have notes of numerous instructive lectures by eminent experts on manifold industries and arts represented, but we . can only give them attention when we wish to take an hour for rest. To-day we will examine the Military Academy at West Point as presented by the cadets now in camp Later we shall have an opportunity to see the living illustra¬ tion of the work done by Captain Pratt at the Carlisle Indian School, represented by their band of music and 500 of the students; besides, we must find an hour to examine the work done in American business colleges as represented by banking and exchange in actual operation. 448 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. We turn from all these live exhibits disappointed that there is so little of what could well he exhibited, hut thankful that there is so much, though it is so widely scattered. We must seize a moment to examine training in fish-culture in the Agricultural Department, or instruction in bacteriology in the laboratory of the Marine-Hospital Service, or the Surgeon-General’s Office of the War Department, aud when we are ready for a tramp we will go to the Anthropological Building and witness experi¬ ments in the psychological laboratory. Let us now try for the inanimate exhibits. Here there is greater disappointment; space is wanting and system and unity are in a measure destroyed. Nations are omitted and subjects are only partially exhibited. Only about three-fourths of our American States exhibit their public school system — some of these only partially and none completely. But, with all our disappointment, we have never had a better opportunity to study education. Any one at any time may examine its statistics, history, and literature in the United States Bureau of Education as nowhere else in the world, but here are illustrations of buildings, specimens of appliances, and col¬ lections of students’ work and a variety of data never before offered for examination. Altogether it suggests forcibly what adequate space and generous treatment of edu¬ cation might have accomplished. Wo shall have no lack of tramping. We must go to the Anthropological Building for reformatory education and instruction in sani¬ tation, then to the building of the French colonies for their school work. Far apart in the Agricultural Building we shall find the school exhibit of Uruguay, and what there is from Liberia, and that remarkable exhibit from the greatest of English experimental farms, and from our own colleges of agriculture. In the Swedish •pavilion we can take note of the Lundin system of sloyd for girls — the measuring, cutting, and making of garments in Sweden — and in another hall or alcove the work qfj fhe Naas school. Here there is a most instructive study of the abnormal positions of workers in wood and metal, contrasted with those positions which after careful investigation are found to behest adapted to health. We shall want to take time for the exhibit of the Bureau of Education in the United States Government Building. Here a young gentleman and lady will make ample explanations, but the limited space is packed. Here arc statistics, history, literature, and articles illustrative of conditions of education that can only be mas¬ tered in time. In the Woman’s Building we have a considerable space given to the representation of institutions devoted to woman’s education, academic, professional, and industrial; and in the educational section a rare collective exhibit of schools for nurses, and from Germany some specially successful girls’ industrial schools and specimens and studies in the development of woman’s industrial work, going back to the Middle Ages. From Spain 'comes the vrork of schools for the defective classes, under the patronage of women. Before leaving this building we must not fail to take into account woman’s work in libraries, in literature and science, as well as instruction in art. When not too weary, we can take a run to the State buildings of Washing¬ ton, California, and Illinois, and learn the story of their education from their school exhibits. Kansas and California we shall find divided between their State buildings and the educational section of the Liberal Arts Building. Here we are at last with a great body of educational exhibits before us, and yet here the Argentine Republic is crowded into a distant alcove and only partly unpacked, and that from Japan must be found in three widely separate localities; France can only set up part of its exhibit, and yet a portion of that, illustrating industrial work in Paris, must go to its pavilion ; Germany, with its rich display, to treat it with any justice, must erect another story over the floor space assigned it. It is doubtful whether many of us Avould agree upon the same plan of investiga¬ tion. One would proceed by subdivision, taking first, the foreign; second, the American public school and advanced work; third, Catholic schools; fourth, cduca- AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 449 tion of defective classes; fifth, business colleges; sixth, Indian education ; seventh education as promoted by voluntary associations, such as the Israelite Alliance, or the Temperance Union ; eighth, as illustrated by business enterprises such as those which furnish the text-books, represented by various publishers, or furniture, repre¬ sented by manufacturers, or apparatus, or illustrations, such as represented by Ward, of Rochester, or Queen & Co., of Philadelphia, or Milton Bradley, of Springfield, Mass., or Steiger, of New York, or buildings as represented by different firms of archi¬ tects. Another may choose to make the teacher, his preparation and methods, the center and beginning of his thought. Another may take up the work by grades. One would begin with the kindergarten and go upward ; another with the profes¬ sional school and go downward; another may choose to trace ideas and their devel¬ opment in the history of education. Perhaps he finds the germ, or seed-thought, of a movement in the mind of some philanthropic educator and traces it through its periods of quiet and agitation until realized in legislation and the administration of systems or the adoption of principles or methods or the establishment of institutions. Another may prefer to begin with the enactment of law and trace its operations in schools and its results in the customs and industries of the people. Another would prefer to spend time in tracing the development of methods and principles, systems and institutions, in different nations and races, the influence upon education of a nation such as Prussia, or of individuals such as Socrates, or Quintilian, or Come- nius, or Bacon, or Rousseau, or Pestalozzi, or Froebel, or Horace Mann, or Barnes, or Sears, or Henry Barnard, or of the distinctive schools of thought or of philosophy. Whatever course we pursue, we must never part with the historic and comparative method, two most essential conditions of the best results, alike for teacher, pupil, and investigator. Before us are myriads of pictures, acres of drawings, tons of writ¬ ten work, and car loads of specimens of manual training. We can only hint at pos¬ sibilities. The devices used are many and helpful. Here a State tells its statistics on a rotating cylinder; graphics are extensively used both in foreign and American exhibits, especially maps, notably by New York, Michigan, and Massachusetts. Raised maps are numerous and effective. Denver sends a shorthand report of actual daily work in the schoolroom. New Jersey has a special device for packing and showing pictures. In several instances the phonograph repeats the actual work of classes in reading and music or the lessons of the teacher, and the cunning of the instantaneous photograph is beyond measure. Fortunately there is a generous amount of explanatory literature which is freely distributed. For many exhibits gentlemen and ladies are present ready to answer any questions. Did you ever go to the Catholic exhibit without finding either Brother Maurelian or some of his numerous assistants? In New York you can have explanations in French. In the exhibit of deaf-mute instruction many find added interest in the fact that the attend¬ ant is a graduate of the deaf-mute college and is such a master of articulation that he can communicate with you with ease. Connected with Carlisle and Hampton exhibits you will meet the Indians they have trained. In Massachusetts you are sure at any time to find four, if not five, persons in attendance; for the Institute of Tech¬ nology, an alumnus ; for Harvard, Professor Cummings and his wife will speak in any language you desire, and for the public schools Miss McDonald and Professor Gay will be acknowledged models of tireless courtesy and patience. We are fortunate if we study the French exhibit during the visit of Mr. B. Buisson, and have the benefit of his explicit explanations. In mastering the large and effective German exhibit, we may have the historical and philosophical explanations of the eminent Dr. Stephan Waetzoldt, professor of the University of Berlin, and chief com¬ missioner of the Prussian ministry for education. Those who are familiar with the indebtedness of American education to Prussia, the eminent masters furnished to our schools, and the valuable information we have derived from the system — principles and methods from the reports of Stowe, Mann, Bache, and Barnard on Prussian edu¬ cation — will examine the Prussian exhibit with peculiar interest. ED 93 - 29 450 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Furniture and text-books, so easily exhibited, are not so fully represented as might he expected, either from our own or from other countries. If the German text-books are admitted to bear more marks of systematic and patient labor, and the French of a severer logic and a more exquisite aesthetic taste, American text-books clearly have no superiors in the matter of print, pictorial illustrations, and other characteristics of mechanical execution. In the German exhibition there is an ingenious combina¬ tion in a teacher's desk. It has the usual conveniences for the teacher’s eye and the material for his use, but it has also an arrangement connected with its back by which he may present to the eye of the class letters, words, figures, sentences, or other illustrations which he wishes to use in his lessons. Educational journalism, both American and foreign, is present only in limited extent. Of the exhibition generally, it may be said that representations are limited almost entirely to present conditions; grounds, architecture, appliances as they now are, the work of students at a single sitting or on a given day, or completed specimens. Colorado, however, offers the model of the first district schoolhouse. Princeton, a picture of the log college, a model of the grounds and Nassau Hall, and other char¬ acteristics. Dr. Harris, in the exhibit of the Bureau of Education, presents in minia¬ ture models instructive studies in the development of desks and seats; Illinois shows a process of producing stereotyped plates for the blind, reducing the cost per page from 75 cents to 15 cents. France shows with effect the progress of a pupil through a series of years. Nearly forty years ago a plan was attempted in Toledo for carry¬ ing out the comparison of one year’s result with another during the attendance of pupils and classes. Progress in text-books may be studied in the collection exhibited by Prof. Jerome Allen or that of Mr. Plympton; in the latter we may find specimens in arithmetic, algebra, in English, French, German, and Latin and Greek — going back to and including the New England Primer and the horn book, now so rare to find and so difficult to secure. In the literature and statistics of education there is more opportunity for historic comparison. Sets of the New England Journal of Education recall the fact to the credit of Dr. Bicknell, that, in its establishment, he led the way for educational jour¬ nalism out of subjection to subsidies and limitation to state or specially local circula¬ tion into effective independence and national circulation, and the constant draft upon information of the progress of education the world over. If we seek the best known data on education, from the earliest time to the present, we shall find it in great abundance in the full series of volumes found both in the exhibits of Mr. Bardeen and the State of Connecticut, and of the American Journal of Education, on which Dr. Henry Barnard has expended his fortune and the eminent services of his long and useful life. Further historic studies may be made in series of reports presented here and there, notably those from Connecticut, Boston, the State of Massachusetts, and the Bureau of Education ; and those most effective graphic statistics of Harvard, in which you may trace the descent of education by families, or the increase of its funds or its attendance, or the influence of a single gift to its library, or of a fund for establishing a separate professorship; or in the exhibit by Princeton of the rude apparatus used by Henry in establishing the laws of electrical action; or in the New York collection, the apparatus used by Draper in his work in photography. The organization of education is a study in itself. In the exhibit the demarsa- tions are easily recognizable. In foreign countries such as Japan, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and France, the authority proceeds from a national source. So for Eugland, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, but for the colonies it is colonial. For our country and Germany there is not a national system, but education is a function of the respective States. The Catholic exhibit is divided into archdioceses and dioceses; the schools and colleges under the respective orders, brotherhoods, and sisterhoods, in which each teacher obeys the command of the superior with the fidelity of a soldier. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 451 Among our American States, while to a casual observer there may seem to be exact similarity, there is really great diversity. From colonial times there has been legis¬ lation with regard to education, but the growth of supervision by civil authority above that of the local civil unit, such as the town in Massachusetts, is of recent date. Knowledge of the condition of the education of children, or the intelligence of its people, was not what the State concerned itself about. The importance of this item of information slowly dawned upon the minds of statesmen. They cared most to know how many fighting men there were, and then about property as a basis of revenue. After a time one after another of the earlier States began to require reports of the children of school age, of school revenues, and school attendance. New York first required supervision, then abolished it, then returned to it; and in the exhibition there is disclosed a bifurcated system of State administration of edu¬ cation, one under the board of regents through its secretary and the other under the State superintendent of public instruction. The State University under the board of regents is an old organization; all institutions of education desiring a charter apply to it and report to it. The State library and museum, university exten¬ sion, and university examinations are under its direction. Under the State superin¬ tendent of public instruction are the public schools of the State, the normal schools and teachers’ institutes. All aj)peals from local administration under the law go to him. Under him there is a system of local supervision by commissioners. Cities have a self-directed administration and supervision in accordance with the general and specific laws enacted by the State to which they are subject. For a knowledge of the education in the State we need the reports of cities and those of the board of regents and of the State superintendent. In Massachusetts the State administration of education is committed to a non¬ partisan board nominated by the governor, and confirmed by the council, whose sec¬ retary is their executive officer. The great revival of education in 1837 under Horace Mann may be said to have been begun when he became secretary of this board. In the report of the secretary, or the State’s report of education, you find nothing about the colleges or the universities. It confines itself to the public schools, the normal schools, and certain academies, and school for the blind, deaf, and feeble minded. The authority of the board is extremely limited. Associated with the secretary and cooj>erating with him is a group of expert lecturers, who together with him address meetings, visit schools and hold conferences with teachers and school officers. Towns and cities, as provided by the statutes of the State, levy their school taxes and administer their school affairs. Boston early elected as its first superintendent Nathan Bishop, who soon retired when John D. Phiibrick was chosen as his suc¬ cessor, under whom the Boston schools rose to their supreme efficiency as regarded by the educators of the world at that date. In Pennsylvania the authority is centralized in a State superintendent of public instruction; local supervision is by cities and counties, yet there is no State univer¬ sity, the nearest approach to it being the college of agriculture and mechanic arts. The organization in Ohio corresponds with neither of the States already described. This also appears distinctively in its exhibit, which is made by the cities of Cincin¬ nati, Cleveland, and Columbus, and several of the counties by their own action respectively. The college of agriculture is becoming a State university, and there is lack of county supervision and no State normal school. In Michigan the exhibit discloses the lack of executive power in the State school office as in Ohio, but reveals a closer relation of the several parts of the system. Here is a great State university, which was the first in the Union to bring high schools into close relation with it. In Minnesota, the exhibit shows the close relation of all parts of the public school question, the elementary to the secondary or high schools, and these to the university and the normal schools. 452 EDUCATION REFORT, 1892-93. If we take up method and attempt investigation, we shalLperhaps begin with the mother tongue. Here we find it in the songs and common language of the kinder¬ garten. Nowhere do we hear the old a-b ah and b-a ba of other days. Everywhere there are improved methods. Great emphasis is placed on language lessons in the most efficient systems, whether foreign or American. Selections are furnished from the best authors, sometimes committed to memory, sometimes copied from dictation ; original compositions are required. In the last twenty years instruction in English in different parts of the United States has been entirely revolutionized. The different methods are made manifest in the varied exhibits. The diversity is hardly less marked in the methods of teaching writing. Some begin at once with both pen and pencil, as in Kansas City; others begin with the pencil and later introduce the pen, as in Boston. Some contend for the upright lines for writing, like England and Canada and different schools in the United States; and others for slant lines, like Germany and many of our own cities and schools. Here, too, is every method for teaching arithmetic and geography. Generally speaking, in all subjects, from the lowest to the highest, there is manifest improvement; even text¬ books from Turkey are modeled on the best from America. Schools of Egypt exhibit the Koran as the book for sacred reading, and show work in manual training and letters in accord with the methods prevalent in Euope and America. Behind the exhibit from Germany there are the same well-known enforced attendance of pupils and universal training of teachers for their professions; more dependence upon the teacher and less dependence upon the text-book. Generally the work in Germany and France is characterized by systematic illustration in the lower grades. In the United States there is abundant evidence that in these grades the abstract method is giving way to the concrete. This is especially true in teaching language. The improvements in teaching English are most marked. In the lack of authoritative co-relation of parts or grades of educational work in the United States it is gratifying to see each grade by its own intelligent action seeking to come into appropriate sympathetic cooperative relations with every other. In our individualism, in which there is such untold advantage in our stand¬ ing apart from each other, it is weil to remember that we sometimes stand more than erect. We may lean backward. The colleges have too long been responsible for the lack of improved methods in teaching, especially for abstract methods in our primary schools. Movements like that of Cambridge, in which Harvard University seeks to elevate, render philosophical and more nicely adapted to age and environ¬ ment the instruction in elementary subjects, are full of promise. The several exhib¬ its furnish a rich opportunity to study the facts behind the great piece of work done by the distinguished committee of ten. Everywhere in the American exhibit there is gratifying evidence of increasing thoughtfulness, especially of increased accentuation of the importance of improving the qualification of teachers. Examinations in knowledge of methods are more care¬ ful. The normal schools are yielding up more and more the work done in academic instruction, and increasing their efforts in pedagogical training. Colleges are adding chairs with one designation and another in the theory or history and practice of edu¬ cation. The sui generis exhibit of the Cook County Normal School was much studied in the children’s building. The Oswego Normal School, that has done so much to bring the principles and methods of Pestalozzi to America, manifestly took the lead among the normal school exhibit of New York. But individual exhibits must be left to personal examination, nor will time permit any estimate of the schools of engineering or technology. It has been remarked that the exhibition of the Boston Institute of Technology is so complete and typical that, were the institution destroyed, its main features could be reproduced from the suggestions of the exhibit ; here, too, is the solid work of the institution at Troy, dating back to 1826, pointing to the Ferris Wheel, the Brooklyn Bridge, and other AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 453 triumphs of its graduates as evidences of its merits. Nor can we pause to linger around the colleges and universities. In these grades of work we are deeply im¬ pressed with the magnificent equipment and thoroughness of university instruction in Germany. What the exhibition was to foreign educators we must not attempt to describe. They specially took in, in connection with the exhibit, what they could see else¬ where in the country, and especially in Chicago. Everywhere they felt the absence of the union of church and state, and the absence of militarism, demanding, as on the Continent, a portion of all young and vigorous life, and an absence, too, of the surrender of the masses to the classes. The number of eminent foreigners who visited us was very large. We shall find much in their reports to instruct us. Already Compayr^ has expressed his surprise at the rapid growth of our universi¬ ties and their rich endowment from private sources; and Jules Steeg has declared that a part of this portion of our exhibit seemed to him childish. Dr. Waetzoldt reports favorably upon our improvements in methods of elementary instruction, especially in teaching language. Taking the exhibit of education in connection with other portions of the Exposi¬ tion, one can not fail to he impressed with the power of education in saving nations from disorder, and imparting to them conditions of national progress. Here we may catch hints’of evidence that England avoided a foreshadowed revolution by aiding industrial and technical education and establishing a system of elementary schools; that France in recent years, by an almost superhuman effort, in advancing education among the people, has avoided anarchy, and confirmed an orderly repub¬ lic; that Japan by a wise use of education sprung from her seclusion to the front rank among nations. We are made to feel the power and unity of education for every member of every race, no matter what his characteristics. It means alike for the lowest and the highest of every type an enlargement of the boundaries of knowl¬ edge, a training of all the faculties and powers to improved activities, quickening the reason, confirming the conscience, and aligning the decisions of every one more and more with reason and right. In the provisions for reading beyond the school period, we see evidence that France in its recent efforts, and parts of the United States, have outstripped other portions of the world. No community of similar territory, with equal population, excels Massachusetts in this important means of assuring progress of intelligence among the people. Her libraries bring a supply of reading matter within the reach of over 97 per cent of her people. In the exhibit of the Bureau of Education, by the cooperation of the American Library Associa¬ tion, we may see a model library and its administration, learn about schools for librarians, and look up the library question in all its bearings. There is general surprise expressed at the great progress of kindergarten and man¬ ual training in the last twenty years in the United States. Whether our stay with the exhibit of education is longer or shorter, we shall leave with the opinion that it was well to make it; well for schools to prepare for it; well to furnish opportunities to study its principles, methods, and results. For myself, it will be remembered by some, when by invitation we discussed the methods of preparation for the exhibit, that my experience pointed to the best results in the United States by moving under the auspices of the National Bureau of Education. This is our national agency, equally available for all States, localities, institutions, and interests. And now at the close of the exhibition you will allow me to say that these opinions are most fully confirmed. What the disseminating power of the Fair is to be, no one can fully foresee. It is clear, however, that it will be determined largely by yourselves and those like you who are appointed to extend their influence into the future by educative processes, whether by the arts, or trades, or by speech, or by the press, or the more formal processes of direct instruction of" youthful minds. How much of this great respon- 454 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1892-93. sSMlity falls to you was incidentally pointed out in the poetic language of the '‘Autocrat of the Breakfast Table” at your last meeting: “ Teacher of teachers ! Tours the task, Nobles t that noble minds can ask, High up Ionia’s inarm crous mount, To watch , to guard the sacred fount That fills the stream below ; To guide the hurrying flood that fills A thousand silvery rippling rills In ever- widening flow.” Any visitor to the Fair will often think of Victor Hugo’s declaration that the nine¬ teenth century is woman’s century, and then he will confess, too, that it is the work¬ ingman’s century, and then that it is the child’s century, that its great movement is toward a clearer definition and realization of man’s essentials and of his relation as child, as man, as woman, to his Creator, and that thus it is promoting the removal of artificial burdens and obstructions and making the course clearer for man’s mas¬ tery over nature, and for his triumphant progress in the destiny divinely offered him. THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT AT THE WORLD’S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. . By Selim H. Peabody, LL. D., Chief of Department of Liberal Arts, TT oriel's Columbian Exposition. The world has never before seen an exhibit of its educational results so extensive or so complete as that shown at the Columbian Exposition. Twenty-six foreign nations contributed to the educational exhibit. The principal were Germany, France, England, Canada, New South Wales, Russia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Thirty-two States sent collective exhibits. Forty-four were in some way repre¬ sented. Illinois and California were compelled by the conditions of their State appropriations to make their exhibits in their own State buildings. We greatly regretted their absence, as well as the defection of the agricultural colleges. Above all should we have rejoiced if the Bureau of Education could have occupied an appropriate and significant space as the central figure of all American education. Contributions to the American exhibits came from 1,150 cities and towns, 271 counties, 756 academies and private schools, 53 schools for the defective classes, 25 business colleges, 39 manual training schools, 20 art schools, 51 normal'schools, and 146 universities and colleges. Among the foreign exhibits that of first importance came from the German Empire. It was prepared by the minister of education under the sanction of the imperial council. It illustrated, first of all, the admirable organization by which that Gov¬ ernment manages its educational affairs. The department of education having an organization as complete as that which has made the German army famous, the minister proceeded to call for such items as he was pleased to select from the facul¬ ties of universities, the directors of schools of arts and sciences, the principal offi¬ cers of gymnasia, realschulen, and primary schools, for material illustrative of their various departments. The most distinguished professors and scientists answered with the actual apparatus used in their latest discoveries, contrasted with others of historic fame. They sent huge folios containing the plans and elevations of their latest achievements in buildings for laboratories, art galleries, and museums; models to scale of schoolrooms and furnishings; complete sets of the apparatus furnished to their primary schools and gymnasia, for the teaching of the physical sciences; diagrams and charts presenting in a few salient points the most impressive educa¬ tional facts of the Empire; histories in many volumes of their great institutions of learning; immense folios of examination papers, some taken recently, some in the early years of the century. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 455 Nothing short of a complete catalogue will enable one to understand the fullness, the richness, and the dignity of this wonderful exhibit. The interest in it is not diminished when we learn that it was gathered at Berlin within two months after orders were given for its collection. One of its charts told an impressive story. An account in the nature of debits and credits, kept with the Kingdom of Prussia, showed on one side the census of children of school age to the number of more than 5,000,000 souls; upon the other side there were so many accounted for in each department, so many excused for cause, so many sick, all save less than 1,000, whom the truant officers had not found. The American educator who gave to this exhibit, or to any specialty therein, ear¬ nest and thoughtful study, could not fail to derive information and inspiration of the highest value. Ho would also observe the general absence of two sorts of exhibits which were so much in evidence in the American section — those of shop training’and the kindergarten. The sacrifices made to give this exhibit space were surely repaid a thousand times. The French commission presented the most elaborate display of advanced engineer¬ ing shop work shown in the Fair, some good elementary art work, a full collection of the literature of the ministry of education, and an excellent exhibit from the public schools of the city of Paris. As had been expected, the Russian exhibit was quite complete and full of interest. Those who remembered the impetus given to shop instruction in America by the Russian exhibit at the Centennial, and were anxious to see what further development in this direction that country had to show, were somewhat disappointed. The exhibits which had attracted so much attention in 1876 were repeated in 1893, hut not improved; they were equaled, if not surpassed, by many similar exhibits in the American section. The most valuable contribution from Russia was the exhibit of girls’ handiwork, brought from the charitable institutions under the patronage of the women of the imperial family, and consisting of plain and ornamental needle¬ work and embroidery. The art instruction from Russia was also a subject of special interest. Forty years ago American ships were knocking at die sealed gates of the Japanese Empire. Twenty-five years ago that Empire sent to various Western countries 700 chosen youths to be educated at the public expense. Last year her accredited judges were reporting awards upon American school exhibits. This Exj)osition is the first to which she has sent any educational harvest. Here she showed exhibits from a state university, well equipped; from a school of technology, whose president was a very able commissioner of her exhibit; from a normal school and an agricultural college. By the aid of these schools she is developing her educational system, in which she already shows excellent results in primary instruction, and in the lines of practical science, manual training, and natural history. She is jmoceeding in a log¬ ical method, and is rapidly filling up all the gaps between her primary and her higher schools. An exhibit of much interest came from Egypt, from Cairo, and neighboring towns. It consisted of manual work in iron and wood, the latter elegantly inlaid in the Arabic manner; physical apparatus made by pupils; drawing, in variety, well exe¬ cuted ; writing in English and Arabic, with inscriptions emblazoned from the Koran, etc. Most of this work compared favorably with that done in our best schools, and some could not there be paralleled. Thus is the aTzoKaruGramq complete. Science and education return in full circuit to their birthplace by the tombs of the Pharaohs. The State collective exhibits w'ere notable for their general excellence and for their infinite variety. Thirty-two States could not provide exhibits which would cover interests so similar, without a degree of sameness, but the predicated barren iteration did not appear. In almost every case the inventive genius of the commit¬ tee in charge worked out some novel and effective feature, as illustrated by the stenographic reports from the schoolroom, suggested by Mr. Gove, of Denver, and 456 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. the phonographic tubes from New York and Wisconsin. Probably neither of these devices reveals exactly what it is intended to represent any more than photography does. One has to he urged to “look pleasant” before the camera; and if the voice of the worried and forgetful teacher should become high and strident, the phono¬ graph which omits that episode will be pardoned. Both these devices are ingenious, newly applied, and worthy of repetition. The chief criticism upon the State exhibits is that too many of them failed to indi¬ cate the existence of a well-organized and active system which provides for the wants of the State as a whole. Some of them presented only a series of city exhibits, which were as distinct as heads upon a string. The rural schools were not suffi¬ ciently in evidence. It is true that in some cases the State organizers could not arrange their exhibits otherwise; first, because they could not secure funds for their work if done in any other way, hut mainly because there was no general organiza¬ tion to he represented. In this respect the contrast between* some of our exhibits and that presented by the German nation is very great and is much to our disad¬ vantage. As to the use of collections of written examination papers, themes, and drawings, the suggestion has been made that they have proved worthless and will never again be made part of an educational exhibit. But those who came as accredited exam¬ iners from abroad, like the German commissioners, or the special agents sent by the city of Paris without exception, made more careful studies of these papers than of any other elements of our exhibits. Many requests were made for examples of such papers, to be taken home as additions to pedagogical libraries. It was after reading these papers that Dr. Waetzoldt, the distinguished German commissioner, made the following statement as to the worthy results of American education. He said: “In teaching language, drawing, and modeling the Americans are superior to the Germans. It is surprising what a command of language the American school chil¬ dren have. German teachers dwell too much upon style and literary models, while American teachers aim to give the children a practical command of the language.” No more notable illustration of the trend of American effort since 1876 appeared than in the exhibits of the kindergarten and the manual training schools. It is not unfair to say that these subjects were more in evidence in the Exposition than was warranted by their existence in the schools. This happened quite naturally. First, because these are among the newest things which have occupied the public mind. Teachers of these specialties were anxious to have the fact known, especially by foreign visitors, who should thus learn that we are abreast of the most advanced movement. Second, nothing which the teacher has to show lends itself to exhibi¬ tion so kindly as do these products. They are far better than the work of art classes, for they do not include so many ghastly failures. The archbishops of the Eoman Catholic Church in America recognized the oppor¬ tunity which the Exposition offered them for presenting the kind of education which they would make popular, and their claims for it in comparison with that of the State schools under State supervision. Brother Maurelian deserves congratulation for his very notable success. He used the far reaching organization of his church in securing contributions from 37 States and Territories, 57 dioceses, 412 cities and towns, and about 1,200 schools of all grades from the humblest parish schools to the university at Washington. In a great abundance and variety of material the promi¬ nent features were the work of the primary or parish schools, with art and needle, work as taught in the convents and seminaries. So far as prestige is concerned, the public State school has not suffered in the comparison. The following items will express some of the directions in which our American education has made progress since the last great American Exposition, as illustrated in that which has just closed. (1) Very marked progress in the development of the university as compared with the college. While only part of our great institutions presented exhibits, these AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 457 illustrated tlie best phases of such work, in a congeries of exhibits whoso merits grew upon one during every day of the Fair, and do not suffer now that reality has faded into memory. Post graduate work, the seminary, personal investigation on the part of both professor and pupil, the endowment of research as well as the endowment of instruction, each energizing the other in the development of either the sciences or the humanities — these are some of the flowers and fruit which dignify and elevate our university work. (2) The development of the university extension and Chautauquan methods. (3) A large increase in the number of normal schools, and the evidence of power derived from their methods of instruction, diffused through the public schools. This appears to be a most potent factor in the elevation of public school work. (4) The strong, united, and systematic character of the exhibit of the business colleges. Hitherto these have been deemed a corps of educational free lances, which corralled students, roped and branded them, and sent them through a short cut, called a business education, to the counting house, the ledger, and perhaps a for¬ tune. On the contrary, this body of teachers laid aside their differences, brought together a solid and instructive exhibit, and proved that they give in their own field a worthy and useful training. (5) The continued establishment and the advanced methods used in teaching the blind ; the deaf, especially in oral speech ; and the remarkable results secured in ele¬ vating the lives of those of feeble minds. (6) The manual training school has already been noted. Its progress during the last seventeen years has been phenomenal. Thirty-nine distinct manual training schools exhibited, besides schools of technology and collegiate technological depart¬ ments in which manual instruction is an integral part of every course. The whole exhibit from one end to the other bristled with the work of the tool, from the jackknife to the machine driven by power. (7) The trade schools in the large cities have developed rapidly. Trade schools teach some kind of work done by the artisan as a means of earning a livelihood ; such as the trade of the tinsmith, the plumber, the harness maker, the dressmaker, the milliner, the cook. Excellent exhibits of this 'eharacter came from New York, Brook¬ lyn, Cincinnati, and from the Indian schools of Hampton and Carlisle. It is to be hoped that these schools will multi ply so rapidly that when the walking delegate finds them and attempts to put his foot on them, his foot will not be large enough for the emergency. (8) The foothold which the kindergarten has acquired as the basis of the best pri¬ mary instruction. (9) The progress made in the giving of sound instruction as to the evil use of nar¬ cotics and intoxicants. (10) The development of art schools in so many important centers, and of art instruction in so large a number of the colleges and schools of technology. Much good is to be expected from this movement, especially when it shall have come to permeate all our public school work, and after it has risen above conventionalism, the impressionist vagary, and the influences which flow into it from French channels. (11) The gradual but steady advancement of public school instruction in all parts of our land. This advancement will necessarily be slow. It is the resultant of a multitude of forces, aiding and opposing each other. It involves the just enlighten¬ ment of the whole people, which must be trained to know the purposes of education, the need for it, and the needs of it. I feel confident that the exhibition just closed shows — in the kind of work displayed, in the breadth from which it was drawn, in the earnest feeling in regard to it, in the multitudes that came to study it, in the inspiration that has grown out of it — that the onward march of sound educational ideas in the United States was never so direct* so forceful, and so sure as it is at the present time. 458 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. THE WORLD’S FAIR. [From tlie Xerr England Journal of Education.] Tliere is nothing more important in the school work of 18S3-94 than the utilizing of the knowledge and spirit of the Columbian Exposition. It has been instructive and inspiring, enlightening and ennobling, a revelation in science and a revolution in the arts. Geography has its highest aim and noblest purpose when it deals with what men have done with the earth, and upon it, rather than with the earth as it was and is and would be untouched by man’s art and skill. History has its highest significance when it is used as the base line from which to take measurements and angles into the social, industrial, and political future. His¬ tory faces forward. It is a fountain and not a crystal, a stream, not a pool. Out of a limited past it gives those lessons far which a limitless future hungers. Science teaching is not for the purpose of knowing certain laws and principles that have been authoritatively recorded, nor is it to know how the teachers and books have been accustomed to present certain labeled facts, but it is rather a prophecy, a fore¬ seeing of what will be, or at least may be developed out of or revealed from what is known and knowable of the laws and principles of science. The Columbian Exposition has taught more geography that is valuable by means that are rarest and methods that are choicest than aught else ever conceived by the mind of man. It has been a fathomless revelation of what man has done with the earth and its resources in different localities and under varying conditions of soil, climate, and government. With its record of progress, of the acceleration of a pro¬ gressive spirit with some peoples and of the retarding of progress by others, with its revelations of the tendencies as seen in the results of different conditions of race and government it has furnished invaluable facts for the student of history. With its matchless exhibit of the discoveries and inventions in the arts and sciences it is a vivid panorama of the conquests of man over the forces of nature; of his mastery of sun and shadow, of light and heat, of soil and climate, of steam and electricity; of his skillful unlocking of the earth for oil and gas ; of his tandem electrical team of telegraphy and telephony; of his harnessing the air waves in phonography; of his marvelous skill in training the sunlight in the photography of things in the earth beneath and in the heavens above by day or by night. Through this it has presented material for the study or teaching of science such as has never been known before. With its vivid record of the revolution in the means of transportation by sea and land, by steed and steam, it has offered unparalleled advantages for the study of commerce, while the highest arts in painting and sculpture, in decoration and adorn¬ ment, in landscape gardening and architecture, in the electrical and pyrotechnic illuminations of the fountains and of the heavens, has placed America in her four hundredth year above and beyond all other nations in her attainments as well as in her record thereof. All this should be utilized so far as it may be through reports and descriptions official, reportorial, and literary. The teachers should begin early to equip them¬ selves for the best possible use of all this material. WHAT THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT SHOWS. [From the T«rew England Journal of Education.] The educational exhibit at the World’s Fair is the largest and most complete por¬ trayal of educational facilities and results ever made. Nearly every State in the Union and many foreign countries show in a complete and satisfactory manner the organization, method of instruction, and results obtained in this department of statesmanship. The preparation of the material has taken much time and care, its installation has involved a great amount of labor, its superintendence requires the time and strength of many people. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 459 The results fully justify the expense involved, and from every point of view are gratifying to those who have been interested in the work. It is the purpose of this paper to point out a few of the lessons which the display is teaching. (1) The first lesson is that the present is a time of high ideals. The work shown is often far from perfection, but the most of it is in the line of excellence. Time, effort, proper facilities, cooperation will make the ideal real. (2) The second lesson is that good work is confined to no one section of the country. From Maine to Washington teachers exhibit purposes, methods, and principles that are of the highest rank and importance, and pupils send work in which they may well take pride. (3) The third lesson is that no one city or State has wholly good school work, and that, while all have some excellencies, all have defects that need remedy. Maine may learn from California, Kansas may learn from Connecticut, Massachusetts may learn from Missouri. (4) The fourth lesson is that there is no need to raise the question what school chil¬ dren can do; it is sufficiently proved that they can do anything they are likely to be asked to do. The real question is, What things can we wisely ask children to do and in what order? Here are drawing, sewing, geometry, writing, English compo¬ sition, botany, mineralogy, zoology from pupils of 10 years of age — work that would be regarded as creditable from pupils of 16 or 17. (5) The fifth lesson, not the least important, is that an exhibition of this character has great educational value and interest. The carefully prepared courses of study, the schemes of work in every branch of learning, the methods of teaching employed by the thousands of teachers throughout the land, the illustrations of school exer¬ cises from the hands of the pupils have high educational value. EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. By Richard Watermax, Jr., in Educational Review. I. The educational exhibits at the Columbian Exposition have been inspected and studied and discussed by thousands of people during the past five months. They present such a wealth of material to illustrate every side of the educational problem that no visitor, whatever his previous training or present occupation, can fail to find some point of contact. One sees not only school-teachers and students of education, bjit farmers, mechanics, merchants, and professional men studying them closely. Naturally the work of the new education, which aims to produce tangible results and to educate through a process of learning by doing, is far easier to represent than the older academic wmrk. The average World’s Fair visitor passes by an exhibit of routine common school work, because it is not showy, and stops at exhibits of shop work, of decorative design, or of some other subject in which tangible results have been secured. He likes to find evidences that education prepares impils for their life work, and enables them to reach a higher place in the industrial order than they could otherwise attain. He is likely, however, to judge exhibits of this character by an absolute standard, making finish and accuracy the tests, and ignoring the fundamental ideas of manual training — that it is a discipline of the mind through the hand, and that the strength of the reflex influence, and not the value of material products, is really the measure of success. Another class of visitors, much smaller in number than the first, is attracted by something more than superficial excellence. Having a general knowledge of the work, they take an intelligent interest in it and are ready to examine all of the exhibits with some care, in order to keep abreast of educational progress. The third, and by far the most important, class of visitors to this section is com¬ posed of teachers and professional educators. Never before have the. teachers in this country had such an opportunity to study a large and representative collection. Most of them have been so tied down to work in a narrow field that they do not 460 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. know what other schools are doing. They gather at the Fair a great deal of valu¬ able information which gives them new power to teach successfully. The educational section.is, however, hut one of many interesting features of the Fair, and can claim only a small part of the time of the average visitor. It is, there¬ fore, necessary for persons interested in education to depend mainly on published reports for their knowledge of the section devoted to that subject. The great importance of educational work has led newspapers and magazines in all parts of the country to devote considerable space to descriptions of the exhibits; but most of the articles have merely described and have made no attempt to compare or inter¬ pret. It is, therefore, desirable that there should be a complete record of the con¬ tents of the educational section, together with a comparative study of its most important features. Fortunately the Exposition authorities have provided such a record and comparison by appointing competent experts from all parts of the world to judge the educational exhibits and award medals and prizes for the best. Their report will form a permanent record of the present condition of education, as far as it is shown by the Exposition, and should prove very suggestive and helpful to teachers everywhere. Since the work of describing individual exhibits and of recording the contents of the educational section, as a whole, will be so fully done by others, the writer of the present series of articles will not attempt to do either of these thoroughly, but will simply note a few of the salient features of educational work as shown by the exhibits. He will deai broadly with schools of every sort, from the kindergarten to the university, without attempting to enter into details or even touch upon those parts of school work whose exhibits would require a minute expert examination. After discussing such general topics as classification and arrangement, methods of installation, and the kind of exhibits shown by different schools, he will describe a few typical exhibits from the fields of higher education, of public education, and of industrial, technical, and special education. The official classification of exhibits is very comprehensive and forms the basis on which awards will be made by the judges. It is well adapted to this purpose, but does not furnish a working plan that could be followed by school men in preparing exhibits. The Exposition authorities did not intend that it should be used in that way, but preferred that each exhibitor should be left free to prepare and arrange his exhibit in his own way, providing he should conform to a few general regulations. The result of this policy is a display that has many original features, and repre¬ sents admirably a great variety of schools, but lacks the one characteristic that would be most helpful to the student of education — a degree of uniformity. Each foreign nation, each of the United States, and each chartered or private institution forms an independent unit. One groups the exhibits according to subjects of study, another according to school grades, and a third on geographical lines. Some show the best work they have done during the current year, and others during a series of years. Some send a few papers from a large number of schools, and others a large number of papers from a few schools. Some aim to give a symmetrical view of the work actually done by pupils, others of the work that ought to be done by pupils; and still others make no attempt at symmetry, but show whatever will attract the eye, even if it has little or no educational significance. Some display regular school work, and others work prepared for the occasion. Even these confusing differences might not annoy the student seriously if he could recognize them on sight, but this he can not always do. He sees an exhibit that pleases him, and he wants to know what it represents ; what is the age and sex of pupils and their previous preparation; the position of the subject in the complete course of study; the conditions under which the exhibit was prepared; the amount of assistance given by the teacher'; the degree to which the exhibit is typical of the average work of a large number of pupils, and so on. The answers to some of these AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 461 questions, especially tliose concerning age, sex, and grade of pupils, can usually be learned from the exhibit, but answers to others, which are quite as important in a comparative study, are almost impossible to obtain. It is, therefore, necessary to omit a great many attractive exhibits from this dis¬ cussion, simply because the schools from which they were sent have made no pro¬ vision for helping the student of education to interpret them. Viewed from the standpoint of organization, the educational exhibits may be grouped under five heads: (1) Individual exhibits. (2) Collective exhibits. (3) Institutional exhibits. (4) Commercial exhibits. (5) Active exhibits. An individual exhibit is one made by a single person or school, without reference to what is shown by others. It may be typical of an important class of schools, or it may be an isolated example cf special education. A collective exhibit is one sent by a number of similar institutions, each of which sinks its individuality and unites with the others to form a collection of work typical of all. Nearly all the public school exhibits are collective. An institutional exhibit is one which represents a system established by recognized authority — usually a public school system. A very good example of this is the exhibit in the Illinois Building, which represents the educational work of all kinds maintained by public taxation in the State of Illinois. This, of course, excludes private schools and all chartered institutions not controlled by the State. A commercial exhibit is one made by a publisher of text-books or a manufacturer of educational supplies. His motive is, of course, to sell his goods, but he knows that the most effective way to do this is to arrange the exhibit so that its educa¬ tional value is apparent at a glance. One of the best examples of this group is the Prang exhibit, which contains a series of cards representing a model four years’ course in drawing, color, and form study. An active exhibit is a model school in actual operation. There are several at the Exposition which will be described in a subsequent article. On account of the infrequency of great expositions, the teachers of this country have seldom been called upon to exhibit their work on a large scale for the benefit of the general public. Frequently educational exhibits are prepared for teachers’ gather¬ ings ; but, as a rule, these represent only single schools or groups of schools, and are intended for the use of persons who are already somewhat familiar with the work represented. An international educational exposition requires a different preparation, aiming as it does to illustrate all departments of educational work in such a way that the ordinary visitor may study and compare them with ease. Among the great numbers of visitors, few are experts on any considerable part of the exhibit. The majority are people who, although interested in educational work, are not familiar with its practical details ; who, in order to understand what the exhibit represents, need all the assistance that careful arrangement, plain labels, and well- informed custodians can supply. The result of this lack of familiarity with expositions is that many schools have not used the best methods in preparing and installing their exhibits. In fact, the greater part of the methods and devices used this year were invented by individual exhibitors to meet necessities as they arose, and were not available for adoption by others until after the Exposition opened. Some are very ingenious, and will undoubt¬ edly be retained as useful aids at subsequent expositions. A number of schools have succeeded in making their exhibits exceedingly attract¬ ive. They accomplish this in various ways. Some use their space as a room — car¬ pet the floor, line the walls with stuff that forms a pleasing background for pictures, 462 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. and cover the whole with a ceiling of thin white cloth. They put in substantial oak furniture, tables, bookcases, chests of drawers, and comfortable chairs, and arrange the wall exhibits in such a way that they attract even the casual observer. Some schools add other artistic features. It may be a bust of the founder, a relief model of the campus, or a collection of portraits of celebrated professors and alumni. This room arrangement is, however, exceptional. Nearly all of the exhibitors divide their space into alcoves, cover the walls with drawings and specimens of school exercises, and place bound volumes of pupils’ work on tables ranged along the wall. Among the show cases used there are many different kinds : glass-covered frames hung on the walls and filled with pictures or other flat exhibits; ordinary show cases supported by legs or by a case of drawers or a cupboard; and large upright glass cases, in which are suspended glass shelves to hold exhibits. There are, also, several varieties of wing frames. One consists of an iron upright supporting a num¬ ber of glass-covered wings that swing on hinges. This is rather heavy and clumsy and takes up a great deal of room. Modifications of this, fitted with only half the number of wings, are used against the wall. The kind of wing frame that seems best adapted to its purpose is that used for the New Jersey public school exhibits. It is an upright wooden case about 6 inches deep. In front is a glass-covered door, which is usually kept closed to protect the contents from dust. This door is arranged to hold a few specimens of the work with which the case is filled. Inside are a number of light, strong oak wings hung on separate hinges. Each can be detached easily, without disturbing the others. By a simple arrangement of grooves the exhibits, mounted on cardboards of uniform size, slip in and out of the frames very easily. Such cases as these increase the amount of available wall space enor¬ mously, and at the same time keep the exhibits from being injured or destroyed. There are a great many different kinds of exhibits displayed on the walls: pictures and photographs of exteriors and interiors of buildings, and of equipments, faculty, and students; specimens of students’ work, artistic, literary, scientific, and mechan¬ ical; statistical charts and tables; programmes of study and statements of the fea¬ tures of school work to which the attention of the public is specially directed. The methods of graphic statistics are used by many schools with great effect. One of the most unique features of the educational section is the phonograph exhibit. Five different States have sent wax cylinders stored with records of reci¬ tations, oral examinations, and exercises in singing. Attendants are always ready to set the machines in motion and allow the visitors to hear a repetition of work that has actually been done in school. There is always a question whether or not it is work that fairly represents the school ; but, in any event, it is very interesting, and when properly prepared is really valuable. In making an examination of all parts of the educational section, the student can not fail to be impressed with one important fact — that the work of the new educa¬ tion is finding its way into schools of every sort. The laboratory method in science teaching is recognized as the most natural and logical means of educating the senses, and through them the mind. Hence the increasing adoption of the sciences as important elements in school work is accompanied by an equally rapid develop¬ ment of laboratory facilities in schools. Manual training for boys and girls is growing in favor, and only the great expense of equipment prevents it from being introduced very generally. The work of adapt¬ ing it to every school grade, from the kindergarten to the institute of technology, is being carried forward rapidly, and the time wfill soon come when progressive school boards everywhere will make it a part of the prescribed course of study. Drawing and form study are also obtaining general recognition as necessary parts of a common school education, and object teaching is the order of the day. The latter is especially noticeable in the German school exhibit, where nearly every sub¬ ject has its models and charts and colored illustrations, intended to teach the pupil through his senses. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 463 The importance attached to scientific methods has produced two results, hotli of which arc shown clearly by the exhibits of higher education — an ability on the part of students to act as well as to think, and consequently an ability to pursue success¬ fully an original investigation. The exhibits of students’ work from agricultural and engineering schools are especially rich in illustrations of this point. There is also evidence that schools of every grade are paying a great deal of atten¬ tion to the sanitary condition of their buildings and to the physical development of pupils, and are coming to see that, to the pupil, a sound body is quite as important as a sound mind. An exhibit can give at best only a partial view of the work it is intended to repre¬ sent. Some of the schoolmen who recognize the fact do all that they can to help the student of education to interpret their exhibits properly. They arrange the whole in a progressive series clearly labeled to show the relations of its different parts ; they insert explanations and teachers’ statements wherever necessary, to indicate the conditions under which exhibits were prepared; they provide catalogues and special publications for free distribution ; they place in a prominent position a ques¬ tion box, into which anyone who is unable to find out all he -wants to know about a certain school can. drop his inquiries, and they provide for the constant attendance of a well-informed custodian. On the walls they place specimen exhibits; and, in cup¬ boards, portfolios, and drawers, a large amount of additional material that is brought out whenever anyone is sufficiently interested to ask for it. They adopt the pre¬ vailing methods of object teaching, and illustrate their outlines of courses of study with photographs of schoolrooms, laboratories, and shops, students at work, and other scenes that will give reality and life to the exhibit. They aim to show only that which honestly represents the average work done by a considerable number ot pupils. Most of the men who make these careful and thorough preparations have gained their experience at other world’s fairs. When one contrasts their work with that of some of their fellow exhibitors who appear now for the first time, he can not but wish that America, like France, had a permanent exposition board whose duty it would be to organize all such displays, taking every advantage of previous experience. II. The final product of education exists only in the mind, and can not be shown in a material exhibit. This is especially true of the results attained by higher edu¬ cation. They may be partially represented by such concrete products as books and models, and by illustrations of equipment, methods, and results, but these things are merely symbols, and mean little to the ordinary World's Fair visitor. The question may arise in the mind of the reader: “ What has the ordinary vis¬ itor to do with an exhibit of higher education?” He should have a great deal to do with it, and he would, if it were prepared in a way that enabled him to understand its contents clearly. It is not enough to label each of the pieces and place them side by side. There should be a dominant idea in the arrangement, a unity that could be perceived by any careful observer. There was scarcely an exhibit in the educa¬ tional section of the Columbian Exposition that showed any such careful prepara¬ tion, and therefore this article can be little more than a series of running comments on the exhibits from various higher institutions. Among them all the exhibit from the German universities was by far the most val¬ uable to the student of education. It showed in every part that it was intended to represent not any particular institution, but all of the twenty-one splendid centers of higher education in Germany. It was prepared by the German Government with a view to showing typical specimens of equipment and apparatus, the methods used, and the results achieved in German universities, and also to show historically the influ¬ ence exerted by the universities on the progress of civilization. Both objects were successfully accomplished, but it was only the expert educationist who could fully understand the exhibit. It was not prepared for the general public, and no provi¬ sions were made for helping the casual visitor to appreciate its value. The labels 464 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. were brief and written in German, and the catalogues and descriptions wbicb were distributed to persons who made special application were also in German. Tbe uni¬ versity professors wbo were in charge were courteous and scholarly men, but in spite of their unwearied efforts they could accommodate only a small proportion of the people who wished to be helped to interpret the exhibit. It certainly needed inter¬ pretation, but once understood it became a wonderful source of information and inspiration to university men. The central feature was a “ collective exhibit of the German universities,” which contained 79 volumes written expressly for tbe Exposi¬ tion by the most eminent professors in Germany. Each of these men took for his subject his own department of study, and attempted to show, by an historical treat¬ ment, the influence exerted by that department on the development of German civil¬ ization. Wundt in psychology, Klein in mathematics, Virchow in pathology, and others of equal reputation produced the monographs which form this splendid rec¬ ord of the achievement of German university men. There was also a remarkable collection of pedagogical literature containing accounts of the origin and development of tbe German universities, their present constitution and government, biographies of their leading teachers, and a great deal of additional matter. It was from this collection of sources that the German pro¬ fessors drew a large part of their material for the monog-raphs mentioned above. This library had three divisions : (1) General works, including bibliography, history, statistics, methods of university study in general and of the various departments of study in particular, and also student life and customs. (2) Biographies of the fore¬ most university teachers, arranged in four groups, including the men whose work was done (a) in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, (1)) in the seventeenth century, (c) in the eighteenth century, and (d) in the nineteenth century. Among the men whose biographies were given there were not only university teachers, but great scholars, statesmen, and ecclesiastics. (3) Literature of single universities, includ¬ ing their history and their laws and regulations; announcements of teachers and courses; programmes of special occasions; information in regard to scholarships and endowments ; and books written by great professors and by students whose work they directed. There were volumes of architectural drawings showing the plans and elevations of the buildings used by fifteen of the German universities, and photographic views ol the interiors of these buildings. The beauty and value of this exhibit were greatly increased by the presence of about twenty-five oil paintings and statues of cele¬ brated German scholars and patrons of learning. In another section was a collection of scientific periodicals, including specimen volumes of the leading German publications and a bibliography of German period¬ ical literature. There was also a fine collection of scientific books, containing, it is true, only a small proportion of the whole number of scientific works written by German scholars, but nevertheless typical of the contributions they have made to nearly every department of human knowledge. The technical library exhibit represented with great completeness the several sys¬ tems in use for arranging and cataloguing books. It showed that while in methods and appliances the Germans are not as far advanced as the Americans, in the num¬ ber and value of their libraries they are far ahead of them. The exhibits already mentioned occupied less than half of the space devoted to the German universities. The remaining space contained special exhibits from 29 different departments of study. Each of these was prepared by an eminent special¬ ist, and showed specimens of the apparatus used in teaching and typical examples of the problems attacked and the results attained in original research. From this brief sketch of the German university exhibit it may be seen that the power of the Government to prescribe a plan for united action was the most impor¬ tant element which insured its success. There is no such power in the hands of the Government of the United States, and consequently the exhibit from our own uni- AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 465 versities, although much larger in quantity, was far less representative in character. Instead of beiDg a collective exhibit designed to represent the universities as a whole, it was a series of individual exhibits, each arranged on a different plan. This was inevitable because of the diverse character of American institutions and the somewhat aggressive self-assertion which keeps them apart. Instead of furnish¬ ing material to the student of education by showing methods, equipment, courses of study, and the results of research work, it aimed primarily to attract and interest the public. It was this very fault, however, that gave it a certain advantage over the German university exhibit by making it easier to interpret its contents. Before discussing in detail the American exhibits of higher education it may be well to take a brief glance at the institutions that were, or might have been, repre¬ sented. There are no two that afford an entirely satisfactory basis for comparison. Some do a considerable amount of true university work, but the greater number confine themselves mainly to offering undergraduate courses. Some have introduced the best scientific methods into every department of study, but many are still far behind the leaders in this respect. Some prescribe rigid entrance requirements and maintain a high standard of scholarship throughout, while others are little above the average city high school. There are, also, agricultural colleges and schools of technology, where the scientific and xirofessional studies come first and culture courses are secondary. If these various types were distinct it might be possible to classify higher institutions, but they lap over one another in such a confusing way that any line dividing them into groups must be drawn arbitrarily. In discussing American exhibits, therefore, the contents of the exhibit rather than the nature of the institution will determine the grouping. There are several exhibits in which the methods and results of advanced research work were clearly shown. One of the most important of these was the collective exhibit drawn from a number of universities and representing a typical laboratory for work in experimental psychology. Photographs of the interiors and equipment of the several institutions contributing hung on the walls, and the remainder of the room contained apparatus of all kinds for observing mental phenomena and accu¬ rately recording the results. Nearby was an anthropometric laboratory, in which were shown the methods and results of work done in observing and recording phys¬ ical characteristics. There were a large number of diagrams and charts, summariz¬ ing by graphic methods the results of a number of very interesting investigations. These two laboratories together revealed a most significant aspect of the work of American investigations — the tendency to make a thorough scientific study of the minds and bodies of pupils of all ages, in order to help each individual to learn in the way that nature intended he should. The exhibits from Clark University and from the University of the City of New York contained material of a similar character. Clark showed a number of photo¬ graphs of laboratories and apparatus for this work and bound volumes of monographs and magazines in which the results of psychological research were given. The Uni¬ versity of the City of New York showed charts illustrating experiments to determine mental characteristics, such as eye-mindedness, ear-mindedness, and the like. Among the other institutions showing methods and results of research work were Johns Hopkins, Harvard, the University of Chicago, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Michigan, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia. Johns Hopkins sent a large photo¬ graph of the normal spectrum, illustrating the splendid astronomical work done by her professors and her advanced students. She also sent a typical collection of the publications written or edited by Johns Hopkins men in order to show the character, direction, and extent of their investigations and the channels they use in putting their results before the world. Harvard also displayed a considerable amount of astronomical work from both of her observatories — the one in Cambridge and the one she maintains in the mountains of Peru. Each of her scientific departments ED 93 - 30 466 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1892-93. and professional schools was represented by a typical piece of apparatus or a collec¬ tion of specimens or books intended to show ber admirable facilities for teaching and the original work done by her professors and students. The latter included two collections of books showing some of the contributions made by Harvard men to legal and historical literature. There were a number of exhibits showing the methods used in the university for instruction and training. These represented more especially the scientific and professional departments, and attracted a great deal of attention. One of the most valuable parts of the Harvard exhibit was that which showed the institution as a whole and furnished information in regard to its historical development and the present status of its faculties, buildings, and equipment. This exhibit included statistical charts showing the relative growth of the several depart¬ ments of study ; charts illustrating the success achieved by the elective system which has been so thoroughly tried at Harvard; photographs and plans of buildings and grounds, and a fine collection of portraits and busts of men who have been closely identified with the university. There were also large editions of about thirty dif¬ ferent pamphlets for free distribution. These included the regular programmes and announcements and also a number of monographs relating to the opportunities offered by Harvard, the necessary expenses of student life, and the financial assistance that may be obtained, if needed, from the university authorities. The .University of Pennsylvania sent a fine collection illustrating the results of the exploring expedition which she sent to Egypt and Assyria a few years ago ; and also a collection of archieological material from the valley of the Delaware, where her professors have at various times conducted valuable investigations. She also showed a number of photographs and charts illustrating the growth of her different departments and their present condition. The buildings of the University of Chicago were so close to the Exposition that they were visited by a great many people interested in education. There was there¬ fore no attempt to send to the Fair a comprehensive showing of the work done by each department of study. The most important exhibit from that university was the Yerkes telescope. It represented not work already done, but facilities offered for future research work, and may be regarded as typical of the purpose for which pri¬ marily the university was established— original investigation by advanced students. The University of Michigan sent two collections representing original work done in her chemical laboratories. One contained the results of a quantitative analysis of a number of foods, including wheat, bread, Indian corn, tea, and coffee. In each case the constituents were prepared from their proper sources, and the entire group — i. e., a given weight of the food and the corresponding quantities of its several constituents — was placed in glass jars and clearly labeled. The other col¬ lection represented a similar investigation in the department of metallurgical chem¬ istry. Iron ore, cast iron, blast furnace slag, steel, wrought iron, coal, limestone, and brass were all opened up in this way. These two exhibits were good illustra¬ tions of the way in which the results of scientific investigation may help in solving everyday problems of industrial and domestic life. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology sent two important collections illus¬ trating the original work done by her students and professors. The first was a complete set of the theses written by the class of 1892 when they were graduated. There were 128 men and 4 women in the class, and each of them presented before graduation the results of a distinctly original investigation conducted either alone or in conjunction with one other member of the class. In every instance the draw¬ ings or other illustrations made as a part of the thesis were shown in the exhibit. The second collection was a complete set of the lecture notes prepared by institute professors for the use of their own students. In some cases these notes have been expanded and published in book form through the customary channels. Usually, however, the notes are specially prepared for each class, and instead of being pub- AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 4G7 lished are privately printed in small quantities. This is done in nearly every department of the institute and furnishes a striking illustration of the purely inductive method used by its professors, and of their untiring efforts to give to their students the latest results of scientific thought and investigation. The Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia made a very unique contribution to the educational section. It was the nervous system of a man, carefully dissected out by a skillful surgeon. This was mounted, so as to show general outlines, with the brain occupying the position of the head, the spinal cord, the position of the backbone, and the nerve bundles and nerve fibers, the positions of the body and limbs. It enabled the visitor to get a definite idea of the way in which the fibers of the nervous system, starting from the brain and the spinal cord, penetrate every part of tho human body. There were a number of exhibits designed to show something of the methods, equipment, and results of regular college work. The list included most of the above- mentioned institutions, and also ten or twelve endowed colleges and almost an equal number of State universities. Some of these exhibits were so meager that they deserved little attention, while others were of great interest and value. It was noticeable, however, that even among the exhibits sent by the more prominent col¬ leges there was great diversity. Some aimed to show their history, others their equipment, and still others the work done by former students and professors. Most of them seemed to Tegard a showing of present work — the courses of study, the methods used, and the results achieved — as a minor part of an educational exhibit. Princeton emphasized her history. She sent portraits of all her former presidents, pictures, a relief model of her buildings and grounds, and a collection of interesting documents and relics connected with her development. There was also a large col¬ lection of books, which included, as far as possible, all of the important literary productions of the faculty and alumni. Student life was represented by photo¬ graphs of famous athletic teams and other organizations, and by pictures of the various college societies and the houses they occupy. A . few models and drawings and a case of museum material for teaching historic ornament were the only dis¬ tinctly educational exhibits. Yale showed a series of large photographs giving general views of buildings and grounds, interiors of laboratories, recitation halls, libraries, and museums ; appa¬ ratus that is either very elaborate or especially characteristic of Yale work; and athletic teams that have won high laurels for their alma mater. The photographs were so fine that they really gave to tho visitor a good idea of the material equip¬ ment of the university. But there was shown no work of students or professors, nothing to represent the splendid contributions made by Yale to literature and science. Columbia College was represented by a fine series of statistical tables and graphic charts showing the important features of her history and her present con¬ dition. One very interesting part of the exhibit consisted of two maps placed side by side, one representing the present site of the college and the other the new cam¬ pus on Morningside Heights. The maps were drawn to the same scale and showed in a very effective way the great increase of area that will be afforded by the new site. Brown, Amherst, Williams, Colgate, Hamilton, Rochester, Lehigh, Oberlin, Beloit, and Leland Stanford Junior, should be mentioned at least in the list of colleges represented. Most of them had attractive and tastefully arranged alcoves, but their exhibits showed no important features not already mentioned in connection with other institutions. Among the women’s colleges Yassar, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr, and many coeduca¬ tional institutions were represented. Bryn Mawr had in the center of her exhibit a model of the campus, showing the location of halls, dormitories, the gymnasium, and several tennis courts. On the walls were photographs giving characteristic views of interiors, a chart showing courses of study; and statistical tables giving 468 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. , the post-graduate history of all of her alumnae. There were also several Ph. D. theses and partial files of student imblications. It may he of interest to mention here the exhibit made by the Association of Col¬ legiate Alumnae. This body of highly educated wpmen is growing rapidly in num¬ bers and exerts a very strong influence in many parts of the country. Its members aim to make the best possible use of their college training in helping to solve social and industrial problems. In the exhibit were a number of pamphlets containing addresses delivered before the several branches of the association. One. which may be taken as typical, was written by a professor of chemistry of one of the leading institutions of the East. Her subject was: “The relation of college women to progress in domestic economy.” The writer indicated some of the ways in which a scientific training may be of use in the family and discussed the social and economic aspects of the servant question, the assistance that a knowledge of biology offers to the buyer of foods, and the relation of chemistry to cooking. She presented evi¬ dence of the growing tendency to make the higher education of women “tell,” and to direct their effort into channels which will lead them to become better house¬ keepers and more effective workers in fields peculiarly their own. The State university exhibits in every instance adjoined the public school exhibits. Only two States, Illinois and Michigan, made any serious effort to show the work of their respective universities. The other States represented were Pennsylvania, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Nebraska, OregoD, and California. Several of them showed only a few pictures of buildings and equipment and photographs of pro¬ fessors and students; others added outlines of courses, examples of student work, and perhaps copies of their student publications. One or two sent catalogues for distribution, but as a rule they showed very little to indicate the true nature of their work. The exhibit from the University of Michigan may be divided, for convenience in discussion, into (a) general exhibits, (&) departmental exhibits, and (c) engineering exhibits. The general exhibits are described in the University Record for June as follows : “The exhibit includes topographical maps of the campus, made from actual sur¬ veys by civil engineering students, on which all buildings and natural objects are accurately located; a tolerably complete set of views of all of the buildings, with floor plans of many of them, together with interior views of all laboratories, hos¬ pitals, many recitation rooms, and the library; a condensed account of the educa¬ tional system of Michigan and a summary of the University Calendar, together with photographs of the president, the regents, and other officers, including members of the several faculties, all mounted and displayed on a revolving chart stand; a brief history of the university and of its several departments, together with a summary description of their present condition exhibited by a series of 19 charts, 24 by 30 inches in size, framed and mounted so as to swing about a central upright; and a bookcase containing copies of nearly all the publications of professors written while connected with the university.” The list of departments sending exhibits included chemistry, medicine and surg¬ ery, dental surgery, the library, and the museum. A part of the chemistry exhibit has been described above. It was supplemented by other collections of work done by students, both in the laboratory and the class room, and was intended to illustrate methods of teaching. The exhibits of medicine and surgery contained an admirable presentation of the equipment, the methods, and the courses of instruction in those departments. They included a very complete series of photographs carefully interpreted by means of printed statements, and also a number of preparations such as all students in these departments are required to make. The museum was represented by some rare zoological specimens from the Philip¬ pine Islands and a collection of the birds and mammals of the State of Michigan. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 469 Tlie engineering exhibit was a very complete showing of the work clone by students in the engineering laboratories and in the several courses in drawing and design. It included a number of hand tools and other small pieces made in the wood shop, the forge room, and the machine shop, and several larger tools, such as a forge, a drill press, and a machine lathe, all of them built by students. The exhibit of drawings contained examples of the free-hand exercises and the work in geometrical construction and descriptive geometry, and also of the working and finished drawings made in the more advanced courses in machine design, stereotomy, and surveying. The exhibit from the University of Illinois was not in the Liberal Arts Gallery, but in the Illinois State Building. It occupied a large amount of space and could display, therefore, not only students’ work and pictures of equipment, but students at work and specimen pieces of the equipment itself, taken directly from the muse¬ ums, shops, and laboratories of the university. This gave it a marked advantage over the other higher institutions. In the general university exhibit was an alcove containing pictures of the faculty and of the buildings, catalogues for free distribution, and a number of diagrams and graphic charts showing the courses of study and the recent attendance in each department. In the departmental exhibit the colleges of agriculture, engineering, science, and literature were all represented. The engineering and science exhibits were, how¬ ever, the most prominent. The general plan was to give one or more alcoves to each department and there show equipment and students’ work. In some there were specimen pages of student exercises framed and hung on the wall, and the corre¬ sponding work of the entire class bound in a single volume and placed near by on bookshelves. In other departments (physics, for example) there were shown in glass cases series of typical experiments, with the apparatus properly arranged and beside it a student’s notebook open to the page on which the results of the experi¬ ment were recorded. In the alcoves for architecture there were groups of drawings, to show the amount of work done in each year of the course and some typical exam¬ ples of original work in house planning and design. One of the special features made possible by the large amount of space given to this exhibit was a machine shop, in which students from the university worked several hours each day. It was separated from the rest of the exhibit only by a low railing and contained a milling machine, a machine lathe, a speed lathe, and a dynamo — all of them driven by an electric motor. This shop furnished a valuable illustration of the thoroughly practical training that is given to professional students in the best engineering schools. The most comprehensive and symmetrical exhibit of engineering education was that contributed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It contained a number of large photographs showing exteriors and interiors of the buildings and a complete set of architectural plans and illustrations of the efficient system by \vhich the newer buildings are heated and ventilated. Organization was shown in a bound volume containing specimen pages of publications and announcements and copies of all of the blank forms used by the officers of administration. The work of the several departments was displayed in a very thorough fashion in separate alcoves. Each alcove contained on the walls specimen drawings and designs and on a central table a large portfolio of matter specially prepared to show the plan of work. This portfolio gave, as far as possible, a complete picture of the course — the list of instructions, the subjects studied arranged in order of sequence and showing how much time is devoted to each; the methods of instructors, de¬ scribed in printed statements prepared by the head of the department ; the equip¬ ment, shown by numerous photographs, each of which was described in detail ; and specimen pages of the notes prepared by professors and those taken by students. In the center of the exhibit were cases of shop exercises in carpentry, forging, pattern making, etc.., each piece carefully labeled and the whole arranged in a pro- 470 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. gressive series. A special catalogue accompanied tliis part of tlie exhibit, and a cir¬ cular was given out describing its main characteristics and its relation to the work of the other departments of the institute. There were several large exhibits of, shop and laboratory products, an electric motor, a force pump, and a case of chemicals prepared by students for their own use. Student life was shown in a portfolio which contained photographs of athletic teams, and of musical, literary, and social organizations ; specimen pages of student publications; and a printed account of all the prominent and social features of insti¬ tute life. The collection, as a whole, represented the institute so well that it is said that if the entire institution were to be swept away it could be reconstructed from the information contained in the exhibit. One of the most interesting exhibits of higher education was on the battle ship Illinois, and represented the work done at the Annapolis Naval Academy. It con¬ sisted chiefly of text-books, examination papers, and records from each department of study and cases of shopwork done by the cadets. Besides the usual exercises from the drawing-room, forge room, wood shop, and machine shop, there were others peculiar to Annapolis, such as specimens of work done in splicing cables, braiding ropes, and placing pulley blocks, designs for marine engines and boilers, and illus¬ trations of problems in seamanship and gunnery. There were a number of charts showing results of the physical tests conducted at frequent intervals, and also a number of student possessions — foils, boxing gloves, and footballs — that were very suggestive of the cadets’ fondness for athletic sports. The exhibit from Purdue University was, in some respects, one of the best in the American section . It represented very effectively the obj ective work done — the shop- work, drawing, and laboratory tests. “The making of a lathe” was shown in a way that gave the visitor a clear notion of the entire process of designing and construct¬ ing machines. First came a set of blue prints and working drawings showing the form and dimensions of each piece of the lathe, and a set of finished drawings show¬ ing the grouping of the parts. Then came a complete set of the patterns from which the lathe was cast; then the rough castings made from these patterns; then the fin¬ ished castings, and finally the completed lathe. The same idea of logical develop¬ ment was used in other parts of the shop exhibit. The process of casting was illus¬ trated by a series of ten or twelve molders’ flasks, the first empty, the second half filled with sand, and the others showing the successive steps taken in making the mold, drawing the pattern, cutting the gate, pouring the metal, and taking out the cast¬ ing. The exhibit of forging was equally clear. A pair of tongs, for example, was shown first in the form of stock, then prepared for welding, and then ready for use. The most unique feature of this exhibit, however, was a small workiug model of the locomotive which is a part of the Purdue laboratory equipment, and is used in making shop tests that are said to be as accurate as road tests. The load is obtained by applying hydraulic pressure to the wheels and the influence of grade by adjusting the driving wheels at their points of contact with the free wheels on which they rest. The exhibit of the Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute was entirely different from that of any other engineering school. It contained, it is true, a small amount of students’ work, i. e., several portfolios of geometrical and machine drawings and exercises in graphics and surveying, but the main j>art of the exhibit was designed to show, not undergraduate study, but the work done in after life by graduates. There were pictures of bridges, railroads, aqueducts, and many other engineering works constructed wholly or in part by graduates; and several machines showing inventions made by them. Although very interesting, these things can not be regarded as legitimate parts of an educational exhibit, because the mature work of an engineer is influenced by many factors besides the training received during the early years spent in professional study. The collective exhibit of agricultural colleges aud experiment stations was one of the most important and suggestive parts of the entire Exposition. It represented AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 471 about sixty institutions which offer to both men and women “instruction in agri¬ culture, the mechanic arts, and various branches of physical, natural, and economic science with special reference to their application in the industries of life and to the facilities for such instruction.” It contained illustrations of equipment and methods of instruction and specimens of students’ work, which showed that both the colleges and the stations are exerting a most important influence ; the colleges by giving students a sound training in the methods of science and their practical application, the experiment stations by making an united effort “to create positive knowledge toward the development of an agricultural science.” The illustrations of equipment included a considerable amount of material used in teaching how farms should be laid out and drained, buildings arranged, soils improved, crops planted, tended, and harvested, and stock cared for at all seasons. Under “method of instruction” it was shown that the laboratory method is used wherever practicable, and that the list of laboratories includes not only tho usual rooms for experimental science and shop¬ worn, but also fields, stables, orchards, and gardens. The student work was, as might be expected, of a very practical character — shopwork of all sorts, scientific preparations, samples of crops, and products of the dairy, as well as needlework, cookery, and preserved foods. There was evidence of a most earnest effort on the part of these institutions to work together, each making its course as broad as possible by forming an alliance with a college which offers instruction in the liberal arts; each paying special atten¬ tion to local conditions in order to make its influence felt in its immediate neighbor¬ hood ; and each recognizing in its research work the principle of division of labor and attacking certain definite parts of tho whole great problem. The movement for university extension was represented by exhibits from Oxford, the University of Chicago, the University of the City of New York, and several smaller colleges. Oxford sent a case containing photographs of the exterior and interior of the building she has devoted to this work, examples of the publications issued and tho blank forms used, a specimen traveling library containing 31 volumes, and a considerable amount of statistical and other information in regard to the his¬ tory of the movement in England. The University of tho City of New York and the University of Chicago showed on wing frames sets of administrative blanks and specimens of the announcements and other publications issued in connection with extension work in both places. There were also several traveling libraries illustrating the methods used in furnish¬ ing to each lecturer a moderate number of the best reference books bearing on his subject, and sending them with him wherever he goes, so as to furnish his students with a small working library. The Chautauqua exhibit may be mentioned in this connection, not because the Chautauqua system resembles university extension in its specific aims and methods, for it does not, but because it, too, is a movement for popularizing higher education and fostering a taste for the various lines of study. The alcove devoted to this exhibit contained a very systematic showing of the work done in the Chautauqua literary and scientific circles, and also in Chautauqua College. Programmes and leaf¬ lets explaining the work were freely distributed, and a great many visitors were led to recognize for the first time that “ Chautauqua ” stands for two very distinct things : (1) Literary and scientific work done at home during the year by people who wish to be guided in their reading and study, and (2) thorough college work in all branches done at Chautauqua, under competent university instructors, during six weeks of the summer vacation. For obvious reasons the greater part of this article has been devoted to a compari¬ son of American educational exhibits. This was not because the foreign universities sent nothing, for Germany, France, Russia, Canada, Japan, and the South American Republics were all represented, but rather because of the greater importance to us of a study of education at home. We could derive great profit from a knowledge of 472 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93£ foreign schools and foreign institutions, hut after all, it is the American problem which confronts us, and the American solution that should receive our closest study. III. The public school exhibits at the Columbian Exposition proved to be of great value to the student of education. This was not because they presented a complete picture of the best systems of public education the world over, for they did not; nor was it because they fairly represented the work done in the schools of any single country, for this was not true even of the United States. The great value of the exhibits was due to the fact that in spite of their fragmentary character and (in many cases) hasty preparation, they embodied ideas and ideals of popular education that could not fail to be helpful and inspiring to every thoughtful visitor. They afforded teachers an opportunity to compare the plans, methods, and results of the school work of many different nations and to see how widespread is the present inter¬ est in certain great educational movements. Eecognition of the value of nature- study, the use of objective methods, the incorporation of kindergarten and manual training schools into systems of public education, these and many other important features of educational progress were illustrated, not only by exhibits from the United States, but also by school work sent from such widely separated countries as Japan, Canada, Eussia, and the Argentine Eepublic. Visitors found, also, that both at home and abroad increasing attention is being paid to the training of teachers and the building up of a science of education, and that from distant Montevideo to Tokyo on the one side, and St. Petersburg on the other, there are growing up educa¬ tional museums which are important factors in the development of national systems of education. American teachers were newly aroused to a recognition of the many ways in which a well-equipped museum would help them in their work, and they irequently expressed a hope that America would not neglect this great opportunity to secure the most important World’s Fair collections and found such a museum. They will be interested to learn that this plan has been carried out, and that the city of Philadelphia has secured some of these collections, and intends to provide for the establishment and maintenance of a great educational museum. During the Fair the foreign collections were of little use to students of education, since many of them were placed in out-of-the-way corners, and some were not even unpacked because of the limited amount of space assigned for educational exhibits. It was deplorable that the men who conceived and carried out the plans for the Fair on such a magnificient scale should fail to recognize the importance of providing properly for the educational section. It should have been assigned the choicest spot in all the Fair. A recent writer has said : u The progress of man toward higher civ¬ ilization results from a combination of two important movements: First, that which aims at the acquisition and diffusion of knowledge; and second, that which seeks to apply this knowledge in the arts.” The World’s Fair officials spent millions of dollars in representing the historical development and the present condition of the arts; but they waited until the Fair was almost ready to be opened before giving formal recognition to the institutions which make it possible to maintain these same arts in their present state and to develop them still further. The space when assigned, although far too small for the purpose for which it was intended, was larger than had been given to education at any previous world’s fair. The greater part of it was devoted to exhibits of public education, and contained a wealth of material for studying important public school questions, such as central¬ ized authority v. local self-government ; trained teachers v. untrained ; individual freedom for teacher and pupil v. rigid restriction of such freedom; the use of text¬ books v. the study of nature; and purely intellectual discipline v. the simultaneous training of head, heart, and hand. The foreign exhibits contained much valuable material for study along all of these line3, but the writer will use them in this article merely as illustrations of points made in discussing the United States exhibits. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 473 There were two ways in which the visitor could get a broad view of public educa¬ tion in the United States: First, by studying the exhibit sent from Washington by the Bureau of Education; and second, by studying the exhibits of organization and administration in the several State sections. The exhibit of the Bureau of Educa¬ tion was intended to show what attitude the National Government assumes toward schools and colleges in this country, viz, one of encouragement and moral support to every educational institution, and of direct assistance to three important classes of schools: (1) The public schools in each new State; (2) agricultural colleges (of which there is at least one in every State in the Union) ; and (3) the schools of Alaska. The Bureau also cooperates with schoolmen, as far as its funds permit, in translating foreign publications and in collecting and publishing information of any sort that will help the cause of education. The Government exhibit, therefore, consisted largely of the publications of the Bureau, including books, charts, maps, and statistics ; books collected by the Bureau, such as catalogues of the colleges and universities of the world; catalogues of sec¬ ondary schools, copies of educational journals, and reports of State and local school superintendents. There was also an interesting showing of Alaskan school work and the collective exhibit of agricultural colleges which was mentioned in a pre¬ vious article. It was necessary, however, to examine the State exhibits in order to study the actual conditions under which public school work in different parts of the country is carried on. The diversity found in the exhibits of school laws and organization showed at once how entirely independent each State is in controlling these matters. In some States, e. g., Indiana, the authority is centralized, while in others, notably Massachusetts, the principle of local self-government prevails. In studying the educational exhibits this fact had to be kept in mind constantly in order to estimate properly the importance of small collective exhibits as compared with large indi¬ vidual exhibits. Nearly every State exhibiting made some attempt to show school' resources and organization, but only four or five did this with marked success. Massachusetts, New York, and Michigan were among the foremost, sending maps, charts, and printed documents, and using a great variety of graphic and tabular methods to illustrate important features of their respective State systems. New York sent a large wall map, on which were indicated not only the location of every educational institution in the State, but also the character of each, whether public or private; if sectarian, whether Protestant or Catholic, how supported, and whether it admits men only, or women only, or both. This map was a masterpiece in graphic representation, and attracted a great deal of attention. Michigan sent a smaller wall map, answering many of the same questions by a similar system of arbitrary signs, and added a series of county maps that were placed on wing frames at the level of the eye, and could contain, therefore, a far larger number of details than if hung on the wall. By the side of each map was a column of statistics in regard to the schools shown upon it, giving school population and attendance; the number of teachers (male and female), and the average salaries of each; the number of schoolhouses and their capacity; the cost of maintaining the public schools, and statements in regard to the taxes assessed for their support. These maps were supplemented by graphic charts on which the important totals of the public school statistics of the State were separately shown, and by a series of photographs of the buildings, the teachers, and the pupils of representative schools throughout its State. Each photograph was accompanied by a concise statement in regard to the course of study, the cost of maintenance, and the number of teachers and pupils in the school shown. To represent the administration of all of these schools there were collected in a single volume typical sets of the administrative blanks used by the central authorities and by many of the best schools in the State. 474 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Tliis splendid showing of organization and administration, together with the exhibit of pupils’ work, gave a good picture of public education in Michigan from the kindergarten to the university. The visitor could study the State system as a system, and see where the schools are, of what materials they are built, how well attended, what the pupils look like, what they study, what preparation the teachers have had, what salaries they receive, how school funds are raised and finances man¬ aged, and how school supervision and other details of organization are controlled. Michigan is not mentioned thus prominently because the separate parts of its exhibit were necessarily better than the corresponding parts of other exhibits. On the contrary, the collection of pupils’ work, for example, was very inadequate to repre¬ sent the schools of the State or even of its larger cities. It is mentioned because, in showing its system as such, it combined nearly all of the good features to be found in the State exhibits. California sent relief maps to show the distribution of her rural schools, and South Dakota sent maps showing the location of school lands. A number of States con¬ tributed fine statistical charts, and several sent collections of reports and school laws. New York made a very comprehensive showing of the work of the board of regents, including in it many reports and bound volumes and some valuable graphic charts. Only a few States sent maps to show the location of every public school building, but nearly all sent numerous illustrations of school architecture. These included photographs of the exteriors of public school buildings, plans and elevations of typical city and country schools ; descriptions of the methods used in heating, lighting, and ventilating schoolhouses, and photographs of interiors showing the general appear¬ ance of recitation rooms and laboratories in use, their furniture and fittings, and, in many instances, the pupils themselves, either busy at work or else grouped in the foreground. It was noticeable that many of the Western cities had especially hand¬ some schoolhouses, and that in all parts of the country the schools recently built showed a marked advance over their predecessors, both in architectural beauty and in fitness for school work. The fine collection of photographs sent by the Bureau of Education to represent library architecture should also be mentioned here. It contained numerous plans and elevations and about two hundred photographs of large library buildings in all parts of the country, and it was studied with great care by visitors. In many parts of the educational section there were supplementary exhibits— reports, bibliogra¬ phies, and statistical tables — giving further information about libraries. It was very interesting to study the American library exhibits in connection with those sent by the German and other foreign Governments, in order to see how our country compares with the other leading countries of the world in providing for this great department of public education. School architecture and equipment were also represented by a number of model schoolrooms fitted up for the use of the several active exhibits. These were located in various parts of the grounds, and, although only one or two were designed to rep¬ resent public school work, all of them will be noted here for the reason that a model room ought to show the best equipment for every school of the grade represented, whether public or private. There were two of these rooms in the Illinois Building. One was fitted up under the direction of the State superintendent of public instruction, and contained a representative collection of school furniture for teachers and pupils, and also a con¬ siderable amount of apparatus for instruction, maps, pictures, and diagrammatic charts, collections and apparatus for science work and kindergarten teaching, and a few text-books. The other was a light airy room, in which, under the auspices of the Illinois board of lady managers, a kindergarten was in daily session. It had large windows on the south and east sides, the walls were prettily tinted and decorated, the window AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 475 seats were filled with flowers, and there was the usual kindergarten furniture. It showed not an elaborate ideal, but simply an attractive, cheerful schoolroom, such as ought to be provided, if possible, for every kindergarten. In the Children’s Building there were several model rooms; a creche in which the babies were cared for by nurses and the “ toddlers ” were amused with toys and games; a kitchen garden containing the appliances needed in teaching elementary housewifery; a gymnasium provided with simple apparatus for bodybuilding; a deaf and dumb school which had no especially unique school furniture, and a sloid workshop. The latter was equipped with the benches and tools needed in construct¬ ing the entire series of models that are made in the sloid school in Boston, and it attracted a great deal of attention and favorable comment. The Indian school building in the southern part of the grounds was not intended to bo typical of what a school of this kind should be. It was necessarily small, and without the machinery and other appliances needed in teaching the more important industrial branches, and yet it illustrated very well the problems that must be met in these schools; and by means of well-arranged rooms for work and for recitation, and also by photographs and transparencies showing the buildings of several Indian schools, it gave to the visitor a tolerably good idea of how such institutions are equipped. There were in various parts of the educational section interesting exhibits of school furniture. The Bureau of Education showed models illustrating the histori¬ cal development of American invention along this line ; several manufacturers sent specimens of the furniture now on the market; and a number of foreign countries — notably Uruguay and Japan — showed models of school furniture and fittings. Appliances and apparatus for instruction did not occupy a very large part of the space devoted to school exhibits. This was largely due to the fact that the objective methods now so generally recognized as an indispensable feature of every scheme of education make it possible to use so many things as u apparatus for instruction” that not merely the contents of a single section but nearly everything in the Fair might be classed under this head by one or another kind of school. There were, however, several exhibits designed especially to show the apparatus used for teach¬ ing the principles of science in secondary schools. One represented the amount of apparatus that a school must have in order to secure a special appropriation from the University of the State of New York, and near it was a fuller collection intended to show what additional appliances these schools are expected to obtain as soon as their funds permit. There were several collections of apparatus made by students in schools for the training of teachers. The most important of these was from the Teachers’ College in New York, and consisted of one hundred sxmcimens of simple apparatus for instruc¬ tion in physics, chemistry, and physiology. The construction and use of each piece were explained by means of diagrams and printed statements. This collection was carefully studied by a great many teachers, who regarded it as one of the most help¬ ful parts of the entire educational exhibit. Several normal schools sent smaller col¬ lections of a similar nature, and some added simple apparatus for teaching geology, botany, and other subjects. Normal schools did not on the whole make very extensive exhibits, as they seemed to feel that their work was hard to represent. It is true that the training of teach¬ ers is a process of developing an inner power that does not find immediate outward expression, and that many of the methods used can be illustrated only in an active exhibit. There are, nevertheless, important parts of normal school work that can be shown. A number of State normal schools sent collections of photographs and bound vol¬ umes of written work, but usually not enough to enable visitors to study the methods they use or the results they have achieved. A few exhibits, notably those from New Jersey, New York, and Massachusetts, were more satisfactory in this resx>ect, and the 476 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93_. Illinois exhibit contained a most valuable normal school section. The latter was in two parts, the State schools being shown in the Illinois Building, and the Cook County school in the Children’s Building. The large amount of space available gave the normal schools of Illinois a great advantage over those of other States, and they used it well. They devoted a part of the wall space to showing, by means of a series of charts, the courses of study they offer, and the interrelations of these courses. Below were volumes of written papers representing work done by pupils in each sub¬ ject of study, and also herbaria and other scientific collections made by students. Equipment was represented by means of photographs, and the work of model schools was shown in its relation to normal school training. Methods for nature study and various kinds of illustrative work were prominent in each of the three exhibits, especially in that of the Cook County school. The exhibits above noted were very essential features of the public school section, but of course the greater part of the space was filled with pupils’ work, the walls being covered chiefly with the results of drawing and form study and the shelves with volumes of written work, while the cases contained mechanical and scientific products. It was necessary, for the interpretation of this great mass of material, that each exercise shown should be accompanied by a statement of the course of study to which it belonged, the previous preparation of the student who produced it, and the conditions under which he worked on this particular occasion. In most of the exhibits these teachers’ statements were wholly lacking, and in only a few wore they at all satisfactory. Many of the State exhibits were so fragmentary that it was impossible to arrange them in a way that would give a good idea of the system as a whole. Those which were more complete did not adopt a common plan of arrangement, and the result was very confusing. A few of the States made up for this defect by providing expert custodians to assist visitors who wanted to study school work, but where there was no regular attendant it interfered seriously with the usefulness of the exhibit. Illinois and Washington had plenty of room in their State buildings, and were able therefore to carry out the original “ gridiron” plan, viz, to arrange school ma¬ terial so that by going through the exhibit in one direction visitors could follow a single subject through successive grades, and by going through at right angles to this direction they could study the work done in every subject taught in a single grade. The material in the Illinois exhibit was grouped under the heads of (a) rural schools, (&) graded schools, (c) high schools, and (d) manual training schools. The intention was to make an institutional exhibit, i. e., a collective exhibit of the entire public school system of the State rather than an aggregation of individual exhibits from various schools in the State. This proved to be impracticable, because the State has not a uniform system, and there is so much difference between schools of the same grade in different places that no collective exhibit could represent them fairly. One of the most interesting portions of the Illinois exhibit was sent by the Chicago schools. The greater part of it was displayed on wing frames, of which each was devoted to a single subject of study, and had its contents arranged grade by grade in a progressive series. There were also bound volumes of written workx and a number of drawings, and the whole afforded an excellent opportunity to learn something of what the Chicago schools are doing. The exhibit of science teaching from the high schools of Chicago was especially well arranged. It included work in physics, chemistry, and biology, and bore evidence of being genuine, i. e., pupils’ work prepared in the class room or in the laboratory, as a part of the regular course of instruction. The writer does not mean to imply that this work was exceptional in being genuine, but only that it was exceptional in bearing on its face such clear evidence that it was genuine. It included pictures and descriptions of experiments, showing the material and ap- AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 477 paratus used, tlie methods followed, and the results achieved. These exhibits of actual results, used in connection with photographs, showing pupils at work, enabled the visitor to form a good idea of what the Chicago high schools attempt in science teaching, and how far it is successful. The science work from Massachusetts and New Jersey and from Kansas City was also especially strong. A unique feature of the Kansas City exhibit represented work done by pupils in collecting seeds, eggs, and insects, caring for them in school laboratories, and observing their habits and growth from day to day. Another sug¬ gestive science exhibit (sent by a New York academy) contained collections made by pupils during a summer excursion of several weeks, taken for the purpose of supplementing the regular school work by a more direct study of nature. In many other ways the exhibits showed that there is a marked tendency in the public schools of America toward introducing nature study as a part of the regular course of instruction and cultivating in the pupils habits of careful observation and experiment. After discovering important truths for themselves they are required to describe and interpret what they have discovered. One of the best results of this method is that it gives them a real interest in the language w'ork involved and helps greatly in developing their power of expression. They are also required to make simple sketches to illustrate their notes and compositions. This fixes in their minds some of the more important facts and gives them an additional means of expression. There is, however, a real danger in allowing the average teacher to attempt to cor¬ relate language work and drawing with science, literature, history, and mathematics. Many of the exhibits of pupils’ work, particularly from Western States, served to emphasize this point. It seemed as if certain teachers who attempted correlation had lost their sense of proportion and allowed pupils to devote far more time and attention to drawings than to the subject-matter they were intended to illustrate. A two-hour sketch is out of place on a fifteen-minute problem in arithmetic. It may be that this error is not as widespread as the exhibits would seem to indicate, and that the material shown was prepared for exhibition purposes instead of being regu¬ lar school work. At any rate such exhibits were open to criticism, for if they were really representative they showed badly arranged work, and if not they should never have been sent to the Exposition. The exhibits of form study and drawing were important features in every State section. They occupied the greater part of the wall space, not because they were of superior excellence, nor because this subject is given a conspicuous j)lace in every grade of public school work, but, in most cases, simply because they were more easily mounted and more showy than other school products. However, there was a great deal of admirable work exhibited, and nearly every current method of teaching draw¬ ing was shown in one place or another. In the New Jersey exhibit, for example, there were five cases of pupils’ drawings placed side by side, each showing the results of a different system. The system most fully represented in the public school section was the Prang. In a central location was the 11 ideal exhibit ” arranged by the Prang Company. It contained a typical series of models and exercises intended to show a complete course in geometrical, constructive, and decorative drawing. Many of the neighboring State exhibits served to show by means of pupils’ work to what extent schools had succeeded in applying this system. The exhibit of pupils’ written work consisted of daily exercises, such as composi¬ tions, dictations, and laboratory notes; of monthly and annual examinations, and of occasional productions of all kinds. Unfortunately many of the latter were spe¬ cially prepared for the Exposition, and were revised and copied until it was impos¬ sible to tell what they really represented. They formed a marked contrast with the corresponding French exhibits. A single volume sent from Paris by one of the 6coles elementaires maybe taken as typical of the French method of showing pupils’ work. It contained all of the written exercises of a certain boy from the time he 478 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. entered school, at 6 years of age, until he left, eight years later. First there was a picture of him taken Avhen he entered and a preface written hy his teacher to help readers to interpret the work which followed. Then came exercises and examinations, grouped to show his progress from year to year and to illustrate the successive steps in the course of instruction and the methods used in teaching. There were in the exercises frequent corrections made hy the teacher, and on the examination papers were the original marks, showing what credit the pupil received. There were also copies of his record throughout the eight years and of the certificate he received at graduation, together with his photograph taken at 14. He was said to he a hoy of no more than average ability, hut it makes no difference in the value of the exhibit whether or not this is true, because the volume represents not one student entering into unequal competition with others, hut an individual steadily developing his fac¬ ulties and striving to improve on his own previous work. It was necessary that he should attend school in the same place for eight years and that all of his work should he preserved in order to make this exhibit possible. Neither of these conditions is likely to obtain in a rapidly growing community, and therefore a similar American exhibit would bo difficult to prepare. The fundamental principle involved, viz, the competition of the pupil not with his classmates, but with himself, is, however, one that we could easily adapt to American conditions, and thus provide for a better gauge of the efficiency of our school work than was found in some exhibits at the Fair. Many teachers who studied the school exhibits seemed to feel that work in their own grade was the most important part for them to see. They gave, therefore, com¬ paratively little attention to the broader aspects of the educational exhibits and confined themselves almost entirely to work which was directly comparable to their own. This may have been the best plan for teachers whose visit to the Fair was so short that they could devote but little time to school exhibits, but this was not always the case. There were some who did not feel any interest in the exhibits from other grades. If our schools should follow the plan adopted by certain of the lower schools in Germany, viz, of promoting the teacher with the pupils, it would result in giving many of the teachers a wider range of interests, and thus in stimu¬ lating them to seek helpful suggestions in the work of every school grade. Among the World’s Fair visitors there were, of course, many teachers who took the broad view of education and were inclined to study, as far as their time would permit, each educational exhibit. Among them none appeared to be more interested in all that the schools had sent than the kindergartners. They wanted to see, not only exhibits representing the work of kindergartens and training classes, but also exhibits showing whether or not the seeds planted in a “ child garden” are given opportunity to grow in later school life; whether music is continued through every grade; whether the skill acquired in the occupations is used as a foundation for an uninterrupted course in manual training; whether the development of a love for nature is one of the chief aims of all school work, and whether the social instinct which leads the kindergarten child to recognize that he is only one among many continues to be fostered by the study of history and the social sciences. They found indications that in certain places nearly all of these questions could be answered in the affirmative, and in many others they could not. The real kindergarten exhibits (as contrasted with the exhibits representing kin¬ dergarten features in primary schools) were not very numerous, and owing to the difficulty of showing the results of this early work the best of them were far from satisfactory. The one exception to this statement was the active exhibit in tho Illinois Building. There every day a group of well-equipped teachers conducted a model kindergarten, that showed to thousands of people during the summer a beau¬ tiful picture of happy school life. Visitors were admitted to a low gallery at one end of the room and were requested not to talk while there. The children were brought from their homes to the Fair each morning in an omnibus, and during the AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 479 session they took part in tlie plays and games,, the songs and occupations— in every¬ thing that is characteristic of a true kindergarten— -without paying the slightest attention to visitors or to the many distractions around them. It was a most strik¬ ing illustration of the influence exerted hy a teacher who can make the school work interest her pupils. There were, in addition to the exhibits sent by kindergartens and training classes, several representing manufacturers of kindergarten supplies. Each of these three classes of exhibits was of great value to teachers directly con¬ nected with the work, but to the average visitor they did not, as a rule, give very clear or accurate ideas. There was, however, in the Liberal Arts Gallery, one kin- deroarten exhibit that attracted a great deal of attention. It was sent by the city of Rochester, and contained, in addition to a large amount of material for teaching and of work done by pupils, a series of thirty photographs showing a kindergarten in session. These had been enlarged from kodak pictures taken by an artist who spent a day in one of the public kindergartens, sitting among the children and tak¬ ing a picture whenever he had a good opportunity. The result was a series of photographs representing nearly every important feature of the daily kindergarten programme. In this discussion of public school and kindergarten exhibits the writer has fol¬ lowed the same plan as in previous articles, and has merely tried to point out some features o.f the educational section that were worthy of study, leaving it to the specialists in each department to estimate relative values. SOME ECHOES FROM THE EXPOSITION. [By a correspondent of Education.] New ideals are the heralds of progress, and teachers will come far short of their privilege if they fail to carry a new impulse for higher and better work into our educational life as the immediate fruits of the Columbian Exposition. The sight of works of art and industry stimulates and creates a genius to make them; so with the “show work” of the nations and their schools in the educational exhibit. The art display of the Centennial of 1876 gave us art ideals we had never possessed, ushered in the American renaissance, and mainly laid the foundation for the unique, varied, and rich United States collection of gems and masterpieces at Chicago. Like other parts of the Fair, the educational display is certainly the greatest of its kind in human history, and our schools must gain immensely if we set about the task in earnest. One has noted the mechanical excellencies alone, and this is not to be despised ; another noted the exquisite taste, restheties, and ethics of education ; and others still, the natural freedom and intuitive grasp of truth, of which the most accurate chirography can be nothing more than the sensible dress. Some are enriched in hand, some in intellect, and some in soul; but all are enriched in power to achieve and to do. For the next few years these new ideals must be tested by experience and adapted to existing conditions and ideals, and what the gain will be can scarcely be con¬ jectured. While the genus will, no doubt, be cosmopolitism, certainly no prophet can foretell the species. Our public school system, college system, and university system are waiting to be welded or perhaps organized into one truly national system that will proceed from kindergarten to university step by step and grade by grade, without hiatus or duplication. With a system of universities like a system of national banks, public works, etc., established in every State and on a common basis; with a national department of education in charge of a competent cabinet officer and on a par with our other great social institutions; with Washington, the acknowledged society and civic center, also the educational center, reaching out to every State, and within and under the 480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. jurisdiction of tlie same touching every stage of intellectual growth — university, professional, and technical schools, colleges, high schools, grammar and primary schools, and kindergartens— the saving would he immense in time, money, and energy, and the gain in thus enabling the nation to adapt education to the genius of the American people, industrial, commercial, etc., and in advancing the standard of culture uniformly would be practically incalculable. Every heart throb of our edu¬ cational life would pulsate in every artery and part, however remote. To change the point of view let us leave the Liberal Arts Building and the math¬ ematical accuracy and military grace of Berlin, Austria, and Canada, the freer nativism of Johns Hopkins and Columbia, the public school naturalness and neat¬ ness, especially of some of our Western States, and step down to the Anthropological Building, or just over the way to the Government Building. Museums within a museum and again within a museum ! All models of perfection in every appoint¬ ment! What a quickening interest and enthusiasm the sight of them awakens! Not an interest to be lost in the getting, but a sort of inspiration that comes along with fresh new truth just from the mine and mint. Plans partly developed often fail from want of a suggestive model or ideal; but here models to complement any ideal are on exhibition ready-made. We ha*ve a Smithsonian Institution, a National Museum, of which we need not be ashamed ; but its very excellence pleads for a national system of museums — pleads for a museum and library for every city and town of 5,000 and more people, where all can go, nonschool-going as well, and drink in the truths of history, the facts of science, and the beauties of art. The cabinet, so serviceable just now in the public schools, private collections, and college and university collections are good begin¬ nings; but their number and equipment must be increased many fold. This can be done only by special fund or appropriation and State or national control. We are using, and using well, mechanical aids and apparatus, and this equally valuable aux¬ iliary of nature and art, even though it be extinct, nature asks for its rightful place. History first hand can be learned from things historical only, science from science materials, and art from art works. If the best can not be had at once, and for the asking, at least something vastly better than nothing is possible with every teacher and school. The American teacher is a very accommodating personage. Pie always has vast opportunities before him, too. He can always wait and patiently labor. Every community, village, and city has within its bounds the materials for a good begin¬ ning in mineralogy, natural history, archaeology, or history and anthropology, if someone would start the movement and set the project on foot by collecting the scattered materials, relics, manuscripts, etc., and bring them in touch with the peo¬ ple and the present every-day life. He can collect legend and anecdote also, and if no better housing of the project is available take it to the school, the village or city hall; anywhere rather than not to make a start at all. Teachers know only too well that most cities have nothing of the kind and that many smaller cities do not have a general library even. Here is a bright opportunity for works that will tell. One more thought, some of the States have already bylaw provided for “free text¬ books,” apparatus, and other needful appliances, and report it a great saving and wise economy. Why would it not then be still better economy and more practical to make the provision national ? With our schools supplied and equipped as a work¬ shop with all needed tools and helps, ample in quantity and variety and suitable in quality, always ready for use, the best would be possible. The saving in money would give all schools the more needful appliances now enjoyed by city and graded schools only. But, say you, the echo has a fading sound, is rather dim or distant. Be it so. Yet, standing by the Children’s Building in the twilight, a reverberating sound forced its way to the ear and across the tiny sea between this children’s par¬ adise and the palace of Liberal Arts, the echoes seemed to be repeating, over and over, in a playful and impressive music. Was it an echo or only the night wind calling to the dawn? * ‘ AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 481 WORLD’S EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS. By Will S. Monroe, in Boston Journal of Education. I. Tlie purpose of tlie present series of articles is to give a brief survey of the educational exhibits from the different States and countries. The field is large and the task correspondingly difficult. In a sense, the entire exhibit is educational; but the articles which are to follow will deal solely with the exhibition of school work and appurtenances. All expressions of values and all criticisms of defects are to be regarded as the individual opinions of the writer. Because of the exterrt of the field, the articles will deal chiefly with the exhibits from primary and secondary schools. New England is represented in the department of liberal arts by Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, Vermont having sent no educational work for exhibition. Massachusetts very naturally leads in the char¬ acter and size of her exhibit. Indeed, the Massachusetts exhibit is one of the best of the American States. The arrangement of the work could not have been better, and a happier choice could scarcely have been made for the superintendent than Mr. George E. Gay. The first important section is that devoted to the kindergarten, Boston, Brookline, Springfield, Somerville, and Holyoke furnishing large quantities of work done by pupils in these schools. In the primary department, Chelsea exhibits some inter¬ esting photographs of Superintendent Davis’s method of teaching reading. These represent nine different steps in learning to read and cover a period of three years. Another series of photographs represents the work in language. The State course in drawing for a period of three years is fully represented. Springfield sends one of the most complete exhibits in drawing, and the work reflects great credit on the city and Miss Luella E. Fay (now Mrs. Maynard), the late supervisor of drawing. The best work in clay modeling comes from Boston and Quincy. A surprise to all inspect¬ ors of the Boston school work is the fact that no work is done with pen and ink during the first three years of the school course. That the children lose by the con¬ tinued use of pencil is evidenced by the comparison in grades above the third of the penmanship of Boston with that of other cities where writing with pen is earlier introduced. Some interesting work in the form of observation lessons comes from Boston. These lessons consist of descriptions and drawings of the frog, grasshopper, crab, dragon fly, and other typical forms of animal life. Most of the work in elemen¬ tary science from the Somerville schools is excellent. In the grammar dex>artment, Brookline exhibits some sixth-year botany work which is unusually strong and a study, both theoretical and practical, of domestic economy which classifies the foods and chemical changes which take place in their preparation. The original compositions from Chelsea are well written and well illustrated. Lawrence, Worcester, and Brookline show lines of local study in plants, minerals, and insects. The compositions and drawings which illustrate historic ornament from the standpoint of the grammar grade pupils of Springfield are both creditable and unique, and the extended exhibit of work in arithmetic, under Super¬ intendent Balliet, from the same city is unexcelled. The exhibit of high school work in Massachusetts is one of its strongest depart¬ ments, an 1 the work of the Boston high schools is the best. The papers in English are uniformly good, and some superior work is exhibited illustrating the study of chemistry. Malden also offers some excellent work in chemistry. The pupils are given a series of thirty-six problems to solve by laboratory methods. Cases show the results, and notebooks and drawings show the equations and processes. The pen- and-ink drawings, which illustrate a series of lectures and experiments in elec¬ tricity in the Malden high school, are very creditable. The flora of Berkshire County is carefully worked up by the pupils of the Pittsfield high school, and the ED 93 - 31 482 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. original sketches of the pupils in the Holyoke high school show careful training in free sketching. An interesting feature of the Salem high school exhibit is the local history of that vicinity. The sketches were all written and the photographs all taken by the members of the high school. The work from the Westfield high school was not prepared for exhibition, but was the regular daily work of the pupils. Worcester also exhibited the regular drawing books of the pupils. An important section of the Massachusetts exhibit is the work in manual training. Boston exhibits three lines of work — the Eliot course, which in some features is not unlike the work from Springfield; the Larsson sloid course, consisting of thirty- one models and covering four school years; and the Eddy course, which is a combi¬ nation of the sloid and Russian systems. The exhibit in manual training from Springfield is in most respects excellent. The wood carving and the work in iron are better than similar lines from other schools, although the B. M. C. Durfee high school at Fall River exhibits some good pieces of wood turning. The Horace Mann School for the deaf has a good line of woodwork on exhibition. The Ling system of gymnastics is illustrated by photographs in seventy-two different positions, and the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics by a similar series of photographs showing the different movements of the system. There are some unique features about the exhibit of the State normal school at Worcester. One of these is the collection of opinions of former students on the comparative usefulness of the different lines of training given them at the school. Each pupil in this school is assigned one order of plants which she is expected to study during her course and report as fully as possible at graduation, and these reports give great encouragement to the future study of local systematic botany. The individual laboratories constructed and used by the students in the State nor¬ mal school at Bridgewater reach the high-water mark of modern teaching and reflect corresponding credit on Mr. Arthur C. Boyden, the head of the science department. The Massachusetts exhibit, althougn one of the largest, is one of the easiest to study, not simply because of its excellent classification, but chiefly because of the introductory explanations which are to be found in all the bound volumes of written work. Harvard University has a very full exhibit of charts and apjiaratus, illustrating more especially the work of her scientific departments. But one looks in vain for some charts referring to the work of the department of education. The Massachu¬ setts Institute of Technology has the best graphic charts to be found in the depart¬ ment of liberal arts. The theses of the class of 1892 are exhibited entire, and many of these are illustrated by elaborate drawings. Amherst, Tufts, and Williams col¬ leges have a good line of photographs and charts, and Clark University presents a strong array of publications which emanate from that institution. The women’s colleges of Massachusetts — Wellesley, Smith, and Mount Holyoke — have a good ex¬ hibition of buildings and teaching appliances; and the International Institute for Girls in Spain and the American College for Girls at Constantinople — both organized under the laws of Massachusetts — exhibit examination papers and industrial work done by their pupils. Connecticut is represented chiefly at the educational exhibit by the work of a half dozen of her larger cities. That of New Haven is uniformly good. The coordi¬ nation of language drawing and literature is better than much of similar work found in the Massachusetts exhibit. Bridgeport exhibits a series of general infor- mation and culture charts and the written work of the pupils who follow this course. There are some good descriptions and colored drawings of colonial flags in the Water- bury exhibit and some very fair illustrations of the historical work at Stamford. New Britain sends a large exhibit from her State normal school, the most striking features of which seem to be the work in drawing and color and the nature studies. The State normal school at Willimantic illustrates very forcefully the possibilities in tho line of homemade apparatus. Bristol contributes a rather unique volume. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 483 It consists of drawn figures dressed in clotlies made by the children. There are a score or more figures and representing national characteristics, as Our Sailor Boy, The German Peasant, etc. Yale University has a very extended collection of bromide prints of buildings, laboratories, and class rooms. One of the best features of the Connecticut exhibit is the bookcase containing a complete set of the educational writings of Dr. Henry Barnard of Hartford — by common consent the most complete and valuable series of books on education to be found in any language. The collection includes the thirty-one volumes of the Ameri¬ can Journal of Education, more than twenty volumes of treatises on educational subjects, the Connecticut Common School Journal, and Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, both of which heedited, as well as his annual reports as State superin¬ tendent of Connecticut and Rhode Island and United States Commissioner of Edu¬ cation. The collection also includes over eight hundred pamphlets on education which were edited and printed by Dr. Barnard. This entire collection is a monument to the zeal and scholarship of a great educational leader. The best work in the Rhode Island exhibit comes from Pawtucket, and consists mainly in related work in language and elementary science. The pen drawings which illustrate the same are in some instances excellent. Several of the bound volumes from the Pawtucket high school are also strong. Pictures cut from illus¬ trated papers seem to form the basis of most of the primary language work in Prov¬ idence. Newport exhibits the work that is being done with nature studies, but in the matter of expression the papers are not as full and clear as those from Paw¬ tucket. Some of the best wood carving to be found at the exhibit comes from the Friends’ School at Providence. Some good work in iron and wood is to be found in the exhibit of the Lockanosset School. Designing and photographs constitute the chief features of the Rhode Island State normal school exhibit. Brown University has models of the Lyman Gymnasium and the Ladd Observatory, and Commissioner Stockwell has a complete set of the annual reports on exhibition. The exhibits from Maine and New 'Hampshire are not especially large. Of the former, Lewiston lias the fullest exhibit, the best features of which are the pencil drawings and the descriptions of hills. Bath, Rockland, Gardiner, Richmond, Cam¬ den, Bangor, Waterville, and Augusta all have a limited amount of work on exhibi¬ tion. The best part of the Bangor work is the illustrations on the covers of the bound volumes of written work. The State normal schools at Farmington, Gorham, and Castine all send photographs, and Farmington, in addition, some good drawings and written papers. The New Hampshire State normal school sends a full line of the examination papers of the pupils. The written exercises in vocal music from the schools of Nashua are some of the most interesting that have come to the notice of the writeT. There is also from Nashua some strong seventh-year language work. The language work from Portsmouth seems also good. That of Littleton is based largely upon pictures. Phillips Exeter Academy is represented in the New Hamp¬ shire exhibit by photographs. II. The group of Middle States — New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Dela¬ ware — are all well represented, except Delaware. New York has the largest exhibit, and New Jersey, in some respects, the best. The New York State exhibit represents very fully all the educational interests of the Empire State — the institutions man¬ aged by the regents, as well as those managed by the department of public instruc¬ tion. A feature of the New York exhibit which adds materially to its interest is the series of attractive handbooks given to visitors. These explain very fully the aim and character of the work of the different institutions. New York City sends the largest exhibit. A great number of bound volumes, rep¬ resenting the different subjects taught in the primary and grammar grades, are submitted. There seems to be little coordination of these various subjects, and the language and composition work of the lower grades, to a great extent, is technical. There are several volumes of language work, however, from the manual training 484 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. schrols wMch are quite strong ; and some good seventh-year work in geometry is to he ^ound in the New York City exhibit. Buffalo offers photographs of her pupils. The sand maps made by the pupils of the Cambridge Union School are better than most similar maps that have come to the attention of the writer. The sloid work of the girls in the Albany high school seems better than that of the boys. The State normal school of Oswego exhibits a full line of the text-books in use, as well as the books written by the alumni and faculty. An interesting phase of the work in psychology from Oswego is the intro¬ spective essays, in which the students tell the story of their own early lives. The school of pedagogy connected with the University of the City of New York exhibits some graphic charts illustrating tests in vertical writing and in ear-minded- ness and eye-mindedness ; also an interesting line of old text-books belonging to Prof. Jerome Alien and used in the historical classes. The mechanical drawings and water colors from the Mechanics’ Institute at Rochester are strong, and the College for the Training of Teachers, New York City, presents a line of work in thin wood, with drawing applications, that seems both ideal and practical. This institution has solved an important problem in the invention of a manual training desk cover, which admits of the regular schoolroom being used as a workshop. Felix Adler’s Workingman’s School has a good exhibit in manual training. The library features of the exhibit of the University of the State of New York are admirably illustrated. The Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy makes an interesting exhibit in maps, charts, and photographs, as do also Cornell University and Columbia College. The exhibit from Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, is certainly one of the best of its kind to be found in the Building of Liberal Arts. The free-hand drawings of casts, still life, sketches, and composition studies are excellent. The original designs applied to book covers, wall paper, oilcloth, silk goods, and draperies evince great skill and art training. The normal art course, under Walter S. Perry’s direction, is in every sense a splendid educational exhibit. Pennsylvania is represented chiefly by Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Reading, Harris¬ burg, Allegheny, and the colleges of the State. The department of public instruction has a full set of the State reports and the Pennsylvania School Journal, as well as a very complete map showing the educational institutions, both elementary and higher, in the Keystone State. In the Philadelphia exhibit one finds some ingenious papers and drawings illustrating historically the development of the nation, and some good pen-and-ink drawings from the girls of the normal school. The one feature of the Philadelphia exhibit which stands out strongest is the manual training schools — the work in wood and iron and the sewing. The possibilities of this work seem very great when one notes the various forms of expression which the teachers in these schools call to their aid. One finds, for instance, the electric plant which the pupils have made for themselves, applications of drawing in Greek architecture and historical art, graphic illustrations in ancient history and literature, pattern making, design¬ ing of calico, and economic botany studied in relation to the native woods. Gar¬ ments are made by the girls in grades from the third to the eighth, and the sewing throughout seems very good. The penmanship in the Pittsburg schools in all grades below the high school is good, and in the sixth and seventh years there is some good language work. One fails, however, to find any central line of thought as the basis of the language les¬ sons. There are some creditable applications of drawing to wood carving, and a pretty complete exhibition of sloid as carried on in one school. Alleghany sends the strongest line of language work from Pennsylvania. Geography and elementary science furnish the materials for thought expression, and pen drawings are freely used as an auxiliary. The language work from Hazleton consists mainly in writing from pictures, while that from Altoona is largely descriptions from natural objects. Chester has some strong compositions on the native woods and Titusville some good drawings from nature. Harrisburg has a very complete exhibit of work in drawing, AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 485 including a good deal of work in designing and use of color. The State normal schools have very meager exhibits. The school at Slippery Rock has submitted the fullest line of work done by pupils, and the school at Millersville has a very credit¬ able display of lesson plans, schedules, and photographs. Pennsylvania State College exhibits an interesting piece of apparatus — a dynamo for electrolytic work — designed and made by the students. Bryn Mawr College for Women exhibits the best model of buildings and grounds to be found in the educa¬ tional exhibits, and the University of Pennsylvania illustrates very fully her working laboratory in physiology. The giant microtome, designed by Dr. Milton J. Greeman, attracts very general interest. The dyed cotton, woolen, and silk yarns from Lehigh University are of special interest to the students of chemistry, as well as the chemi¬ cally pure salts prepared by students. Girard College has a full line of work in wood and iron, and the Ogontz School is represented by a good series of photographs and water-color paintings. New Jersey has solved the problem of economy of space. Her exhibit is compact and satisfactory, and represents a wide range of educational interests. The State normal school exhibit is one of the best. The music charts made by the teachers in the primary schools of Trenton are unique. The pen drawings from the New Bruns¬ wick high school are interesting, as are also the zoological drawings from Jersey City. Some of the best language work comes from Plainfield, and the best clay modeling from Morristown. Camden sends from her fifth grade a varied line of work in tin — cups, dippers, pans, funnels, etc. The wood carving from Montclair and South Orange is excellent. The exhibit from the State normal school is very satisfactory. The papers submitted by the classes in the history of education and psychology show healthy lines of study. In the latter subject no text-book is used. The students are given problems and experiments, the results of which form an interesting feature of the exhibit. The pen and language work of the model school is uniformly good. A very pretty and costly piece of work in the New Jersey exhibit is a large satin map of the State made by the students of the Institute of the Holy Angels at Fort Lee. Princeton University submits 3,000 volumes written by gradu¬ ates aud officers of that institution, which is scarcely more than a third of the whole number that have been written. There is also from Princeton a very satis¬ factory series of photographs of the student life — social, literary, religious, and athletic. III. But few of the States of the South are represented at the educational exhibit. Texas, which is doing so much for her schools, sent nothing. The best exhibit south of Mason and Dixon’s line is that of Arkansas, 67 towns of that State having con¬ tributed something to the exhibit. There are 57 bound volumes from Little Rock, one-third of which is the work of colored children. Photographs of all the white and all the colored school children of the city accompany the display. A great deal of attention seems to be given to making outline maps, although there are some good descriptions of plants. Fort Smith had a good display of pen-and-ink drawings from the high school, and pencil drawings from the lower grades. The pressed and mounted flowers from Hot Springs are creditably arranged, and the photographs of all the school children are of interest. The country and village schools exhibit a great amount of spelling in columns and technical grammar, but the ability to write good English is uniformly weak. The better part of the Maryland exhibit comes from Baltimore. Some interesting graphic charts are exhibited showing the occupations of the children of that city. The language work through the lower grades is stiff, but the penmanship in most instances is excellent. There is some very good work in wood from the colored man¬ ual training school. A number of the subjects pursued in the high school are taken up in the grammar grades of most other cities. The Baltimore manual training school has a large and creditable exhibit of work in wood and iron and several complicated pieces of machinery. The Woman’s College of Baltimore exhibits some suggestive 486 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tables showing the increase of physical development of girls after six months’ exer¬ cise in the Swedish educational gymnastics. The Johns Hopkins University has a: neat display of photographs and publications. One is impressed with the range of the latter in the higher regions of intellectual activity. In bulk the Florida exhibit is not small. The St. Augustine high schools show a series of blue prints that have been developed in the chemical laboratory. The English work in the Jacksonville liighsGhool scarcely bears comparison with middle- grade grammar work in most Northern cities. Much of the language work through¬ out the South seems to be confined to technical grammar. The geography work centers largely about map questions, and these too often of no importance. In some instances the teachers have added introductory prefaces to the volumes of bound work in which they give their aims and methods. One teacher, in concluding one of these prefaces, writes : “ The result of my method is very evident and in many cases surprising. For instance, one of my pupils, just entering her eighth year, began the study of geography. In three months' time she could from memory name almost every country in the world and the capital.” Another: “I have a pupil of 15 who excels anything I have seen in city schools. She can, entirely from memory, name every country, province, and state in the world; give its capital, largest city, sea¬ port, principal mountains, rivers, and lakes ; also the exports and imports of every country of any importance. She knows the bays and gulfs that indent the coasts of both continents, the seas and their location, the islands and their situation.” Poor child ! Kentucky has a large exhibit, but it has been overloaded with red and blue rib¬ bon — a fault which Kentucky shares in common with at least a half dozen Northern States. The largest display comes from the Louisville Free Kindergarten Associa¬ tion, which is some what marred by the inharmonious combinations of colors. Padu¬ cah has some good charcoal drawing, and some helpful scrapbooks for teaching geography and history. The manual training work from Louisville and the pen¬ manship from some of the colored schools in Frankfort are both good. The illus¬ trated number work that one finds at Ashland is along the line of better objective teaching in the primary grades. Comparing the work of the pupils of the colored schools with that of the pupils in the white schools, one is sure to find greater uni¬ formity in the case of the latter. The degrees of excellence in the colored schools are much more likely to vary than in the schools for the whites. IV. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois are all represented with large and creditable dis¬ plays of school work. The three large cities of Ohio — Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Columbus — have separate booths, while the remaining towns of the State exhibit in bulk. One thing that impresses the inspector of the Cleveland exhibit is the free¬ dom in the drawing woTk. It may in some instances transgress the lesser canons of art, but it is always free and expressive. The English papers from the Cleveland high school are good and show considerable individuality, but the English of the English papers is better than the English of the history papers in the same school. The graphic charts from Cleveland are an interesting feature of the exhibit, and one of the departures noted is the pedagogical library. Judge Draper das been able to make an arrangement with the city library by which the pedagogical books have been segregated and a teachers’ reading room provided. Cincinnati has not been afraid to display the first year's work. In studving the exhibit of this city the impress of Dr. White’s educational doctrines is everywhere apparent. The drawing and color work, which follows the lines given by Miss Sullivan in her manuals, forms an important part of the exhibit ; and the natural history charts in water colors, made by the girls of the normal school, show con¬ siderable ingenuity. Columbus has also exhibited a full line of water-color work in the high school and some wood carvings from the fifth grade, which seem to the writer unusually meritorious. The high school at Wapakoneta has prepared a creditable exhibit of native woods; and some fairly good written work comes from the smaller towns. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 487 Indiana, like Massachusetts, has been singularly fortunate in the selection of a State superintendent of educational exhibits. The strength of the Indiana exhibit is due to two cities — Indianapolis and Laporte — although some of the counties make creditable showings. At Indianapolis there is a principle which underlies all the work of the primary grades ; it is the coordination of all the school work in nature studies. The reading, the language, the drawing, the spelling, the form study all relate to the development and expression of thought in connection with elementary science. And there is a freedom and an excellence in all this written work that is delightful. Standard American literature is similarly treated in the grammar grades. Laporte does not take second rank in the quality of tier work, although the method here issubjeetive rather than objective, as at Indianapolis. The development of social relationships is' a great purpose with Dr. Hailmann, and he develops it admirably throughout the grades of his schools. Form study here, to some extent, takes the place of plants and animals as the center of thought development, although the objects in nature are used, and to great advantage, in much of his woTk. The social creative woTk with tiles and paper cutting applies very happily this idea of Dr. Hail- mann's. In both the language and the drawing one is impressed with the work at Laporte as with that of Indianapolis in its spontaneity. There is little work below the high-school grades in technical grammar, but there is great clearness and freedom in all the written work. The counties of Indiana send pretty full exhibits. That of Wayne County is creditable in its language work, and that of Wabash is fairly good. One little district school — “that of Miss Della Brown — makes a good showing for Marion County. The town of Hammond has uniformly fair work in language and drawing, with literature as the basis, and La Fayette, in her illustrated lan¬ guage work, makes a creditable display. South Bend, Richmond, and Terre Haute scarcely compare with the smaller towns above mentioned. Set questions and answers never test the character and quality of good work, and much of the written work from these towns consists of answers to examination questions. Mrs. Hail¬ mann has a very full exhibit from her kindergarten training class in mat weaving, paper cutting, etc. A profitable feature of Mrs. May Wright Sewell’s exhibit is the stenographic reports of lessons in her Classical School for Girls at Indianapolis, and these not revised. Purdue University makes a very large exhibit, especially in its mechanical departments. There students make not only the machinery used, but also the tools with which the machinery is made. There are also in the Indiana exhibit photographs and graphic charts from the State normal school and the State university. Illinois has exhibited in her own State building, and the Cook County Normal School in the assembly room of the Children’s Building. Chicago rightly takes a great part of the space of the educational exhibit. In drawing, the display is strong, but the uniform excellence of the entire exhibit can scarcely be compared with St. Paul and Minneapolis or the spontaneity with that of Indianapolis and Laporte. The language work of the primary grades is unequal, and there is great diversity in penmanship. The science work in the high schools, as manifested by the quality of the drawings and the character of the written work, seems very good, and there are some excellent eighth grade language papers, illustrated with pen drawings, especially those of the Franklin School. The high school work in language from Peoria seems proportionately better than that of the lower grades. Ivewanee has a full line of work in elementary science from the first to the eighth grades. The work in elementary science and language from Aurora impressed the writer as being somewhat better than similar work from other towns, excepting, however, the Cook County Normal School. Galesburg sends several elaborate pieces of woodwork — a hatrack and a bureau — as the fruit of her manual training depart¬ ment. The Morris high school contributes an interesting collection of geological specimens representing the coal flora of Illinois. The model schoolroom, fitted up by the United States Furniture Company under the direction of State Superintendent 488 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. Raab, is interesting in representing tlie ideal of an experienced schoolman. The State normal schools both have large exhibits. That at Carhondale has a unique series of reading charts made by the pupil teachers ; and the series of readers made for the use of the children in teaching fables, stories, and poems at Bloomington are equally original and interesting. The University of Illinois represents very fully all her departments, with emphasis upon the engineering courses; and the institutions for defective classes — the deaf, the dumb, the blind, and the feeble¬ minded — make an excellent showing. The exhibit from the Cook County Normal School in the Children’s Building is of great importance to the student of education, because it represents some of the newer lines of school work. The papers throughout are characterized by great freedom. They may he faulty in mechanism, hut the thought to he expressed is not allowed to he stifled by mechanical forms. Nature study forms the basis of a large part of the language work, although literature, geography, and history are earlier introduced than in most schools. The child not only begins to draw in the lowest grades, hut he begins as well to color his drawings, and these drawings and color¬ ings are always made with the object in sight. There is much work with birds, and the work is good. Historic ornament in connection with teaching history furnishes some excellent papers. Some good illustrated number work comes from Mr. Giffin’s department ; and many of the maps exhibited by the geography classes are of a supe¬ rior grade. One may find fault with the penmanship in the primary grades, which certainly is inferior to that of most school work from the cities, but if Colonel Parker succeeds in making rapid and legible writers in the higher grades this maybe over¬ looked. V. The three great States of the Northwest — Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota — are all represented in the department of liberal arts. That of Michigan does not include some of the best schools of the State — Detroit, for instance; and the exhibit from Wisconsin is so unfortunately arranged that it does not do the schools of the State justice. The exhibit from Minnesota, on the contrary, is superb — one of the very best to he found, if not the best. One-half of the Wisconsin exhibit comes from the city of Milwaukee, and a great portion of this display represents the work of the kindergartens and the teaching of German. Most of the geography work consists of answers to set questions. The language work of the primary grades, in some instances, is better than that of the grammar grades, and the Oral School for the Deaf submits some language papers that are very creditable. There are some good brush studies from copies made by the pupils in the Milwaukee high school. Racine has some special work in American authors that is quite good, and a number of the rural schools exhibit pretty full lines of their work. Downer College, of which Miss Sabin is president, has a good display of photographs, as have also Beloit and Ripon colleges. The State nornlal schools exhibit in alcove together ; but their work, like that of the State in general, lacks good arrangement, and the placing of the color studies in some cases is unfor¬ tunate. The University of Wisconsin is represented by a goodly number of photo¬ graphs and charts. Michigan has a pretty large exhibit, but it does not represent a great number of schools. Some of the best work comes from Muskegon. One week’s work in ele¬ mentary science forms an interesting volume. There is from the same city some good illustrated number papers and a full line of kindergarten work. Some of the paper pulp maps from Bay City are skillfully made, and the illustrated language work of the sixth grade at Grand Haven is fairly well done. An interesting feature of the East Saginaw exhibit is a set of photographs including all the pupils aud teachers The English work from the Ann Arbor high school is good, and the physics note books show unusually fine applications of laboratory methods. The State normal school has a display of drawings, charts, and photographs, and the State agricul¬ tural college makes a very complete exhibit of all its departments, as does also the University of Michigan. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 489 But the great educational exhibit from the Northwest comes from the State of Minnesota. Most of the cities of the State have sent full lines of work ; bnt the amount and excellence of the work from St. Paul and Minneapolis throw into the shade much very good work from outside of the twin cities. One who studies the work of St. Paul and Minneapolis in language and science, geography and history, arithmetic and drawing, manual training and domestic economy, is bound to con¬ clude that these two cities have reached the highest mark of American education. The display of both -cities is so strong that one is not inclined to determine which is the stronger. And it is not in one subject or two subjects that these cities excel, but in all the subjects that they pretend to teach. The excellence of the work is delightfully uniform. The work in language in both cities clusters about elemen¬ tary science, literature, history, and geography, and drawing is always advanta¬ geously used to illustrate the written work. St. Paul exhibits in ten panels her system of manual training, and Minneapolis has several pieces of wood carving that are unexcelled. Stillwater also has a number of pieces of good wood carving. Wi¬ nona sends a unique geographical cabinet, and Duluth some good relief maps. The State normal schools at Winona, St. Cloud, Morehead, and Mankato all make credit¬ able exhibits, that of Winona being the largest and strongest. There is strength and freedom to the language and drawing work of these schools, characteristics which they share with Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth, Stillwater, Winona, and many of the good rural schools. Carleton College, St. Olaf College, Hamline College, and the Uni¬ versity of Minnesota are all represented, chiefly by photographs. But the strength of the Minnesota exhibit rests almost wholly on the work of the i>rimary and gram¬ mar grades. VI. The exhibit from Missouri is large and on the whole excellent. Both in quantity and quality, the best part of it comes from the two large cities, St. Louis and Kansas City. The kindergarten display from St. Louis has many good features, as have the displays of primary and grammar grade work. There are many volumes of written work which are beautifully and substantially bound. One of the best features of the St. Louis exhibit is the illustrated language papers. There is freedom in expres¬ sion, accuracy in mechanism, and beauty in execution throughout. Pen drawings are used in great numbers to illustrate written papers, and they are well used. There are many good exercises in history and biography in grades as low as the third and fourth. Elementary science receives considerable attention in the primary and grammar schools, and the papers and drawings from one of the colored schools seem better than those of a corresponding grade in one of the white schools. Both the colored and the white pupils make a good showing in high school work. Kansas City makes an admirable showing in penmanship. In the first and second years, at least, it is better than in most other cities. This excellence is no doubt due to the fact that the child in Kansas City begins using pen and ink after he is in school four months. The illustrated language papers here, as in St. Louis, are unique and strong, especially in the sixth and seventh grades. There is also some good his¬ tory work in the seventh year. The language work of the colored children in Kan¬ sas City in no instance approximates that of the white children. The State exhibit from Missouri is good because the exhibits from St. Louis and Kansas City are good. The State normal schools certainly make a very poor showing, their academic work being much below the grade of similar lines in the high schools of the two great cities. The statistical charts and diagrams exhibited by Iowa are among the very best, and the state department has on file a complete set of its reports and other official documents. Sioux City has an exhibit that is interesting and rather unusual — pho¬ nographic records of work in reading, singing, geography, and number. The oper¬ ator starts the machine and the visitor may hear a Sioux City recitation in any or all of these subjects. Clinton exhibits a good deal of illustrated language and num¬ ber work, and some of it is good. Some of the geography charts from Cedar Falls 490 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. are well made. The language work from Des Moines (East) is perhaps the best sub¬ mitted, in that freedom in the expression of thought is greater. The cooking exhibit from West Des Moines is very good. Several of the rural schools send full lines of photographs. The State normal school is represented by a good deal of homemade apparatus, drawings showing the development of the synthetic sound system, and some good written lessons in science. Kansas has made two exhibits — one in her State building and one in the depart¬ ment of liberal arts. Topeka exhibits considerable work in technical grammar. Local geography, so called, is early introduced, and much of it is of a rather tech¬ nical character. Writing is by pen and ink from the first, and the penmanship in consequence is excellent throughout. The best language work submitted from Topeka is that labeled u miscellaneous ” — compositions on common things. Wichita has a pretty full exhibit of paper cutting and folding and designing, but the color combinations are scarcely more than fair. Some of the pictorial work in history is unique, the dates being supplanted by pictures on outline maps. Writing here, as in Topeka, is with pen and ink from the first, and the results in the first and second years are admirable. A good deal of the language work consists in writing from pictures cut from papers, with little effort on the part of the children to make their own illustrations. Lawrence has the best illustrated language work. The same city makes considerable use of free-hand drawing. Colored picture cards form the basis of language work at Leavenworth, with analyzing and diagraming of sentences as low as the fifth grade. The district schools of Greenwood and Doniphan counties make a fairly good showing in their written work. The State normal school of Kansas makes a good exhibit in its laboratory work in botany and homemade appa¬ ratus in physics. There are some clever stanzas of doggerel in the versification exercises and some ingenious charts and diagrams in the work in English literature. The exhibit of North American animals from the University of Kansas is large and excellent, and the agricultural college illustrates pretty fully the work in house¬ hold economy and floriculture. The diagrams, showing the relative time given to each subject of study, are full and interesting. The Institution foT the Education of the Deaf and Dumb at Olanthe exhibits some good written work, and some well- made harness from the industrial department. The Nebraska exhibit, in size at least, does not equal the Kansas exhibit. Omaha, the largest city, sends no manuscript work, but a pretty full line of drawing and manual training. Nebraska City has some pretty good language work, and Kearney some well-prepared music exercises in the tonic sol-fa. Beatrice has a number of photographs illustrating the outdoor gymnastic exercises of the pupils. The ele¬ mentary botany and the dra wings from Crete are for the most part good. Pawnee has made a valuable collection of the woods and vines of Nebraska and mounted these for teaching purposes. The girls of the Scribner high school have made a pretty silk map of the State, and a good drawing of the Mason School, Omaha, on a marble slab, comes from one of the grammar grade boys of that city. The Uni¬ versity of Nebraska is represented by photographs. While there is considerable good work from Nebraska, too much of it consists of answers to set questions, and such answers never show to advantage the written work of the schools. Til. The Kocky Mountain States exhibiting school work at the Fair are the Dakotas, Montana, Utah, New Mexico, aud Colorado. North Dakota did not send a large exhibit, but the wonder is that a State so new should have sent any. There are a large number of photographs of town and district schools, considerable paper cutting, folding, and weaving, and some good pen drawings. South Dakotan exhibit is somewhat larger. It includes maps showing the school lands and buildings and a good separate exhibit of the country schools. The language work in these schools is mostly confined to exercises in technical grammar. Sioux Falls makes the fullest exhibit. Aberdeen exhibits the first schoolhouse (in miniature) built in South Dakota. The University of Dakota has a number of photographs and a type¬ written history of the institution. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 491 Excepting Washington, Montana lias tlie fullest exhibit of the new States. The Helena schools have a pretty good line of pictorial language work with fables as the basis. Tiie slates of the school children of Anaconda, containing daily exercises, have been photographed. Stevensville has sent a large papier-macli6 map of Mon¬ tana. Butte shows good muscular movement penmanship exercises. The exhibit from Utah occupies three small alcoves, and is classified into city schools, rural schools, and colleges. The best work from Salt Lake City is the drawing, with sev¬ eral good pieces of sixth-year language work. The exhibit from the rural schools shows better penmanship throughout than one finds in similar schools of other States. The Agricultural College and the University of Utah are both represented in the exhibit by photographs and written work. Far-off New Mexico, with less than 6C0 teachers, makes an exhibit. East Las Vegas has prepared a history of educational work in that section covering the period of the beginnings of the mis¬ sion fathers down to the present, and illustrated it with photographs. It is a com¬ mendable effort to place in permanent form the labors of pioneers. Silver City has some relief maps that are not without credit, Albuquerque photographs and written work, and Eaton has shipped some of her blackboards with the pupils’ drawings thereon. But the pride of the Rocky Mountains — of the country, for that matter — is Colo¬ rado. Her exhibit, like that of Minnesota, has been arranged with great taste, and the white and gold of the woodwork give it a pleasing setting. The state depart¬ ment has sent complete samples of the records and publications. The relief map of Pike’s Peak and vicinity, which is a creditable piece of workmanship, was made by the science department of the Colorado Springs high school. The same city sends a model of her high school, and a most suggestive piece of geographical apparatus, “ an Indian camp,” the work of a third-year class. Denver — or more properly speak¬ ing, the Denvers — has the largest and best part of the exhibit. The work is strong along several lines, notably drawing and music. And Denver offers something strik¬ ingly new in the way of exhibits — stenographic reports of the regular school exer¬ cises and phonographic records of the work in music, including singing at sight, the only such exercise to be found among the exhibits. The stenographers have faith¬ fully reproduced the regular lessons given in the Denver schools, and these repro¬ ductions reflect great credit on Superintendent Grove and his associates. The library feature of the Denver high school is a departure that is likely to be followed by many other cities. Some of the manual training work from Pueblo schools is good. The State normal school at Greeley makes an excellent showing in the exhibit of its regular work. Science is made prominent, and sloid woodwork is exhibited from all grades. The illustrated language papers throughout are good, and the tonic sol-fa exercises show what is being done in music. The School of Mines and the Agricultural College are both represented in the exhibit. Taken altogether, the exhibit from Colorado shows what intelligence and money will do to build up a system of schools in a comparatively brief period of time. VIII. Persons familiar with the excellence of the California schools are not a little disappointed to find that the best educational exhibit from the Pacific Coast comes from the new State of Washington. Two reasons may be given for this failure of the Golden State to meet the expectation of her friends : First, the bad arrangement of the work sent ; and second, the absence of school work from San Francisco and several other of the larger cities. The work was placed in the California Building because of the appropriation, which made it possible to make the exhibit. * * * San Francisco sent nothing. Los Angeles nothing but a few pieces of drawing. Neither Sacramento nor Stockton sent any school work. The exhibit from Oakland is the largest and the best. It compares favorably with the work of Eastern cities. The drawing is an attractive feature, being especially strong in historic ornament, with a good sequence of industrial drawing. The language and science papers throughout are well written and well illustrated, and the physiology papers from the 492 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. grammar grades have attracted a good deal of attention. The high school work in 'English is good, and there are some unique class hook designs which would do credit to our best comic journals. Nowhere in the exhibit is there better work from a village school than that sent from Temescal. It is strong throughout and shows correlation and intelligent appli¬ cation of modern educational theories. The language work is by all odds the best from California; and the nature studies, the water-color sketches, and the arith¬ metic papers are very good. Pasadena sends some good work in elementary science and grammar grade English, and Pomona has some neatly illustrated papers in literature. The language lessons written from pictures in the district schools of Humboldt County are good, as are those on bees from Monterey County. The spon¬ taneous drawings from Napa are exceedingly suggestive, and Sonoma County makes a very full and creditable exhibit. The music from San Diego is very good, and the compositions on musical themes excellent. The elementary science work is technical, hut the history papers from the high school show careful work in that subject. American literature is the basis of some good illustrated language work from the grammar grades of National City. The State normal school at San Jose and the Cogswell Manual Training School at San Francisco show excellent results in manual training and related subjects. Mrs. Cooper sends some pretty nature studies in water colors and some interesting spontaneous drawings, and the Sil¬ ver Street Kindergarten an excellent series of drawing, illustrating 11 Seven Little Sisters.” The Leland Stanford Junior University and the University of California exhibit photographs of their buildings. The statistical charts from the different counties give a good deal of important data, and there are many relief maps from California, some of them good and many of them had. The district schools of Cali¬ fornia make a better showing than the city schools. The children of Oregon paid for the State exhibit by penny collections. The Port¬ land high school sends the notebooks of the pupils in physics and chemistry. Rose- burg has some ingenious historical maps and some botanical work which is largely technical. Astoria aims to give language training by means of technical grammar, hut the results are not flattering. Mental arithmetic is studied in the schools of Portland and at the Willamette University. There is a good deal of map work from Oregon, hut it is chiefly in outline. Washington has made a very pretty exhibit, and the three large cities — Seattle, Tacoma, and Spokane — have all sent their best work. It has a good place in the Washington State building and is artistically arranged. Form study is given great prominence in the Seattle exhibit. There is considerable work in reading and dia¬ critical marks. There is science work in all the lower grades, and it is intelligently developed. The history papers from the eighth grade are good, and the zoology papers in the high school are neatly illustrated with pen drawings. The geography work would be stronger if so much energy had not been expended on the details of outline maps. Infinite prettiness is a fault of the map work at Tacoma, too. But Tacoma has some good object and physiological drawings, and. the language work above the primary grades is good. The high school work in geometry, physics, and chemistry shows strength. There are some neatly developed botany lessons, and the primary reading is better illustrated than the primary language. Spokane has not been outdone by Seattle and Tacoma in the display of good work. Her wood carving is the best from the Pacific Coast, to except, perhaps, that of the Cogswell Manual Training School. The language work is not strong, but the modeled fruits are quite natural and prettily colored. The model of the ship Santa Maria, by the pupils of the high school, is a splendid piece of work. The exhibit from Olympia is extensive, but it does not approach that of the three cities already named. The best county school exhibit from Washington is that of Whitman County. Pullman, Colfax, and several other of the smaller towns send a good deal of written wo£k, and some of it is good. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 493 The Catholics of the United States, England, and France have made a very large educational exhibit— too large in quantity for purposes of study, the same lines of work being duplicated over and over. Needle and art work constitute a very large part of the exhibit. The former hears evidence of great skill, hut the latter does not take high rank as art work, the works being too often copies and these stiff and mechanical. Most of the teaching orders of both men and women, representing every grade of instruction, exhibit their work, that of the Brothers of the Christian Schools and the Sisters of Notre Dame taking highest rank. If the blessed John Baptist de la Salle could know the widespread influence of his teachings, and the reverent consideration of his memory at this time, he would indeed realize that his great life work had not been in vain. The Brothers of the Christian Schools exhibit some very good work, more especially in English. The altar constructed by the pupils of the St. Joseph’s Orphan Home, Columbus, Ohio, is a fine piece of work in manual training. St. Benedict Academy, Chicago, submits some excellent pen draw¬ ings, as does also the Institute of Our Lady at Longwood. For 13-year old boys, the plumbing sent by St. Francis Industrial School at Eddington, Pa., is very superior. It is interesting to find in the Catholic educational exhibit the introduction of elementary science in the lower grades. The St. James and the St. Stanislaus schools, Chicago, have done some creditable work in this line. In the exhibit of the Diocese of Covington, Ky., one finds a number of pieces of creditable water-color paintings. Some well- written compositions come from Manhattan College, New York, and the history charts made at the Ursuline Academy, Pittsburg, show considerable inge¬ nuity. The needlework throughout the Catholic exhibit is excellent; it is one of the strongest features of the exhibit. The garments from the Colored Industrial Institute, Pine Bluff, Ark., are well made. Rock Hill College, Maryland, makes an interesting collection of woods, and the schools of Philadelphia show good wood carvings. Manual training is a prominent feature of every department of the world’s educa¬ tional exhibits. From kindergarten to college, inclusive, one finds this new form of mental training. Tool instruction, including carpentry, pattern making, wood turn¬ ing and carving, forge work, and domestic science, take their rank with language, history, mathematics, and the other subjects of intellectual development and disci¬ pline. Most of the cities have exhibited their manual training in connection with their other lines; but a few, including several private schools, have made separate exhibits. These will be considered here. The Chicago Manual Training School makes one of the best exhibits. Its work, like that of Pratt Institute, is uniformly excel¬ lent. Some of the original sketches, as well as the work in perspective and shadows, approaches the standard of the best art schools. There is also good work in wood and iron. The Toledo Manual Training School exhibits the work of girls as well as of boys, and the girls in some instances show greater skill than the boys. The tools used by the pupils are tempered by themselves. Some good wood carving comes from this school and the cookbooks exhibited are interesting. The St. Louis Manual Training School exhibits joinery and wood turning from the first year; forging, pat¬ tern making, and molding from the second year; and machine work from the third year. All this work, as well as the accompanying drawings, takes high rank. The Baltimore Manual Training School has work in wood, brass, iron, and tin, as well as outline maps and water colors. The Technical School of Cincinnati has some free¬ hand drawings with pen and some illustrated papers in American literature that compare favorably with the best high school work. The New York Trade School exhibits its work in plumbing, stonecutting, sign painting, job printing, and enamel gilding. The Jewish Trade School, Chicago, has work in wood, clay, and cloth, but it is not as strong as that in the schools mentioned above. J. Liberty Tadd, of Philadelphia, illustrates his method of drawing and manual training for psycholog¬ ical and physiological development. These large manual training exhibits — and most of them from free schools — show how fully skill in handicraft is appreciated by 494 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. the people; and all this appreciation and development has taken place since the world’s educational exhibits at Philadelphia in 1876. X. The education of defective classes is now claiming its share of attention, and the State is recognizing that the deaf and blind and feeble-minded have claims upon it for training not to be exceeded by the claims of normal children. The exhibits which these three classes make at Chicago have special interest for the students of education, since the methods employed in teaching defective, classes admit of better representation than the methods employed in teaching normal children. Twenty- five schools are -represented in the collective exhibit of institutions for the education of the deaf. These for the most part are State institutions. The National College at Washington, the only higher institution for the deaf in the world, has a good dis¬ play of photographs. The woodwork from Michigan is among tho best. All of these schools employ manual training methods, chiefly for the purpose of teaching trades. The finished products in the way of bookcases, shoes, harness, and needle¬ work show great skill on the part of these students. Most of the schools for the deaf combine the manual with the oral method; although it is evident that the oral method is in tho ascendancy and the day is not distant when all these institutions will teach the deaf to talk and to read lips. The McCowen Oral School, Chicago, shows some good results in this departure. Its pupils range in age from 4 to 13, and they not only use the voice well, but the work exhibited in elementary science, sloid, drawing, and kindergarten, compares favorably with the best primary schools for hearing children. The Home for the Training in Speech for Deaf Children, Philadelphia, sent 20 children, ranging in age from 4 to 7, to Chicago, during the Exposition. It is the purpose of this school to prepare deaf children for the public schools and present results fully justify the expectation. The Yolta Bureau at Washington exhibits 75 volumes of its publications which are valuable contribu¬ tions to educational literature. This bureau, through the munificence of Alexander Graham Bell, is doing a great and good work in promoting the teaching of speech to the deaf. Nine State institutions for the education of the blind exhibit collectively. These schools, like those for the deaf, aim not only to give academical instruction, but to teach useful trades.- For many years broom making constituted the chief line of industrial work, but it is pleasant to note that piano tuning and other higher forms of mechanical work have been opened up to the blind. Illinois makes a good exhibit in sloid and hammock making; Colorado, in kindergarten work; Pennsylvania, the largest of the State exhibits, in language and geography ; Wisconsin, in clay model¬ ing and domestic economy; Indiana, in carpet weaving and chair caning. The Per¬ kins Institution, the oldest * * * of these institutions, has a fine display of kindergarten and sloid work. Most of these schools begin with kindergarten methods, and music and industrial work receive considerable attention. Institutions for the education of feeble-minded children have brought relief to thousands of afflicted families all over the country; and 13 of these schools (11 State and 2 private) exhibit at Chicago. Of the defective classes, the feeble-minded are the least susceptible to education ; and yet the drawings, compositions, maps, needle¬ work, and carvings show great possibilities for even the imbecile classes. The eth¬ nological charts regarding feeble-minded children in the school at Elwyn, Pa., are remarkably suggestive, as are also the photographs and studies of family types from the school at Faribault, Minn. Indiana has some neat china painting and a cherry cabinet that is Avell made; California, wood carving; Kentucky, mattresses; Iowa, shoes and inlaid woodwork; New Jersey, hammocks; Minnesota, repousse work; Pennsylvania, torchon lace; Massachusetts, number work that is remarkable for children who have been in school but one year; and Connecticut has some kinder¬ garten work that would do credit to the pupils of a sane school. These schools are doing a splendid educational work for hundreds callable of improvement, as well as providing care and comfort for such as can not be improved. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 495 XI. The schools for the education of dependent;, and criminal classes exhibit in the Anthropological Building. The South End Industrial School, Boston, in which Edward Everett Halo has been so much interested, displays its lines of sewing, sloid, and drawing. Various aid societies and fresh-air societies exhibit by photo¬ graphs and charts. Tlio Boston Children’s Aid Society fully illustrates its homo library feature — an admirable feature, by the way— of this educational work for dependent children. The Hebrew Technical School, New York, to which Felix Adler has given so much intelligent support, has some very good wood carvings, and some creditable notebooks and pieces of physical apparatus arc displayed. Caring for dependent children is not new in this country; but giving this care an educational bias is. So that a meager display from these schools is not to be won¬ dered at. The schools for reformatory or criminal classes exhibit pretty generally. * * * The illustrated work in language and elementary science of the Lyman School for boys at Westboro, Mass., certainly shows that the methods employed in teaching are modern, and there is some good designing in colored papers, and some good pieces of wood carving. The New York Industrial School at Rochester makes the largest exhibit. Along lines in which trades are taught — domestic economy, shoe¬ making, carpentry, etc. — the work exhibited is of a high grade; but along the purely literary lines it is much below that of the Lyman School. Some of the grain¬ ing in wood is excellent, and the display includes an excellent model of the laundry made by the pupils. The Illinois school of agriculture and manual training for boys, at Glenwood, does well in its wood carving and written work. The New York House of Refugo at Randall’s Island, which provides for the instruction and care of the juvenile offenders of New York and Kings counties, has some creditable objective work. The Pennsylvania Reform School at Morganza has a good deal of map work and the Girl’s Industrial Home at Delaware, Ohio, a good deal of sewing. The negro is well represented in the educational exhibit, not only in the State exhibits but in the special exhibits. Hampton Institute, Virginia, makes the best showing in regard to both negroes and Indians. The work throughout is praise¬ worthy when one considers the limited means of this institution and the great num¬ bers that it yearly instructs. One of the purposes of this school is to teach the red man and the colored man useful trades — printing, blaeksmithing, wheelwrighting, shoemaking, and tailoring, and the finished articles exhibited are uniformly well done. Many of the teachers in the colored schools of the South are trained at Hampton, and an interesting feature of the exhibit is the work of the normal classes. In the collective educational exhibit of the Freedman’s Aid Society, three institutions are represented by school work — Claflin University at Orangeburg, S. C.; Clark University, Atlanta, Ga. ; and Central Tennessee College at Nashville. These schools arc not, as their names would indicate, higher institutions of learning, but, chiefly, schools of primary and secondary grade. The pupils represented range in age from 6 to 30 years, and the subjects include primary number, language, read¬ ing, the sciences, pharmacy, biology, and theology. Atlanta University, Georgia, and Wilberforco University, Ohio, each make separate exhibits. Both cover a wide range of subjects with emphasis on the manual training both for purposes of trades and development of skill. The Carlisle Indian School, Pennsylvania, exhibits in the Liberal Arts Building, and 52 other schools in the United States Indian Building. The work from Carlisle is certainly good, due in part to the fact that it is one of the oldest, but chiefly because it has enjoyed the continuous superintendence of Captain Pratt. Drawing and music form a part of this exhibit; and the language papers, if not always ele¬ gant, are always interesting. The garments made and the wagons built by tliese Indian girls and boys are surprisingly meritorious. Fifty-two of the Government Indian schools exhibit collectively. The best work from Genoa, Nebr., is in inflat¬ ing and harness making; Rensselaer, Ind., blaeksmithing; Fort Yuma, Cal., two 496 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. models of s chool houses ; Green Bay Agency, Wis., written work ; Grand Junction, Colo., and Albuquerque, N. Mex., letter writing; Pima Agency, Ariz., penmanship; Klamath, Oreg., colored drawings ; and Chilocco, Okla., illustrated language. Dur¬ ing the Exposition 7 schools have, at different periods, held forth with 30 pupils each, and illustrated their methods by actual teaching in the United States Indian School Building, where the school work of the Indian children is displayed. These schools have been from Albuquerque, N. Mex. ; Rensselaer, Ind. ; Lincoln, Nebr. ; Lawrence, Kans. ; Genoa, Nebr. ; Chilocco, Okla., and Osage, Okla. The Indian school work from the Northwest Territories, which in some respects is better than our own, will be mentioned in connection with the account of the Canadian exhibit, of which it is a part. XII. Those who remember the excellence of the Canadian educational exhibit at the Philadelphia Centennial, 1876, are not a little disappointed with the present display at Chicago. It lacks plan in preparation, and is not well arranged; and, to except some work from Hamilton and Kingston, the Ontario exhibit — which should have been the best — is weak. The great city of Toronto, with its excellent public schools, is not represented; and an entire alcove, which should have been placed at the dis¬ posal of Inspector Hughes, is given over to so-called art colleges ; and these display no strong, but many weak pictures. The best work in the Ontario exhibit comes from Hamilton; and the correlation of elementary science, language, and drawing is excellent. The drawing here is better than elsewhere in the Canadian Provinces, although their drawing in Canada is much inferior to our own. The primary work from Hamilton is the best. Milton and Kingston both exhibit labored designs, which are scarcely more than mediocre. They are for the most part copies, but weak at that. But the Kingston schools exhibit one line of strong work — vertical writing — from the third, fourth, and fifth grades. It is uniformly better than the oblique writing of corresponding grades in other schools. A great number of art colleges exhibit water and oil paintings, charcoals, clay models, etc., but the work is very commonplace. The Institution for the Education of the Blind at Brantford exhibits some pieces of willow and cane work that are good, as well as some good sewing and kindergarten work. The Institution for the Education of the Deaf at Belleville, and that for the Education of Feeble Minded at Onllea, both show to what extent manual training is employed in giving skill to the deaf and the imbe¬ cile juveniles of Ontario. The Province of Quebec makes a fuller and in some respects a better exhibit than Ontario. The penmanship throughout is good, but the language teaching for the most part mechanical. Religious instruction, and this of a rather formal character, is emphasized in the written work. There are some fairly good drawings from objects from the Montreal Model School and the Laval Normal School. Typewrit¬ ing and stenography are important branches in the secondary schools of Canada. The classical colleges of Quebec make a full exhibit of their notebooks in English, French, Latin, and Greek. The Institution for the Education of the Deaf, in which the oral method is chiefly employed, shows good results in composition and language. The students in the blind institution do some good cane and needle work. A great number of religious teaching orders exhibit from the Province of Quebec. The Ursulines of Stanstead have a good deal of written work; the Sisters of the Good Shepherd, needle and china work; Clerics of St. Viator, pen drawing; Sisters of the Holy Cross, herbariums; Sisters of St. Anne, water colors, and Sisters of Jesus-Marie, copious notes on written work. The Institute of the Congregation of Notre Dame has the best school work of the religious orders. Their language and elementary science work have broader foundations and follow more closely scientific methods. A number of the male teaching orders make exhibits. The Brothers of the Chris¬ tians schools display some exercises in penmanship that look very like copper¬ plate. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 497 Of tlie four Canadian Provinces exhibiting, that of Nova Scotia is tho smallest. The provincial normal school at Truro has a number of drawings that are pretty, but most of them are copies. Halifax displays clay and kindergarten work, and one of the church schools for girls some water colors that are fair. There is a good educational map of Nova Scotia, showing the location of every schoolhouse in the Province. Considering their isolation, the Northwest Territories make an altogether credita¬ ble exhibit, and show that they are really trying to keep step with general progress. The language work from Regina is good; so are the reproductions from Whitewood. The most interesting feature of the exhibit is the work from Indian schools. The Northwest Territories are providing educational facilities for the offspring of the aborigines. The industrial work — printing, shoemaking, sewing, weaving, etc. — as well as the work in language and penmanship, compares favorably with the better Indian schools in the United States. Ten pupils from one of these schools, under the direction of the Gray Nuns, were brought to Chicago, and illustrate their methods of work. There are four of these industrial schools in the Northwest Territories, under the direction of Gray Nuns. XIII. The French colonies at Guadeloupe and Martinique, West Indies, and French Guiana, South America, made small and unimportant educational exhibits. The exercise books of the pupils of Martinique had been laboriously corrected by the teachers; and the exercises from the village schools seemed better than those of the town schools. The best work from Guadeloupe was the fancy needlework. The work from French Guiana is interesting because it represents largely the children of convicts. The needle and feather work both were good, and there were some excel¬ lent pieces of penmanship from the school of the Sisters of St. Joseph. These schools exhibit in the French Colonies buildings. Mexico does not make an important exhibit, although in penmanship and pen drawing she is scarcely excelled. The school for the blind makes an exhibit of industrial work that is interesting. The pupils in the school at Pueblo exhibit their industrial work, chiefly in Mexican onyx, and the exhibit is pretty if not strictly educational. The pen portraits and penmanship throughout the exhibit are fine. But one would prefer to see handwriting no better than that of Horace Greeley and have training in thought development than have this fine writing with few evidences of training in intellectual power. The Mexican exhibit contains a pretty complete set of the text-books used in the schools. Besides the exhibit from French Guiana, three of the South American republics send school work — Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentine Republic. * * * Rio Janeiro occupies the best part of the space [devoted to Brazil] with exercise books, which show the subjects pursued in the schools. There is a good deal of drawing, but it is for the most part crude. The drawings with colored pencils seem better than the drawings in black and white. A large number of‘ outline maps are exhibited. The great amount of work is mat weaving and colored papers indicates to what extent kindergarten methods are employed in the primary schools. Like Mexico, Brazil pupils excel in pen drawings. Maps, charts, and photographs form an important feature of the exhibit. The devotion of the Brazilians to their educational leaders is indicated by the fact that in the exhibit one finds a fine bust and an excellent por- traifc of the first minister of public instruction, Senor Benjamin Constant. The Republic of Uruguay makes a very good educational exhibit in the Agricul¬ tural Building. It includes not only a great deal of written work of the pupils, but as well samples of blackboards, desks, and other teaching appurtenances and appli¬ ances. The language exercises seem better than those in the Brazilian schools, and the penmanship throughout is excellent. There is scarcely any work submitted in drawing, to except outline maps, and these are good. Full sets of photographs illus¬ trate the students at work in the normal school. The Pedagogical Museum and Library at Montevideo is doing a great and good work for the professional training ED 93 - 32 498 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. of teachers, and Dr. Ruano, who has been the moving spirit in this — and at present its director — accompanied the exhibit to Chicago. Among the models exhibited by this museum was one of a rural schoolhonse at Banado, with a photograph of the tule structure which it supplanted. In all, the Uruguay exhibit contains nearly eight hundred pieces of school work. Had the Argentine Republic been given proper space her educational exhibit would have doubtless made by far the best showing from South America; but it was crowded into one small, dark alcove on the ground floor of the Manufactures Build¬ ing, and much of it could not even be unpacked for the want of space. Seuor Carlos Gallardo, who was in charge, made the best of this bad management on the part of the Exposition authorities, and did all in his power to unpack and place in view the work from his schools whenever those sufficiently interested in the matter asked to see the school work from his country. But his space was so very meager that only a very small part of the work could be unpacked at any one time. Like Uruguay, the Argentine Republic sent samples of the desks used in the schools. There were also full sets of reports of the department of education, as well as files of the educa¬ tional journals, and these neatly bound. Another feature of the exhibit was the dis¬ play of professional books — those which the teachers are required to read — and not a few of these were translations from American pedagogical writers — Drs. Harris, Hailmann, Calkins, Sheldon, etc. At least a half dozen of the International Educa¬ tional Series, edited by Dr. Harris and published by the Appletons, have been trans¬ lated for the use of the Argentine teachers. It is evident from the exhibit that this country has taken hold of the normal school problem with great earnestness and intelligence. The manual training problem is also being solved, as well as the kin¬ dergarten problem, and both are represented in the exhibit. Natural history as the basis of language work, so new even in the United States, already has some advo¬ cates in the Argentine Republic, and the papers and drawings submitted are not poor. The relief maps are certainly better than those made by the pupils in the German schools, or in most schools in North America. Writing from pictures is a means of language teaching in many of the schools. The National College of Argen¬ tine, the normal schools, the orphan schools, and the night schools all show their distinctive lines by means of exercise books, maps, and photographs. XIY. Two words characterize the Swedish educational exhibit, sloid and gym¬ nastics. And yet when one studies the programmes of the Swedish schools he finds that in the former from two to six hours a week are given, and in the latter even less. Sweden made her educational exhibit in her own buildings; it was not exten¬ sive or varied, but it contained some lines that were interesting and unusual. Sloid work from every grade of school shows to what extent this form of manual training is utilized as a means of developing the mental and the physical powers of the child. It is encouraging to note in this exhibit that drawing is becoming more and more an adjunct of sloid. The embossed and engraved metal work, as well as the wood carvings, from the technical schools, show skill and art instinct. The architectural drawings, too, are good, and there are a great number of pictorial charts used in teaching geography. Text-books used in the schools and models of buildings for school purposes add to the value of the exhibit. The large display of home sloid indicates to what extent this handiwork is touching the fathers and the mothers as well as the children of Sweden. The school in weaving at Norrkoping makes a highly creditable display of rugs, mats, portieres, etc., and the model of the Royal Gymnasium for Teachers gives an excellent idea of the equipment of these institu¬ tions. The Upsala University exhibits only a few rock sections used for petrological examination. The strongest feature of the Swedish exhibit is the system of teach¬ ing sloid to girls, under the direction of Miss Hulda Lundin. The work exhibited is done by girls ranging in age from 7 to 14 years, and the time devoted to this work is two hours a week in the first grade; four hours in the second, third, and fourth grades ; five hours in the fifth and sixth grades, and six hours in the seventh grade. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 499 Tho course includes plain knitting, purl and stocking knitting, patching, darning, and garment making. Throughout the sowing work the girls are taught to take measurements and to make patterns. The exercises are progressive, and tho gar¬ ments made testify to the value of the method. Miss Lundin has two objects in view in her girls' sloid — to make it an educational medium, and to fit the girls for practical life; and it would seem from her exhibit of the Stockholm work that she is succeeding admirably. The British Islanders are represented only by the London board schools. This exhibit is a large and in some respects an important one. It has three strong fea¬ tures — tho vertical writing, tho designing in colored papers, and the laundry work. London has taken hold of the penmanship problem with great earnestness, and, in the opinion of the author, she has solved it very satisfactorily by the adoption of vertical writing. There is something harmonious, and to the eye satisfying, about the designing of these schools in colored papers. The colors harmonize, and the forms impress, as so much similar work from the schools of the American States do not. In London, laundry work is added to the course in manual training. There is a good deal of wood carving and modeling, and some of it is excellent. The weaving of baskets and mats with willow splints is another form of manual training that one does not find in other exhibits. A feature of tho London board school exhibit that strikes the American as a trifle antiquated is the great number and variety of medals and rewards of merit given for excellence in scholarship, punctuality, and good conduct. A number of cabinets illustrating the aids used in teaching elemen¬ tary science are exhibited. XV. Germany sent the largest foreign educational exhibit to Chicago. It included every grade of school work, and was as complex in character as only Germany could have made it. In the matter of teaching appliances, Germany’s exhibit exceeded all the others combined; but a good deal of this apparatus was of a markedly mechanical style. A German teacher, for instance, works out a series of plant les¬ sons with, his own class. The children study the plants and draw them from nature. The idea is a capital one, and said German teacher forthwith issues a long series of charts — plates of his own drawings. These are to be used by other teachers ; these pictures studied; these drawings copied; the spirit and method of the original teacher lost in this complicated jfiece of apparatus. What is true of this series of plant lessons is true of a grea t amount of the appliances for teaching found in the German exhibit. The written work throughout, judged by mechanical standards, is excellent, but it lacks the spontaneity of similar work from the schools of the American States. The penmanship, the spelling, punctuation, and order of words is sometimes painfully uniform. One feature of the German exhibit that surprised the American inspector was the evident attention given to the secondary education of women. The city high schools for girls (Hohere Madchenschulen) made exceed¬ ingly creditable displays. The exercise books, the apparatus and text-books used, the drawings and lines of industrial work all testified! that the higher education of women was also being worked out in that country. Several models of school baths were novel features — novel to American teachers, at least — of the exhibit. The relief maps of the pupils, made of paper and pasteboard, as well as the product maps, were decidedly inferior to most of those exhibited by the United States. More and better helps for teaching geography were exhibited by Germany than any other country, but the pictures in the illustrated books were inferior to our own. The manual training throughout was good, that from Berlin and Gdrlitz being best. There was some wood carving by very young boys that showed great skill. The model showing the internal equipment of the King Frederick William Gym¬ nasium at Berlin was the best model exhibited, to except that of the Royal Gymnasium in Sweden. For some reason the work in English of the girls in the Hohere Mad¬ chenschulen was throughout better than that of the boys in the Real Gymnasium and Realschule. There was a good collection of pedagogical books exhibited, as well 500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. as busts of some great educators — Fichte, Luther, Rousseau, et al. The institutions for the education of deaf and blind and feebleminded all made large exhibits, illus¬ trating their methods and purpose. The universities of Germany, the strongest in the world, very fittingly stood most prominent in the exhibit. Every department of these higher institutions — physics, chemistry, mathematics, letters'— was repre¬ sented by large collections of teaching appliances and books. Even the swords (schlager) used by the students were exhibited. One is deeply impressed with the weight of system in studying the German exhibit. The genius of the Yankee and the fine artistic sense of the French mind are nowhere apparent ; but everywhere is to be found perfection of details, fidelity to order, and painstaking execution. In the matter of size the Russian educational exhibit ranked next to the German; and, like the German exhibit, it emphasized the machinery of a system rather than the actual results of the system. That the exhibit might be the better understood, the Russian department of education had printed and distributed a number of pamphlets in the English language, and these were of great value to the students of the exhibit. Schools for special classes, rather than schools for the masses, were represented in the Russian display. The deaf and dumb and blind, the foundling home, the orphan asylum, technical, art, and railway schools constituted the bulk of the work sent to Chicago. In the matter of manual training Russia yet leads the world, as was evidenced by the exhibits in woodwork from the pupils of the semi¬ nary for village teachers and the imperial schools for the deaf and dumb. The uniforms for the Cossacks, made by the pupils in the institution for the education of orphans, and the needlework, from the imperial institutes for girls, showed unusual skill. Utility with them is doubtless emphasized more than with us; but the fact, nevertheless, remains true that Russia has more lessons in manual training to teach us. Some of the drawing and sketching from the Girls’ Gymnasium at Moscow was strong ; but much of the art work from the Central School of Design was mediocre — too much of it being mere copy work. The drawing schools of the Imperial Society for Promoting Art made a very full and very creditable exhibit of wood carving, bronze sculpturing, and China painting. There are in Russia rail¬ way schools and shipping schools and navigation schools, and these all exhibited. It is not a matter of accident or apprenticeship that a man becomes a railway engi¬ neer in Russia; he must fit himself by a careful course of training in the railway schools provided by the Government. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the Russian display was the exhibit of the Pedagogic Museum, the largest in the world. In pedagogical books and pamphlets alone this museum has over 70,000 titles; and President G. Stanley Hall is authority for the statement that he saw a greater col¬ lection of teaching appliances there than he had seen anywhere else in the world. The exhibit of the Pedagogic Museum at Chicago consisted chiefly of apparatus of all sorts, from a soldier’s uniform down to a numeral frame. While the Russian edu¬ cational exhibit was large and varied and interesting, it was all too evident that popular education receives little attention, and that the big display represented the work of a few special and privileged schools. XVI. It is not too much to say that the educational exhibit from Egypt was a pleasant surprise to everyone who examined it. The* work throughout seemed good, and all the different lines were well represented. The Arabic text-books, the slates, reed pens, and other teaching appliances, as well as the written work of the pupils, were displayed. The different editions of the Koran used in the various grades of schools were in the text-book exhibit. Manual training is given great prominence, and the inlaid woodwork was the best at Chicago. The notebooks of the students in physics, chemistry, and geometry were exhibited, and, as far as the writer could see, they equaled the work done in the better secondary schools in America. The modern languages are largely studied in the Egyptian schools, and the English compositions were exceedingly interesting. It was noted that when an Arabian youth was given a composition in English to write he was always AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 501 given an English theme— a scene, an incident, a story with an English background. This may have been mere accident, but there is a principle underlying it that deserves the attention of modern-language teachers. The drawings from the Egyptian schools, especially the mechanical drawings, light and shade, were excellent. Whenever color was used in drawing it was well used. The drawings from life, of the secondary schools, were not as good as those from the French lycdes, but they were better than those of our high schools. The polytechnic school at Cairo made a large and creditable exhibit of work in wood and iron and mechan¬ ical drawing. There can be no doubt that France has exerted a most wholesome influence over the schools of Egypt, for the methods and lines of work are largely those of the French schools. A dozen or more towns about the Mediterranean in Europe, Asia, and Africa were represented in the educational exhibit of the Alliance Israelite Universelle. This organization is benevolent and not political in its aim ; it seeks to provide educa¬ tional facilities to Jewish people in countries where they are still denied civil and religious liberty and to extend aid to those who suffer socially and politically by reason of their being Jews. Education is the sole work of the alliance, and its pupils are the children of the poor and ignorant. Among the cities exhibiting at Chicago were Tunis, Smyrna, Jerusalem, Yafa, Damascus, Constantinople, Bagdad, Salonica, and Adrianople ; and a half dozen different languages — French, German, English, Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek — would be required to properly interpret the written work of these Jewish children. Manual training and agriculture are important subjects of study, the girls being taught housework and needlework and the boys trades and farming. Many of these schools show great skill in handiwork, among, the good pieces of work in the exhibit being a model wardrobe from Con¬ stantinople, bath tubs from Tunis, copper ware from Jerusalem, rugs from Damas¬ cus, harness from Smyrna, and shoes from Adrianople. Some of the illustrated language papers from the school at Smyrna are very creditable. The Yafa agricul¬ tural school has a large exhibit of oils, seeds, and wines. Some of the maps of these schools are so inaccurate as to be amusing, but on the whole the work is good. And when one recalls that over 13,000 poor children, who would otherwise receive no school training, are annually taught in these schools supported by benevolent Hebrews, the exhibit, even though it should be less meritorious than it is, would be entitled to praise. To except the Hebrew schools in western Asia, Japan is the only country of the Orient represented in the educational exhibit; but the Japanese have made a large and a good exhibit. The primary schools are represented by kindergarten work, clay modeling, and drawings ; the secondary schools by the text-books and appa¬ ratus used, manual training, and written papers; the normal schools by photo¬ graphs, woodwork, and drawings from nature ; and the musical, commercial, and agricultural schools each show their distinctive lines of work. One is impressed with the series and gradation of Japanese schools. There are a good many draw¬ ings from the different classes of schools, but more drawings from copies than one would expect. The color work throughout admirably illustrates the Japanese ideal. The iree-hand drawings from both the girls’ and the boys’ high schools are good. The institutions for the education of the deaf and blind make a good showiug in wood carving and embroidery. The ungraded schools have exhibited collectively their industrial work, chiefly garments. The English work in the higher institu¬ tions is interesting. A recently published book is selected, and the chapters are assigned to different members of the class for translation. The Japanese idea of English composition must be very large. One such composition examined by the writer contained f 18 closely written pages of letter paper, and another 190 pages. The commercial schools at Kobe, Tokyo, and Kito exhibit full sets of account books. The Imperial University is represented in the exhibit by its department of engineer¬ ing and harbor improvements. The Educational Museum has an exhibit of models, 502 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. charts, and diagrams. A full set of the text-hooks, as well as the other school appa¬ ratus, are also exhibited. There can he no doubt hut that Japan is doing much for all classes and grades of her children. Australia disappointed her friends in sending work from hut one province, New South Wales, and this probably not the best. The best part of the exhibit was the work in vertical writing. Sydney, Singleton, West Maitland, and other towns clearly demonstrate the superiority of vertical over oblique penmanship. The lan¬ guage work exhibited was largely technical ; it lacked freedom and fullness. The drawing, to except the mechanical drawings from the technical schools, was of an inferior order. Much of it was done with pen and colored inks, and the combina¬ tions of colors in most instances were atrocious. In manual training the exhibit was strong, especially in garment making. Young girls in New South Wales do much better in their sewing than girls of equal age in the United States, France, and Eng¬ land. The Sydney Polytechnic College made by all odds the most creditable display from New South Wales. Its Avork in plumbing was unique, and it had some good woodwork. The institutions for the education of the deaf and blind exhibited their industrial work. The New South Wales exhibit was not displayed to advantage. The written work was in glass cases, and these were only to be opened by attendants, who were seldom on hand to do it. The spirit of the Australian work exhibited was that of the English school, although the exhibit at Chicago was so much inferior to the London exhibit that it hardly deserves to be mentioned in the same connection. XVII. By an oversight, the West Virginia exhibit was not mentioned in discussing the work from the Middle States. This exhibit was neither large nor especially strong; but it presented very satisfactorily the educational activities of the State. Wheeling, Parkersburg, and Charleston sent most of the work. The collection of photographs was large, and these included not only exteriors of schoolhouses, but interiors and ground plans as well. There were some pieces of woodwork from the deaf and dumb asylum at Romney that showed skill in handiwork. A chart illus¬ trative of the educational exhibit and a pen drawing of the State capitol attracted general attention. While the United States Furniture Company, the Prang Educational Company, the Milton Bradley Company, and the various book publishers * * * made full and satisfactory displays, with the exception of text and reference books, there was a dearth of teaching apjdiances at the great Chicago Exposition. This was especially true of school furniture and the ordinary school apparatus. True, some of the schools for teachers — as, for instance, the normal schools at Bridgewater and San Jose and the College for the Training of Teachers in New York City — had excellent displays of homemade apparatus; but the commercial exhibits were for the most part small. One little city in Minnesota (Stillwater) made an exhibit of one line of school apparatus (optical projections) that was paralleled only by the French exhibit. A real genius, Mr. Frank T. Wilson, has for some years directed the schools at Still¬ water, and he made at Chicago an exhibit of projection appliances that won for him and his city the approbation of the foreign and American critics. Mr. Wilson is one of the first to introduce and simplify this form of illustrative teaching in the New World, and his exhibit at Chicago was the inspiration and model of much that will be done in this line during the next decade. The workings and aims of the Bureau of Education were shown by Dr. Harris to great advantage, the only regret being that it was placed in the Government Build¬ ing instead of in the Building of Liberal Arts, but this was beyond Dr. Harris’s con¬ trol. When one surveyed the 21 volumes of annual reports of the Commissioner of Education — a veritable cyclopedia of education; the great number of special reports, the eighty-odd monographs on institutions, systems, aqd practices, and tbe 50 miscellaneous publications — when one saw these together at Chicago and noted their contents and influence he could but reflect upon the wisdom of our National Government in establishing the Bureau. Henry Barnard planned wisely when he AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 503 presented to the American Association for the Advancement of Education, in 1854, “A plan of central agency for the advancement of education in the United States.” Another feature of the exhibit of the Bureau of Education was the “ model library.” This contained a part of a selection of 5,230 volumes, made by a committee of 75 librarians and specialists chosen by the American Library Association. The cata¬ logue of this “ model library” will be very helpful in the formation of small city libraries. Surely the American teacher who studied the Bureau of Education’s exhibit had abundant occasion for professional pride and gratitude to our National Government for what it is doing to create for us an extended pedagogical literature. WORLD’S FAIR EDUCATIONAL NOTES. By Mrs. Jexnie M. Bryax, in Boston Journal of Education. If the teachers of the country were not lacking in true professional spirit, would the southwest gallery of the Liberal Arts Building be so neglected? Would a sur¬ geon studiously avoid a display of instruments and appliances pertaining to his profession ? There are schools and there are schools. The Boston schools and those of the back districts are not the pedagogical antipodes. It is a fact to be welcomed with glad acclamation that English is becoming a recognized branch of study, and is receiving as critical attention as has been bestowed for years upon Greek and Latin. The most pleasing, the most utilitarian product of an educational course is the ability to use the mother tongue well. This is alike necessary to the successful business man and to the society belle. A few of the best schools of the country, notably those of Boston, St. Paul, Minneapolis, Denver, and Indianapolis, have recog¬ nized the imperative need of a greater facility in the use of both spoken and written English, and also have been convinced of the really practical benefits to be derived from a better acquaintance with English literature. To this end they have formulated courses of study making language the founda¬ tion, the keystone, the ornamentation of the educational structure. This has been made possible in the lower grades by the unification of subjects. The child in his earliest school days is given a leaf, a flower, or an insect. He is led to examine it, talk about it, count its parts, write little sentences about it, and draw it. It fur¬ nishes material for reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, and drawing. Having something to talk about in which he is interested, under the teacher’s wise guidance, he talks about it freely and naturally. When he takes his pencil in hand it does the talking with scarcely more effort or less accuracy. This develops a little later into a broader course of nature study and literature. In the third, fourth, and fifth years the pupils examine plants, insects, and stones with a view to a more scientific knowledge; they record their observations and enliven and beautify their papers by means of well-executed drawings of the object and its parts. In their earliest school years, and on up, the senseless practice of learning to repeat memory gems has given place to the study of memory gems. In explanation of this statement, let me call attention to two exhibits. Here is a set of fifteen or twenty papers on which are written, with labored nicety and much red-line elaboration, several memory gems. One copy of “The fiftieth birthday of Agassiz” differs from the other fifteen or twenty in no particular except in the name appended. But here is another set which presents a pleasing variety. There is a paraphrase of the poem by one pupil, a reproduction of it by another, an interesting sketch of the life of the naturalist by a third, and a no less simply childlike one of Longfellow by a fourth. But the best feature of it all is the evidence that some pupils have gotten very near to the heart of the dear old nurse Nature, and have given expression to the keen sense of delight awakened by the poem in attempts at original illustration. One biographical sketch shows the Swiss home in the beauti- 504 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. ful Pays de Vaud; another Nature’s storybook is strewn over with eidelweiss and entitled Rhymes of the Universe. How delightful such study! It is not difficult to say which pupils will remember that poem, even to their fiftieth birthday. The work shown by a great majority of the schools proves beyond a doubt that drawing is not merely a pretty accomplishment, hut something as useful and neces¬ sary almost as writing. From the child of 6, beginning with 2 and 2 are 4, on up to the high school pupil, every subject studied is illustrated if it will by any possibility admit of pictorial treatment. The entire absence of abstract arithmetic work in the first, second, and third years was a noticeable feature of a number of the best schools. There was no puzzling of the infantile mind with the abstraction 17 — 3=what? — but it was, I have 17 marbles and lose 3, how many have I left? And there along with the statement was the pic¬ ture of 17 marbles owned, 3 marbles lost, and 14 marbles remaining. In the fourth year, and to some extent in the third, the transition was made to abstract work, but whenever concrete was done, the solution of the problem was accompanied by a neatly executed picture demonstration. A school, nameless, presented a set of papers in United States history, giving answers to such questions as, “Who discovered America?” “Where was De Soto buried?” “When was Ohio admitted into the Union?” Simply a set of examina¬ tion papers, cold, dull, and dispiriting, benefiting more the maker of paper than anyone else. In gratifying contrast to this, was found a set of papers selected from the year’s work of one of the Chicago schools. Biographies of eminent men were embellished with portraits of the subjects and pictures of their homes; descriptions of battles were accompanied by well executed maps showing the positions of the contending armies ; the recital of facts was made interesting by the charm of inter¬ woven bits of story and song; and pervading every paper was the suggestion that the pride and delight felt by the pupils in doing this work would grow, in time, into a pride and delight in exercising the rights of American citizenship. The schools of Denver, Colo., presented the most unique feature of the whole exhibit, namely, a stenographic report of everything said and done by both teachers and pupils for one day, throughout all the grades of one, presumably the best of her schools. It proved interesting reading, but showed nothing remarkable as to mat¬ ter or method. It did show, however, the ability of the teachers to control most admirably for one day at least, both tempers and tongues, and that, too, under most exasperating conditions, as witness the following : A boy, of course, was called upon to parse the verb in the sentence, “Shepherd lead on.” Parsing: “Lead i3 a verb, transitive, because it expresses action done to an object ; passive, indicative, present tense, progressive form.” An appreciative reader of the report had written in the margin “A gem.” The most beautiful exhibit came from Sidney, New South Wales. The writing looked like copy plate, but not the copy plate to which we are accustomed in which hair lines and shading mingle with a Rembrandt effect. It was either a verticle or backhand, the system beginning with the primary, and being maintained to the last grade. The first year writing showed vertical letters, very large, the writing spaces being about the width of the spaces between the lines of ordinary foolscap. This seemed to meet the requirements of the child, for there was a boldness and freedom about this first year’s writing that was truly refreshing after looking at the diminutive, cramped letters shown by other primary schools. The second year the spacing was diminished, and so on, until about the fourth year it conformed to the ordinary standard. The advantages claimed for this system are the ease with which it is learned, its beauty and legibility, its great rapidity, and its perfect adaptability to business requirements. The Indian schools of Haskell Institute, Kansas, and Soboba, Cal., were the most surprising in their results. The writing resembled very closely that of the Sidney AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 505 schools, being almost as beautiful. Tbe illustrations were admirably executed, and tbe language bad a genuinely original flavor. Tbe work done by pupils after seven, fifteen or twenty months was in advance of that presented by any other school examined, and forced from my companion the question, “What do you think now of the doctrine of heredity ?” The age of pupils entering these schools is much in advance of the ordinary age limit, but is a period of five or six years added to a child’s age to offset several generations of intellectual culture! The exhibit of the intermediate schools of Indianapolis was disappointing in that it presented sets of examination papers. The primary work was fine, showing the development of the plan of unification of subjects. The high school was excellent, particularly in the line of literature. The curriculum of the Indianapolis schools provides for a systematic study of the English language and its literature through¬ out the entire course. In the high school, Latin, Greek, French, and German are elective studies, hut English is compulsory. As a result the pupils express them¬ selves with an ease, gracefulness, and power that would compel Bostonians to own them cousins germane. The craze for illustrated work reached its climax in the musical exhibit of one of the primary schools of New Jersey. The music portfolio was made of large sheets of manila paper, on each ol which was written the words and air of a juvenile song. The music of “Twinkle, twinkle, little star” was indicated by a star on the appro¬ priate line or space, instead of a note. For “Dickery, dickery dock,” a “cute” little mouse balanced himself on a line or rested on space as the requirements demanded. So on through “Jack and Jill,” “Busy Bees,” and “Here we sail,” the symbol used was a bucket, a bee, or a boat. It was a matter of surprise that so many schools showed work that to a casual observer looked beautiful and fair, but which upon examination failed to be either helpful or inspiring. The exhibit would be voluminous, handsomely bound, and placed to advantage. The writing would rank among the best shown, but the sub¬ ject-matter would be merely answers to lists of examination questions, the chief aim being to have each pupil represented in each branch. This is, of course, very grati¬ fying to Johnny’s mamma or Katy’s papa, who may wish to see their dear children’s papers at the great Fair, but to the teacher searching for ideas and methods it proved unfruitful soil. The deepest impression that remains is that those schools which have accepted the revelation that the soul of the child who comes to them is the soul of a man or woman, perfect in all its parts, yet waiting the kind, the wise, the gentle guidance of the teacher to develop the highest qualities of intellect and heart; and those schools which have made nature and literature the great media through which this is to be accomplished, are coming into the bright light of the educational noonday. CATHOLIC EDUCATION AT THE WORLD’S FAIR. By John J. O’Shea. As the tree is to be judged by its fruit, in the words of the Divine Master, so the generous vine of Catholic education may be appraised, in a measure, by the living proofs it modestly put before mankind in the noble Hall of Liberal Arts at the Columbian Exposition. Multitudinous and wonder-compelling as the various depart¬ ments of the Columbian Exposition are from many points of view, the array of examples of Catholic training here presented claims the palm over all. As an expo¬ sition of a system, it is the most striking in extent, in variety, in evidence of a mas¬ terly system of mental direction that ever yet was brought before the world’s notice. It dwarfs into insignificance the displays of educational results made by any and every institution in the country, universities, colleges, and training schools taken altogether. The mobilization of such an army of practical witnesses for superiority was in itself a peculiar task. It demanded a special and intimate knowledge of a 506 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. system winch may he described as world-wide; it demanded a personality influen¬ tial enough and magnetic enough to secure the heartiest cooperation simultaneously in places separated by vast distances ; it demanded one, moreover, endued with an indefatigable spirit of industry. The man was found in the person of Brother Mau- relian. He is the Yon Moltke with whom the scheme of mobilization originated and by whom it was so splendidly carried out . * * * Eecognizing the importance of being early in the field, Brother Manrelian made his application for space at the Exposition as soon as the directorate and committees were organized. Although he encountered much difficulty at the outset, he was met at length in a spirit which can not be too highly extolled. Thirty thousand feet of floor space, roughly speaking, was placed at his disposal, and the position which he was fortunate enough to secure is probably the finest in the great hall devoted to manufactures and the liberal arts. This space, large as it is, would not suffice for a tithe of the exhibition which could have been made had there been more time for preparation and a condition of unlimited space; and as a matter of fact it has not nearly sufficed for the great mass of materials forwarded to Brother Maurelian from the various dioceses which responded to his invitation. He had asked for a space of 60,000 feet, anticipating the largo amount of material which would be at his com¬ mand, but he could hardly have expected the directors to give more than they did under the circumstances. But the display he makes is imposing, extensive, splendid, and marvelously eloquent of the care, taste, industry, and energy of the whole soul of Catholic teaching. * * * Bearing in mind the fact that in the collection which has called forth this tribute of admiration, but the work of only a portion of the Catholic schools of 20 dioceses in the United States was shown, one might easily imagine what would have been the writer’s wonder had all the archdioceses, dioceses, and vicariates in the Union, numbering about 90, been represented in similar proportions. Perhaps it is better that the display is confined to its present dimensions. It conveys a deeply impres¬ sive lesson, whose effect might be minimized by being further protracted. It is the frailty of our nature to grow weary with the repetition even of excellent things when we have had enough to convince us of their undeniable worth. It is sufficient to say that, as it stands, the Catholic educational exhibit is incomparably the great¬ est display of its kind ever made. The importance of putting such proofs of Catholic activity before the world at this particular epoch was at once perceived by all the hierarchy of the United States. Bishop Spalding, of Peoria, took an especial interest in the project from its inception. The unfortunate divergences of opinion amongst Catholics over ques¬ tions of school attendance and State help, perhaps, naturally led many outsiders to think that while internal disagreement reigned the real work of education might be to some extent neglected. To such mistaken people there could bo no greater surprise than this revelation of Catholic activity. There hare been no controver¬ sies to disturb the serenity of the managers of the public schools. With them everything has gone on as smoothly as the current of the Schuylkill, and apparently as somnolently. * * * To the kindly cooperation of Hr. S. H. Peabody, chief of the liberal arts depart¬ ment of the Exposition, the promoters of the Catholic educational exhibit owe mainly their success in having their display so extensive and effective as it is. To his aid they are indebted for the prominent site and ample space they have secured ; and he, on his part, feels how largely this display has contributed toward making the World’s Fair an adequate exemplar of the active mental and mechanical progress of the age. In his little speech at the throwing open of the exhibit he warmly expressed his thanks, on behalf of the World’s Fair authorities, to all who had cooperated in the work. His surprise at the colossal results achieved in such a brief interval was by no means concealed, and the eulogy which he pronounced on the zeal of the whole Catholic teaching body in preparing the youth of the Catholic AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 507 populations for tlie practical work of existence was tlie genuine expression of a broad and liberal mind. In tbis marvelous array of proofs be bebebl a signal refu¬ tation of tbe widespread calumny that tbe tendency of Catholic education is to dwarf tbe scope and limit tbe faculties of tbe human mind. But be saw only one side of tbe picture. Tbis was but tbe practical side of tbe Catbolic system wbicb be was bebolding. Behind that mass of work of band and brain lies the invisible sleepless activity wbicb, while training tbe physical faculties, keeps ever leading on tbe moral ones to a clearer conception of tbe truth that there is a higher goal to be reached by tbs intelligence than tbe conquest of earthly knowledge, and that tbe sum of human perfection must have its final complement in the display wbicb shall merit the everlasting award of tbe Judge who sits on high. Tbis is what is meant by the twofold work of Catbolic education. * * * In tbe arrangement of tbe mass of material placed at bis command Brother Mau- relian has exhibited a masterly ingenuity. By a simple device be has managed to double tbe grouud space, so to speak. By running a desk around each of tbe com¬ partments, into which the exhibit is divided, be has been enabled to supplement bis wall surface so that none of bis space shall be wasted. Sufficient room is given for tbe visitor to walk all through the compartments and examine tbe work spread out upon the desks and banging on the walls. Tbe finer and more frangible objects are displayed in high glass cases standing in tbe center of each compartment. What is here made manifest may be divided into two branches : tbe methods of teaching and their practical application by those taught. Take, for instance, a speci¬ men of work from the Do La Salle Institute in New York. It is the engineer’s plan for a great iron bridge. Here you see tbe notes taken by tbe pupil from tbe teacher’s instructions. Then you see tbe plan and tbe elevation drawn in regular artistic fashion. Tbe dimensions are given; then tbe details down to tbe last bolt; then tbe estimate of tbe cost of tbe whole work. There is no particular missing; tbe plan might be at once put into a contractor’s bauds, and be would have no difficulty in setting to work to make the suppositious structure a substantial reality. So in astronomy, so in music, so in mechanics of many kinds. Tbe system is lucidly demonstrated in tbe intelligent action of mind upon mind. Twenty dioceses of tbe United States invite examination of their educational methods. Tbe Canadians have an independent exposition of tlieir own, of wbicb a word later on. Tbe American dioceses stand in tbe following alphabetical order : Brooklyn, Buffalo, Chicago, Cleveland, Covington, Denver, Detroit, Dubuque, Fort Wayne, Green Bay, La Crosse, Manchester, Milwaukee, Natchez, New Orleans, New York, Pittsburg, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Sioux Falls. Tbe religious teaching orders in charge of tbe schools whose work is shown are tbe following: Benedictine Sisters ; Dominican Sisters ; Franciscan Sisters; Franciscan Sisters of P. A. ; Ladies of Sacred Heart of Mary; Mesdames of tbe Sacred Heart; School Sis¬ ters of Notre Dame; Polish Felician Sisters; Sisters of Charity (B. V. M.) ; Sisters of Charity, Emmitsburg; Sisters of Charity, Mount St. Vincent; Sisters of Charity, Nazareth; Sisters of Christian Charity; Sisters of Divine Providence; Sisters of Loretto; Sisters of Notre Dame, Cincinnati; Sisters of Notre Dame De Namur; Sis¬ ters of Mercy; Sisters of Providence, Vigo County; Sisters of St. Agnes; Sisters of St. Joseph; Sisters of St. Francis, Oldenburg; Sisters^of tbe Holy Cross; Sisters of tbe Good Shepherd; Sisters of tbe Holy Child Jesus; Sisters of tbe Holy Family; Sisters of Humility of Mary; Sisters of tbe Immaculate Heart of Mary; Sisters of tbe Incarnate Word; Sisters of the Holy Names; Sisters of the Poor Handmaids of Christ; Sisters of tbe Precious Blood; Sisters of tbe Presentation; Ursuline Sisters ; Visitation Sisters; Grey Nuns; Congregation of Notre Darno, Montreal; Sisters of Charity, Greensburg; Sisters of Charity, Leavenworth; Sisters of Charity, Mount St. Joseph; Sisters of Charity, Cincinnati; Benedictine Fathers ; Congregation of tbe Holy Cross; Congregation of St. Viateur; Fathers of tbe Holy Ghost; Jesuit Fathers; Lazarist Fathers; Secular Clergy; Brothers of tbe Christian Schools. 508 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Individual exhibits are shown also by the Catholic University of America, Wash¬ ington, D. C. ; the Catholic Archives of America, from Notre Dame University, Indiana ; the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America, represented by its Temperance Publication Bureau; the Catholic text-books; the Columbian Library of Catholic Authors; the League of the Sacred Heart; Miss M. G. Caldwell (first foundress of the Catholic University), embroidery; Miss M. L. Ash;s art school, Memphis, Tenn. ; the Papal Josephinum College, of Columbus, Ohio, and the University of Notre Dame, Indiana. A glance at the artistic features of the general exhibit reveals some work which challenges attention, not from its mere abundance, which is great, but from its general excellence. Some of it is simply splendid. The place of honor is properly given to the Chicago exhibit, and the chef d’ceuvre in this is, according to strict definition, perhaps, a school show piece. It is a white Carrara marble statue of Archbishop Feehan, with the figure of a couple of school children at his feet. The work is full of grace, dignity, and life, and tells its own story as eloquently as any marble composition can ; and all the cunning of the modern Italian school of sculp¬ ture is exemplified in its treatment. It is the work of a Roman artist, and its cost was $15,000. The priests of Archbishop Feehan’s diocese subscribed the sum as an affectionate recognition of his claim to be regarded as the “protector of their schools/’ a distinction which he undoubtedly deserves. Gregorys fine portraits of a large number of the American Catholic hierarchy, which are found in the collection sent by Notre Dame University, as well as the portraits of Archbishop Riordan and Bishop Spalding, which are apart, may also be excluded from the list of educational exhibits, in a similar sense. But besides these there is a great body of artistic work, in oil, in water color, in crayon, in india ink, and in pencil, which furnishes a means of judging what advance we are making in this important branch of education There is no one so weak as to believe that America has achieved the first rank in art, but every honest critic believes that earnest effort is being made to attain to excellence. Artists do not spring out of the ground like the fabled men and women of Deucalion and Pyrrha’s time. Genius is not to be compelled; in due time, no doubt, it will visit the American shore and found a true school of art here. It is not claimed for any of the schools whose art teaching is here exhibited that they have reached the highest level attainable. There is a great inequality observable in the mass; there are cases of bad drawing and inharmonious and slovenly coloring; but there is work that is really true and good, and some that of its kind is positively beautiful. This is true especially of the specimens of illuminated work executed by the pupils at the Sacred Heart Convent in San Francisco. The collection of work shown by the Sisters of Mercy of that city is also remarkable for its excellence. Some admirable work in crayons and water colors is presented by the pupils of Miss Starr’s preparatory fine-art classes. The steel engravings from the Catholic high school of Philadelphia, founded by Thomas Cahill, are especially fine, and a corre¬ sponding level of excellence is noticeable in the examples of drawing and painting and embroidery turned out by the same institution. Numerous examples of oil painting are shown in different sections of the exhibit; and of these a very crotchety critic observed in one of the daily papers that the only good end they serve is to show the worthlessness of the teaching. Criticism of this kind is not worth answering. These pictures are not put there as pictures in an art gallery are. They are there neither for competition nor sale. They are put there simply to show what progress the young art students are making in the very difficult technique of color, which many eminent artists have vainly spent their lives in trying to master, and which no degree of excellence in line drawing could ever help some to gain. It would be just as reasonable to take exception to the occasional blunders in spelling, or the faulty compositions which are found occurring here and there in the class papers of the pupils. Surely no one would expect perfection from those who AMERIGAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 509 are in tlie state of tutelage. The whole school system, so far as it applies to the training of the mental and physical faculties, is laid hare to the world’s inspection, with all the imperfections of juvenile human nature on its head; and there never was a creature more out of his element in such an exhibition than the professional art critic, the individual, as a rule, who has failed in everything himself. Even Mr. Sneerwell would find it hard to get ground for cavil in the beautiful specimens of work shown by the pupils of the Christian Brothers’ schools in Paris. It is full of art workmanship in many branches, all of marvelously fine execution for boys, and the specimens of drawing and engraving are of a remarkably high ~ order for juveniles. The French claim to be at the head of the list of all things educational, and no one can say that the challenge which they give out at the World’s Fair will be readily taken up. In the Canadian exhibit some noteworthy features are presented. The display made by the Catholic schools of Quebec covers 1,700 square feet of floor, while the showing of the Protestant schools from the same Province fits in a nook measuring 175 square feet. The Protestant Province of Ontario, on the other hand, sends from a total of 5,878 schools an aggregate of 375 exhibits; while the Catholics of the same Province send from a total of only 289 schools no fewer than 234 exhibits. The quality of the artistic work sent forward by the Catholic schools is vastly superior to that of the other schools of the Dominion which have sent specimens of their products. There are some aspects of the Dominion display which make it compare favorably with that of any of the other countries represented. The show of her¬ baria, for instance, in which specimens of the multitudinous wild flowers of Canada are collected and arranged with exquisite harmony of arrangement, is especially impressive. The fine sense of fitness in association and taste in grouping and artistic form seen in these numerous collections is at once felt and confessed. In the work of the brush, the crayon, and the pencil, too, Young Canada need not have any trepidation about competing for honors. Some tracelof the French genius is visible throughout the display from the Province of Quebec. It is not a matter for deep wonder that this display exhibits a superiority. * * * The minority in any locality in Quebec is entitled to its pro rata of the public taxes levied for educational purposes, to be applied in accordance with the views of the minority. This in effect leads in that Province to the denominational rule in edu¬ cation. As the Catholics are greatly in the majority in Quebec, they receive the maximum of the public taxes, and are thus enabled to secure the very best teaching appliances that money can obtain. The teaching power they already possess in plenty within their own religious and semireligious bodies. In the various kinds of handicraft shown here, the work of American boys in the more practical and everyday classes of production need not fear comparison with that of any others. Especially fine examples are sent in from the Catholic Protectory of New York, for boys and girls, and the great trade school on Staten Island. Teaching those who are in possession of every natural faculty is in many cases no easy matter : but the instruction of that unhappy section of the human family who come into the world without sight^or hearing or power of speech, or become so after their coming, must be regarded as the perfection of the teachers’ skill. It was with Catholic teachers that the idea of educating these maimed intellects began, and by them in France and Italy and Ireland that it is carried on mostly at present, with results that on consideration seem perfectly astounding. The cultivation of litera¬ ture, music, and the fine arts, as well as many mechanical industries, by the blind and the deaf and the dumb demands specially qualified teachers ; and to the furnish¬ ing of these the religious orders now devote constant and most earnest attention. The specimens of work sent in by the Catholic Protectory pupils of this class deserve more than a passing notice. There are some very beautiful specimens of lace shown in the Canadian exhibit, the finest being the work of a girl of 13 who is totally blind. The instructresses of these Canadian blind girls are the good sisters known as the Gray Nuns. 510 EDUCATION REPOST, 1892-93. Marvelously fine work is also shown by the Ephpheta School, of Chicago, in an astonishingly varied field. Engraving, lithographing, photography, designing for carpets and wall paper, and many other decorative branches of industry are taught, it will he seen, most successfully in this admirable institution. To many the attractions of the kindergarten display made hero will prove supe¬ rior to any other, as that system has now come to he regarded as the summum bonum in the educational field. Hero is a bright and picturesque array of proofs how readily the little mind can be developed into the big one, as its powers are one by one awakened and appealed to in the course of its school-play years. The little picto¬ rial efforts, and the efforts in tiny handicraft, show that the shepherd boy who began drawing his sheep upon a slate and the builder of miniature fortresses in the mud or the sand by the seashore were most likely in reality the originators of the idea which Froebel and his successors took up and translated into action. It is only the preparatory stage in literature and art, it must be remembered, which this exhibit contemplated as coming within its scope. The fact that there are con¬ tained in it illustrations of the higher education in both of these walks of civiliza¬ tion serves only to show, perhaps, the nakedness of our land in that respect. The higher education, as an institution, for American Catholics is a thing of possibilities; how immensely they are handicapped in that direction may be learned from a com¬ parison of the other educational exhibits with theirs. All that the public and pri¬ vate generosity of a great people could do has been done for the men and women of other creeds here ; all that has been done for the Catholics has been done out of their own resources. The Columbian Library of Catholic Authors is a collection of no small interest and value as testifying that in the higher education Catholic names are not by any means unknown, even here; and the women’s department in this col¬ lection is not the least interesting portion of it. The fine exhibition from the Catho¬ lic University of Notre Dame, Indiana, gives an excellent idea of the present state of scholastic life in that institution and the high plane of its studies and scientific pursuits. The American Catholic Historical Society deserves a word of praise for the flood of light it lets in on the past of the struggling church on this continent by its rich archaeological collection of ecclesiastical, artistic, and literary work. To the collection of these objects made by Professor Edwards of Notre Dame, Indi¬ ana, the palm of merit in this department must be given. He has got together a perfect storehouse of precious ecclesiastical relics. They tell a wonderful tale in their Avay, these mitres and croziers and vestments, tarnished with age; these missals and breviaries and calf-bound volumes whose pages are yellow-gray as the face of a mummy. * * * Many things are taught by this exhibit. TV e are lifted up in thought as we wander through its varied mazes from the .contemplation of the wisdom and the care mani¬ fested in the details of the system to the nobility of the purpose; and we see under¬ lying it all the sublime tenacity with which the Catholic Church goes on in her beneficent way. Through good report and evil report she adheres to her mission, whether states or Governments frown upon her or smile. She will not neglect her own, no matter who despises them, but like a tender mother and guide still helps them onward in the world, upward toward the light. THE CATHOLIC SCHOOL EXHIBIT.1 [From Tlie Catholic TVorlcL] By a Professor in Pedagogy. To the intelligent observer the Catholic school exhibit, lately held in Central Palace Hall, New York City, is an event of more than passing interest. To quote the words of his grace the most reverend archbishop of New York, we may say that — “It is not necessary to say that our schools are improving. It would be a miracle if they did not improve. 1 Though this report refers to an exhibition held in New York, it is hero inserted because most of the objects there exposed to the view had also been exhibited in Chicago. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 511 “In tliis age, when so much attention is paid to the subject of education — I do not refer to religious training, which has a paramount importance in all our institutions ; I speak rather in regard to secular education at the present time — when the very best methods of teaching are the object of constant thought, when the best educators are devising new ones, and all means are suggested that can be of use in this work, it would be next to impossible to move in such an atmosphere and not to take advan¬ tage of all the benefits that accrue therefrom. And if we add to this the zeal of our brothers and sisters, and the great attention our pastors give Christian education in our schools, we shall understand at once that necessarily progress is made from day to day.” We had already examined much of this display at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago ; but, as stated by his grace the most reverend archbishop : “It was intended to have had the exhibition before this; but after the exhibits came back from that great city, where they had been exposed to the dust for several months, and as the books had been handled in many cases by thousands of visitors, it was deemed advisable to supplement all by new work especially prepared, as during that time a certain amount of experience had been acquired, and the children themselves were spurred on, by the many awards given by impartial juries for their work, to do some¬ thing better and brighter.” It was, therefore, with real satisfaction that we renewed our acquaintance with much that this exhibit offers, while we gladly admit that a considerable addition of really deserving work is found in this second exhibition. Our remarks are limited to elementary and intermediate studies in English. UNIFORMITY OF SYSTEM WITH ELASTICITY IN DETAIL. The first thing that strikes us in this exhibit is the independent action that it presents, combined with a unity of aim and object such as to convince the close observer that in no body is their greater harmony of action, combined with greater freedom in the application of pedagogic principles, than among Catholic teachers. Any impartial critic will admit that there is not a single new idea that has approved itself to conscientious instructors which does not find a place in some part of the display. A recent editorial in a leading educational journal in New York stated unreservedly that the religious teachers of this metropolis and vicinity are the most extensive and appreciative readers of school literature and of pedagogic publi cations. A close examination of the work presented, from the kindergarten to the college, shows this; for some of the very latest lessons published in leading school journals, many of the suggestions for special “class days” that have appeared within the last few months, have been adapted and used in some of the new work shown in this exhibit; while it is a well-known fact that many religious teachers from within a radius of 100 miles, or even more, have been daily visitors at the Catholic exhibit; just as thousands of religious teachers came from great distances to study the Chi¬ cago educational display. Better still, in the normal methods presented by at least one of the training schools, it is evident that in the formation cf young teachers Catholic organizations are abreast of all that is best in modern methods. Though we refer to this normal col¬ lege in another portion of this article, we must here say that among the papers pre¬ sented by the normal scholars we noticed a series of studies on the great educators ; besides giving the names of those who are generally included in such enumerations, the professor of the history of pedagogy has included several others thoroughly well known to continental readers, but whose claims, for some strange reasons, have been ignored in American publications. For terseness and brevity, combined with ampli¬ tude of analysis, these studies deserve more than this passing notice. Still more satisfactory is the fact that in all the leading branches of elementary, intermediate, and higher instruction Catholic writers offer works based upon the latest researches, and in line with the most advanced, accepted teachings of leading minds. 512 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. THE SPIRIT OF PATRIOTISM INCULCATED. Another sentiment suggested by the general outline of the exhibit is one of legiti¬ mate national pride. His grace the most reverend archbishop might well declare that “ we are all fond of our common country.” No general order, had it been given, Could have brought about such a public expression of love for the national emblem. In every schoolbook, in some copy book of each school, in many of the literary compositions, the flag of our country and its history occupy a prominent place. It would be difficult to find a more direct proof of the love of country than is furnished in the sketches at the head of the lessons in United States history furnished by some of the convents, and in the “Summaries of American topics” found in many of the boys’ schools. It is worthy of remark that some of the brightest ideas in patriotism, shown in these sketches, are the contributions from the schools directed by religious per¬ sons from abroad, who have been called to help the cause of education, which has developed so rapidly that local religious organizations have been unable to meet the demand for teachers. GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. While there is direct evidence of singleness of aim and purpose in most of the ordinary school work, there is also ample proof of a healthy individuality of action in the different plans adopted for the development of the teaching of geography, for the illustration of geographical terms, ana the intelligent coordination of geography, history, free-hand drawing, and natural science. Of more than usual worth are some of the raised maps. A few of these are of a very high order of merit, consid¬ ered artistically or from the pedagogic standpoint. It is no disparagement of the work shown in Chicago to say that there are maps in the Catholic exhibit surpass¬ ing the very best specimens shown in the White City. The application of needle¬ work to mapmaking is a feature that deserves all the praise it received. These samples came from ordinary parochial schools, though two or three convents had a larger collection of a more artistic type, a specimen from a female industrial school being the best. The combination of colors in these threaded maps has a very pleas¬ ing effect. Harmonious work is evident in this geographical collection. Generally speaking, where one department of a parish school has good work, the other has followed suit. Bible history is shown in every variety of form by a large number of the schools. The illustrations that accompany these Bible lessons are not always of a high order of merit, but they may be the more readily accepted on this account. In this, as in all other work presented at the exhibit, the leading feature is the variety of merit . as well as of grade, showing some very ordinary attempt beside worR of artistic or literary value. This is an evidence of good faith that keen observers will appreciate. What is said of Bible illustrations will apply equally to English compositions, or simple class talks, founded on ordinary pictures. In several schools these illustra¬ tions have been culled from ordinary papers or magazines. Others have been taken from art journals. Some pupils have reproduced the illustrations as head pieces to their compositions, and in many cases the results are highly commendable, some showing evidence of really artistic merit as well as discrimination in selection. EXCELLENT PENMANSHIP. Much of the penmanship, particularly in the boys’ schools, is above the average. In a few cases it is very poor. If we may accept the pedagogic principle that pen¬ manship is the key to the discipline of the class, most of our Catholic schools leave nothing to be desired on this point. Some of the penmanship is of so high a grade, especially in some convents and in many parochial schools, that several teachers of non-Catholic schools have questioned the genuineness of the samples shown. These teachers forget that the artistic instinct is highly developed in the best grades of AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 513 Catholic schools. The great attention paid to drawing in these schools has much to do with their success in penmanship. Still, we are free to admit that, in a few instances, claims are made that we could not reconcile with the age of the scholar and the class of penmanship said to he the pupils’. We revert again to the idea that every properly furnished and well-directed Catholic school is a gallery of reli¬ gious illustration. But this artistic surrounding is not in sympathy with the put¬ ting of poor penmanship, written in lead pencil, within costly binding. In fact, lead pencil writing is not desirable for young children. It does not call for light and shade, nor does it afford the digital drill that is an essential in every expert lesson in penmanship. Its redeeming feature is that it excludes the blotting and blurring so common in young children’s work. SENTENCE BUILDING — LANGUAGE LESSONS. We note with satisfaction the introduction of religious subjects into the construc¬ tion of sentences and the writing of elementary compositions. No intelligent critic will fail to perceive that lessons on religion present a class of terms and expressions that are not found in secular branches. These terms form no inconsiderable share of the pupil’s stock in language. Sentences formed with such words as the basis of construction must be of particular value, as thoughts are thus suggested and ideas developed that no other subjects can bring into play. In this group of school work are sets of instructions given on religious or moral truths by the reverend pastors or their assistants. One boys’ reformatory had a series of shorthand reports of a series of sermons given during a mission or spiritual retreat. Another institution of the same kind for girls offered a collection of the instructions given to one of the sodali¬ ties. Many of these instructions are written by instructors who are in full sym¬ pathy with youthful minds, and there is a happy knack of illustration that shows a deep study of subjects with which children are pleasantly familiar. We again call attention to the evidence of freedom of action in each school, or even in the classes of each school. Each has something local in its work. A history of the parish, special accounts of the history of the school, the church, or the pastoral residence, and kindred topics create a parish spirit and a pride in parochial enter¬ prises that will bear good fruit in the near future. THE DRAWING CLASSES. Drawing is a leading branch in the exhibit. Much of the work shows excellent grading and is in line with the latest approved systems. In some of the largest speci¬ mens in oil or water colors the grouping is not very happy ; the foreshortening is par¬ ticularly defective. A few specimens in black and white are singularly lacking in taste. Perhaps a preliminary examination by a competent committee might debar such inartistic exhibits. Apart from these the exhibit is good. While speaking of drawing it may be in order to remark that several schools lim¬ ited their entire exhibit to a mere collection of pictures and sketches. This is not a fair test of a school’s standing. It is to be regretted that these schools did not enter more fully into the spirit of the exhibit. Their art specimens give evidence of talent of so high an order that the same ability displayed in other directions would be sure to produce happy results. It is possible, also, that these schools could not get the space they needed to make a more complete exhibit. W'ORK OF THE PROTECTORIES. It is but simple justice to our homes, protectories, and industrial institutions to say that their exhibit in the art department is among the best in the display. The wood carving is excellent, the clay modeling — done in presence of the visitors — the application of drawing and sketching to practical industries were all very attrac¬ tive. The best collection of photographs was made by one of these schools ; but ED 93 - 33 514 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1892-93. while this is good in its way, we do not consider that photographs, however artistic or numerous, are a fair exchange for actual work. In their ordinary school work these industrial and correctional establishments surpass many parochial schools. We naturally expect the manual training in the former to excel, hut when we bear in mind that the inmates of these industrial schools have much shorter hours of study than ordinary day schools we are obliged to admit that the scholars must be anxious to learn, influenced, probably, by kind treatment, to which they had previously been strangers, while the teachers throw their whole energy and talent into the Christ-like work of redeeming youth through the combined influence of mind and heart. PROGRESS IX SCHOOL WORK — THE ANALYTICAL METHOD IX ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The writer having devoted several months to the study of school work presented by Catholic schools at the London Health Exposition in 1884, at the New Orleans Cotton Centennial in 1885, and at the Chicago Fair in the past year, can bear will¬ ing testimony to the evidences of progress which this Catholic exhibit makes. In the teaching of English a certain number of schools follow an admirable sys¬ tem, to which we have already called attention. A limited number of illustrations are carefully analyzed. Several sets of suggestions are given by which the same illustration may be studied from different points, thus making each illustration answer for several compositions. In grammatical analysis the diagram system appears to be still in favor, but in many cases where blue and black prints are used the script is so indistinct as to be practically illegible, and the analytical distinctions are lost. In some of the academies, particularly in one of the oldest female academies of New York, we found some admirable literary work, based upon the study of the great American and a few of the leading English writers. Longfellow appears to be a great favorite. In at least two schools we found “ Evangeline” exhaustively studied — with such association of composition, history, rhetoric, and declamation (or recitation) as the selection permits. No attempt was made in either of the con¬ vents or academies designated to give meritorious value to the copy books by any decoration or illumination. The work is allowed to stand on its merits. UNITED STATES HISTORY. In the advanced parochial schools, and in most of the academies, marked improve¬ ment upon the Chicago exhibit is seen in the study of Lnited States history. The number of maps based on the critical study of the text is unusually large. While the coloring in many maps, especially some prepared by boys, is too deep and glar¬ ing, most are extremely good as studies, and more particularly as companion works to the text they are intended to illustrato. a. still more striking improvement is the evidence furnished by much of this work that many reference books are at the serv¬ ice of the scholars In several schools we found the same point in history examined from almost as many authors as there weie scholars in the class. Particular atten¬ tion has also been paid in the best schools to the reading that is recommended in most recent works in United States history. Poetry of a patriotic character bearing upon these historical questions has been read, and in many cases illustrated. DRAWING AS APPLIED TO MANUAL TRAINING. The application of drawing to manual training in our ordinary schools is develop¬ ing rapidly. One parochial school in the outskirts of New York City has a series of specimens of graining, in imitations of various kinds of wood, which is so very good that we find it difficult not to give it special mention. But the most perfect work of this kind that we can recall is furnished by a groiip of students who took their own measurements, rough sketched their plans on the grounds, made their own estimates of expense, and then, in a set of charts almost AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 515 perfect in color and design, have developed every part of tlieir work with most com¬ plete detail and entire success. Neither London in 1884 nor New Orleans in 1885 had any such work. Part of this exhibit was at Chicago; other portions, notably some specimens of surveying, were completed only during the last days of the Cath¬ olic exhibit. His grace the most reverend archbishop has called special attention to this work. TYPEWRITING AND SHORTHAND. Phonography and typewriting appear to he on the wane. A few convents have taken up both, for one appears to he of little service without the other; hut the boys’ schools seem to show less than -formerly. Probably the market has been glutted with immature operators; in any case, this class of employment, outside of public Government work, appears to ho passing into female hands. The typewriting shown in most of the schools is excellent. Two academies sent pupils to report the addresses of the speakers on the first night of the exhibit. Their transcripts were accepted by some of the metropolitan journals as equal in accuracy to the work done by professional reporters. Some of the fancy work done by three schools was photographed at the expense of the companies whose machines were used. This figured work is done only during free time, and it is no exaggeration to say that the birds, flowers, buildings, etc., created by the typewriter are almost as lifelike and as expressive as if done by pencil or brush. Much more practical is another class of school work done by the typewriter. In two commercial academies the manifolding process has been employed to multiply copies of some excellent notes of lessons and developments of class topics. In this way the teachers of one city may distribute specimens of their best work to others, and thus disseminate excellent class work at very little trouble or expense. In some schools all the class specimens of typewriting are in capital letters. This is an easy way to write out any copy, but it spoils the appearance of the page, and should be used only when the pupil is beginning and unable to use both classes of type. Speaking of commercial specimens recalls the fact that some of the bookkeeping sets presented by girls’ schools are not as practical as they might be. Apart from this criticism, there is a variety of work showing conclusively that the bookkeeping sets are not mere reproductions from printed samples. Some of the sets are thor¬ oughly original. Perhaps more explanation of the theory of the science of accounts should have been shown. One school presented a series of charts showing the relation of the different books used in bookkeeping; the idea, if not entirely original, has been seen but seldom at any of the great exhibits. This same school has thoroughly good commercial work throughout. KINDERGARTEN WORK — PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF DESIGNING. A very striking part of the display was the vast amount of kindergarten work and the accumulation of specimens in wood and clay. This is the natural outcome of the deep interest that most Catholic teachers have shown in following some of the principal courses of industrial work furnished by technical classes. As experi¬ ence has taught, manual training in ordinary schools must be limited to some very simple lessons in the handling of materials that are easily procured and not costly. Within these limitations the specimens which are offered by a very large percentage of the schools deserve study and analysis. The designs are almost limitless, and add another to the many proofs furnished that teachers in Catholic schools are allowed a healthy liberty of action that appears to be out of harmony with purely govern¬ mental institutions. The French minister of education who boasted that he could at any hour of the day tell what each child was doing in any school, in any part of France, would not recognize his iron-bound regulations in the extraordinary variety of method that these kindergarten and manual specimens furnish. Such magnificent specimens 516 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. as the new seminary, tlie miniature furniture, the models of illustration used in natural science, the church vestments on a tiny scale, the endless variety of methods in geography — all these would he relegated to a committee; rigid rules to which all must submit would be the order of the day; the schools would become part of a huge machine from which all originality would be ostracized, and in which healthy indi¬ viduality would be a defect, not a virtue. For years English common schools were conducted on this cast-iron system, and teachers were driven to desperation trying to keep within rules and regulations that settled everything, from the time-table to the luncheon counter. Better counsels now prevail. Great personal liberty is allowed to teachers in the direction of their respective schools or classes. Results are deter¬ mined by the general tone of the school, not by percentages in which fright has often more to do than intelligence. The consequence is that Her Majesty’s inspectors report vast improvement. The schools are, individually, conducted on lines best suited to the locality. There we have just such independent action, under reasonable general regulations, as is responsible t<3 a great extent for the excellence of the results we notice in this Catholic exhibit. . FREEDOM OF SPIRIT IN SCHOOL WORK. We are glad to see this freedom illustrated in the matter of languages. It is not desirable that every language but the English should be banished from our common schools. On the other hand, we realize the difficulty of attempting much in this line. What this Catholic exhibit presents in modern languages is limited to simple exer¬ cises in German and French. Some of the female academies have full courses in both these languages; a few parochial schools have iess extensive exhibits in German translations. It is a striking fact that some Irish- American boys who attend German schools are first in German. This occurs in a sufficient number of cases to make it deserving of remark. Furthermore, several schools show tests of spelling that seem to decide the question whether the study of English and German simultaneously is injurious to the pupil. In a large number of instances German boys spell in English more accurately than their American companions. As several branches maybe taught in German or French as well as in English — catechism, meutal arithmetic, history, etc. — it strikes us that where a pupil has already an elementary knowledge of a modern foreign tongue, it is unfair not to give him some chance to preserve and develop this extra language. It is a knotty question, but it deserves a solution. Americans are at a decided disadvantage when traveling abroad ; as a rule, they do not speak any language but their own. At the present time several governments urge the study of at least one modern language besides their own. Americans should not be too far behind in this matter. NATURAL SCIENCE BRANCHES. In the department of natural science the general exhibit is nut extensive. Ad¬ vanced grades in some convents show fair work ; in the same grade of boys’ acad¬ emies the display is better. The only normal college that exhibits has unusually good papers in natural philosophy and physiology. Several advanced schools have excellent collections of botanical specimens collected by the students. We fear that these schools will not feel encouraged to display their collections again. In several cases the specimens have been so roughly handled as to injure their future value. It is well to save time, but the desire to save should not permit examiners to open care¬ fully arranged specimens and then leave them unclosed after examination. This and many other matters will cure themselves in time, but meanwhile the collectors must be satisfied with the assurance that several enthusiastic students have learned their first lessons in forming collections. To have so launched even one new searcher into the botanical field is to have made a mortal happy, even if at the cost of spoiled specimens and battered specimen cases. AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 517 Referring again to natural philosophy, and also to elementary astronomy, -we think that these two subjects are not taught as generally as in former years. This is the more surprising when we recall the fact that so many excellent manuals are now published, and that instruments for illustration are so much cheaper than in past years. But, what is most surprising is the total absence of any home-made specimens of articles used in simple experiments. We know that such collections exist in a few schools, but regret that no one has ventured to show them. This criticism does not apply to the sketches and designs furnished by some of the academies or colleges. One academy on the Hudson j)re- sented a very complete set of illustrations done with consummate taste and intelli¬ gence. All the practical work of this excellent school is equally good. OBJECT-LESSON METHODS. Those who have followed the progress of elementary teaching as seen through the educational expositions of Philadelphia, London, New Orleans, and Chicago must be struck by the sudden appearance or disappearance of certain features. As a striking instance, we may recall the subject of object lessons^ For several years the educa¬ tional journals were incessant in urging the importance of these lessons in developing the perceptive powers of children. Numberless groupings of objects were x>resented, stages of evolution from the crude material to the finished specimen were shown, everything that ingenuity could devise to attract the pupil’s attention was done. In the New Orleans exhibition school collections were a most prominent feature; in Chicago the public schools as well as most private institutions had a few complete displays of the kind, while in the Catholic exhibit not more than a dozen schools showed anything like a serious attempt at such classifications. But one school out¬ side the city, so far as we could find, has made a successful, detailed, and scientific collection of object lessons. In this school local industries have been studied, descriptions of visits made to these centers are furnished, and an intelligent grouping of the materials employed in these industries enables the examiner to get an excellent idea of the various processes involved in each. This school took up the study of object lessons oji a scientific basis. Th6 aim has not been to get a lot of things together and label them “ object lessons.” On the contrary, a specific end has been kept in view, limiting the study to local industries. These industries have been taken up in their natural order, a regular course of study established, and a systematized plan of visiting the industrial centers arranged. The result has been, not a spasmodic effort to secure a short-lived though brilliant success, but a calm, progressive, intelligent arrangement, whoso outcome is the splen¬ did collection this school has brought together. Object lessons require teaching of the highest order to maintain their hold. Mere collecting of objects will not suffice. ARITHMETIC — RECENT CHANGES IN TEACHING. As yet we have said nothing about arithmetic, mental or written. For some years past a simultaneous attack has been made on what is supposed to be the unnecessary attention given to this subject. It is not easy to take sides consistently in a dispute that calls for such wholesale condemnation of what was done by teachers who were our superiors in the mathematical line, and who in many other respects, especially in the teaching of elementary natural philosophy, far surpassed us in their success. Perhaps too much attention was paid at one time, and is still being paid, to certain phases of commercial arithmetic that have lost their importance. But it is certainly incorrect to claim that mental arithmetic is receiving undue attention. On the con¬ trary, unless we are much mistaken, it is the neglect of this most practical form of arithmetic that renders the teaching of written work so difficult. Among all the papers on arithmetic we notice very few in which mental calculations'take the promi¬ nence to which they are entitled. Some teachers have been complimented on their methods of teaching the extraction of roots. From the cursory examination made 518 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. of these special claims we think that they are well founded. The teachers who nse these methods should suggest that they he introduced into the text-hooks on arith¬ metic studied in their classes. Considered as a whole, the copy hooks of arithmetic are not remarkable for the excellence of the figures; the ruling is poorly done, and unnecessary use of colored inks does not improve the appearance of the solutions of problems. The same criticism holds good in regard to the specimens of bookkeeping. As much of the colored ink used is of an inferior grade, and some of the paper is not well sized, the writing spreads, the ruling becomes blurred, and the entire work has an unkempt ax>pearance. This is not the rule, but it applies to many exceptions. PHOTOGRAPHY. One of the chief innovations is the very extensive use of photography in the reproduction of groups, in the development of local history, and in the study of" natural science. It is surprising, however, that so few teachers have employed photography in the teaching of penmanship, the preservation of original synoptic tables, and in combination with the phonograph for the teaching of elocution. In a few of the highest academies, especially in one or two, remarkable scenes con¬ nected with the early development of school property, the collections of specimens, and photographs of graduates arc thus preserved. Much more could have been done to reproduce copies of military cadet corps, of military movements, etc. A few schools have camera clubs and do good service for various classes and associations by keep¬ ing a running collection illustrative of the chief events in school life. This feature of school illustration should be encouraged. UNREASONABLE CRITICISM — CLOSING REMARKS. The chief criticism, based upon a careful study, referred to the lack of complete¬ ness in the work shown by many schools. In these cases it was found that much of the work in those schools, though excellent in itself, did not fit into any general plan followed by the teachers. It was the opinion of many that there was an excess of drawing and a lack of ordinary school work. While this remark holds good in some respects, visitors should have borne in mind that drawings or sketches are about the only class of work that could be hung on the temporary separations. Most schools had as' much ordinary bookwork as they could well display. It might have been more varied in character, but it was sufficiently great in quantity. Several critics remarked that many teachers did all the fine work on the covers of the ordinary copy books; in most cases this fact was acknowledged, and the exact work done by the children was indicated. Nearly all the old schools throughout the diocese did excellent work. There was a delicacy of touch in what they did that showed the power of good habits once established. In many cases work was shown from years gone by. This afforded an opportunity to compare old methods with the new. The number of teachers who presented extensive collections of notes of lessons was not great. Strictly speaking, this comes under the head of normal work; still, as an indication of the lino of thought running through any particular body of teachers, such notes would be of more than ordinary interest. It is said that many attributed much of certain classes of literary work to the influence of one well-known educator. While this maybe an exaggeration, it is certain that each teaching body has its characteristic methods of presentation of subjects. These traits would easily bo noticed in the course of a certain number of “ notes of lessons.” The same holds true of individual teachers. EARNESTNESS IN TEACHING. Judging from the great number of teachers who were taking notes, and from the many questions asked about special exhibits, we feel certain that the greatest pos¬ sible interest is felt in the principles that underlie the successful school work here AMERICAN VIEWS OF THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 519 exhibited. With a closer study of school methods, and a closer examination into the plans and programmes followed by those who have made the most successful exhibits, there is no doubt but that Catholic teachers will become still more efficient. Our Catholic schools have shown their work; what that work is all have a chance to see and appreciate. Well might Mayor Gilroy in his opening speech declare that “ One of the proud¬ est aims of man or woman ought to be to teach the youth of the country how to exercise the rights of citizenship when they came to man's estate.” “The parochial schools,” he said, “are doing this, and, as the present exhibition shows, are doing other very great and noble duties.” There were 10,000 children in the city who did not possess the means of obtaining an early education. There were 60,000 pupils who attended the parochial schools, and 18,000 attending private schools. He declared that if all these children were to be thrown .suddenly on the public school system great confusion would result. “If this were the only benefit the parochial schools conferred, it would entitle them to the gratitude of the entire people of the community.” And with equal force did Colonel Fellows say in his closing address: “Go on with your work. It is protected from the skies. It means a blessing to earth. God, and the voice of all proper humanity, will crown it with an undying benediction.” THE CATHOLIC SCHOOL EXHIBIT. CHANGES IN METHODS OF TEACHERS. Among honest teachers there is an earnest wish to get together, to learn from suc¬ cessful example howto do the greatest amount of work with the least useless expendi¬ ture of energy, with greatest positive results. In the Catholic school exhibit of New York (which was to all intents and purposes the same as the Chicago exhibit) there were some features that struck us as being in the right direction and as being of real assistance in the very important feature of the best methods of presentation of elementary subjects. In the use of illustrations drawn from everyday topics the exhibit was singularly rich. Most deserving of mention is the fact that very young children put together the parts needed in the illustration where such was feasible. These illustrations were particularly suggestive when applied to definitions of geography. As we mention geography, it may be the proper i>lace to state that this subject shows great variety in treatment. The use of colored threads played a large part in the development of illustrations. Great variety of wording was perceptible in the phrasing; freedom in the use of children’s words was a striking feature in the best taught schools. In United States history the best modern methods were to be found among the work of select schools and in some of the parochial classes. The combination or coordination of literature and history was generally perceptible. A very salient feature of the. United States history was the comparison between the assertions made by Winsor and similar authorities in books prepared to meet the demand for Colum¬ bian literature, and that of American authors of accepted worth, whose works have been before the public for some time, and whose assertions, particularly about Colum¬ bus, had hitherto been unquestioned. The use of synoptic tables, prepared by the pupils themselves, has become very general. Summaries prepared in the same way are also largely employed. These indicate original work. The same holds true of the tracings and sketches that many children added to their literary summaries. Penmanship shows considerable inrprovement over previous exhibitions. Practical problems in arithmetic have, to a marked degree, supplanted the old-time form in which abstract numbers played so prominent a part. In girls' schools the “Bills of parcels,” as the old arithmetics were wont to call shopping accounts, were largely 520 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. used. Home-made collections of plants, flowers, words, etc., added to the interest of a few schools ; in a few instances pupils furnished an account of how the collect¬ ing had been effected. In the industrial schools pupils appear to be well instructed in the handling of material so as to entail the least possible waste. The Catholic Protectory had a cer¬ tain number of boys who carried on their trades in the presence of the people. The deviation from mere silent exhibition to actual work was an agreeable surprise. Perhaps the most progressive feature of the school exhibit is the extensive use of photography. It is surprising to find the unusual lines in which it has been employed, offhand blackboard sketches, developments of literary or historical periods specially prepared by the teacher, the principles of penmanship — these and a hundred other topics have been reproduced by the pupils and preserved for future reference. The combination of reading and simple composition is another feature that deserves com¬ mendation. It has been carried out in a thoroughly logical manner in a large num¬ ber of the boys’ schools. There are many other subjects, typewriting, phonography, bookkeeping, geometry, and mensuration, algebra, modern languages, etc., to which we might refer and that would offer matter for interesting discussion or remark, but we have mentioned a sufficient number of subjects to show that the Catholic exhibit deserved attention, and received it, from a large percentage of the earnest teachers of New York and vicinity. Perhaps the most pleasing feature of the entire exhibit was the friendly spirit in which the work was discussed by public-school teachers. It was a common thing to see black -rob ed sisters in earnest discussion with their trimly dressed com¬ panions on the great question of methods and means by which we all seek to become more successful in the great work of making the rough ways smootu and the narrow way wider for the youth of our common country. (I. C. N., in New York School Journal.) CHAPTER III. GERMAN CRITICISM ON AMERICAN EDUCATION AND THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS. Contents. — Introduction — “ The American system of education,” by Prof. Emil Haus- Tcnecht — “ The public school system of the United States,” by Dr. E. Schlee — Three lectures: ( 1 ) “ The educational exhibit at Chicago; ” ( 2 ) u The school system of the United States ( 3 ) 11 Manual training as represented at the World’s Fair,” by Prof. Stephan Waetzoldt — u The congress and the conference of librarians at Chicago,” by Constanti ne Norrenberg. INTRODUCTION. The World's Fair, and the International Educational Congress held in connection ■svith the Fair, brought to the United States a number of German, Austrian, and Swiss educators of high position and well-earned distinction. They not only care¬ fully examined the results of school education on exhibition at the World’s Fair, but spent weeks and months in a critical examination of our system of common, elementary, secondary, and higher education, as well as special, technological, art, and professional schools, for the purpose of reporting to their respective Govern¬ ments upon the condition and results of education in America. The United States had entered into competition with the civilized world in show¬ ing its educational facilities and their results at the World’s Fair, and the European and other foreign educators who came to this country to study our schools, discov ered peculiar features in our system that can not be found in any other country. The German visitors reported in writing, and most of these reports have been printed in Germany, where they caused much interest and astonishment. It can not be said that these reports are in every case absolutely correct, on the contrary, they exhibit palpable errors ; yet, it is remarkable with what a felicity these observers detect the characteristics of American culture, and with what directness they point them out to their countrymen. They find much to blame in America. But we notice the praiseworthy fact, that these men in nearly all cases found the causes, or sought for the causes, of things that appeared to them strange. This proved that they were accustomed to work scientifically, to think philosophically, and act honestly. I. Dr. Emil Hausknecht, director of the second city Realschule in Berlin, who for many years was professor in the national university of Tokyo, Japan, published in the annual catalogue of his school the following report on American education. It is here reproduced in English version, only certain insertions and quotations are omitted (such as examination questions). He dwells on some features of American education that he considers an honor and a glory of this country, and points out some of its defects. The impartial, objective way in which he does this is noteworthy. THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. Report of Prof. Emil Hausknecht. Principal of second city Real sell ule in Berlin. For daem ae aelc man sceal be bis aemettan sprecan daet be spried, and don daet daet he det. May the foregoing words of good King Alfred excuse the incoherency and frag¬ mentary nature of the following remarks. They are the result of observations and experiences, as well as of the study of accumulated printed matter, gathered on my 521 522 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. journeys through the United States during the summer and fall of 1890 and 1893. I have not as yet had the leisure to work them up systematically. He whoN has had the pleasure of crossing the United States, leisurely observing what he saw, and who has had the privilege of finding in his various places of sojourn the kindest reception and enlightening expression of ideas on the part of leading persons in science and promoters of popular education; he who has seen with his own eyes, especially in the West, the innumerable palace-like institutions for public education, churches, libraries, and Christian association buildings for young people, and gymnasia for schools, and in a measure has learned the piety and liberality of their promoters and founders, will know that in that country, though it is partly still in primitive development, yet everywhere progressing with gigantic strides, and disregarding Old World prejudices, something higher rules than “filthy lucre,” which, under the present circumstances of civilization, can scarcely be called “ filthy ” any longer. A prominent preacher expressed himself during the Sunday services in Trinity Church, previous to the beginning of the winter semester of Yale University in the old and venerable Elm City of New Haven, as follows : “ It is a passion for education, a noble eagerness for knowledge and culture that has become a perfect craze, that has seized the whole American people at present.” Dr. W. T. Harris, the United States Commissioner of Education, said to me in one of our pleasant and instructive interviews : “ It is a heart hunger for education, a ravenous appetite for culture that is felt in all strata of society, in the middle and lower classes of the peojile, as well as in the upper classes; it works like an elementary force, and urges onward and upward.” We need not wonder that things sometimes are placed topsy-turvy in a country the people of which create everything through their own power and out of themselves, and it must be borne in mind that in the peculiar development of its conditions it lacks a centralized government, one that thinks for all, and guides the people even in questions of detail; a government in which the traditions of experi¬ enced and well-qualified experts is embodied ; of men who are conscious of the object to be attained. Neither have the States of the Old World, moving in regulated con¬ ditions, always avoided mistakes in the domain of education, and it is these very States which have to overcome a system firmly established in order to do justice to new principles arising from special conditions. The cause of this universal desire for education in America is partly found in the fact that the common school education is quite inefficient and inadequate. A gen¬ eral law for compulsory school attendance is not in existence, and an astonishingly large ratio of the population has grown up without any instruction in school. All the more intense becomes the consciousness of the want of an education in after years, particularly in a country where there are no rules and regulations for the preparation for professions or occupations. If with us anyone “changes saddles” 'that is, his profession), his action is in most cases subject to the disapproval of pub¬ lic opinion, or to that of his circle of acquaintances. In America — at least as yet — everyone, even a common laborer, may become anything and everything, even Presi¬ dent, if he understands how and has learned enough to make wise use of circum¬ stances. It is quite immaterial how he acquired his knowledge, or whether he can by written testimonials prove to be in possession of such knowledge. It is not at all a rare case to meet men who, as boys, peddled matches, newspapers, aud other things in order to support mother and sisters, and who at times, when they had saved enough, “did a little toward getting an education,” until finally they had worked their way up to be social leaders of the people. Every inhabitant of that country has an exalted opinion (mostly exaggerated) of his own capacity, hence it is not to be wondered at that the intense aspiration toward an “education” for practical reasons permeates all the laboring classes. Every seusible workman, who likes to speak of the equality of all citizens, and yet instinctively feels the inequality caused by difference in social position, aspires to be, or at least wishes to be, considered a GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 523 gentleman in liis appearance, manners, and actions. As a gentleman lie does not drink liquor, and smokes little or not at all. 1 The motives that urge the cultured and wealthy classes to a liberal and incessant participation in raising the level of education of the lower classes are quite differ¬ ent. They have long recognized that a constitution resting upon the principle of democracy, like the American, finds its greatest enemy in the ignorance and want of judgment of the masses, and believe that this danger may he met by popular education as high and extended as possible. To these political motives may be traced back (partly at least) the efforts made in behalf of advanced instruction for girls. The men are almost exclusively occupied from an early age in obtaining a livelihood; though, by life’s experiences and the reading of journals, magazines, and books written in popular style, they endeavor to educate themselves, the average “schooling ” the boys get is of a comparatively brief period; hence it is deemed advisable to secure for the girls — the mothers and teachers of the future genera¬ tion — the benefits of a most thorough education. It is of course plain that, aside from these political considerations, often exclu-. sively philanthropic motives come into play which lead to liberal bequests for pur¬ poses of education. After these general remarks a few features of the American system of education may be discussed. I have neither leisure nor available space to enter into the minute details of the entire system. It seems to me advisable, however, to touch upon a few points necessary for a general comprehension of the entire system before entering into a discussion of any separate branch. It shall be done briefly and without claim upon systematic arrangement. There is no national organization of the school system, embracing uniformly the entire school system of the country; in fact, it would be impossible, owing to the unequal development of the separate States, which, taken together, have an area fifteen times the area of the German Empire. The Bureau of Education in Wash¬ ington, a. part of the Department of the Interior, is merely a statistical bureau of public instruction, without any authoritative or directive power. The establish¬ ment, maintenance, and organization of the school system are concerns of the sepa¬ rate States, and they devote themselves to this task with great zeal. Public opinion, conscious of the fact that the healthy de velopment of the State depends upon a well- organized school system, tries to attract a large immigration from other States by establishing excellent institutions of learning. Furthermore there is a noble rivalry kept up among the States, which is the cause of there being- few States that do not think their institutions the best in the Union, the “best in the world,” or at least nurse a conviction that they soon will be. The supreme authority in school matters is, in most States, vested in a State board of education, which endeavors to elevate the whole system of public educa¬ tion of the State acording to a uniform plan, and whose especial anxiety is to pro¬ mote the general and professional education of the teachers, both men and women. In some States the number of women teachers reaches the high proportion of 90 per cent of the total number. To the large cities, which consider it an honor to do as much as possible for education, the law grants almost complete liberty in levying school taxes; this liberty increases the “joy in giving” and the possibility for new, progressive measures. The highest degree of perfection of any of the numerous school systems may be found in Boston, or, generally speaking, in the State of Massa¬ chusetts. Comparatively well developed are the schools also in Minneapolis, St. Paul, Indianapolis, and Washington. A similar opinion may be held concerning entire States like Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Minnesota, Iowa, Michi¬ gan, and others. 1 However, chewing and spitting seem to be allowed to a gentleman. Children, even young girls (hut scarcely of the better classes), chew gum or nibble popcorn. 524 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Immense sums are expended for the maintenance and elevation of the system of instruction, not only by the States and communities, hut likewise through grand and liberal bequests and donations. Aside from colleges and a few other institutions instruction is gratuitous; some States, like California, Wisconsin, Virginia, Texas, Michigan, and others, have even free “ universities/7 which, however, with the partial exception of Ann Arbor, actually rank as colleges. Appliances also are furnished free, and not only text-books, but everything needed in manual training and cookery, and in physics and chemistry, for which every pupil has his own experimenting and work table. With regard to the advantages of free text-books and the uniform¬ ity caused thereby, the opinions differ. Free schoolbooks for entire States seem to have essentially influenced the quality of the books by paralyzing the productive energy of authors. New and more methodically arranged schoolbooks are rare of late years. Gratuity of the entire instruction and free text-books and appliances belong to the many devices which have been resorted to in order to allure as many pupils as possible into school, and to keep them there, since compulsory attendance can not be enforced. In theory America possesses the common school (Einheitsschule). After the pri¬ mary school, intended for children from 6 to 10, follows the grammar school for children from 10 to 14 ; the continuation of this institution is the high school of three or four yearly courses, which is partly an institution for the preparation for practical life, and partly a preparatory school for the college. The grammar school corresponds more or less with the upper grades of our people’s school of six, seven, or eight grades. It is fundamentally different from the English grammar school, which may be compared to our gymnasium, and like our gymnasium (“ Real-Gymnasium ” and “Real-Schule”) stands entirely outside of the system of the common school. An American boy who has passed through the grammar school is said to have graduated, while an English boy who goes through the course with credit up to 14, is said to have passed the seventh standard. While thus, in theory, the course through the Amer¬ ican common primary, grammar, and high school leads to the college, the facts do not correspond to this everywhere. The colleges distrust the education of the high school and, indeed, the transfer from a high school to a college is possible only when the former has observed the conditions of admission required by the college, and when it stands in more or less intimate relations to the respective college. Com¬ paratively few high schools maintain such relations. Those high schools on the other hand, which are considered primarily preparatory schools for colleges, distrust the education offered in the grammar schools; so that some parents who intend their children to enter the high school, withdraw them from the grammar school before the completion of the course, and have them privately preiDared for an entrance examination to the high school. The colleges are a kind of intermediate institution between our gymnasium and university, representing the work of the upper grades of a gymnasium and that of one or two years at a university, as we understand those terms. They are mostly institutions with dormitories, lying remote from the noisy din of cities, surrounded by park-like grounds. In the colleges physical exercises are very popular. While, with few exceptions, no beer drinking or smoking is found, yet the student’s life here is very gay, full of fun and pranks. To be sure, work is done here, and a great deal of it, for at the end of each of the three or four terms of the year an examina¬ tion has to be passed. Unlike our universities, most American colleges have the purpose of transmitting knowledge. The chief object of our universities, which is to guide the students to independent scientific production, lies entirely outside of the scope of the college. But some colleges attempt this by retaining their own graduates, i. c., those who have passed the finishing examination after a three-years’ successful attendance at college, and offering them in so-called post-graduate courses (in contradistinction to undergraduate courses) opportunities for scientific work. A few colleges admit only post-graduate students. Such institutions are called, at GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 525 times, universities. The term university is frequently given to other institutions that do not deserve it, and are not recognized as such in the learned world. Alto¬ gether there are nearly 400 colleges in the United States. * * * “Of the colleges (universities) Bryn Mawr is exclusively for women; three, Chi¬ cago, Cornell, and Ann Arbor, admit men and women on precisely similar terms to all departments of the university, both to the undergraduate and to the post¬ graduate courses; and one, Yale, admits without distinction of sex to the graduate courses, but not to the undergraduate courses. In the University of Pennsylvania advanced instruction is given in the graduate department for women, which offers all the courses that the university faculty of philosophy does. * * * Some of the advanced courses at Harvard are given every year to women precisely as to men, through the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women, ‘Harvard Annex.’ * * * At Columbia (in New York) the register of students in the school of politi¬ cal science contains the names of women, and also that of the university faculty of philosophy; women are in attendance at Barnard College, a kind of an annex for women in Columbia College, in which, I remember to have heard with pleasure, les¬ sons in Euripides, in Old English, in Hermann and Dorothea, and in French grammar.” The foregoing paragraph made us acquainted with another characteristic of the American system of education, the so-called coeducation, simultaneous instruction of boys and girls in the same class rooms, and in the same subjects,1 in the primary, grammar, and high school, as well as in colleges and universities. Formerly coedu¬ cation was resorted to much more frequently in Germany than now. In the Western States of America it was first used as a makeshift, but it has in the course of the last ten years spread farther and farther East, and is now found in all the New England States, which are remarkaDle for their firmly- fixed institutions and high degree of culture. The most important of the higher institutions of learning in New England reject coeducation in high schools and colleges, I think, with good reason. In quite a number of States coeducation is practiced in all schools. Concerning the advan¬ tages and disadvantages of this mode of education lengthy and heated controversies have been filling the columns of the press. As a makeshift coeducation is better than nothing. As a principle, it entirely ignores the needs of the separate sexes arising from the differences in the develop¬ ment of boys and girls. Boys and girls in the ages from 14 to 18 must be differently treated, both in regard to the intellectual and the emotional nature. Coeducation is possible, however, in America more than in Germany or elsewhere, because custom and education have given to the girl and the woman greater freedom and determi¬ nation in their manners and appearance, and have also given them strong protection against encroachment and improprieties. Coeducation is possible in America for two other reasons : The week has only five school days, Saturday being a holiday, and the school day has only five lessons, of which one is usually a study hour. Besides, gram¬ mar and high schools require much less severe intellectual effort and a much more con¬ centrated and simple exertion of the mind than is required in our secondary schools for boys. In the grammar schools foreign languages are not taught at all; in the high schools only two foreign languages are taught, of which the second scarcely proceeds beyond mere rudiments. In modern languages I have fouud everywhere (with the exception of Boston, which certainly has the best schools) a method of instruction which beggars descrip¬ tion, for it is a waste of time and calls for no intellectual labor on the part of pupils and teacher. The consequences of beginning the study of foreign languages so late are very serious. They are manifested in the very small amount of knowledge in the languages with Avhich the student enters college, so that there he is frequently subjected to mere elementary exercises. The consequences are seen also in the defective linguistic-logical discipline of the mind, which perhaps more than the dis- JExcept in gymnastics and manual training; instead of this branch the girls have instruction in female handiwork, and, in the grammar schools, lessons in cooking. 526 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. cipline in mathematical forms of thought is a requisite of all profound intellectual progress, he that in linguistic or in mathematical and scientific branches. This dis¬ cipline is especially necessary, in fact an essential requisite of independent intel¬ lectual work, and the present American method of beginning the study of languages is entirely inadequate. The other disadvantage of a defective linguistic discipline, namely, the -want of thorough comprehension of the mother tongue in America, is compensated in most colleges by excellent exercises in the written and oral use of English. Another peculiarity of the American system of schools is the extensive employ¬ ment of women in teaching, not only in primary and grammar schools, where they are employed almost exclusively, but also in high schools, and at times in colleges. It is unquestionable that some women are gifted with special physical and inteL lectual powers, able to successfully cope in scientific equipment, methodical skill, and pedagogical tact with many of the best male teachers in (let us say, in order to remain on the firm ground of actual observation) Latin, Greek, physics, chemistry, and mathematics.1 Generally speaking, the lower degree of physical power of resistance in woman causes a lower degree of executive ability. A more extensive employment of thoroughly prepared men in high schools would very preceptibly raise the level of these schools. But men are not numerous as teachers in America, not even in the high schools. Public life offers positions with much higher emolu¬ ments than those of the schoolmaster and professor. The one circumstance that comparatively few men devote themselves to teaching in grammar and high schools, reacts naturally upon the quality of the teachers engaged; but of course I do not*mean to say that there are no thorough teachers in these institutions. Generally speaking, it may be asserted that one kind of high schools, called English high schools, in which modern languages and natural science predominate over the classical languages, is, according to our conception, scarcely more than an advanced elementary or citizen’s school. In these schools, if they happen to have one or two thoroughly equipped male teachers for one or two scientific branches, acceptable results are found. The Latin high schools seem to be better in every respect. Of course there are a few exceptionally good English high schools. A peculiar feature of the American school system is the development which man¬ ual training has had. It is an acquisition made since the World’s Exposition at Philadelphia, and an imitation of the Russian system, which was suggested by Dr. Woodward, of St. Louis, and has since spread over the whole Union. Manual train¬ ing is now either given in special, technical, or manual training high schools, which are admirable, or has been made an integral part of the course in primary, gram¬ mar, and high schools, as, for instance, in the city of Washington. In the so-called manual training high schools, which are a third kind of high school beside the English and classical, ten hours a week are devoted to work in the shops, five to drawing, and ten to scientific instruction. I must deny myself the pleasure of entering into the historical development of this interesting and important branch of instruction, nor can I state here the psycho¬ logical arguments upon which it is based; but I will state that the growth of man¬ ual instruction as an organic branch of the public school system and the great popularity and progress of Froebel’s educational ideas- (surprising to us as Ger¬ mans, but very significant for America) has led to a complete revolution of didac¬ tics, to the so-called “new education,” the education “by doing,” in contradistinc- ’One observation seems to me worthy of mention. It was made in "Wellesley College. In a class consisting cf some 20 young ladies studying mathematics, the students showed themselves so well acquainted with differential calculus that there could be no qdestion as to their ability to use and comprehend it. This visit was made in company of the school superintendent of Berlin, Privy Councilor Prof. Dr. Bertram, whose quick observation and expert judgment aided me during a part of my journey in the fall of 1893. 2Dr. Hailmann, superintendent of public schools in Laporte, Ind., has earned a great and merited reputation by introducing Proebel’s ideas, and thus improving the methods of school instruction. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 527 tion to the old memoriter method. A further result of this instruction “by doing” are the independent exercises of the pupil in experimenting, mentioned before. These experiments are made, of course, under direction of the teachers in physics and chemistry. For the preparation of teachers the States have their normal schools; for that of the three learned professions (theology, law, and medicine), divinity, law, and medical schools. Very few of these institutions require a college education for admission. Many of the medical schools shut one eye, if the candidate for .admis¬ sion has scarcely reached a degree of education required for admission to a high school. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston is a polytechnicum of the first rank. Its president is the renowned political economist, Gen. Francis Walker. Besides, there are trade and industrial schools. The Drexel Institute in Philadelphia is a very grand institution for art, science, and industry, and is richly equipped and well organized. It admits students of both sexes. Drawing and modeling — subjects which, though extensively taught in America, are but little developed — seem to be very well represented here. The main object of this institu¬ tion for popular culture (this epithet is used in the true sense of the word) is the training' of teachers; it prepares — (1) Teachers and supervisors of drawing in public and private schools; (2) teachers of science in high schools and academies; (3) directors and teachers in physical culture; (4) instructors in manual training; (5) instructors in cookery; (6) instructresses in dressmaking and millinery; (7) assist¬ ants in library work, i. e., mostly girls; the employment of women in the lower posi¬ tions in libraries is a very extensive one in America, the land of public libraries. The American public libraries are distinguished more than the generous English libraries by facilitating and simplifying the use of books for the reading public by making the books accessible, by advising and guiding the readers in the selection of reading matter, and by making the use of reading rooms as comfortable and pleasant as possible. For Indians and negroes an excellent institution exists at Hampton, Ya., the normal and agricultural institute for negroes and Indians. I visited it in the fall of 1890. The young Indians of both sexes received here, besides instruction in the common school branches and religion, a training in trades, agriculture, female handiwork, cooking, tailoring, washing, ironing, etc. The negro children in the Northern States are taught together with the white children; in the Southern States, including even Maryland and the District of Columbia, they have their special schools. It was interesting to hear in a colored high school in Washington a 15-year-old negress translate Cicero's Pro Milone. The colored teacher of Latin, a graduate of Harvard, also spoke German fluently. The teacher of physics and chemistry, like the princi¬ pal, a colored man, was a Ph. D., who had first studied at Harvard, afterwards at Heidelberg and Berlin. Aside from some institutions established by the Catholic Church and other religious communities, no religious instruction is given in American schools. However, it cannot be said that therefore an atheistic atmosphere prevails in school and society. Nowhere is religious life as active and intense as in America. I do not think, as is alleged, that this remarkably strong participation in religious life is a consequence of the separation of church and state and the exclusion of religious instruction from the schools. It is said that because the schools do not indulge in overfeeding their pupils with Bible verses and hymns (as is alleged to be the case with us), attend¬ ance at church is better and more voluntary, dictated by the desires of the heart. The conditions are altogether different in America. As everywhere in the Anglo- Saxon world, so it is, especially in America, that the mind (or should we say an aberration of the mind?) which ripened the reformation has again awakened and hastens, as Carlyle says, to a search for new forms in which the essential contents of Christianity are to be molded. Hence the numerous bequests for pious purposes; hence, also, the numerous churches and pulpits well supported by devout and chari- 528 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tably inclined adherents of different sects ; hence, also, the fact that a hook like Robert Elemere, by Mrs. Humphrey Ward, is found everywhere, and has eager readers and commentators wherever the English language reaches — and English is the universal language which spans the globe. This same spirit pervades a good part of the laboring people. I myself have heard on the commons of Boston and other cities on Sunday afternoons, in religious socialistic speeches addressed to all who were willing to listen, the ever-recurring idea of a socialistic Utopia that the world could not he improved unless the kingdom , of Jesus were restored in its original form, and its social plans carried out. Gymnastics in the primary and grammar schools has only recently found some consideration, but since these schools are without gymnastic halls, only calisthenic exercises, fashioned after the Swedish system, are given in the class rooms. This is made possible by the fact that every pupil has his own desk, and the aisles are wide enough for the purpose. The want of gymnastic halls for these elementary schools is perceived more generally now than formerly. Many of the high schools and col¬ leges have such halls, which are magnificently equipped with Sargent machines and with apparatus for Swedish educational gymnastics. The Sargent machines, so called after their inventor, Dr. Sargent, the director of gymnastics in Harvard, are excellent, scientifically planned appliances for the development of strength of the different limbs and muscles. The gymnasia, often also used for military exer¬ cises, are rarely without luxuriously arranged bathing establishments and swimming basins.1 Many of the gymnasia have a continuous inner gallery used as a running path for foot racing. Appliances for rowing likewise belong to- the common equip¬ ment of many gymnasia for girls as -well as for boys. These halls are frequently used between lessons for gymnastics on the apparatus, or tests of strength on the Sargent machines. Besides, most schoolhouses of large and middle-sized cities have spacious and well-ventilated play halls, which are covered (some are in the basement of the schoolhouses) so that the class rooms may be emptied and aired during inclement weather. In many institutions, especially in girls’ colleges, anthropometric tables are kept in which the growth of the pupils and the increase and decrease in the strength of different parts of the body are recorded, which record is renewed and corrected after stated periods. This serves as a means for hygienic information and instruction concerning correct positions of the body. Every individual table con¬ tains a normal figure in black lines, on which, with colored ink, the figure of the body of the particular student is indicated in exact accordance with the measure¬ ments taken. This leads to self-discipline in diet and conduct, and hence is not without ethical and educational influence. If, despite these partially model appliances for gymnastics, bodily exercises are not as well fostered in America as with us, it is owing to the fact that in America, as well as in England, open-air games occupy such a prominent place in the educa¬ tion of the young; especially has this been true in America for the last thirty years. Baseball, the national game of the Americans, which has much resemblance to the English rounders, and is played by nine persons, seven fielders, one pitcher, and one catcher, amuses young and old, in village and city, from May till October. Rowing and canoeing are diligently practiced; also football, which, however, owing to the severe winters, is commonly played in September, October, and November. Also for the Canadian game, la crosse, societies have been formed in some cities of the East; in 1890 I saw it played in Baltimore. Lawn tennis is equally popular with ladies and gentlemen, as in England; cycling (or oicycling), which is nowhere limited by police regulations as in England, is very frequently resorted to by ladies for recup¬ eration. Angling and fishing, as well as excursions to the wood-covered hills and camping under tents, are quite popular sports. For such camping parties, consisting of from two to four young people, the White Mountains in New Hampshire seem to have a particular attraction. 1In the Woman’s College, of Baltimore, an institution maintained by Methodists and well con¬ ducted, there is also an appliance for drying the hair quickly. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 529 A characteristic feature of the American high schools is the fact that the pupils are being made acquainted in every branch of study with the accessible literature relating to it and receive suggestions for the use of popular scientific works touching upon the subject. Works of reference of various kinds are found in great number in every high school. The cause of this procedure, especially important in the writing of essays on literature and historical subjects, is partly explained by the necessity of resorting to these books because of the often very inadequate knowl¬ edge of the teachers, which requires that the pupils be offered reliable material in reference books. It is partly explained, also, by the strong desire to educate for self-activity and independence ; this is a tendency very prominent in English and American schools. A thing worthy of imitation is the continuous blackboard in American schools, a blackboard, either of natural slate or made of slating fluid, attached to the four walls, except where the wall is broken by doors and windows. This gives ample room to teachers and pupils for blackboard work. Sketches, figures, etc., sometimes in artistic perfection, illustrating mathematics, geography, and natural history, can be retained on the blackboard for many a day ; there is still room left for quotations from "noted authors, for golden rules of life and proverbs, which may be renewed weekly. The fact that in the courses of study in colleges such ample opportunity for the study of the Spanish language is given appears curious to us Germans. Though the well-established relations between the Union and the Latin-American States might explain it, it is reasonable to suppose that the recent popularity of Spanish as a study stands in close connection with Pan-American desires and aspirations to crowd out European nations, especially Germany, from commerce in South America. Looked at from a purely commercial standpoint, the study of Spanish has for the Germans, at present, a prominent importance. Thorough acquaintance with Spanish is fully as important to us as a knowledge of French. Far more important, however, is a thorough knowledge of English, the universal language that spreads over the whole world. Another very excellent institution in some colleges may be mentioned. It is that of the sabbatical year, according to which the professors are granted one vacation year in every seven years with the provision that they use this year for the continu¬ ation of their own scientific preparation, and for a visit to the Old World in order to gather information concerning new methods of instruction. If we had such a sabbatical year, though only for teachers of modern languages in secondary schools, the instruction in modern languages would be promoted ; what a wealth of new, fresh, valuable experiences and points of view might be gained for the profession of teach¬ ing, for the education of the young, and for the nation in general ! Of course, for the American, who draws his salary during this furlough, a voyage to Europe, and a sojourn there, does not cause a pecuniary loss; but owing to the low prices of com¬ modities in Germany, compared with the much higher prices of other European coun¬ tries, the German teacher could not possibly live in foreign countries on his salary alone. The various discrepancies and inefficiencies of the American schools, merely touched upon in the foregoing paragraphs, have not remained hidden to the Americans themselves. They form subjects of discussion in numerous societies, some of which, like the National Educational Association and the Modern Language Association, have members throughout the entire Union. They are also fruitful topics of dis¬ cussion in numerous essays of the best American periodicals, especially the Forum, the Atlantic Monthly, the North American Review, etc. The recognition of the ineffi¬ ciencies of their educational institutions and the present general enthusiasm for popu¬ lar education, mentioned at the beginning of this report, have led the Americans to numerous new experiments for the purpose of elevating the school system of their country. ED 93 - 34 530 EDUCATION REPORT. 1892-93. Among the various attempts of this kind, many of which touch upon the work of home mission, university extension and college settlements are foremost. The latter are in their fundamental ideas a certain renaissance of Christianity, a movement toward its early humanitarian aspects. College settlements are homes maintained ky students and graduates, especially of women’s colleges, in the darkest and most depraved parts of large cities. Young ladies who have passed through college, and who have inclination, time, and money, as well as health adequate for this very exhaustive work, agree to serve in these homes for several months. Here, by means of social entertainments of various kinds, such as games and plays, or by means of lending and discussing books, by means of lectures and instruction, visits and furnish¬ ing medicines, etc., the young missionaries try to approach and influence the hearts of all classes and ages, especially of children and youths of both sexes in the entire neighborhood, the ethical level of which it is the object to raise. “The settle¬ ment is a home full of open- hearted and intelligent men or women who approach the poor, not as visitants from another world, but as dwellers in the same block or ward, finding a pleasure (and it is a real pleasure, not a fictitious one) in the acquaintance of their fellow-habitants, and as claiming a share in the life of that quarter of the town, and a right to contribute whatever they may in the way of books, music, pictures, general .information, or meeting rooms and acquaintances, to the well¬ being of the community to which they belong.” The establishment of college settle¬ ments has been copied from England, where the best known settlement is that at 28 Commercial street, East London, known as Toynbee Hall, founded in 1885. In New York I visited the settlement conducted by Dr. Jane Elizabeth’ Robbins, No. 95 Riv- ington street, and also the Neighborhood Guild, 26 Delancey street, conducted by Dr. Stanton Coit. University extension is a movement on the part of the universities (originally Oxford and Cambridge in England) for extending the possibilities of education to the great mass of all who live remote from university cities, and to all educated, semieducated, and uneducated beyond scholastic age who have a desire for advanc¬ ing their education or are likely to have a desire of that kind awakened in them. It is said to bo the object of the universities to offer a scientific education not only to a limited number of young people blessed more or less with wealth, but. also to contribute directly or indirectly to the elevation of the intellectual and ethical level of the whole nation. The methods for reaching this eminently beneficial object are courses of popular scientific lectures given by traveling lecturers, systematically arranged, and the habit of absorbing and persistent intellectual occupation resulting from practical exercises connected with the lectures. Absorbing and lasting interest is the object in view, and to secure this no detached lectures are given, but a subject is treated in a course, generally of twelve lectures. University instruction, as we understand it, differs from school instruction by never exhausting a subject, but acting as a stimulating and enlightening guide in the domain of investigation. Thus university extension also will stimulate and en¬ lighten, it will till the soil, sow the seed, and leave the further growth of the plant alone, which in its gradual development will fill the wholo life of its possessor. Since the general spread of the art of reading, an unscrupulous press poisons the masses politically, and an ever-growing novel-literature of trash and filth ruins them morally; therefore the people who desire to read, and are eager to learn, should be furnished with healthful nourishment, or guidance in selecting intellectual fooch This guidance it is aimed to offer by means of lecture courses and practical exercises through university extension. According to the ideas of its promoter, it signifies a new stage in the history of mankind — an epoch-forming advance in civilization. In an address delivered November 19, 1890, at Philadelphia, by R. G. Moulton, a dis¬ tinguished and successful university extension lecturer in England, it was said : “And this is one of the great revolutions which, when you see them from a suffi¬ cient distance, make up our history. You know, if you go back far enough, there GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 531 was a time when religion itself was regarded as a thing for the few; only the clergy were to think on those matters, and the rest were simply to take what the clergy gave them. Then there came the great revolution of the Reformation, and the whole adult population insisted upon thinkiug for themselves in religious matters. Again, in Europe at least, there was a time when political matters were supposed to he the property of a class — a governing class — and the great mass of the nation had simply to obey. Then there came the vast political revolutions Avhich have produced modern times, the essence of which is that every adult person considers that he has an interest in political matters, and a right to act for himself as a citizen of the body i>olitic. Happily, we have no revolution this time, hut a silent change coming over the body of the whole nation — here yon will find it clearly marked, there you will find it only beginning — but anyhow, when recognized with an historical eye, it is only one of the great movements of our history, this tendency of the whole adult population to claim higher education, to claim the life education that belongs to university teaching, and to claim it as the inheritance of every good citizen. Just as in political matters, every adult person claims to be within the constitution, so by the new change coming over us every adult person will claim to be witliin the university, in the sense in which I have defined it.” * * * Indeed, the influence of university extension in America, to which it was brought from England in 1887, has become enormous, especially if we consider that it is not so much the acquisition of a certain amount of positive knowledge that is intended, as it is diversion of the senses from frivolous occupation, and a training to intellectual labor and ethical elevation of the whole man resulting therefrom. The university extension of the United States is organized in four centers, Philadelphia, Chicago, Chautauqua, and New York. The chief promoters of this magnificent movement are Prof. II. B. Adams (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore), Dr. E. W. Bemis and President Harper (University of Chicago), Melvil Dewey (secretary of the American Library Association), Bishop Vincent, and others. Want of space pre¬ vents entering into details of the management and methods of this beneficial move¬ ment. * * * In no field of education have the Americans done such prominent pioneer work as in the education of girls and women, and of nothing are they prouder; indeed, in this respect they entertain the idea that they have left even us Germans far behind, though, generally, our system of education appears to them very good. But they overlook one thing, namely, that the education offered in our secondary schools for girls has a breadth, depth, thoroughness, and excellence which makes it nearly equal to an American college education, by which, it may be surpassed in specializa¬ tion, but certainly not in breadth and thoroughness of the knowledge it imparts. To that must be added the occupation with music, painting, and drawing, things which our girls study outside of the regular course, and in which they often gain great skill, or if not that, certainly a commendable comprehension of art in general. An American girl when pursuing such studies makes a specialty of it, and devotes her whole time to it. The very comprehension of music and art, an essential part of a general education, is poorly developed in American girls and women (of course I am speaking here of the average degree of perfection found among the educated classes), while our girls show great comprehension for art and music which have come to them only through great exertion and much practice. Besides, life with us offers much more intellectual enjoyment than in America, where nothing is finished, where culture is often quite immature, and where culture and barbarism are fre¬ quently found side by side. These intellectual enjoyments, so easily accessible in Germany but rarely offered in America, aid essentially in the education of our women. Another consideration is that our women are benefited, not only the upper but also the middle classes, by the incomparably better developed elementary education, and especially by the higher education of the men so generally found in Germany in all classes of society. Lastly, we must not forget that with us the percentage of girls 532 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. attending secondary schools is a considerable fraction of the whole female popula¬ tion of the country, and reaches far down into the lower strata of the middle classes. On the other hand, the percentage of American girls attending the high school, which can not he compared with our secondary schools for girls, is a very small fraction of the whole female population of the country. Still it must he admitted that in a few of their colleges for women the Americans have surpassed us, and that they have happily avoided the dangerous rocks on which a higher scientific education for girls is so often wrecked, the danger to health, diversion from the duties of domesticity, the disappearance of womanly grace, and the growth of the bluestocking. The felicitous arrangement of short hours in grammar and high schools makes possible an equally rapid progress of girls and hoys, short in comparison with the time and exertion required of our hoys and girls. If we should insist on expecting of our girls the same amount of work we now require of the hoys, the girls would he i)hysically ruined under the enormous burden of work, hence the advocates of classical secondary schools for girls, an exact imitation of gymnasia for hoys, will fail in their endeavors. The common opinion of physicians, educators, mothers, and all ladies who have themselves received a college education in America, goes to confirm the statement that the health of girls in colleges specially intended for their sex, is not only not endangered hut promoted by means of wise alternation between intellectual and frequent physical exercises, such as walking, cycling, gymnastics, swimming, bathing, rowing. The physical condition of college girls is generally better than that of girls of equal age who remained at home. These female colleges are munificently equipped with all possible appliances for promoting health, comfort of living, and study. They do not lack comfortably arranged, spacious workrooms, and well-filled libraries, in which a large number of professional journals, some European, is noticeable. These women’s colleges are situated in the open country, in beautiful landscapes, have good atmosphere, and are usually surrounded by large parks. The cost for room, board, and tuition of a young lady in Bryn Mawr, the most expensive of these colleges, is annually $400; in Mount Holyoke College it is $250. The colleges have a number of half or partial scholar¬ ships at their disposal. The expenditures of these colleges are defrayed from the interest of funds and frequent bequests. The girls are induced to attend these col¬ leges partly by the ambitious desire to hold an independent position in life in case of nonmarriage. Just as large, or even larger, is the number of those girls belonging to the best and wealthiest families who endeavor to occupy a more elevated position in society by means of a higher education, in order to surpass the so-called society girls in thoroughness of culture and serious aspirations, for the latter, rushing from one frivolous amusement to another, live only for amusement, and thus undermine their health. * * * All candidates for admission to Bryn Mawr are examined in (1) mathematics, (2) Latin, (3) history, English, or science (either in physics or chemistry, botany or physiology, or physical geography), and besides, (4) in one of the following groups: (a) Greek and French, ( b ) Greek and German, (c) French and German. In all the subjects taught in the college the amount of work required is deter¬ mined a year in advance. The examinations are exclusively in writing; the ques¬ tions are submitted in print and must be answered within a given time. In the languages the students are required to translate passages from authors not previously studied. Thus, for instance, in June, 1894, the examination in Latin will bo on (1) Caesar’s Bellum Gallicum, books I to IV ; (2) Cicero, seven orations (Pro Archia poeta, De imperio Gn. Pompei, Pro Marcello, and the four orations In Catilinam) ; (3) Vir¬ gil, iEneid, books I to IV ; grammar and composition; (5) sight reading. * * * If the candidate is admitted after having passed this examination, she is required to study three years before she can obtain the degree of B. A., and in addition to the studies mentioned she must take up, for purposes of general culture, a fourth GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 533 foreign language, trigonometry and stereometry, some branch of natural science and philosophy; also a certain group of special branches, such as Greek and Latin, or Greek and mathematics, or mathematics and physics, or history and political econ¬ omy, etc., and pass all prescribed semiannual examinations. If she intends to con¬ tinue her studies after having obtained the degree of B. A., she may study another year and obtain the degree of M. A. (master of arts). The degree of Ph. D. can not be obtained except after the expiration of three years following her degree of B. A. This doctor’s degree can be secured only by means of a printed dissertation found satisfactory by the faculty, and an oral examination. The college offers many oppor¬ tunities for such advanced learned studies. Special branches are taught there, for instance, Sanskrit and comparative philology, the Semitic languages (such as the Hebrew, Aramaic, Assyrian, Phoenician, Arabic, JEthiopean), Germanic languages (this department is conducted by Professor Collitz, of Halle), art and architecture, physics, chemistry, biology, etc. Dr. Uhlig, editor of Das humanistische Gymnasium, quotes Professor Imelmann, of Berlin, who was in Chicago during the World’s Congress of Education. The profes¬ sor stated that he had listened with delight to expressions on the subject of Greek in colleges as a conditio sine qua non of the degree of bachelor of arts. Being called upon to give his views on American education at length, he wrote to the editor as follows : “Though there could not have been a more attentive listener in the whole educa¬ tional congress, assembled during the last week in July, 1893, filling with enthusias¬ tic educators every possible and impossible space of the Art Palace of the young gigantic city, I am not able to reply to your kind request save in the briefest man¬ ner. Though being almost taken off my feet by the profound interest and enthusi¬ asm in the men and the speeches they made, I neglected to make notes on the spot, leaving everything to the impressions I should and did receive. Only a most beauti¬ ful impression of the ‘tout ensemble/ a picture in lovely dimensions of those days stands before my eyes fresh and encouraging. Yes, encouraging ! In one of the fifteen sections deliberating at the same time in the different rooms, I not only listened but took part in the discussion. It was in the section of higher education; here I heard little or nothing of anticlassic theories and sentiments.; certainly much less than was expected from the arbitrary views and presentations we get from America. At any rate the ‘Trojans’ did not seem to be represented very strongly. After Prof. W. G. Hale had delivered a lecture on the question whether Greek should be made obliga¬ tory for the degree of bachelor of arts, others likewise answered the question in the affirmative. The presiding officer desired to hear from the other side ; that is, to give the opposing opinion a chance to be heard; whereupon a man, not an American, spoke from the ‘other side of the ocean, not of the question/ and expressed his Hellenic credo with conviction and emphasis, and loud applause followed him and much private commendation. Should we not ere long make the discovery that classic education belongs to the things that follow the course of the sun, westward ho?” II. Dr. E. Schlee, director of the “Real-Gymnasium” in Altona, near Hamburg, one of the members of the illustrious December conference appointed by Emperor William for the purpose of proposing changes in the management and organiza¬ tion of secondary education in Prussia, took part in the International Congress of Education in Chicago, and spent some time in studying American schools through reports, and seeking information at headquarters. On his return home he published . the following report in the annual catalogue of his school, which report fully justi¬ fies his Government’s choice in appointing him a delegate to the Congress of Educa¬ tion, where he took part in the discussions of superintendence and secondary schools : 534 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. By Dr. E. Schlee. Director of “Iteal-G-ynmasium ” at Altona. blotto: “ Knowledge and Liberty.” Note. — This short exposition of the public school system of the United States of America was suggested by a visit to the World’s Fair at Chicago, which the author undertook in an official capacity, having been personally invited also to attend the Congress of Education held there. Besides observations made at the Exposition and personal communications, the sources drawn upon to a greater degree were the very ample official reports of the central Bureau in Washington and those of single States, together with that of the city of Chicago. To the author’s regret it was impossible for him to be present at any recitations, as his journeys happened to be undertaken during the two months’ summer vacation. * * * The peculiarity of nearly every branch of American civilization has originated in the circumstance that it developed on previously unbroken soil, and started from an already high degree of culture ; in consequence it progresses by zeal¬ ously taking hold of every new acquisition, and in many things rushes ahead of Europe, while it is still backward in the perfection of indispensable preparatory steps and foundations. Thus, for instance, the system of public reports and statis¬ tics, even in educational matters, is more strongly developed than with ns. Each state and most cities annually produce whole volumes of reports; teachers in Chi¬ cago, for instance, are obliged continually to hand in written reports to their prin¬ cipals to an extent happily not the case with us as yet. The reports of the Bureau of Education are exceedingly valuable, not only for the States, which are supplied by them with the dominant ideas for a similar develop¬ ment of its general system of education, but also for foreign pedagogues and poli¬ ticians, to whom they offer richer information than can elsewhere be obtained. In our offices, it is true, ample reports and digests are prepared, but they are not pub¬ lished. Especially comprehensive, and prepared with objectivity and deep compre¬ hension of the subject, are statements of the Prussian and German school systems by the specialist, Dr. L. R. Klemm ; and in the last report the statement of the reform movement in Prussian secondary schools, in particular that of the conference at Berlin, reported by Charles Thurber, professor in Cornell University, at Ithaca. On the whole, the American system of education still bears an English character, in its school organization as well as in management and methods of instruction. But the “public school” system is a purely national creation. These institutions, called public schools in contradistinction to private schools, and common schools in opposition to select or denominational schools, are almost similarly governed in all States of the Union. They comprise the lower and higher schools and have three groups of grades, the primary, grammar, and high schools, each generally requiring four years. The first two groups of classes, the primary and grammar schools together, form the elemen¬ tary schools, corresxDonding on the whole to our elementary or people’s schools, with a similar difference between city and rural schools found in Germany. Cities and counties are divided into school districts, and each district has its school. In cities the primary and grammar schools are separate, and both are divided into classes according to annual or semiannual courses ; as with us, in the country, as a rule, all children of a stated age are together in one class room. In cities and the larger counties, educational affairs are administered by school boards. The support of public schools. — No tuition fees are paid in any public school of the United States, not even in the high school. The expenses are chiefly defrayed by a general (or State) and local school tax; a small portion is met by endowments and GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 535 proceeds derived from the part of the public land set aside for school purposes. In 1890, the entire costs were estimated at $143,110,218, toward the payment of which the local school tax contributed $97,000,000, from the State governments came more thau $26,000,000, irreducible funds almost $8,000,000, and other sources $12,000,000. The school tax is levied as a property tax on all inhabitants without regard to their taking advantage of the public schools or not. The revenue derived from the State tax is divided among all districts proportionally to the number of pupils, and thus a proper adjustment is effected between poor and rich districts. This is the only pos¬ sible way for the South to have obtained schools in the poor districts settled by negroes. This general diffusion of education even over the whole South is the most commendable feature in the development of the American educational system. The Commissioner, with justifiable pride, draws attention to the fact that, in these States in which in 1870 not a single public school existed, now every child has the oppor¬ tunity of acquiring at least the elements of education free of cost. In the Southern States the State government necessarily lends much greater assistance; in those localities it amounts to 52 per cent, exceeded in the Northern States by the local tax, which alone amounts to 70 per cent. Even here, as with us, the State governments during late years have increased their share in the support of schools ; in Pennsyl¬ vania, for instance, the State paid $2,000,000 in 1890, and $5,000,000 in 1892. The cost of all public schools, elementary and high schools taken together, amounted to $2.24 per capita of the population ; in Prussia the per capita was 6.50 marks, which, considering the comparative purchasing power of money, makes the costs about the same. Still, the amount in the more cultured States is necessarily greater; in California and Colorado, $4 per head. For America, too, an additional amount would have to he included for private schools and for colleges, as these cor¬ respond to the higher grades of our secondary schools. The general average cost of every pupil is $17.22, but the extremes differ widely; the largest being $43 in Colo¬ rado, and the smallest $3.38 in South Carolina. Education of ilie colored race. — The position of the “colored race" differs in the schools of the North and the South. In the North, where they are few in number, colored and white children go to the same school. In the former slave States, where negroes constitute altogether 32 per cent, and in some localities even the majority of the population, a sharply drawn dividing line separates the schools. The white peo¬ ple of the South consent to only a very low local school tax; consequently, schools for the colored race, especially those in the country, are as yet little developed. Opin¬ ions on the caxiacity of the negro for education are most contradictory. But the colored race must have colored teachers, just as their communities have colored preachers, officers, and physicians. In 1890, therefore, no fewer than 39 normal schools, 24 theological seminaries, 71 high schools, and 22 colleges and universities had been founded for the benefit of the colored race. The colored male and female students of all advanced institutions taken together, numbered 25,540. The colored male graduate is said to have a preference for the pulpit because he has innate incli¬ nation and talent for preaching; the colored female graduate is said to give the first preference to preaching, the second to teaching. Private and parochial schools. — In accordance with American principles of govern¬ ment, broad spheres of social life, subordinate to State jurisdiction in European countries, are left altogether open to the disposal of individuals; we can not but wonder that schools should to so great an extent be under State and municipal juris¬ diction, and that proportionally there are so few private schools; 87.9 per cent of the pupils belong to public schools; only 12.1 per cent to private, including parochial schools. The majority of private schools are select, i. e., for the well-to-do classes who do not care to send their children to public schools. They adopt the same plan of teaching as in public schools, and are mostly well equipped ; they generally have a gymnasium, which common or public schools lack, and devote some time to games, 536 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. and in some cases, to military exercises also, as models in the Chicago Exposition showed. In other respects, their value differs. Their relation to State supervision is not yet defined. In the well-to-do North they are more numerous than in the South. Parochial schools form another category. In a certain sense they are opposed to public schools. In America the line of separation between church and state is well defined ; religion is looked upon by the State as a purely private matter. As a con¬ sequence, public schools not only exclude religious instruction, but reject even every local relation to a church organization. This has gone so far that the use of a schoolroom for religious instruction outside of class hours has been prohibited by law; and where Catholic children exceed in number, Catholic sisters have been for¬ bidden to wear the religious garb in the class room, and to be called sisters. In this respect, however, the States have different customs. In New England, the Puritan- Presbyterian spirit has been preserved ; in Massachusetts it is generally prescribed that daily instruction should begin with prayer and the reading aloud of a chapter of the Bible; however, children must be excused from participating, if their fathers so request. Four years ago a movement, which has since widely spread, started from the fact that in Wisconsin two Protestant teachers began instruction by reading aloud a chapter from the Bible, to which Catholic parents raised objections. The supreme court of the State declared the former to be illegal, upon which a National League for the Protection of American Institutions was formed; and the Bureau of Educa¬ tion investigated the relations of church and state in the chief countries of Europe, and collected all information appertaining to the subject from the principals of schools in the United States. The different Protestant communities are satisfied with the existing order, as far as it goes ; they have founded parochial schools, and try to replace religious instruc¬ tion in day schools by Sunday schools. But a large number of children grow up without any religious instruction, so much so that professors of colleges complain of the ignorance among their adult students in Bible history and the Sacred Scriptures. , The Catholic Church, on the contrary, resolutely opposes the existing order; “ 12,000,000 Catholics are against the public school system.” Only in a few South¬ ern States where Catholics predominate have satisfactory concessions been made to the Catholic Church — either by giving assistance from the school fund, as in New Mexico and Georgia, or appointing sisters and Christian brothers to the imsition of teachers in the public schools. Where Catholics are in the minority, but numerous enough to have their own schools, Catholic schools are maintained exclusively at the expense of the church. While the educational exhibition of public schools of the United States was divided according to States, Catholic schools had a particular exhibition divided according to archdioceses. Catholics demand either exemption from the school tax or a corresponding support of their schools from the school fund. The renowned Archbishop Ireland thus formulated his request : Either support of the denominational schools for every pupil who passes an examination, or the appoint¬ ment of denominational teachers who are to be allowed to impart religious instruc¬ tion outside of school hours. * * * These relations show that a complete sepa¬ ration between church and state does not overcome all difficulties, and that the United States still have contentions in prospect with the Roman Catholic Church. Public schools differ from the German-evangelical parochial schools in one other particular. The public.schools are to be the nursery of the idea of national union; and the individual character of the American nation and “ all the different nation¬ alities are to become imbued with the thoroughly American spirit.” But the Ger¬ man parochial schools have some children who can not speak English fluently, and cultivate the German language from religious interests, without, however, neglect¬ ing instruction in English. For this reason, they are attacked and unfavorably judged by the Know Nothing party. The school board of the State of Massachusetts points to them as a great danger, because private schools nurture the spirit of caste, GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 537 widen tlie abyss between rich and poor, and engender labor troubles. Bnt tbe fol¬ lowing words express tbe actual tendency : “ Shall we remain a people of many lan¬ guages? Without a common language we can not become a nation.” In Illinois and Wisconsin, too, the question was agitated in a lively manner, and in 1889 it was legally declared that parochial schools were not to be publicly recognized,1 and that their pupils should be obliged to attend a public school sixteen weeks out of the year. Whoever has been in America knows how groundless the fear is, that German could assert itself as a second national language, like the French in Canada. Those demands were declared unjust and absurd not only by the New York School Journal, but in the Yale Review, and the law had to be revoked. The culture of the German language in school and church serves only temporarily for the preservation of the best individualities of German systems by which life in America is influenced, to its advantage of course. In another way, too, the German language in the schools is a subject of dissen¬ sion. Not only German, but French or Spanish is optionally taught in some cities for a few hours in public elementary schools, when a large number of inhabitants justi¬ fies their introduction. Knowledge of German is coveted in the North Central States, and not alone by the lately arrived German settlers. In Chicago, in 1892, German was studied by 39,462 pupils, of w'hom only 17,512 were of German parentage. But the principals, none of whom bear German names, as so many of the teachers do, alleged that the elementary course was disturbed by the study of German ; the school board, with few exceptions Americans or Irishmen, opposed German for national reasons, hence the suspension of instruction in German was as good as decided upon last year in Chicago, although nearly half of the inhabitants of the city are Germans. Attendance at schools and compulsory education . — American statistics satisfactorily show that in the United States proportionately more children attend school, or rather, more names are on the call roll, compared with the population, than in any other country of the world, even Prussia; 14,010,533 children are on the rolls of the elementary schools, whereas in Prussia only 5,390,860 of the required age are entered at school. Accordingly in America the proportion is 1 pupil to 4.4 inhabi¬ tants; in Prussia only 1 to 5.5. There must be a mistake in the statistics, caused either by a wrong calculation of the terms, or by duplicate enumeration necessary on account of changes of school, and having separate lists for the summer and win¬ ter sessions. The Prussian statistics, perfectly reliable, state that in 1891 only 945 children missed attendance for insufficient causes. It can not be attributed to the fact that America has proportionately more children ; Germany is generally acknowl¬ edged to be a prolific country; whereas it is a well-known fact that families of the Anglo-Saxon race have few children, and the official report records a not only rela¬ tive but absolute decrease in the number of children in the north Atlantic States. When we consider the crowded population of the large cities and the still undefined relations in the South and West, we are justified in presupposing a reversed propor¬ tion. Still more probable is this when we see the hosts of 10 and 12 year-old boys running about selling newspapers, and almost a certainty when we read that in 1892 the governor of the State of New York, for instance, deplores the fact that u thou¬ sands of children grow up without any education.” The report of the school board of Chicago for the same year numbered 191,180 children between 6 and 14 years of age, of whom only 157,743 were entered on the rolls. Other and still louder com¬ plaints may be exaggerated. Theoretically a kind of compulsory education does exist in the United States; the first measures to carry it into effect were taken as early as 1852 by Massachusetts,' a State considered an authority on the development of education. It became general in Massachusetts only in 1878, and now exists in 27 States ; in the South it is still unknown, and is elsewhere opposed on the grounds that it creates new transgres- 1 Unless the instruction was conducted in the English language.— Ed. 538 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. sions, limits the liberty of parents, gives the Government new power, and is altogether un-American, that is, opposed to the free institutions of America. But tlie rationale with which it was introduced meets this opposition in a thoroughly republican manner: “It is one of the fundamental laws of the State to compel parents to give their children an education which qualities them to become citizens of a free State.” But its extent and the way it is carried into effect make compulsory education in America entirely different from that in Germany. First of all, much more time is spent at school in Germany. In America, a week has only five school days. High schools and most of the elementary schools of large cities have about as many school weeks as in Germany ; but rural, and especially Southern schools, have not nearly so many. The official report for the whole of America averages one hundred and thirty- four school days to a year; the north Atlantic States with one hundred and sixty-six and the south Central States with eighty-eight days are the extremes. Four years [of two hundred days each] are given as the average time of attendance; the long¬ est time being seven years in Massachusetts and the shortest two and a half years in a few Southern States. The law of compulsory education in no wise obligates for the whole time; eight years (from the sixth to the fourteenth or from the eighth to the sixteenth) have been decided upon for the course of elementary schools; still in most States 8 to 14 years of age are regarded as tbe limits of obligatory attend¬ ance, and the minimum attendance is required only for a limited number of weeks, twelve to sixteen, during a year. The execution of the law makes even this limited compass illusory. Illegal non- attendance is punished by a fine of $5 to $20. But if parents are too poor to clothe their children decently the punishment clause of the law in many States is expressly declared inapplicable. Naturally most cases of nonattendance occur in poor fami¬ lies, for whom special provision has been made in charity or truant schools. These are exceptions, however. New York and Massachusetts are provided to a small extent only with these schools. Here and there the police do not sufficiently aid the school commission, consequently the reports of most States speak of the law as 11 a dead letter.” School commissioners and superintendents prefer to «ko away with the power of punishment altogether, and apply moral means only. What can be effected in large cities in this respect, especially with incomplete rosters, is, of course, insuffi¬ cient; but what has been accomplished in many places is worthy of recognition and may be looked upon as admirable proof of self-administration. For this purpose a special commission of citizens, truancy committee, or committee on compulsory edu¬ cation, has been formed. These obtain the lists of truants from schools, and endeavor to influence the parents either personally or by means of officials. In 1892 they made 12,906 investigations in Chicago; in 1,356 cases they could do nothing on account of the indifference of the parents and incorrigibility of the children; 7,592 children were taken back to school for a time, and 1,633 were induced to go to night schools at least. In New York the commission has 12 officials to execute the law. During 1889-90, 16,526 cases were carefully investigated and 3,590 truants taken back to school, many of them more than once. It seems strange to us to see the attempt of healing homeojmthically the malady of truancy, i. e., irregular attendance (or “playing hooky”); but that is being tried in other places besides Chicago. It isx>rescribed that as soon as a pupil misses two whole or four half days without permission within four weeks, the parents are notified in writing; if the child has missed six half days he is expelled from school. He can not be readmitted until the father has appeared before the inspectors and promised regular attendance. In the last year 3,670 children were thus tenrporarily suspended, while only 164 were suspended for bad conduct. A child can not change schools ad libitum; each child must attend the school within its own district. According to personal information these means are said to be very effective ; of course, only with parents who attach any value to education. In many cities, to lay hold of GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 539 children running about in the streets during school hours has been tried, but many courts have declared it to be illegal, as there is no warrant for arrest. In late years laws have been passed to restrict the employment of children in fac¬ tories while they should be attending school; the employment of children in factories is now made dependent upon permission granted by the school commissioner. In 1892 this permission was given in Chicago to 1,077 children, aged between 10 and 13 years; 173 of them had been abandoned by their parents. The result is that reports on attendance are much more modest than those on enrollment. Only 61 per cent of all pupils enrolled really go to school; on an aver¬ age a pupil attends school only eighty-six days out of the one hundred and thirty- four average school days. In just appreciation of the better conditions in Germany, the official report remarks that no class in that country is uneducated; no ragged or begging child is seen on the streets of its cities, as is the case in America. In regard to the short time of attendance at rural schools, Americans content themselves with the fact that the children after all learn to read, and that news¬ papers serve as a means for further progress in education. Americans, and especi¬ ally the American laborer, reads the papers much more regularly than we do. Every¬ one reads his paper early in the morning, whether in railroad or street cars; the laborer reads his during dinner hour or of an evening while resting on the benches of the squares and parks. It is very desirable that these papers offer something better than their usual spicy, piquantly illustrated articles on scandals. Coeducation. — Coeducation is not a general, but an extensively found, peculiarity of American public schools. It is not as with us the custom only in primary and rural schools, but in the city grammar and high schools as well. Neither are the sexes separated in the normal schools, colleges, or universities. In Chicago coeducation is general; in Boston and New York the sexes are educated together and separately. It was a strange sight for ns to see even in photographic representation 12, 13, and 16 year-old boys and girls sitting side by side, or standing in mixed rows for calis¬ thenics or wand exercises. It must be remarked that, where instructed together, they have separate seats ; as a rule the teacher is a woman, even in calisthenics. All other apartments, including playgrounds, are not shared by boys and girls. The advantages of coeducation are not undisputed; strong objections to it have twice been advanced from Boston. Ten years ago Dr. Clarke revived the much mooted question whether the better classes of American women are good housewives and mothers. The Commissioner of Education compared reports from 300 large and small cities, and all were in favor of mixed schools. He then recommended them for this reason : “ Education should prepare us for our future life; and if we must live together, separate education means changing the natural order of the human house¬ hold.” Later on, Dr. Philbrick asserted that the particular form of education adapted to each sex could not be easily applied in coeducation. This objection could be met by the commissioner with the answer that he had had no experience in mixed schools, and in regard to hygiene, statistical investigation showed only favorable results. The encouraging experiences of Norway and Finland in regard to morals were reported at the same time with a reminder of the unsatisfactory effect of convent education in France. The author was assured by a teacher, well informed on this subject, that coeduca¬ tion exerted a favorable influence on deportment, mutual behavior, and discipline. Germany perhaps chooses the right medium between France and America; but when wo consider how healthy, as a rule, the companionable intercourse between children of families friendly to each other is, we need not look upon the American plan as hazardous for us, especially in small places, where outward circumstances make a union desirable, and as long as it does not interfere with the distinct aims of instruc¬ tion for each. 540 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. Discipline is not so strict as in Germany; formerly corporal punishment was in vogue, but it is now generally forbidden. Incarceration doe3 not seem to be cus¬ tomary. Where admonition fails, the only means employed are suspension from school or transfer to another school. The principal has a right to suspend a pupil for a month; the superintendent for a term. The American method of instruction, on account of the frequent reciting of single pupils, gives rise to much temptation for disturbance and confusion, about which many complaints are heard. Subjects of instruction. — The studies of the public elementary schools in cities are, in the main, the same all over the country; but the number of hours devoted to each study varies greatly. Most time is given to reading, as the contents of the readers are used as matter of instruction. Those used in the intermediate classes chiefly treat of natural sciences ; those in the upper classes of history. Half of all the time is occupied by the study ot the English language, reading, orthography, grammar, and writing. Complaints are numerous because spelling takes up so much time. Technical grammar is studied only during the last two or three years. Very great importance is attached to arithmetic, to which five to six hours a week are allotted. The course formerly included commercial and stereometric arithmetic; but it has been curtailed from time to time. Algebra is begun in the eighth grade in a few cities only; geometry is rarely taught except in the high school. The natural sci¬ ences are included from the first to the eighth grade. Instruction is demonstrative and practical, not systematic, and according to present plans anticipates the develop¬ ment of the child in years. It comprises botany and zoology, geography and astron¬ omy, meteorology, physics, and the elements of chemistry. Great stress is laid upon physiology and hygiene, the discussion of the circulation of the blood, the bones, muscles, and nerves ; the brains of brutes and man are compared as early as in the second grade, and the comparison continues during two or three, terms, always, of course, according to practical points of view. Geography is studied at least to the same extent as in Germany, two or three hours a week. History is limited to that of the United States, the short period of which permits a comprehensive course, even by devoting only a few hours a week to its study. In late years special study of the civil government of the United States and of the particular State in question has been introduced in connection with the closely related study of history, the different departments of the law being thoroughly expounded from their historic foundation. This is probably the reason why in America the mass of the people have such evident respect for the legal status of the land. It seems “American ” to us that in a model course (that of Philadelphia) even the salaries of offices have been included. Drawing and singing are included in the course to about the same extent as with us ; physical culture, particularly calisthenics, too, but the necessary equipments for physical culture are wanting. Finally, the study of temperance, essentially American, is legally prescribed in 34 States, except in the most Southern States. In 29 States no teacher receives a certifi- caxe of appointment unless he passes the examination in physiology and temperance. In this case, too, State reason (Staatsraison) instead of humanity dictates the rule: “A vigorous mind in a strong body can do more for the State than a weak one. Public schools are maintained by the State; hence the State can demand that what is to its benefit shall be taught in its schools.” The appropriate chapters of the text¬ books on XDhysiology and hygiene form the basis of instruction. At the examination for promotion, questions to be answered by girls and boys 10 years old are, for instance^ “How can we prove that nicotine is a poison? Why are cigarettes particularly poisonous?" Is alcohol nutritious ? Under what names is alcohol drunk? What is the effect of drinking beer?” etc. It must be remarked, however, that this study meets with decided opposition; on the one hand, it is declared useless as long as most teachers are not able to instruct otherwise than by allowing the pupil to memorize what is found in the text-book; on the other hand, it is considered an error in peda¬ gogics to acquaint children with vices as yet foreign to their thoughts. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 541 High schools or secondary education. — High school#, following immediately upon grammar schools, also require for the most part four years of attendance. They admit the pupils who have left the elementary schools with a certificate, or can pass an examination for admission. Their course has a rather more scientific character, and includes even the beginning of foreign languages. Any positive statistical comparison with the Prussian secondary schools, despite the rich materials furnished by both sides, can not be carried out, for the American high schools correspond to the higher grades of our so-called middle schools, our higher schools for girls, and the intermediate classes of our high schools combined. The number of their pupils, nevertheless, is proportionally smaller than that of the Prussian schools. If we consider boys only, and contrast a fairly exact estimate of the pupils of the intermediate classes of our high schools and the highest classes of our middle schools with American high schools, the average in America is 1 high school pupil to 736 inhabitants ; in Prussia, 1 to 586. These high schools are very different from the well-defined secondary schools of Germany ; they include every school, even the smallest, whose course of study goes beyond that of the grammar school. Thus there are 2,526 public with 202,963 students, and 1,632 private high schools with 74,931 students, averaging 3.6 teachers and 80 pupils. But the most noteworthy fact — here, for the first time, we touch upon the most important peculiarity of all American schools — is that the number of girls in the high schools far exceeds the number of boys. There are 116,351 girls and only 85,451 boys. What is more characteristic still, is that of the proportionately small number of graduates there are twice as many girls as boys, namely, 14,190 against 7,692. Boys enter business very soon, in which a higher education is considered of no value, while the daughters of well-to-do parents attend the higher institutions of learning for the sake of higher culture, and girls who are not so well situated need higher education to practice an independent vocation, particularly that of teaching. The high school course includes, besides English and literature, Latin, Greek, French, German (Spanish, too, here and there), algebra, geometry, physics, chem¬ istry, universal history, drawing, and singing. The courses of the different schools are by no means the same, and indefinite on account of the studies which are left optional. High schools, are designed only partly to prepare for colleges and univer¬ sities; many pupils leave after a brief attendance. In the year 1889-90, as stated before, 85,451 boys and 116,351 girls attended the public high schools; during that year 7,692 boys and 14,190 girls left school with a diploma. In all classes together, 14,969 took the classical and 14,320 the scientific course to prepare themselves for study at universities. To meet the different ends in view, the course is shaped to'be a little more classical, or a little more scientific than the others, or simply offers a general English education. In larger institutions these- different courses are com¬ bined. Convinced of possessing the universal language, “the language of the world,” Americans do not . attach as much importance to the study of foreign languages as we do. The study of no modern foreign language is obligatory. In the scientific course only one foreign language is required, it being Latin, German, or French. In the classical course Latin is obligatory ; the other languages are optional. Greek is taught only in the two or three higher classes, the other languages in all four grades. Four or five hours are devoted to each foreign language a week. Occasionally, single studies, such as calculus, trigonometry, history, physiology, and bookkeeping, are optional. The official report of the year 1889-90 gives the following statement : Latin was studied by 34 per cent of all the pupils; Greek by 3 per cent; French by 5.8 per cent; German by 10.5 per cent; algebra by 45 per cent; geometry by 21 per cent; physics by 22 per cent; chemistry by 10 per cent, and general history by 27 per cent. These figures do not give a true idea of existing relations, as not all the studies are taught in every one of the four grades, and the whole number of pupils is included in the calculations made. The proportion between the nunibers of male and female pupils in the participation in these studies corresponds almost exactly to the pro- 542 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. portion of the sum total of pupils, from which tho remarkable fact is deduced that in America about twice as many girls as boys learn Latin, 41,633 against 28,788. But in Greek, which is studied by about one-eighth the number of those studying Latin, the number of boys is twice as great as that of girls. The higher private schools (academies, seminaries, institutes, colleges) have on the whole the same organization ; they have about the same number of male and female pupils. So far as their self-assigned task of preparing for colleges and univer¬ sities is concerned, they stand higher than public schools. For some time uni¬ versity-colleges have been gradually raising their standard for admission in Latin and Greek, so that it is difficult for public high schools, with their broader but less profound education, to meet the requirements ; these preparatory schools limit their course accordingly to classical languages and mathematics. The division of public high schools into a classical and a scientific course meets with decided opposition from the advocates of a uniform system similarly applied to all schools. The corre¬ lation of these schools with the universities — in other words, secondary education with superior education — is not as yet as definitely arranged as with us. There is no doubt that the fundamental idea of the strictly uniform, or common, system is in the main correct. Americans, not hindered by any existing conventional order of society, could intelligently arrange their schools according to pedagogical and political ideas. Those thoroughly acquainted with the subject readily acknowl¬ edge the superiority of German schools in other respects, but always revert to, “But our system is better.” The elementary school appropriates entirely too much time. Not to begin instruction in foreign languages until the fifteenth year must stunt, or seriously retard, the success of its study, the more so if more than one language be begun at the same time. Just because the right to one year’s service in the army (with us a great inducement to secondary study) does not cut a figure in the calculation, and because aspiration for higher studies alone induces to entrance to the high schools, it would be better not to keep the ambitious back on account of the others, but rather to begin the high school course at about the twelfth year of age. The Commissioner of Education justly remarks that in German gymnasia the study of ancient languages is begun so early — at 9 years — that pupils who attend the higher burgher schools find a barrier in their way if they intend to go to the university. Tho want of an easy transition to higher education is a serious error of the German system. The right mean in this case, as has been said, would be found between 9 and 15. Furthermore, a definite course of study and uniformity of education must neces¬ sarily be disturbed by the introduction of too many optional studies. A division into two essentially different courses is based upon the necessities of the case, and is found among all civilized nations; we may even undertake a tripartition; but in these courses the plan of instruction should be uniform and positively defined. Otherwise, as was affirmed by Americans, it is a difficult task to arrange the time¬ table early enough. American teachers who have a thorough knowledge of German schools have expressed the opinion that the graduates of high schools are three years behind the German graduates in the amount of knowledge acquired. The causes assigned for this arc: (1) The difficult English orthography; (2) the complicated arbitrary weights and measures; (3) the shorter terms or school year; (4) the want of professional teachers. The causes may also be traced to the organization we have discussed. The opinion of another American teacher is probably more to the point. According to him, “"the American public school can learn very little from the higher burgher schools of Europe, but American higher schools can learn a great deal from foreign universities and secondary schools leading up to them. What they do know they have learned from Europe.” What remains for Americans to do is to decide upon correct fundamental principles and act accordingly. One of the most important GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 543 causes lies in the method of instruction and the qualification of teachers, closely related with one another, which we are about to consider. Methods and text-looks. — The American method of instruction, hawing taken the French and English mechanical memorizing for its model, differs essentially from the German. It aims not at comprehending and mastering a subject through the understanding, hut at the acquisition of a complete presentation through the mem¬ ory. Consequently instruction is defined less by the teacher than by the text-book, which is learned almost by heart. Most of the time is taken up by daily questions and answers and marks are given for the recitation. The book contains a number of questions with answers attached for recitation. Examinations for promotion in class, as well as teachers’ examinations, consist, for the most part, of a number of such questions and answers, so that with diligent application and a good memory eveh an inferior mind can easily pass them. Be the books never so good, such instruction will hardly lead to the development of the intellect and to a free mastery of the subject. The stacks of pupils’ work at the Exposition in Chicago contained excellent work in geography and the natural sciences, especially physiology; the explanatory drawings were particularly good and appropriate, but the finished form, and at times the almost identical wording, betrayed that they were chapters of the text-book committed to memory. American teachers are by no means ignorant of this deficiency in their method. Many objections have been advanced in different reports, but the method is a natural outgrowth of the whole school system. In cases where schools or a few teachers have adopted the German method they and their pupils appear at a disadvantage at inspections and examinations arranged accord¬ ing to the text-book method. Naturally the drawback is more evident in higher than in elementary schools. Generally the teachers have no scientific command of their subject, and in their dependence on the text-book do not distinguish between essentials and subordinate facts. According to the Massachusetts report, many teachers of geometry are dissatisfied wdth the memorizing method. The Commissioner of Education evidently favors the German method; but he tries to bring out the good points of the American too ; and, as he likes to philoso¬ phize, -lie endeavors to connect it with the national character. “ The text-book method,” says he, c: offers decided advantages for facilitating instruction. By exact¬ ing the acquisition of the contents of the book it becomes easier for the teacher to occupy the pupil’s time regularly at home. The pupil does apply the memory more than the higher intellectual faculties; but then, he can be made accountable for this mechanical work much more easily than for work done by means of the reasoning power; moreover, the mechanical work is a kind of intellectual discipline and exer¬ cise for the will. The less gifted pupils may fare better than in Germany ; for what is acquired without being understood at the time can always be applied later.” Even in memorizing grammar (overcome by us at least in princijde) he discovers an advantage which the eulogist of a formal education attained by Latin grammar might turn to account. The positiveness of the rules, many exceptions, numerous long paradigms and queer idioms are of course only a meager exercise of the intellect ; but it is also a discipline of the will, peculiarly adapted to accustom one to the observation and discreet consideration of the rights and privileges of our fellow- citizens, and to equitable assertions of personal rights. A superstitious respect for. their orthography obliges English-speaking nations to memorize mechanically, which, on the other hand, influences all that rise from a state of perfect ignorance to a conservative way of thinking. The full scope of intellectual freedom which the German youth enjoys at school counteracts, so to speak, the outward dependence on the Government, which in its surveillance, like Providence, surrounds the citizen as with a wall. The text-book plays an important part in school administration, too. Its intro¬ duction is generally decided upon by the school board, who are also instrumental in purchasing it. Great diversity, however, prevails in this respect. The greatest 544 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. liberty is allowed in Alabama, where every teacher has his own text-book, and intro¬ duces it. “According to which text-book do you teach?” is the most important question leading to his appointment. It is said that in some States its use is depend¬ ent upon the rings formed by booksellers. California goes to the other extreme. That State controls not only the selection but the introduction and even the manu¬ facture and sale of text-books. As our own management seems to be inclined in this direction, it may be remarked that many objections are raised to it in America. At least a free competition in the making of text-books is to be desired. In Chicago the school board and booksellers agree to a contract in which the price and finish of the books is defined. Every alteration in the text-book is dependent upon the approval of the board. In many Northern States the text-book is either loaned or given to the pupil free of charge. The expenses in Massachusetts have -thereby been increased about $400,000. The advantages and disadvantages of this custom are being much disputed throughout the Union. Male and female teachers. — If in every office the chief factor is the man, and in school the teachers, we have come to the weakest point in the American school system — professional teachers are wanting. That is to say, that most teachers are deficient in the requisite scientific and pedagogic preparation for their vocation. The greatest number are women, and comparatively few make a profession of teaching. According to the American way of looking at things, no importance is attached to the technical preparation for occupations and vocations or professions. Profes¬ sions are changed according to advantages or opportunities. In annual reports we repeatedly meet with complaints of the fact that the teachers, men and women, have little or no normal or scientific education, and that they must be appointed without regard to the necessary knowledge and pedagogic preparation. At a su/perficial glance America does not seem to lack normal schools and semi¬ naries. Although the oldest seminary was founded (in Massachusetts, at Lexiugton, of Revolutionary fame) as late as 1838 there are now 135 public and 43 private normal schools in the United States, numbering, collectively, three years ago, 34,440 pupils; proportionately more than in Prussia, which two years ago numbered only' 10, 836 normal students, not including those of the private normal schools. But the differ¬ ence is reversed by firmness of purpose and a fixed order. Whereas in Prussia all normal school students, about 3,600 a year, graduate after having taken the entire course; in America, in 1890, only 5,237 passed through all the classes. This number lacks about 2,000 in proportion to the number in Prussia. On account of frequent resignations, the yearly demand for teachers in America is astonishingly great, one- third of the number needed annually can scarcely be met by the normal schools. Massachusetts has the best provisions for a normal education, nevertheless in 1892 only 3,267 out of the 10,965 teachers actively engaged had graduated from normal schools ; a further number of 792 had attended a normal school for some period of time. The others had in one way or another prepared themselves to pass the teachers’ examination. As with us different degrees of diplomas are obtained in the examination, so in America teachers are qualified for only from two to four years, after which time they must pass another examination. The reporter from Massa¬ chusetts consoles himself with the fact that now 80 per cent of all public schools are under professional supervision, and that the school inspector can give assistance to the teachers. Such is the state of affairs in the Northern States. In the Southern States it is still more unfavorable. Teachers of high schools have, as a rule, graduated from high schools ; and for the most part have for a time attended a college, a university, or a normal school before taking the teachers’ examination. Generally speaking, however, the situation is about the same with them as it is with those of the lower schools. Not only in our judgment, but according to American educators, the second unfavor¬ able peculiarity of American schools is the extraordinary preponderance of female GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 545 teachers, necessarily surprising to anyone who, for the first time, receives accurate knowledge of the facts in the case. The proportions of the total number do not seem so dissimilar. In the year 1890, out of the 363,935 public school teachers, 125,602, or 31.5 per cent, were men; 238,333, or 65.5 per cent, women. In Prussia, excluding the secondary schools that have male teachers only, the proportion is 58,461 male to only 13,337 female teachers; or, if we include all special teachers, par¬ ticularly the 39,761 female teachers of handiwork, there are 75,518 male to only 53,202 female teachers. We might be under the impression that the imperfect con¬ ditions prevailing in the South and West bear the greater burden of the fault. The case is contrariwise, for the further the school system has developed, the more female teachers there are. In the North Atlantic States only 20 per cent of all teachers are male; in the South Central States male teachers form 57 per cent. Massachusetts and Arkansas, with, respectively, 9.9 and 68.5 per cent, are the extremes in these groups. Chicago in this respect, too, is about the most American city. In 1892 it numbered only 219 male to 3..081 female teachers, only about 6.6 per cent, while the whole State of Illinois reached the proportion of 27 per cent male teachers. In the public high schools of the United States the proportion is more favorable, the 40 per cent of male teachers corresponds exactly to the proportion between the number of male and female pupils. The rule seems to be that boys are taught by men and girls by women. But 15 and 16 year old boys may be found who are taught by women, and not only where coeducation prevails. A photograph of the second class in a high school of Maine, the pupils of which were 15 and 16 year old boys, shows them practicing calisthenics under the direction of a female teacher. The employment of female teachers in public schools is supposed to have started in Massachusetts on account of the war of secession. As young men were called to military service female teachers were resorted to for substitutes. After the war there was such a dearth of men in industrial pursuits that the retention of female teachers was a necessity. That may all be very .true, but the fundamental cause is a con¬ tinuous one, and lies in existing circumstances. During late years the number of male teachers in Massachusetts has decreased by 1,776; in Pennsylvania in one year, 1888-89, the number of male teachers decreased by 812, and that of the female teachers increased 1,018. The near future is illustrated by the fact that the latest report on attendance in normal schools shows 93 per cent female pupils for Massa¬ chusetts ; 99 per cent for Connecticut, and almost 100 per cent for New Hampshire. This state of affairs is connected with the frequent changes and instability of teachers. In Maine, some time ago, four years was found to be the average time of service. The report of 1892 on the high schools of Washington [D. C.] remarks that with few exceptions all professionally prepared teachers who had occupied their positions four years ago had resigned to enter other more lucrative positions. Better opportunities are offered not only to male but to female teachers, who also give up their positions to enter upon married life. Of the 28,000 positions connected with the Federal Government in Washington, not fewer than 11,000 are held by women. Even well-to-do young American women, generally highly educated, well informed, and at the same time enterprising, prefer to spend a few years in teaching rather than await their future inactively. The official report condenses all this in the mournful remark: “In the United States the profession of teaching seems to be a kind of waiting room in which the young girl awaits a congenial, ulterior support, and the young man a more advantageous position.” The causes of this are of an intellectual and a material kind. The report of the Commissioner of Education remarks somewhere that an educational atmosphere prevails in all Germany; so we might say that a business atmosphere prevails throughout America, as far as the men are concerned. Acquisitiveness and a spirit of enterprise in a boy are encouraged from the very beginning by education and example. As no time is left to him for an extended education, the vocation of teacher is naturally altogether foreign to his thoughts. On the contrary, girls withheld ED 93 - 35 546. EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. from domestic activity at home acquire more and more taste for the intellectual. Women and young girls form the majority of the audience at scientific lectures, congresses, etc. Teaching otfers the opportunity best adapted to them for public activity and, at the same time, the most honorable mode of earning a livelihood. Thus, there is a steadily increasing influx of young girls into the profession of teaching. That is only a part of the whole movement — the appearance of women in public walks of life, heretofore reserved for men — the more important for us, because its influence has already been felt in our own relations of life. In America women have monopolized the position of cashiers and typewriters in large offices, as they have also done in the telegraph service, and partly in the postal service. We have already spoken of the Departments in Washington. Of the 415 colleges and universities in the United States, 272 admit young women and men on the same conditions. The oldest and most select in the North Atlantic States, however, are not among them. There are besides 179 colleges for women, mostly in the South, and really only secondary educational institutions, in which 1,648, or three -fourths, of the professors are women. Even in the mixed universities 134 women have regular professorships, mostly in music and the other arts ; in 24 they are members of the hoards of trustees. At a congress in Chicago, self-conscious women orators defined the coming century as “the woman’s century.” This shifting of the lines in the positions of the sexes can not hut gradually exert a deep influence on all relations of life, and particularly on the whole intellectual life. At first sight, we might think that this would, in consequence, receive a more feminine character; certain it is, that instruction which appeals exclusively to the receptive activity is one of the resultants of this character. But it is the feminine character that seems to he influenced; it imhihes the masculine independence and industry. Woman, hy stepping out of the domestic circle to compete with man, seems to increase the unrest, precipitation, and tension in all relations of life. Furthermore, the question. of salary is included in the much-deplored conditions of the profession of teaching. In the official report the salaries of German teachers, as they were three years ago, are j ustly defined as meager according to the American standard. It appears to us that American salaries according to the American stand¬ ard are decidedly smaller than German salaries according to the German standard. Superintendents, 'or school councilors as we say, with salaries of $4,000 to $5,000, inspectors or supervisors in the principal cities, as well as directors of the larger high schools, with $3,000 to $4,000 are well paid. In large cities the principals of elementary schools receive from $1,500 to 1,900. Specialists, of whom unusual pro¬ ficiency in their particular branch is required, are paid better than class teachers. A drawing teacher in Boston receives $3,000; the instructor of military drill, $2,000. Otherwise teachers are poorly paid. Massachusetts, three years ago, paid by far the highest salaries; teachers of the elementary schools averaging $954 a year. Connec¬ ticut also paid well, $660 a year. The official report says : “ Such salaries make the permanency of the profession of teachers impossible, a weaver receives just as much.” Large cities like Boston, New York, Chicago, San Francisco, etc., pay high salaries. But how inadequate are they elsewhere. Pennsylvania, on an average, pays $39 to men and $30.03 to women teachers a month. For the year 1889 the official report on elementary and high schools together averages the salaries, by the month, at $42.43 for men and $34.27 for women teachers. Moreover, in making a comparison, it must be remembered that the advantage of permanency connected with positions in Germany does not exist in America. There are no pensions and stipends after death (Reliktenversicherung). Salaries are wages calculated and paid by the month, consisting of four school weeks ; vacation months are not included. Salaries do not continue during interruption of duties by leave of absence or sickness. In Chicago, the amounts deducted are used for paying sub¬ stitutes. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 547 In tlie annual reports of the school commission the raising of salaries is repeatedly declared necessary to win more men over to, and keep them in, the profession of teaching. An earnest effort in this respect seems to have been made during the last year (1892) by Massachusetts-, which raised the average monthly salary of male teachers from $118 to $134, while at the same time it reduced that of female teachers from $48 to $46.50; now the law of supply and demand is called into action. The more moderate demands of female teachers are a reason for giving them the prefer¬ ence. According to the p resent prospect, the excessive number of female teachers promises to increase still more. Conclusion. — In his last report the Commissioner designated the following as sub¬ jects requiring legal regulation: Supervision of private and parochial schools; fur¬ nishing text-books free of charge to all pupils, and of school books by the State. As these subjects are warmly discussed in teachers7 assemblies and journals, and can be decided upon and settled by legislation, the Commissioner’s selection may be just. To our German way of thinking they all appear secondary, with the exception of the first mentioned, provided it include a just and peaceable settlement between public and parochial schools. To us the most important and pressing duties would be to bring about a well-arranged organic connection between high schools and universities and, above all, the establishment of a profession of teaching. These points can not be settled simply by legislation, but require long labor. Intellectual life, religious and scientific interests, are very active along with the restlessness of business life in America. The ambition for higher intellectual cul¬ ture, emanating from individual impulses, is widely diffused and more active than with us. A peculiar manifestation of this is “university extension,77 which origi¬ nated in England, and lias made steady progress in America during the last ten years. Its most remarkable fruit is the summer school at Chautauqua, which, with its vacation lectures and courses of exercises, its branch societies and reading cir¬ cles, directs the scientific education of 25,000 students, or members. Old univer¬ sities, too, have aided these movements by iutroducing summer courses. Other associations have also been formed for the same purposes. Such arrangements still bear the character of immaturity and the amateurs’ want of thoroughness, but, at the same time, give evidence of a desire for perfection. The superiority of our scientific work and our system of higher education is readily acknowledged in America; on the other hand, in much that is practical wo follow the American precedent, but we do it in our own way; for instance, in our summer normal courses and lectures on political economy for mixed audiences. The public school system of the United States is a vigorous institution, which during its short existence has grown to its fullest possible extent ; but its inner development has not kept pace with its exterior. It resembles a young and numer¬ ous army not wanting in warriors and excellent generals, but lacking a requisite number of reliable commissioned and noncommissioned officers and well-trained drillmasters. III. Dr. Stephan Waetzoldt, principal of Elizabeth School, professor of Romanic languages and literatures in the University of Berlin, and chief commissioner of the German educational exhibit in Chicago, spent nearly eight months in this country, and the result of his observations is embodied in three lectures which he delivered before the Teachers’ Association in Berlin in February and March, 1894. These off¬ hand lectures, given without manuscript, except when the speaker consulted his note-book, and which were reported in shorthand, bear the unmistakable stamp of originality. Perhaps, if the gentleman had reduced his opinions to writing, he would have softened an expression here and there, would have moved certain facts into a better perspective, and have focused others with the intention of enlisting our attention; but as these lectures wrnre intended for German hearers and German teachers, we have here the unchanged, original opinion of a man whose opinion is 548 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. considered authoritative in Germany. He makes some errors in his facts and deduc¬ tions, hut they are so obvious that a comment is scarcely needed for American read¬ ers. His first lecture was chiefly on the German educational exhibit. It is here inserted on account of its numerous allusions to the Other exhibits and to American education. THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT IN CHICAGO AND THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES. [Three lectures.] By Prof. Stephan Waetzoldt, Director of Elizabeth. School and professor in the University of Berlin. FIRST LECTURE. Ladies and Gentlemen: In whatever way we may judge the Americans, one thing we must concede to them : They devise lofty plans and display unexampled energy in their development and execution. When the American mind conceived the thought of a World’s Fair in the broadest sense of the term, the plan laid out was, not only to undertake a universal exposition of material things, but to draw all forms of culture, the intellectual as well, into this emulous contest. The high estimation in which education is held in the United States; the deep and broad interest manifested in all questions of instruction; the firm conviction that educa¬ tion is the most powerful weapon of the progress of mankind, left no doubt that an educational exhibition in the widest acceptation of the term would be planned. In fact, the first outlines sent to us displayed gigantic dimensions. All civilized nations of the earth were expected to exert themselves to unite in Chicago whatever they possessed in the field of education, from the university down to schools for idiots and deaf mutes; and it was thought possible to judge which nation would be victorious in the contest. The plan was this: Every nation was to show the sites and different types of school buildings on as large a chart as possible; explain the administration and organization of its school system by inscriptions, tables, and graphic representations, and also show the means of instruction peculiar to it. From the very beginning particular stress was laid upon exhibiting the work of pupils and students. This might then be compared, indeed it was contemplated to institute an international comparison which would determine what country had made the greatest progress in late years. The execution of this gigantic plan fell behind the idea as first conceived and formulated, for at Chicago there were represented, beside all the States of the Union, only Germany, England (but only London, and of London only the pauper _ schools), France, Eussia, Japan, the South American States, Mexico, and Spain, although the educational exhibit of Spain might have found room on this desk. Unfortunately Italy, the home of universities, was not represented; nor were Austria, Sweden,1 Norway, and Denmark, where public education is remarkably progressive. At least these latter countries sent very meager exhibits. Without exaggeration and self-adulation we can say that the palm of victory belongs to Germany. There has not been expressed the slightest doubt as to that. The German exhibits were arranged in the upper gallery of the immense Manu¬ factures and Liberal Arts Building, a gallery of such dimensions that the length of this spacious hall is not equal by far to its breadth. The space occupied by the German school exhibit comprised 2,200 square meters, twice the space of the Phil¬ harmonic Institute. Such was one of the exhibitions. Adjoining were the exhibits of England and the United States ; opposite to that of Germany was the French exhibit. Moreover, a great part of the educational exhibit was placed in other build¬ ings. The tendency to particularism and independence prevented the separate 1 Sweden presented technical training, sloyd and physical training as its special features. — (Ed.) GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 549 South American States from joining the general school exhibit, hence their best efforts toward culture could not be seen except in their own respective State buildings.1 The French exhibit suffered from lack of concentration; it was distributed in three buildings : the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, the State Pavilion of France, and the Palace of Agriculture. The last mentioned contained the exhibit of the French schools of agriculture. Over the entrance to our German exhibit stood the words “ German educational exhibit, ” though in reality it was an exhibition of education in Prussia. A patriotic and a political reason can be given for this inaccuracy. In foreign countries the names of the separate German States sink into oblivion, and the farther away from Germany you go, the more does this apply. Germany, the Empire, alone is known. It was difficult for Americans to understand that our schools are not under one government, that we do not even have general school statistics, and that all our educational systems are affairs of the separate States. Foreigners look upon and comprehend Germany as a whole. Prussia, as was her duty, took the lead for Germany, and also bore all the expenses. It is true that we have an imperial postmaster in Germany, but unfortunately no imperial schoolmaster. Wiirtemberg, alone, of the other Ger¬ man Stntes, sent a separate exhibit, not comprehensive, it is true, but excellent on the whole and in part, and kept separately within the large exhibit. Bavaria was represented in the university exhibit, and partly among the showing of school systems by a chart and a few photographs of buildings. Saxony, unfortunately, was not represented at all, the Hanseatic cities very meagerly, the Grand Duchy of Hesse by a few books. The resolution to undertake an educational exhibition on a large scale was framed very late with us, but once taken was executed with vigor. The Emperor’s influence was secured to obtain an aj>propriation sufficient for carrying out the purpose well. As is the fate of all State appropriations the limit set has been overstepped. We are indebted to the minister of education for resolving, despite many a doubt, upon a comprehensive educational exhibition. In December, 1892, the work was begun by the three judges, Schneider, Stauder, and Althoff. Schmidt, a younger Government councilor, undertook the general report. As all was to be finished in March, the amount of preparatory work required feverish energy. First of all, plans had to be devised for the great undertaking, material accumulated and sifted, collections made, freight and security considered, etc. The most difficult question, however, was: What shall we exhibit? That which is best of all, the instruction itself; the insj)iring word of the teacher, his very life in the class room, transmitted from eye to eye and mind to mind, we could not reproduce. In their enthusiasm the Americans had at first intended to present whole classes in process of being taught, and thus institute competitive instruction, but through the just and discriminating prudence of the committee of education, and particularly of the president of the advisory council for the American educational exhibit, Dr. Wm. T. Harris, this plan was not carried out. We decided that were we to be represented at all we should have to include all departments of education, from the university down to the lowest country school, also institutions for the blind, deaf-mutes, and idiots. One department alone was excluded, that of technological instruction, and also gymnastics. Let me remark here that universities and the university exhibits lie outside the scope of my address to-day. I shall confine myself to schools in the narrower sense of the term. And why were the technical schools not represented? The first consideration was that America, the land of technics and technical progress, could easily surpass us; more¬ over, there was not money enough for everything; and finally, the department of technical education is, with us, unfortunately divided. The management of indus¬ trial and technical schools, as well as technical continuation schools, belongs to the department of the interior j not to that of education. 1 This is an error, as Brazil, Argentine Republic, and Uruguay were well represented from the educational side, and not. in their State buildings. — Ed. 550 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. As was manifested later, tlie missing exhibit of technical and industrial schools was a deplorable deficiency. However, the demands for space, which provoked the most heated discussions, were such that we would not have received the space neces¬ sary to represent the technical and industrial schools. How splendid this display would have been was shown in an address delivered at the World’s Congress of Engineers, August 5, by the American chairman, Mr. Remy, who said that techno¬ logical instruction in all its grades is better in Germany than in America, because it is commenced later with more mature students, and is pursued for a longer period of time ; consequently, it is more profound, more thorough, and much more advanced. What a German slowly accomplishes in a year, the American student is expected to rush through in four weeks. But, as he said, circumstances in America hardly permit it to be otherwise. After the resolution had been passed to undertake a German educational exhibit, the work of preparation began. Countless letters and requests had to be addressed to publishers. What seemed worth sending had to be arranged according to definite points of view, and, above all, statistical material had to be collected on a large scale. The most important work intliis line was done by Hr. Petersilie, of the bureau of statistics. Furthermore, comprehensive papers on the condition and history of public schools, secondary education, and universities, schools for girls, etc., had to be prepared in a few months. Thus, in an incredibly short time were produced: (1) The great and comprehensive memorial on the Prussian school system (1892), embracing all elementary and middle schools, by Messrs. Schneider and Petersilie; (2) the excellent history of secondary education in Germany during the nineteenth century, with numerous statistical additions by Dr. Rethwisch; (3) the admirable work of Miss Helene Lange on the development of institutions for girls; (4) to these were added graphic representations of the attendance of high and elementary schools, the number of graduates, etc. For wall ornamentation, a large number of photographs showing the inner and outer construction of well-known schools, were provided, as well as busts of great professors and teachers. The four renowned and great friezes, “Tho four epochs of science,” by Knille, were taken from among the treasures of the National Gallery and formed the finest ornament of the German educational exhibit. The first two, the Grecian epoch (philosophers next to a group of wrestling youths) and the epoch of Weimar (Goethe and Schiller), were i>laced in the division of school instruction, the two others in the university division. Besides these, there were two paintings, ideal representations of secondary and elementary schools, designed by a young painter from Berlin, Mr. Koberstein. They were pictures of a very large size. The place here in Berlin set apart for the collections was quickly filled ; in a short time there was hardly any room in the halls and the yard. This chaos was cleared only by degrees. Almost 800 boxes, 'whose dimensions averaged 2 cubic meters, were sent in installments on two steamers to Baltimore. I shall skip the weeks and months during -which this chaos changed to order, a period in which from Russia, Austria, and America space had to be conquered; the galleries were still building, and the architectural decorations were being made. Finally, after a thousand diffi¬ culties had been overcome, the work was completed. Let me invite you to a walk through this educational exhibit. Leaving the Cana¬ dian exhibit we enter from the south side through a portal of simple Greek propor¬ tions that bears the inscription : “German educational exhibit.” Before us, along the main balustrade, extends the university exhibit; to the left is that of the schools; on the upper floor and covering the same space, is a gallery devoted to special school and library displays. Looking up into an expanse of immense breadth ancl height filled with a mist of dust wTiich a moving mass of people always raises, we see the gigantic framework of the Manufactures Building, with its yellowish- white windowpanes. Approaching the banister we look down upon the bustling crowd of a city within this building; a city with belfries, turrets, and minarets, in whose GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 551 separate quarters all tlie nations were united. Exhibits of industry and manufac¬ ture were on the ground floor, those of science and the liberal arts in the galleries. In our own domain, first an open space was provided for a kind of court of honor, so to speak, both for higher and lower education. The first place was occupied by the exhibit of education of the blind, a display for which we must thank the Imperial Blind Asylum at Steglitz, and which proved to be one of the most attractive points of the German exhibit. It was particularly so. because of the following three fea¬ tures : (1) The large library in Brailldan script, a library that can not be duplicated, for nowhere in the world is there even a similar collection of books. It comprises 730 volumes, written for the blind in God’s name by matrons and young ladies of the society of “Edelweiss/’ so that the treasures of German literature may be accessible to them. Whereas before the blind had only the Bible, some school text-books, and a few journals, they now read the best our literature affords : Goethe, Schiller, Uhland, Gerok, Scheffel, Freytag, etc.; (2) the ingeniously devised methods of instruction for the blind in natural history, physics, geography, arithmetic, etc. ; (3) the models made by the blind themselves after touching tangible objects, thus giving us a representation of the world and its objects imagined by the blind. Adjoining this (in the court of honor) were the exhibits of the city of Berlin, portfolios containing pictures of the most beautiful school buildings, and a row of show cases filled with the handiwork of girls from the One hundred and forty- third public school. I was asked countless times whether this was the work of special schools, and my information that these pieces of work were made in one of the many public schools of Berlin was always received with astonishment. The offi¬ cial graphic representation, which shows that the incomparable growth of the city and the gradual increase in schools and educational facilities have gone hand in hand, that buildings especially erected for school purposes were always ready when the city limits were extended in any direction, awakened the greatest wonder among the people at Chicago. This table showed that provision for public schools was proportionate to the vast growth of our city from 1861 till 1892. Chicago offers no comparison to these statistics — 60,000 children there are not going to school for want of school facilities and teachers. “ You have given us a lesson in humility/’ said a prominent American to me. Farther on we come to the library containing the forms of constitution and, administration of schools; the organizations found in the separate German States were here represented, when possible, in every detail. Close by, on a table, was placed a collection of German educational journals, arranged by Mr. Arndt, a nor¬ mal school teacher. Hundreds of copies of the special catalogue prepared for this collection were given away. None of us who had contributed our share of work to this department had known that Germany publishes regularly 239 pedagogical jour¬ nals and 30 teachers’ almanacs, not including journals for juvenile literature; these were enumerated in the supplement of Arndt’s catalogue. All the last year’s num¬ bers of these journals had been collected and exhibited in a series of beautifully bound volumes. The comparatively few journals of other countries, contrasted with the almost appalling number of our country, representing all, even the smallest school systems, was a truly proud evidence of the inner work of German educational science and method. The vestibule which adjoined, the court of honor was crowned by me with the first painting of Mr. Koberstein, a large semicircle on the left side of which boys in the Frederick- William Gymnasium were represented wrestling and throwing javelins. On the right-hand side, separated by an oak that bore the portrait of William von Humboldt, a group of boys were gathered around a teacher giving explanations with the aid of the microscope. Before this picture were 10 leather-bound folios contain¬ ing the latest and most beautiful plans of school architecture. The volume on the history of public school buildings of Prussia from 1821 till 1880 began with the small designs of the modest country schoolhouses in 1821 and concluded with the magnifi- 552 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. cent public schools now erected by the State and our large cities. The selected models of normal schools, preparatory institutions, classical and modern high schools, etc., were exact in every detail ; for instance, the arrangement of secondary schools was shown in models of the Frederick- William Gymnasium and the Augusta School. Then the secondary school system was graphically described, and 13 large statistical charts showed the progress of education in Prussia during the last twenty years in a few striking statements, puzzling even to us who, though in the midst of the educational activity, had never beheld such an array of comparative figures. I shall mention only a few of them. They were afterwards divided into two parts, taking the dates 1871 and 1892; thus the beginning of the late development of Ger¬ many and Prussia and the present time were placed side by side to facilitate com¬ parison. The normal school students in Prussia numbered 5,000 in 1871 and 10,800 in 1892. In 1871 the expenditure for normal schools amounted to 1,600,000 marks; in 1892 to nearly 5,000,000. The State’s contribution in 1871 was 1,039,000 marks; in 1892 it was 3,360,000 marks. In the year 1871 Prussia had 1 normal student to every 4,930 inhabitants; in 1892 the proportion was 1 to 2,764. The proportion of normal students to the number of teachers was 1 io 10.4 in 1871; in 1892 it was 1 to 6.6. The annual cost of the education of a normal school student was 321 marks in 1871, and 456 marks in 1892. But what we have reason to be most proud of was the chart showing that in the matter of obligatory attendance at school we surpass all other nations on the face of the earth. Prussia, in the year 1871, numbered 4,464,906 children who were subject to the compulsory attendance law; in 1892 the number was 5,401,566. Of these 91.02 per cent, or nearly 5,000,000, were instructed in the public elementary or people’s schools. The 400,000 over and above the 5,000,000, comprising the attendance in advanced elementary schools, can hardly be compared numerically with the attend¬ ance in the public schools. In Prussia, 20,783 of the 4,464,906 children in 1871 (and the number has always been small) were unjustly withheld from school — that is to say, were not enrolled in any school. In the year 1892 only 945 of the 5,401,566 chil¬ dren then subject to the law were unjustly withheld from school. We should try to understand the meaning of the success of a country in enforcing obligatory attendance at school so thoroughly that none but the children of the transitory or floating population (sailors, dwellers in canal boats, ropedancers, etc.), can slip through the meshes of the legal net. No other country in the world can show simi¬ lar statistics. Not even among the numbers of which France, our closest rival, is proud, did I find anything like it. When a commissioner from Russia saw these numbers, he said: “I do not want to see anymore; I am ashamed,” and went away. Permit me to quote a few other items. In 1871 we had 52,746 classes, or class rooms in the people’s schools, and in 1892 exactly 30,000 more, 82,746. The number of pupils, as mentioned before, had increased by 1,000,000 during the same twenty-one years. The number of teachers during this period increased by about 19,000, or about 1,000 every year. Let us now consider the question of expenditure. We read in American newspapers that Germany has no money for its schools, and that it is being slowly eaten up by expenditures for its armed defense. The following numbers prove that there has been money for the schools, though not always sufficient. The expenses of public schools in 1871, in Prussia alone, amounted to 55,648,000 marks; twenty years later they amounted to 146,225,000 marks. -In 1871 the State defrayed 2,895,000 marks of the sum total for elementary instruction; in 1891, 46,495,000 marks. In 1871 the tuition fees amounted to 10,490,000 marks; in 1891, only 1,398,000 marks. These figures show that our elementary schools are fast becoming gratuitous schools. In 1871, a people’s or elementary school cost 1,976 marks; in 1891 it cost 4,029 marks. In 1871 every 1,000 inhabitants paid 2,262 marks school expenses; in 1891 they paid 4,881 marks, which is 4.80 marks annually to every inhabitant. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 553 In conclusion I mention the charts, which showed the education of our army recruits. In Prussia iu 1867-68 as many as 3.72 per cent of the recruits were with¬ out school education; in 1891-92 only 0.69 per cent. Even Posen, the poorest prov¬ ince in this respect, reduced its 14.78 per cent of 1867-68 to 2.38 per cent. These are figures of which we may justly be proud. We find similar elating facts with regard to secondary education. Allow me to touch upon a few only. The entire expendi tures of Prussia for high schools (classical and modern) in 1871 amounted to 7,534,000 marks; in 1891, to 30,918,000. In 1871 the salaries of the teachers of these schools amounted to 5,500,000; in 1892, to 25,733,000 marks. Not so favorable a light was thrown on the development of our schools by other numbers, particularly those that showed what positions in life are held by the pupils of secondary educational institutions. Really surprising, at first sight, was the dis¬ proportion in the attendance of the upper and lower grades of the various kinds of secondary educational institutions. Exactly 18 per cent of all the pupils attended the upper grades of the “ Gymnasia;” 37 per cent and a fraction the middle grades, and 44 per cent and a fraction the lower grades. That is approximately the normal status. In the “ Realgymnasia ” only 7.62 per cent of all the pupils reached the upper grades (i. e., “Prima” and “Secunda”); 39 per cent the middle, and 53 per cent and a fraction attended the lower grades. In “ Realschulen,” of the first and second order, the proportions were 1.18 (or 235 pupils), 33 per cent and a fraction (or 6,615), and 65 per cent (or 13,043). I know very well that in interpreting these numbers we must consider the peculiar German institution — the right of a one- year military service, which is acquired by attending only seven of the nine years’ course of secondary education. This is the chief motive of many in attending secondary schools who would otherwise not enter them. Another question is, what vocations do the graduates of the “Gymnasia” (of 9 grades), “Realgymnasia,” and “Realschulen” choose? Of those who received diplo¬ mas between the years 1868 and 1891, only 71,226 had completed the course of gym¬ nasia, but 120,000 that of “Realschulen.” Of the first-mentioned number, 52,000, or 74 per cent, devoted themselves to the higher professions and entered the universities, 5 per cent to technological, and 20 per cent to other pursuits (those of merchants, civil service, etc.), fractions of a per cent not being considered. It is astonishing to notice that of the graduates of “Realgymnasia” 30 per cent aim at the higher pro¬ fessions, 20 per cent at technological, and 50 per cent at other pursuits. From this it becomes obvious that the institutions for technological education labor under the difficulty of being obliged to admit students without a thorough secondary educa¬ tion. In comparison with other States our showing is not very good, and proves the necessity of reform. Leaving these tables of statistics and turning toward the large aisle of the German educational exhibit, we find a large number of models of buildings, rooms, baths (from Gottingen), and separate halls, and an immense number of apparatus and devices for teaching. Here we could see how rich and inventive Germany is in physical, chemical, geographical, botanical, and zoological representations, and why it supplies the whole world. The space on the left side of this aisle was taken up by girls’ schools, elementary schools, and institutions for deaf-mutes and idiots. On the upper gallery, to the left, were the exhibit of normal and their preparatory schools and manual training schools. On the right of the aisle referred to the exhibit of the secondary schools was divided according to disciplinary studies: mathematics, physics, descriptive natural history, modern and ancient languages, etc. In every one of the single groups and divisions a definite idea had been carried -out. The historical development of this kind of schools was shown in old publications, programmes, courses of study, comparative statistics, and pictorial representations; then attention was drawn to their present status by means of the same objects in their latest forms. The study of history, for example, was illustrated by a series of libraries with special catalogues, collected and arranged for this purpose. The text- 554 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. "books and "books of reference of tlie Prussian normal schools alone numbered 270 volumes ; the library of the normal school at Oranienburg, 580 ; the library for the pupils of a high school for girls, 420; a scholars’ library, 30; a city school library in Berlin, 256; the library of hygiene and physical culture, 123, and the one exclusively made up of books on methods of teaching, over 300 volumes. Professor Fechner had collected 225 school readers, including nearly all the editions from 1771 to 1893. The catalogue of this unique collection contained in itself the history of the German public school reader. The apparatus for natural philosophy of a Berlin city school filled 5 show cases, each measuring a cubic meter. When we told Americans or other foreigners that each of the city schools (200 of them) of Berlin had that many pieces of apparatus for instruction in natural science, and that these schools are not high schools, gym¬ nasia, orschools of technology, but simple elementary schools, they were veiy much astonished. Perhaps we do too much in furnishing apparatus. The Americans lay great stress upon having only a few simple pieces of apparatus which, if possible, the teacher and pupils construct themselves. I am convinced that it is to the pupil's advantage to learn the principles by means of his own handiwork. The attempt was also made to show the development of instruction in geography by means of the oldest, later, and latest school books and appliances ; thus, for instance, a gymnasium in Danzig exhibited the map of Prussia which it used in 1700, side by side with the one it makes use of to-day. The gymnasium in Gbrlitz sent the terrestrial globe used in 1680, and one procured in 1880. Atlases used in our schools during the seven¬ teenth century, the microscope used in the eighteenth, and like instruments used in our century, were among the exhibits. On the walls and partitions, a mural surface of about 500 square meters, there were placed abundant illustrations of school buildings, selected charts, and maps, the best specimens of object-lesson charts, the fresco and other ornamentation of our school assembly halls, all in separate specimens. Whoever examined this abun¬ dance knows that most of what was sent remained partially hidden in closets, map cases and portfolios. Finally, we come to the selected work of pupils and graduates that was criticised and ridiculed so much on our side of the ocean. In Germany, the fact of our send¬ ing whole stacks of chests filled with copy and exercise books elicited many satirical comments. The Zukunft even published a humorous article on the subject, but experience proved that no other exhibit was so closely studied and investigated as the written work of our pupils. The reason for this is easily understood. The work of the pupils and graduates of normal schools, gymnasia, “ Eealschulen,” etc., probably 18,000 books, seemed lost in the immense extent of the exhibit. In judg¬ ing a school, the most important factor is always the achievements of its pupils; and there was no other way for us to show the ability of the pupils except by written work. The exercise books were put into plain, dark cardboard cases and distributed among the tables over the entire space allotted to us. It was a matter of principle with us to exhibit no exemplary work at Chicago, made for the occasion, but simply the everyday work of schools during 1892, or at the beginning of 1893; that is, note¬ books as they came from the pupils’ hands during class work. The worst specimens, of course, were not selected, but from a number of typical institutions about 20 books of every kind were chosen in such a way that from each class of these institu¬ tions a number of good, medium, and poor exercise books were exhibited, thus giv¬ ing an accurate idea of what is accomplished in these schools. It took the awarding judges a long time to understand that we had exhibited no prize work, and that we had included bad work to show the true state of things. They looked upon the bad as prize work and wondered at the many mistakes. All other nations 1 had exhibited prize work. American journals, educational and others *M. Jules Steeg, of the Musee Pedagogicjue in Paris, is authority for the statement that France presented the average work in schools. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 555 interested in tlie German exhibit, declared upon the evidence of these exercises, that they had had no suspicion of what a German teacher accomplishes in the way of interlinear correction. To correct the compositions of forty to fifty pupils in a German school gives the teacher many hours of work outside of the class work. The red ink marks and notes in the thousands of copybooks were a monument of honor to German pedagogues, and honor and recognition were generously bestowed upon them. How else could a foreigner have seen the actual work of our pupils? Even should he visit our schools with recommendations and letters of introduction from the min¬ ister of education, what rector would allow him to inspect the exercise books of all the classes? Such a thing would hardly happen. Hence foreign teachers and pro¬ fessors truly said that they could buy our printed text-books and manufactured devices for instruction any day by ordering them through the ordinary channels of trade; that they could copy our catalogues, syllabi, and programmes, but that this was their only opportunity of seeing the real work of our schools. Russians, Swedes, Norwegians, and Americans labored for weeks and months at this exhibit. The work of graduates was of special importance. What had been accomplished before leaving the normal school showed absolutely what we require of our public school¬ teacher before he enters upon the practice of teaching. And then compare with it the acconrplisliments of the average American teacher who has passed an examina¬ tion for primary education. From the work of graduates of secondary schools the visitors saw what we demand in the nature of intellectual work from our young men before they enter universities. The whole of the first two years’ work in an Ameri¬ can university is included in the last two years of the gymnasium in Germany. With few exceptions, the graduates’ work of American colleges alone can be placed on a level with that of our gymnasial graduates. That was the opinion expressed by all who understood the difference existing, and they were not all Americans. Now, what has been the fate of these scholars’ efforts? There. was much talk about it in Germany, and it was fiually decided that this work of pupils would be thrown into Lake Michigan or be used as wrapping or packing paper. Most of the other exhibits came back from America; those were not wanted. But while we supposed that the pupils’ work would not be wanted by the Americans, it is a fact that students of education and several universities contended for them and paid cash for them. Most of the exercise books are to be preserved in the large museum of education in Philadelphia. This city subscribed $300, GOO, or 1,200,000 marks, for the erection of a museum of education exclusively. The German exhibits that have gone to Philadelphia form the foundation of a foreign section there; so then the mistakes of our girls and boys in qnarta (fourth grade in a gymnasium) will be pre¬ served in Philadelphia as a perpetual remembrance. Another portion of the pupils’ work will be kept in the library of the University of New Yorh ; another in Michi¬ gan, and the rest in California. The Americans realized that they would not be able again to obtain such material for examination and comparison. In collecting as much of pupils’ work as possible from all the exhibits from the French, Japanese, etc., they accumulated highly interesting material for comparison. It is also important to know that in America the chair of pedagogics in universi¬ ties is filled by pedagogues and not by philosphers; that the professor teaches, and also practices pedagogy. In so far as pupils’ actual work compares, not only in theories but in facts, there are perhaps no better subjects for comparative study than the exercise books of American, English, Swedish, and German pupils. What opinion was pronounced on the German educational exhibit? As far as I know, all that we accomplished was appreciated, and at times overestimated. Knowing the weak points of our own educational systems and the distance we must measure before attaining conditions with which we can be satisfied, we were some¬ times rather embarrassed by the praise lavished upon our achievements. 556 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Every one of the great civilized countries sent a delegation of educators to Chicago. France sent six delegates, among them the brother of the renowned director of French primary schools, M. Buisson; the rector of Poitiers, M. Compayr6, and also a woman. Russia delegated Prince Wolkonski; the University of St. Petersburg sent Professor Dimsclia and Mme. von Schemstkin; Denmark sent a lady from Copenhagen, who gave us enough to do. She was the awarding judge for German normal schools and their preparatory institutions, and I must confess that she had very profound knowledge of professional preparation for teachers. I carried on many a heated discussion with her to convince her, not always convinced myself, of the excellence of our organize tions. Sweden and Norway had sent quite a number of noted educators, among them the director of the pedagogical seminary in Stockholm. Representatives from the United States were numerous. Besides official delegates, there were hundreds of teachers who individually visited the exhibition. Their first question invariably was : “ Where is your kindergarten ? ” The German educational exhibit included no kindergartens by reason of their forming no part of the governmental system. Kindergarten education was represented elsewhere j partly in the Children’s Building. The second question was : “ Where is your public (mean¬ ing people’s) school work?” We had exhibited no written work of the elementary schools of Prussia, but had selected and arranged a large collection from Wurtem- berg. This collection showed that the people’s schools in that country have attained a high degree of efficiency. Another question was: “What method do you adopt?” or, “What is your system?” We often met with the opinion that a single system predominates in Germany; that a book, so to speak, a prescriptive regulation (like the English education code) applies to the whole Empire. If one inquired concerning our method and was directed to the library containing the methods of teaching in elementary schools in a long row of volumes, or perhaps only the methods adapted for teaching a single branch, say, arithmetic, he turned away in dismay. The ques¬ tion: “How do you teach reading, music or physics or singing, etc.?” was asked every minute. One day a young lady representing a large newspaper came to me, sat down, and, taking out her notebook, said with American determination: “Now, my dear Professor, what are your views on education ? ” She expected my pedagogical creed in a nutshell. Thus we were brought face to face with the peculiarity of American education and how it is understood in that country. Only the best schools of the most progressive States have an idea of the manifold liberty that permeates all our uni¬ formity and directive agencies, the liberty of the individual teacher in momentary formation and treatment of their subjects. We had on exhibition a collection of all the text-books used by the pupils of 40 schools, including rural schools of the western, middle, and eastern sections of Germany, and those of large, medium-sized, and small cities. When asked to show the books of our elementary schools, every¬ one was astonished when we pointed to the Bible, a book of biblical history, an arithmetic, a copy book for penmanship, and a reader used in a city school of Berlin. At first it was hard for Americans to understand that with us the teacher himself replaces the text-book on physics, zoology, botany, etc. Americans and Germans do not agree on this point. Our tendency is to instruct orally as much as possible, and to make use of a book only when it is necessary for reference. The Americans teach by means of a text-book, not because of the ina¬ bility of the teacher, but from pedagogical principles. Their idea is that in acquir¬ ing knowledge the pupil should not feel continually dependent upon the teacher, but should himself do as much work as possible. Their books are very cleverly divided into a number of lessons. Questions relative to the subject of the lesson are given to the pupils in brief form to awaken thought. The teacher assigns a lesson that has not been reviewed, and the pupil, like the gold digger, studies by “ digging out the lesson.” American teachers are of the opinion that our method keeps the pupil constantly dependent and gives him too little chance for self-activ- GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 557 ity. Their purpose is to let him do as much work as he can by himself. The teacher must only supplement, help, steer, or direct, and in so doing interfere as little as possible with the independence of his pupil. That is, in rough outline, the Ameri¬ can principle, according to which there is, in most cases, nothing of what we call vivid oral instruction and the unfolding of the subject-matter in class. An Ameri¬ can teacher rarely enjoys that supreme pleasure of reading in the eyes of his class that they are following him, nor has he the pleasurable consciousness of developing a subject himself as the exigencies of the moment demand. This is a consequence of the low average of the professional education of American teachers, which to me, on the whole, seemed particularly low. Perhaps our method is at fault in a measure. Ib seems to me that we clear away too many difficulties for the pupil ; we make study too easy for him, are too anxious to spare him work by which he himself could discover what we elucidate. Undoubtedly the American pupil is more independent of his teacher than the German. That independence is a consequence of the general attitude of the pupil toward the teacher, which is influenced by the general position of youth in the nation. The Americans believe, and I think they are right, that their drawing and model¬ ing are superior to ours. In good American schools instruction in both is given from the very first. Practice of the hand and eye is cultivated from the first day of school. It seems to me that American drawing is lighter, freer, and easier than ours. A second superiority in American schools which I noticed is the pupils’ command of their mother tongue, written as well as spoken. It surprised every one of us to observe with what confidence and facility the pupils wrote their mother tongue. For instance, we entered a class of the second school year ; the teacher said : “ Here is a gentleman from Berlin. Berlin is in Germany. He wishes to see our schooL Now, write what you see.” The children took a sheet of paper and wrote the fol¬ lowing: “A. gentleman comes into our school. This gentleman is from Berlin. He looks kind. He speaks with the teacher. He can speak English.” The children expressed themselves in short, forcible sentences. An off-hand composition on the fish by a class of the second year also was as fol¬ lows : “ I have seen a fish. I saw the gills of the fish too ; they are red. Our teacher says fish breathe through the gills. My father always eats baked fish.” That is how Americans teach ; they allow children to write on quietly, and correct only the worst mistakes. American pupils do not use exercise books, but simply plain sheets of paper. They write only very short compositions on what they know, see, or have personally experienced. On the other hand, we insist entirely too much upon imi¬ tation of literary examples, make our pupils write too much according to models, and we criticise their language too closely. The liberty which allows a child its naivet6 of expression, the artlessness of its views, and the simplicity of its language, we do not always find with us. In regard to that we can learn something from the Americans. Not to try your patience too long I shall mention but one other fact. Our com¬ pulsory attendance at school, the length of sessions, the large number of school days in a year, the large average attendance, the universality of popular education, the extent and thoroughness of our normal school course, the excellence and abundance of our devices for object teaching and the accurate and tasteful execution of our apparatus, awakened the greatest admiration. Americans acknowledged our supe¬ riority over them in these matters. The liberty that does not allow the individual teacher’s own work to suffer under restrictive regulations is entirely unknown to them. The German system of instruction was much commented upon by Americans of high standing and others. A Frenchman, a member of the Institute, said that our educational exhibit was the best manifestation of Germany’s power, and we often heard that the seriousness of the German character was clearly revealed in this division of the great Exposition. A Chicago student spent a long time in this depart¬ ment to prepare for his doctorate a dissertation on the leading thoughts in the German educational exhibit. 558 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Now, what is going to become of all this material? Tlie text and exercise books left in America we can easily replace, but shall what remains be scattered to the winds? It will be a difficult task to form so complete a collection again, for seldom is so ardent a zeal aroused as that which everyone displayed who contributed in any way to this work. Could we not succeed in keeping it together if only as a provisionary foundation for a German museum of education to be established on a more elaborate seale to serve educational purposes? All our large libraries might contribute their superfluous schoolbooks. If we could collect the literature of every branch of study in systematic retro- gradation until we had compiled a history of these branches, we would know exactly the development of a subject from the most illiterate to the present time. Just now no one knows anything of the history of such subjects. If we could retrace our steps in the past by means of school programmes, organizatory orders, and other school publications, we would attain an excellent object: The history of German schools from sources at x>resent unknown. What we now call history of education is not a history of facts, but of systems and theories. If we were to investigate how much of the theories of Salzmann andPestalozzi and others had entered the schools as late as 1830, we would find that outside of books their views influenced the peojde and the methods of teaching much less than we care to acknowledge. Were we to collect all educational appliances upon this stock collection, it might become a place of reference for the information of school authorities, directors, and teachers as well as for specialists. It might likewise be a receptacle for the school statistics of Germany and for the history of the schools in all the German-speaking nations at present not in existence. We should then have an educational watch tower from which to observe what schools of other nations accomplish. I believe wo do not look beyond our own confines often enough to have other than biased views of the great success our school system has met with. It would be well for us if we had the place and the number of men there are in the United States whose life’s work is to introduce into the schools of their country whatever they find good and excel¬ lent on the other side of the ocean in the methods of the great, civilized nations of the Old World. Such an institution could effect much general good ; whether it will ever exist is still doubtful. Permit me to draw your attention once more to the characteristic features of the American educational exhibit. What is most important for us to notice is that the exhibit was not arranged according to a uniform plan ; the work of whole schools and that of individuals were placed next to each other heterogenously. The whole exhibit seemed to lack system. Strictly systematic arrangement was a feature of our exhibit made possible only, because affairs having been conducted by compara¬ tively few persons perfectly familiar with the leading thoughts, everything was directed from a common center. In the American exhibit excellence was found side by side with puerile endeavors; some instances, indeed, are almost incredible. Among pupils’ work, a small number of the Catholic schools of one State had exhib¬ ited a portrait of Pope Leo made of their bishoi>s’ hair. That was also pupils’ work, but there was much that was excellent in this very odd collection. It was interesting to see how young States like the Dakotas, having been States only a few years, became studded with universities, seminaries, public schools, and high schools. In South Dakota, which was a Territory four years ago, the univer¬ sity had already burned down once. Iowa, Nebraska, and a number of other young States presented classes by means of photographs and the phonograph. As large a photograph as possible was taken of a class during the hour of recitation, and the recitation itself was taken down word for word in shorthand, and these notes tran¬ scribed on a typewriter and bound; sometimes a whole lesson was spoken into the phonograph. So, then, seated in an easy chair, with the ends of the tubes of the Edi¬ son phonograph held to our ears and the large photograph of the class before us, we heard the teachers instruct and the pupils answer. Thus we were enabled to pass GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 559 judgment on a model lesson in history or grammar, and could convince ourselves of its correctness "by tlic engrossed stenogram submitted. Among my collections, still on the ocean, I have a number of such phonograms and photographs "which were presented to me. Perhaps I shall be able to give you the opportunity of listening to such a history lesson recited in South Dakota. In all American schools and exhibits, as said before, much stress was laid upon what Americans call individual work, i. e., not only the achievements of a class, but also that which a single pupil accomplishes by choice under direction of his teacher. Their principle of not depriving the pupil of his independence influences also their estimation of personal accomplishments peculiar to them, i.e., drawing and modeling. Very odd things were produced in this individual work. A girl in a Utah school had prepared a folio volume containing the entire history of literature of all civilized countries arranged in parallel columns ; this was considered a particularly great piece of work. Further on we saw large volumes of written lectures on psychology and pedagogy. To us this overestimation of paper work, the printed or written as against what we call the living word, seems very strange. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES. By Prof. Stephan Waetzoldt, of Berlin. SECOND LECTUEE. Ladies and Gentlemen : In my first lecture I had the pleasure of showing you how the German educational exhibit developed, what impression it made on the different nations, particularly on American teachers, and how, judging our achieve¬ ments from the American standpoint, it brought to light certain fundamental differ¬ ences between our pedagogic conceptions and those of the Americans. To-day per¬ mit me to acquaint you with the government and policy of public education in the United States. In order to understand under what conditions schools, or the educa¬ tional life of a nation may thrive, we must glance at its historical, economic, and social position, and at the conditions of its political existence; for the educational institutions of a nation are strongly influenced by its history, its activity, and their effects. We must consider what the talent of the nation is, the bent of the educa¬ tion it requires to fulfill the duties of citizenship, and the end it purposes to attain through its education. Being descendants of the most gifted nations of Europe, Americans, on an average, are presumably not less gifted than their ancestors of the Old World. The country has developed from colonies; only the adventurous emigrate, those who have ideas of their own and the strong will to carry their ideas into effect; in short, active, aspiring people, while the sluggish and inert stay at home. Hence this involuntary selection explains the very natural increase in talent and capacity. Experience teaches that a great increase in national ability takes place in consequence of an intermingling of representatives of highly civilized nations. On the whole, the union of Germanic-Anglo-Saxon and Romano-Celtic blood has not been attended by unfavorable results. The conditions of life and nature are similar to those of Euro¬ pean nations. The energy of North Americans has had a broad and fertile field for display from the beginning; their intelligence has been stimulated by struggles with nature and circumstances, so that the physical and mental constitution of the American, though similar to that of Europeans, has become more refined and much more active. Americans consider themselves more intelligent than all other nations. An Ameri¬ can never thinks slightingly of himself; he believes himself to be the man of the future, conscious that nothing within the limits of human power and ingenuity is impossible for him. His achievements prove that he thinks and acts very quickly, that he is gifted with a lively imagination, and that, perhaps, in his youth his 560 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. moral emotions exercise little restrictive power ; though this is rather a doubtful assertion. If we contemplate the immigrant in the United States in the second or third generation, we find that he comprehends quickly, learns eagerly, is not nar¬ rowed down in the exercise of his will power, and is altogether practical. Ameri¬ can schools aim directly at being practical from the lowest primary school to the final university course. The Americans are superior to all other nations in the precocity of the young, which shows itself in physical development, as well as in that of character. While the twenty-fifth year is accepted as the beginning of the productive age in our States, it is from five to eight years earlier among the middle classes in America. This more rapid development is partly due to the fact that Americans enter into business life earlier; their boys become independent very soon. This is a pecuniary gain for the nation, since parents are rid of their children earlier, and a propor¬ tionally larger number of persons are simultaneously self-supporting. Inasmuch as everyone yields to youth in America, the American boy is or is considered, the rep¬ resentative of the future; he is everywhere looked upon as the bearer of new ideas; whoever does not care to grow old associates with youth and the youngest. Even in the family the child is independent at an early age. Parental authority and strict home training are seldom met with. Girls and boys are educated alike in and out of school. In order to understand the peculiarity of life at school, we must consider that the two sexes associate unreservedly with each other. It is a principle with Americans to allow a free development as early as possible. Erudition, if not turned to practical account, is not much thought of. The aim of public schools (the question of higher education lies outside the pale of my dis¬ course) above all things, is to educate practical men, competent to fill the great vacant spaces still existing, increase opulence, and work together in the business interests that engage the minds of all intellectual men. Thus are developed an expansive race, characters quickly resolute, energetic and unwavering in execution. Considerable difference, however, exists between the old States of the Atlantic Coast, the Central, and the Western States. The first already lead a historic exist¬ ence, in pursuance of which relations, things, and people are similar to those of Europe. The Central and the Western States are still young. It soon becomes evident that this nation and its children, when compared with, ours, are lacking in pensiveness, warmth of feeling, tenderness, and childlike sim¬ plicity, and do not enjoy what may , be called the fairy life of imagination and heart. Americans unreluctantly acknowledge that they look at things from a bird’s-eye view, or at an eagle’s perspective. Of great weight in considering their schools and their ready acceptance of what is new and foreign, is the fact that their country is poor in history and monuments ; they are not hampered by the strong traditions from the eternal past handed down to old civilized nations like ours. Americans readily comprehend what is new, and incline to making experiments. They are impatient for quick results, even in education. They expect to pick the ripe fruit of pedagogic sciences and skill in an incredibly short period of time. The schemes and policy followed in their schools sometimes foster these forced conditions. Moreover, Americans are easily deceived by first results quickly gained. America possesses proportionally few highly educated persons. Comparatively few men have more than regular common school education, or have taken the full course of elementary and high schools and attended universities to enter upon life as highly educated men. The educational course of Americans runs in zigzag lines, and is interrupted by other occupations. The adult eventually acknowledges the necessity of education, recognizing insufficiencies not felt at first; therefore we often find wide gaps in the most cultivated American minds. The Americans have been defined as the type of a nation in which gross ignorance never prevails among the masses. There are as few persons wholly uneducated as there are those of high and refined education, so that in general in regard to knowledge and intellectual inter- GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 561 ests an equilibrium exists. Americans bare an instinctive regard for education, and long for its possession; but not being desirous of gaining knowledge only at school, . schools are considered a thing to be dispensed with as early as possible. The popu¬ larization of science in America, however, makes learning out of school easy. There is no other country in the world in which so many learned, popular lectures are delivered. Summer schools are identified with summer resorts only for the pur¬ pose of attracting jirofessors to deliver scientific discourses in the quiet of rural surroundings. America has numerous well-edited journals. The English language . during the last century has developed into an excellent medium of communication for common intercourse as well as for scientific purposes. In striving to admit as many as possible into the higher institutions of learning, Americans, good politicians as they are, make access to higher courses as easy as possible. When we consider \rhat each State does and the wholo Union does for advanced schools we must conclude that entirely too much importance is attached to them, combined with a certain vanity of higher education. Every American school, of whatever kind, from the university down to the primary school, is, on principle, an affair of the community. The management of common schools is neither an affair . of the Federal nor of the State government, but of that of the community. Accord¬ ingly, every city, even the smallest, has full liberty to arrange its school system 'as it will and can. It alone, within the limits of the State school law, has the right of examination, appointment, and supervision of teachers ; of prescribing the course of study; determining the methods, aims, and discipline in the minutest detail; planning and overseeing the construction of its schoolhouses; selecting the text¬ books, and exercising supervision. In consequence, a commendable rivalry is engen¬ dered between cities regarding the advancement of their schools; but, on the other hand, a spirit of local patriotism permeates all educational affairs. It is actually difficult to learn from the inhabitants of the city itself what is going on in its scliools; and if we examine them ourselves, things sometimes look very different from what we have been led to suppose. The State requires that the community do everything; so you can readily imagine that the schools of thinly populated districts differ greatly in their results. Poor localities have schools miserably equipped, if they have any at all; while old, wealthy, and large communities have a large number of excellent schools. * * * The total public school expenditure amounted to $140,000,000 in 1890. Every pupil annually costs 72 marks; in Prussia 29.74 marks. The difference, however, is decep¬ tive, for the purchasing power of $1 in the United States is often not greater than that of a mark in Germany ; so the average cost of a pupil is about the same in both countries. In considering expenses, salaries, etc., wo must not forget that more can be done with 4.20 marks in Germany than with $1 in America. Public schools in the United States offer gratuitous instruction; there is in many places no charge for text-books, stationery, or reference books used by the pupils. It is customary to have a library in connection with every school, and each pupil under direction is daily allowed to spend from a half hour to an hour in referring to the dictionaries and lexicons for such information as he may need or desire. Let us see how matters stand in regard to compulsory attendance at school. Legally enforced attendance, as it exists with us, we find only in the New England States, and New York, New Jersey, Texas, Nevada, and California. In Texas and Nevada, however, the conditions of education and the distribution of the popula¬ tion do not permit compulsory attendance. Texas, with an area larger than that of Germany, and numbering only 2,500,000 inhabitants, has vast unsettled districts toward its western boundary. In California the conditions of civilization and set¬ tlement make compulsory attendance at school altogether illusory. But what is worse than all is that in none of these States having a compulsory attendance law can a father be forced to send his children to school. Such action contradicts the American conception of personal liberty. There are no policemen for that purpose, ED 93 - 30 562 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. no gendarmes (constables on horseback) to force children to go to school. No judge can sentence a father to punishment for wrongfully keeping a child from school. To be sure, he ought to send his child to school, but it is often the case that ho does not do it. America shows universal weakness in the lack of executive power and vigilance, resulting from the fear of encroaching upon the liberty of its citizens. There is nowhere strict execution of legal orders regarding attendance at school. But we must not forget that in the United States no measure exists by which an accurate list of the number of children who ought to go to school can be made out. Families arc not required to announce their arrival and have their names and address, or change of address, entered upon the civil roll at the city hall. Authorities have no means of finding out when children attain the proper age for being admitted into school. We allow ourselves to he hoodwinked when we believe what we read, that in a certain State children are obliged by law to attend school for eight years. A few cities to which the cause of education is dear have instituted a school police force. In Boston these “truant officers,” as they are called, number about 16 men, who, voluntarily, investigate the cause of neglect in attendance, and attempt to prevent the employment of children too young to leave the school; but it is impos¬ sible for them to fulfill their duty to the full extent. The word “truant” means idler (Tagedieb); accordingly “ truant officers” would mean police after loafers (Bummlerpolizei). It is almost ludicrous to say that compulsory education is gen¬ erally adopted in the United States. To understand that neglected children are not disposed to go to school, we must visit the labor quarters of cities like New York, Chicago, etc., and see the children come out of the factories. * * * According to authentic reports from New York, not more than 72 per cent of all children who should go to school can be induced to do so ; 28 per cent, the street Arabs, never attend school. The greater number of these 72 per cent attend only dur¬ ing three to four months of the year, and only about 30 per cent go for four consecutive years. Statistics referring to these conditions, however, are always very imperfect. We naturally ask, “What reason have children for staying away from school?” I have at hand the last school report from Chicago. The school year extends from one summer vacation to the other, from September till June, and thecommittee of inves¬ tigation found that during tho year 1891-92, 12,900 children missed school from insuffi¬ cient causes; 9,275 were notorious loafers and idlers who could not be forced into school. Among these youths crime finds its recruits. The other 3, 130 cases arc thus accounted for : 504 children did not go to school because they worked away from home; 362 were obliged to work at home; 571 were kept at home by parents disap¬ proving of education; 25 because of physical deformities; 390 victims of poverty stayed at home for want of clothing. In all Chicago 32 only had private lessons at home ; 879 were always sick ; 395 were absent for unknown reasons ; 65 were beyond the required age, though still deficient in knowledge. As many as 1,336 children never attended school on account of the indifference of their parents, tho depravity of the father, or the incorrigibility of the children them¬ selves. Tho reasons given for the latter were intemperance of parents, the father being away from home, or entire abandonment by both father and mother. Seventy- four boys, children between 13 and 14 years of age, declared that their fathers drank, smoked, and never came homo at night ; 500 boys were said to be in the house of correction; 100 in prison. These figures certainly show a very bad state of affairs; but wc must remember that a city like Chicago grows by the influx of people from all parts of the earth, who are not always the worthiest. The following statements are much worse. In spite of all labor legislation and supervision of factories in the United States, certificates for permission to work arc given to children who should be going to school. In Chicago, during one year, such certificates were given to 1,077 children, 484 of whom were girls; 98 of these children were 10 years old; 115, 11 years old; 342,12 years; and 522, 13 years old. The reasons why certificates for per- GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 563 mission to work were given in these cases were because the children were iioor, or orphans, or had been abandoned by parents, and, most frequently, that the boy might not become addicted to intemperance. We must read such numbers to understand how beneficial and necessary the temperance movement in America is. Let us leave the city and return to the country in general: In 1890, 22 per cent of the population of the United States, 14,500,000 pupils, attended school ; of these 96.5 per cent received an elementary education . W e, as teachers, arc moved almost to en vy? when we consider the number of school days in a year in the United States. The annual average is only 134.3. I believe in Berlin wo have no less than 240. Satur¬ days are holidays throughout America. The 134 school days are an average of terms varying greatly in different States. In the North Atlantic States, for instance Massa¬ chusetts and New York, there are 166 days in a school year; in the South Atlantic States, for instance Maryland and Virginia, 97 ; in the South Central States, for instance Tennessee and Kentucky, 88; and in the Western States, 135 days; New Jersey averages the greatest nuinoer of school days, 192; and North Carolina the least, 59; Illinois has 148. The obligatory course ostensibly requires an attendance of eight years, from the sixth to the fourteenth year. The course of the so-called, primary school covers the first four years; the primary school prepares for the grammar school, the course of which likewise requires four years. In round numbers, 12,697,000 pupils out of the 62,500,000 inhabitants of the Union attended these elementary schools during 1890. Of these 12,697,000 only 8,144,000 children attended every day of the average 88 to 135 school days; that is to say, only 64 per cent attended regularly. Every day of the average 135 days, 36 out of every 100 pupils, or 1 of every 3, a very large proportion, missed school. The best attendance is found in Massachusetts. In that State it is 73.7; in South Carolina, 73.4 ; and in New Mexico, 80 per cent. But this happy State has only 63 days in a school year. To form a just estimate of the general statistics referring to attendance at school, proper allowances must be made for the greater or fewer number of school days in the year. * * * According to available statistics, the schools of Minnesota are the ones in which attendance is poorest, the number of school days during the year are 120, and only 45 pupils out of every 100 attend. This is probably too small an average, for Minne¬ sota, I believe, possesses excellent schools. Even in a State as old as Maryland, in which Baltimore is situated, only 55 out of every 100 pupils attended school regu¬ larly. In the United States the average number of days with a full attendance were 86 out of the 134 — namely, a proportion of 40 days nonattendance to every pupil. In North Carolina the number of days of full attendance averaged 37 out of 59; in Massachusetts 135 out of 177; in the District of Columbia (the city of Washington with its suburbs) 135 out of 178; in New York 115 out of 186, and in Illinois 107 out of 148. The average attendance at school throughout the United States covers four of the eight years; in large cities five to six years; in the South sometimes only one year, occasionally a few months only. This circumstance easily explains the policy of many cities in omitting all studies not absolutely necessary, eventually limiting the course to the three R’s — “reading, hi ting and Arithmetic. ” Permit me to dwell for a moment upon the system of these American schools. It is characteristic of the United States that in spite of its vast extent a certain uni¬ formity prevails. The different elements of immigration have not impeded the devel¬ opment of a certain uniform national character; neither have the different languages prevented a uniformity of language. So all schools, notwithstanding their being affairs of the communities, are still governed by a certain uniform system modeled after the English. The first four years, from the sixth to the tenth year of age, are passed at the primary schools corresponding to our elementary schools ; the following four years, from the tenth to the fourteenth year of age, at the grammar schools (similar to advanced Yolksscliulen), succeeded by the high schools in which foreign 564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. languages are begun. It is impossible for a public school pupil to learn foreign languages before the age of 14 or 15 years ; until then all language lessons are devoted to the mother tongue. German is taught only in localities where there are a great many Germans, and then under a separate superintendent; lately, the Irish majority in the city councils has suppressed this superfluity. Fpur years likewise are required to pass through the grades of the high school, from the last grade of which pupils are admitted into academies, universities, and special high schools. Primary, grammar, and high schools form a clear and simple system. The divisions of the course, or u terms,” of the first two are usually annual, those of the high school semiannual; the one prepares for the other. As I have already said, the majority of pupils do not go to school more than four years, and hence do not pass beyond the primary school. There are only a few private elemen¬ tary schools, and instruction is seldom given at home. In certain districts there are numerous Catholic and Protestant parochial schools, which include religious instruc¬ tion given in no public school of the United States, as church and state are entirely separate and independent. Protestant parochial schools are mostly German, and generally excellent ; where Germans predominate in large districts they also have their own good normal schools. To understand the social position of teachers, men and women, it is of great importance to know the relation of the sexes in American schools, both of teachers and pupils; this is connected with the question of the position of woman in America, a question beyond my purpose to discuss. No distinction in the quality, kind, and aim of instruction is made in any of the elementary schools for boys and girls. In the old States, the sexes are not as a rule instructed together in secondary schools, but in the Central and Western States they sit together from the primary school to the university included. This is the system of coeducation, the education in common for both sexes so highly commended by Americans. At the Congress of Education at Chicago this subject was often dis¬ cussed; and not one disapproving voice was heard. At first, I was altogether misunderstood, when I explained that our views on the education of girls differ essentially from those of Americans. They see only the advantages of coeducation, believed to cultivate boys, and strengthen girls; and we must accept those peculiar conditions, just as in domestic life the intercourse of boys and girls, adults as well as children, is altogether different from what it is among us; and I doubt its having a moral advantage. Certain it is, however, that the girls on the average are more intelligent than the boys; they go to school longer. In the high schools (corre¬ sponding to gymnasia and realschulen) of Chicago the proportion of girls to boys was 3 to 2. As business and politics take up the men’s entire time, the women have become the supporters of the higher intellectual interests and the protectors of intellectuality in domestic life. Thero arc many more women than men teachers ; in fact, the latter are so rare that the word “teacher” in school reports is considered of feminine gender. In the year 1890 the large number of 363,935 teachers were employed in the public schools of the United States; of them 238,333 were women, so that the percentage of male teachers was only 34.5 In the North Atlantic States, like New York and Massa¬ chusetts, only 20 per cent of ail the teachers are men; women teach even in the high schools. Had I not been accustomed to similar experiences in England, I should have been more amazed to hear Cicero’s speech for Milo interpreted to the pupils of a Latin class presided over by a young lady, or to see 30 young ladies working away at integral calculus under the direction of a female professor. The teachers’ roll — I speak of Chicago, because in that city I had the opportunity of studying everything in detail — has few men’s names. Of 100 “ college” graduates admitted to the univer¬ sity only 20 were young men; the other 80, young ladies; hence, as far as intelligence can be extracted from books or procured at school, the women are ahead of the men. Out of 3,000 teachers I counted about 200 men; the names were not separated iu GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 5?5 the list. Even the influential positions, up to that of school commissioner itself, are not seldom filled by women. When, after a long interim, a city normal school was reorganized in Chicago last summer, 149 young ladies and only 1 young man applied for admission. Male teach¬ ers predominate only in the States with a largo negro population ; so in the Southern States we find 60 per cent male to 40 per cent female teachers. In a great many communities male and female teachers draw the same salaries. Equal pay is given for the equal work demanded. Another question of interest to us is, why so few men become teachers. The principal reason is that the remunera¬ tion is so very moderate in proportion to the cost of living and to what can be earned in other professions ; moreover, a teacher rarely acquires celebrity. In America there is no profession of teaching; teachers do not continue to be teachers; they are rather dependent, as a rule, and are not much thought of. Most teachers of public schools accept their positions as a transient stage; we often read in the lives of prominent Americans that they taught in their youth. The long school vacations aremadeuse of to prepare for the university, or to study law or medicine, the two favorite pro¬ fessions in America. Naturally, there is a paucity of experienced teachers. In Illinois it was proven that of the 25,000 teachers in the State the average time of service was four years. The majority, male and female, are young begin¬ ners ; female teachers are also found in the Central and Western States, where there are fewer women than men. Liberty in all business relations is so great that men will not remain in other than high, well-salaried positions. We must bear in mind that permanent positions to which a pension is attached are not known in America. The army, independent of politics, is the only institution with permanent positions which has a most admirable corps of officers. Teachers are appointed on time; and in many States only for a year at first, and this is done on principle. Practically, the rule is not so strictly observed; there are teachers who maintain their posi¬ tions, always presnpposing that great political changes will not influence municipal authority; here we meet the greatest evil of the whole public. school system of the United States — the influence of politics upon schools; teachers, and educational affairs to their minutest details, are often affected by political changes. In many cities the administration and superintendence of schools, the appoint¬ ment of teachers, and promotions are purely political questions. Change of party rule often brings about a change of the whole personnel of schools, from commis¬ sioners and superintendents down to the ranks of the teachers. This, together with other things, creates a want of stability in American schools; there are no traditions of pedagogic experiences, neither in a school nor in a city. How different in Ger¬ many! What an abundance of traditions and pedagogical experiences are collected in a normal school one hundred years old ! In America hasty experiments replace the slow growth in Germany. The new principal, the new member of the school board, hnd the new administration, are too impatient to carry out their political and moral views and ideas during their term of service. No one has lime to finish his work, for he does not know how long he may be engaged in it ; but everybody experi¬ ments. On the other hand, this constant changing is an advantage to education; nowhere outside of America are new ideas more easily brought to light and put into practice. In Germany and other European States a whole life must be devoted to carrying out a single wholesome idea. In America any capable man soon finds a city, a school, or an endowed institution that permits him to realize his pedagogical idea. To merely touch the question of normal training of teachers in a word, Americans themselves best know that, on the average, it is still inadequate. The minority of teachers aie educated at normal schools. The ever changing board, the superintend¬ ent, or occasionally a lower official, often influenced by politics, decides upon a teacher’s capacity. A definite educational policy is not prescribed, and there is no uniform examination. Every city or county is at liberty to determine its own 566- education REPORT, 1892-93. standard, be it, high or low. A preparation in pedagogics for the profession is almost entirely wanting; in fact, the principle has been enunciated that a teacher in the public schools need not know more than he must teach, and that a knowledge of his text-book is sufficient. Primary school teachers often have not studied beyond the grammar school; sometimes they even speak faulty English. I very well know that America has excellent institutions and brilliant, teachers, but we must not look only at the flower so willingly held out to us. We must not limit ourselves to cities renowned for their schools ; we must ask how matters are in general. According to the judgment of a very competent American school-teacher, the work done in normal schools does not compare with that of a German seminary. Pedagogically and scientifically restricted, the teacher naturally becomes dependent. The principal and inspector instruct him weekly and even daily, prescribing the daily lessons in every detail. Thus the opinion gains credence that the achieve¬ ments of a school are attributable to the board and inspectors, and not to the teachers. Teachers must first be prepared. There is no professional body of teachers with determinative power, no faculty meetings that have decisive disciplinary and other powers. In many cities the teacher is a poor day-laborer who earns his bread in sorrow and fear of the Damo¬ cles sword of loss of position which hangs over his head. In the whole country there is no profession of teaching which rests on an average uniform education, the consciousness of professional work and its magnitude; the nation, as such, does not recognize it. Teachers have no representative corporation; what we hear of the national association of teachers and the great congresses are, with very few excep¬ tions, all efforts emanating from secondary and higher schools, in which only princi¬ pals, inspectors, etc., participate. This deficient professional preparation of the public school teacher is, next to political influence, the most vulnerable point of the whole American school system. It is evident that the achievements of even a highly gifted people must fall below a high standard under such a regime. The schools in the cities arc usually under the direction of a board of education, appointed according to the city statutes, either directly by popular election or indi¬ rectly by the mayor or judges, these personages being considered less likely to be influenced by party prejudice. The members of the board also maybe appointed by individual magistrates. * * * The best arrangement seems to be found in cities, like Indianapolis, where the mayor appoints the board of education that elects a superintendent, and in large cities, his assistants. The entire work of the school falls upon them; they are often professors, but just as often men who have practiced other vocations. The chief superintendent in Chicago was formerly a lawyer, Dr. Lane, a very capable man, and specially enthusiastic in educational work. Good school inspectors or superintendents do not stay long in one position. In the first place, they are politically dependent; secondly, larger salaries and other greater inducements draw them from one city to another. In many cities the gen¬ eral condition of schools and their administration is in a transition state, in conse¬ quence of which no pedagogic tradition or habits of administration can be formed in the schools. * * * Permit mo to say a few words on the pecuniary circumstances of American teach¬ ers. The entire school expenditure of the city of Chicago, with a population in 1892 approximating 1,614,660, amounted to $4,015,000, or 16,800,000 marks. Two and a half million dollars, considerably more than one-half, was appropriated for sala¬ ries. Salaries of principals of grammar schools are divided into groups proportion¬ ate to the number of classes and pupils in their schools and the amount of work to be done. The first group of principals of grammar schools receive $1,050 the first year and the salary increases every year until it amounts to $1,200. The second group ranges from $1,200 to $1,400, the third group from $1,400 to $1,600, and the highest group from $2,300 to $2,500. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 567 Principals of primary schools begin with $1,050 and never receive more than $1,600. In a city like Chicago, where a workingman receives on an average of $2 a day, men and women teachers in primary schools begin with $100, or 1,620 marks, for the first year. The second year they receive $475 ; the third, $575; the fourth, $650; the fifth, $700; the sixth and the following years, $775; i. e., teachers can receive as high as 3,250 marks — a proportionately small sum considering the neces¬ sity of tho position, with no pension, no provision for widows, etc., attached. Teachers in grammar schools are somewhat better situated; they receive $450 tho first year, then $525, increasing in eight years to $800, or about 3,350 marks. Sub¬ stitutes receive $1.50 a day, after they have been tried six months. The so-called school cadets — pupil teachers in fact, whose employment was a necessity in years past in Prussia — also receive 75 cents a day for their work, which they perform under the supervision and guidance of a regular teacher. When we compare the purchas¬ ing power of a mark and a dollar, we understand that small salaries are the reason the teacher’s profession receives so few accessions. Two years ago, after a number of contradictory views and opinions had been expressed on the school system of the United States, a popular New York magazine, The Forum, instituted inquiries on its own account. Dr. Rice, who had studied under Professor Rein in Jena, and acquainted himself with educational matters in America, was commissioned to visit the larger cities in order to investigate their sys¬ tem, administration, and educational conditions. Ee visited 36 cities of the Union. Every city considers its schools and school buildings the best. It is an excellent arrangement that anyone professionally interested can unceremoniously enter Ameri¬ can schools at any time. “We have nothing to conceal, and are always ready to learn from you,” was said to me. Dr. Rice’s tour of inspection resulted in a hook on the public school system of the United States in 1893. It contains a most unbiased and exact representation of the conditions of certain schools, together with their administration, as he observed them. The cities are mentioned, but not the names of the schools and teachers. It is an excellent book, containing everything that the author himself saw and experienced. And we must remember that he is a modern educator of the Eerbartian school, one of the numerous younger American men who jiassionately and zealously apply psy¬ chological principles to education. The publication of his book caused an unpleasant excitement, because he laid his finger on many an open wound. We know that America in education, as in every¬ thing else, is a land of contradictions; the very latest psychological methods are practiced together with the most antediluvian methods. At present two pedagog¬ ical currents are opposing each other in American public schools; the old so-called “drill method,” based upon veTy meager but fixed knowledge acquired by strict discipline and persistent cramming, and the new psychological method, which, based on a thorough understanding of a child’s mind, begins with its first ideas, and con¬ tinues to add others with the purpose of developing a harmonious education of the whole being, the moral and physical as well as the intellectual. Even though the new current has added manual training, hygiene, and a knowl¬ edge of civil government to the curriculum of study, and improved the scientific course; even though it advocates mild instead of harsh measures in dealing with pupils, still it can not be said that the old method is entirely without justification. We can not altogether condemn those who think that Americans need a different kind of school. I most assuredly lean to the newer methods. Di. Rice mentions in his book that tho worst public schools in regard to method and organization are those of Baltimore, Buffalo, Cincinnati, New York, Milwaukee, St. Louis, Chicago, and Boston. It is surprising that Boston should be mentioned. In the Neue Lehrerzeitung of July, 1893, Marcus Fuchs describes the Boston school system as being excellent; but I missed a thorough statement on elementary educa¬ tion in that article which would support the praise bestowed. What Dr. Rice says in regard to the location and sanitary conditions of certain schools in the far-famed city 568 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. of Boston is, in trntli, astonishingly had. However good the secondary and gram¬ mar schools are, improvement seems wanted in the elementary schools. Washing¬ ton, Springfield, and Quincy form a better group. The last mentioned has for a long time been a kind of American Mecca for educational pilgrims. (A number of years ago I first learned, from an American teacher of the Quincy method, concentration of instruction in certain studies.) Under the new administration, however, its schools seem to have retrograded. Indianapolis, Minneapolis, St. Paul, and particularly La- porte, Ind., possess the best public schools, according to Dr. Rice. In Indianapolis the good conditions of public schools is ascribed to the fact that the mayor appoints the school board, that the sensible action of the citizens is not influenced by politics, and that good teachers are introduced from other cities. Laporte is a small city in Indiana with only 40 teachers ; but a famous educator is superintendent here. The name of Dr. W. N. Hailmann is conspicuous in congresses and the educational press. The excellencies of the schools at Laporte are very great, particularly in natural history, drawing, and English. They showed it at the World’s Fair and they are excellent at home. The best normal school is probably the Cook County Normal School in Englewood, near Chicago, under the direction of Colonel Parker. Next to this normal institute the College for the Preparation of Teachers, in New York, deserves mention. I recom¬ mend this book of Dr. Rice to all who wish to acquaint themselves with American methods of teaching. Almost incredible instances are cited. For instance, an Amer¬ ican teacher in teaching geography asks : “ What senses are brought into action dur¬ ing the geography lesson ?” The children answer : “ Hearing, for the teacher speaks ; sight, for we look on the map ; touch, for we point with our finger to the things.” Teacher: “We will close our atlas; how many senses do you make use of now?” Answer: “Hearing,” etc. That was the beginning of a geography lesson ! Here is another example. A class in the second grade is to read a short piece, and the teacher having run aground on a method, says to herself: “In reading we must enunciate clearly and with expression.” As a preparatory exercise for distinct enunciation all the children must begin by practicing the vowels aloud, with the proper position of the vocal organs. Furthermore, the tongue must be relaxed, so the 50 children stretch out their tongues, and move them to the teacher’s beating time. Thereupon the teacher says: “You have done that very well; now we shall practice expression. Heads back!” All the 50 children throw their heads far back. Teacher: “Now say, ‘I am proud, for I know who I am.’” The children do as they are told. Teacher: “Heads on the left shoulder! Look upward! Speech: ‘How beautiful that is !’ ” (Expression of astonishment.) “Heads on the right shoulder ! ‘Do you think you can mock me?’ Heads down! ‘All my money is gone!’” Imagine a whole class saying, “All my money is gone,” to practice the expression of sorrow. Finally, a few other exercises to express increasing pleasure. Teacher: “Children, pay strict attention! What wmuld you say if you wrere to receive an orange now?” All smile. “If you had a banana?” Broader smiles. “If you were to get a piece of candy?” Laughter. “But ice cream?” Shouts of laughter. “So,” says the teacher, “now the class is prepared to read the piec3.” Of course the children read with expression; that is to say, every child in the worst possible manner of mimicry reads the story in which Katie says to Molly: “Be very good while I am gone, and do not get into mischief.” Such are tv7o of the numberless examples cited by an impartial man, who can have no, interest in defaming the schools of his country, but who is honest enough to say, in the face of local patriotism, how matters stand. In Chicago this publication awakened painful surprise. Of course, he mentions other and excellent achievements found in Minneapolis, Indianapolis, and Laporte, and specially in regard to the education of the pupil in self-observation, drawing from nature, and illustrating what he has learned. For instance, the pupil reads aloud, and writes on any subject of natural science; and writing a composition, illustrating it neatly. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 569 I must Freak off liere. To what conclusion do we come? America, throughout, shows itself to ho a young, unfinished country, with power, strong will, and great aspirations, a country of irreconcilable contradictions in which inexplicable things are tossing about, but a country which is united with the best possible spirit, and is free and open to every new thought. Still, I believe that we Germans have no reason to be envious of the school system of America. THE EXHIBIT OF RESULTS OF MANUAL TRAINING. By Prof. Stephan Waetzoldt, of Berlin. THIRD LECTURE. Ladies and Gentlemen : Allow me to remark, by way of introduction, that your honored president selected a subject for me to discuss which is so extensive that when I received the announcement I was frightened. I am sorry not to havo enough material gathered to do justice to the subject as announced : “ Report on the exhibit of the results of manual training in all the countries of the civilized world." I can do no better than to consult my notebook and draw upon my memory for what I saw in the World’s Fair at Chicago, in order to offer a report on the present status and the methods of manual training in some countries. I shall supplement it by a statement of what I witnessed myself in American schools. When the minister of public instruction planned the great German educational exhibit the question arose, u Shall manual training be included?" But after consid¬ ering the fact that this branch of educational work is not a legal part of school education in Prussia, that it is not a regular branch of study, but is left to- private initiative, it was resolved to leave it out, as had been done with the kindergarten display. Still, it seemed desirable to show to the Americans what is being accom¬ plished in this branch, for they would be apt to presume that he who fails to exhibit either has nothing to exhibit or shuns competition, his achievements being inferior. Hence it was determined to exhibit merely in a few groups what is done in this direction in Germany. Your president, Mr. von Schenkendorff, was able, in his usual energetic way of acting, to collect in a very brief period of time, a beautiful exhibit of results of manual training for Chicago. Several of you saw it last February, when it was exposed to view in the House of Deputies. There it occupied two halls. It was of course out of the question to obtain as much room in Chicago as that for only one branch of our exhibit, hence a selection was made. From the Berlin and Gorlitz workshops for pupils we selected a number of objects of pupils' work in paper, pasteboard, wood, wood carving and joiner work, which illustrated the course of instruction and the aims to be reached. I am sorry to say it was impossible to take with us the whole of the beautiful collection of the normal school for manual training teachers in Leipzig, which was designed to show the assistance manual training can render the regular school instruction; but finally we made a judicious selection from this collection. In Chicago this exhibit found room in a very suitable place in the passage between the galleries occupied by secondary and elementary schools. There we spread the work on three enormously large tables in eight glass-covered cases, where they were kept safe from dust and moisture during the entire summer. The objects were systematically arranged and marked by English and German labels. It was not possible to place everything side by side, hence we had to arrange them in several tiers, one above the other. We supplemented the actual work by abundant techni¬ cal literature, annual reports, programmes, etc. Adjoining these tables was the exhibit of the Realschule in Bockenheim that had been admitted by permission from the minister of instruction. It contained photographs of the shops and specimens of joiner and pasteboard work. This collection received also an award. It was fortunate that we had specimens of pupils’ work in manual training on exhibition, for as the first question was invariably, “Where is the written work of 570 EDUCATIONS EEPOET, 1892-93. your elementary schools?” the second invariably folio wed, “Where is your manual training work? ” That proved that much attention is bestowed in America upon this subject, and that in America the custom Is still in vogue to look upon Germany as the leader in educational movements. Other questions were asked, such as “Is manual training generally introduced?” !,'Hov many schools do not give manual training ?” “ Is manual training obligatory in the elementary schools ?” “At what age is it begun?” “What is the course, the end to be -attained, the number of hours devoted to it? ” “Do the communities fnrnish tools, apparatus, and material free of cost?” In America the expenditure for this branch is borne by the com¬ munity, though it is not largo as yet. Where manual training is introduced the authorities furnish everything needful — shops, tools, and materials. The opinion of American educators of our manual training exhibit was, on an average, very favorable. We were told that the German course of instruction was methodically clear, the work on exhibition very good, carefully and tastefully executed. The Americans do not work as neatly and elegantly. They do plain work, as is seen in their machines. Where Frenchmen and Germans build in fine, ornate lines, the Americans build on a large scale, strong and as simple as possible. This tendency to quick and simple production, which does not permit the objects to appear elegant like onrs, was noticed everywhere. Our wood carving (the so-called scallop-cut design) made the deepest impression upon the beholders, in view of the early age of the pupils who had made it. The taste, the sense of beauty, in the combination of models and their execution, was very pleasing to Americans. But they missed larger work, especially that which is immediately applicable, as, for instance, work on a wagon that needs repairing; work such as a farmer would need to perform whose plow is broken, or work done in the house in repairing broken furniture. The American training, especially in agricultural colleges in the Central States, is intended to a certain extent to enable farmers to repair theit agricultural implements and to use the saw, plane, and forging hammer. Our work was praised for its underlying systematic course, its clear methodical treatment, and its artistic execution. Another difference between German and American manual training was observed in this, that the American boys are fur¬ nished half-finished material prepared by the machine; Americans deem it waste of labor to do by hand what may be done by machines. Hand work is confined to that which can not be done by machines. This naturally gives to manual labor a higher value ; it is ennobled when removed from the mere mechanical part, and is conse¬ quently better paid for. In my notebook, under date of May 28, I find a memorandum of a visit to our exhibit by a Brooklyn exjrnrt who declared that he had never seen such artistic pupils’ work. His countrymen were not deficient in well-defined methods, but they experimented too much. “ It is true,” he said, “ that manual training is intro¬ duced in many cities, but their results are chiefly used for show purposes.” So, you see, we may claim to have met with success; but it is my personal impression that the good opinions of our German manual traiuing work' are too favorable, and I arrived at that conviction when I saw what other nations had accomplished. That our pupils'* work was considered characteristic is proved by the fact that the exhibit of the Society for Manual Training was one of the first objects purchased by the Americans. Professor Wilson, of Philadelphia, bought it for the school museum of that city; also the literature belonging to it was bought. In Philadel¬ phia our small exhibit is to receive a place side by side with the Japanese, Eussiau, and French work. Before I turn to the exhibit of pupils’ manual work from American and other States, I desire to touch upon questions such as “ What is the natural talent of the Americans for such work? What is their system ? What circumstances have essen¬ tially aided in developing manual training? ” An Englishman, Mr. Mather, of Man¬ chester, says in his report on technical edneatiou in the United States, “All Ameri* GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 571 cans liave more or less talent for manual labor; this is a characteristic of the race.” During tho colonial period, or at the beginning of the settlement of the extensive West, they lived far apart, not together in cities and villages, hence they were obliged to perform all hinds of labor themselves. In consequence of the habit of self-activity manual work and skill have always been held in higher estimation, generally, than in Europe. A second reason is that the entire school system is organized essentially upon practical principles. It aims at that which is applicable in life, or immediately useful. Such things tho American understands first of all. Manual training has not been engrafted upon the schools, but is considered a useful and naturally grown branch of education. The educational and ethical side of the question is taken into consideration afterwards. The large American educational journals have taken cognizance of the subject and discuss it freely. Thus in the Journal of Education of 1893, for instance, we find a series of articles on joinery, and other comprehensive presentations of certain parts of manual training, with exact illustrations. When at first teachers were wanting for this instruction the authorities helped themselves in other ways by employing artisans. The American looks sharply about himself in this world, and whenever he finds anything good he tries to acquire and develop it. Hence he is ever ready to make educational experiments. During the last ten years manual training has grad¬ ually entered the public graded schools and progressed rapidly. Two currents are noticeable in American manual training. The first follows the principle that manual training should be a j>art of every division of education begin¬ ning with the kindergarten. The kindergarten forms in America tho basis of the entire public school system, and is closely linked with the ideas of Froebel. The name of Froebel is nowhere pronounced as often as on the other side of the Atlantic. Starting from Froebel’s idea of occupation, games, manual work in paper folding, stick laying, modeling, etc., begin in numerous kindergartens. It is a peculiarity of the American school that modeling is begun with very young children; first, sand is used, then clay, and it is continued side by side with instruction in drawing through all the grades, and considered as necessary and important as instruction in scientific subjects. The entire instruction in manual work is facilitated and brought into organic connection with tho other school work, by teaching drawing from tho lowest grade upward throughout the course. Wo often find it said: Drawing is as necessary to a human being as writing ; an educated man can not do without skill in drawing any more than without skill in writing. The ability to expose one's thoughts in writing is not sufficient. The pupil must be educated to describe, sketch, model, and paint an object only if be is able to present it correctly; thus can he be said to have comprehended it fully. This connects the manual work organically with the other school work. In the higher classes we find wood carving, joinery, and light metal work that can be performed without tho use of fire. To this must be added, that in many schools simple apparatus for instruction in physics is made by the pupils themselves under direction of the teacher. The American school has little or no use for our scientific and often very complicated appliances. At present all large cities in the United States have one or more public schools in which manual training is given in a course of four to eight years. This is made an integral branch of study and occupies from two to four hours a week. The most extended observations concerning manual training seem to have been made in New York. The views entertained and the experience gained in that State go to prove that children who are deficient in literary skill, and who are weak in language studies, are generally found more talented in manual skill. Talent for mathematics, physics, and other natural sciences is generally coupled with manual dexterity. Dr. Adler, in New York, writes: “Boys who were considered stupid, and at last believe it them¬ selves, were soon found to be the first in manual skill in the workshop and in scien¬ tific instruction that required observation. They regained the respect of their fellow-students; and tho success they achieve in manual training gives them bank 572 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tlieir self-respect, and spurs them on to do greater things. For thi3 reason, if for no other, manual training should he made a part of all school instruction. It develops the mind of many a child that can learn hut poorly from hooks.” He also claims to have noticed that manual work essentially aids the progress made in draw¬ ing and geometry ; that relations of space, observed by both eye and hand simulta¬ neously, become clearer and more exactly understood. The second current noticeable in the manual training movement in America is to make manual work an essential part of secondary education. The high school (cor¬ responding in a measure to our secondary schools) should, it is claimed, exhibit not only as heretofore a bifurcation, but a trifurcation. As is done in France, the stu¬ dent when entering the high school elects his course of studying, either the scien¬ tific or classical course. Now, the reformers intend to institute a third branch or course, the so-called manual training high school. In these schools the thirty hours of work per week should be so divided as to give ten to manual training in shops and five to drawing. That is to say, the new school is not to be a trade school, but the manual training it offers shall, in the widest acceptance of the term, be the basis of general education, including English, mathematics, and modern languages. I shall, in the course of my remarks, return to this subject. The general movement in introducing manual training in the schools has become a very strong one. It has grown rapidly in the large cities; in Boston and New York it may be said to have become fashionable. In New York the opposition in the press and the public was at first very vigorous. Modeling in clay was said to be condu¬ cive to transmitting skin diseases; that standing at the workbench would cause crooked legs; the boys would not grow up straight; they would be educated to be artisans, a thing that was not desired. In New York, manual training was intro¬ duced in five city schools in 1888. The pupils who desired to take part increased rapidly, and in 1893 the city had 500 teachers for the manual training of 22,000 pupils who learned manual work. This number is not so great when you consider that girls who learn needlework and cookery are not counted in. But in some schools the boys, too, learn cooking, no difference being made in regard to the sex of pupils. Think of the increase: 500 teachers and 22,000 pupils in six years. New York has now in the large college for the training of teachers an institution where teachers are practically prepared for giving manual training. I have already mentioned the fact that in the models of work furnished in the American manual training schools a lack in artistic taste is noticeable. Permit me to give a brief statement of the exhibits of manual training from differ¬ ent States of the Union. First, I shall mention what occurs to me as having been exhibited by the Atlantic States, then by the South and Central States, iii which manual skill is fostered. I found good ironwork from Baltimore; woodwork from the negro school in that city; wood and iron work from the manual training school; among the specimens on exhibit some machines built by students aud apparatus were used in instruction in physics. Louisville exhibits excellent woodwork, both of wheelwrights and joiners. Then tbe three cities in which the public schools are said to be the best: the sister cities Minneapolis and St. Paul, Indianapolis, and Laporte, which, according to the Swedish system, had furnished a very good exhibit of pasteboard work, wood carving, and ironwork. From the more Western States remarkably good work was sent from Nebraska (Omaha) and Washington (Tacoma and Spokane). The Central and Southern States also exhibited manual work of pupils, and it was very obvious that objects and materials changed according to the needs of the country. From Mexico, the city of Puebla sent boys’ work which was made of onyx, a semiprecious stone. Argentine undoubtedly had the best exhibit of all the States in South America, only it was placed in a dark corner and was not seen by many. That coUection showed excellent work in leather and other saddler’s work, also joiner’s work. This work was a specimen of what a country needs in which agriculture and stock raising is carried on. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 573 Japan1 llad fumislicd ail exhibit in which one could see that, though the nation has developed in a peculiar and characteristic way, it is imitating Europe. The influence of Europe has become A ery strong. I saw very excellent needlework and beautiful woodwork made in boys’ schools in Japan, after drawings from nature in Japanese fashion. Of the Australian States, New South Wales furnished charac¬ teristic work — that is, a collection of work in tailoring and dressmaking, simple garments such as are used on the farm. Lastly, I may mention the most remarkable points of the European and Asiatic exhibits. The French exhibit was small hut very well selected. I received the impression that France has become our closest competitor in education generally, and especially in the elementary schools. I do not hesitate to admit that it is vastly superior to us in manual training. In America public opinion begins to change. French schools are thought by some to be superior to ours. A distin¬ guished American educator, Dr. Monroe, expressed this Anew without reserve, say¬ ing: “The new ideas in education at present come more from France than from Germany; we must turn to France to become imbued with the spirit of modern times; it is from there we get new suggestions and ideas.” There was no dissenting voice in regard to drawing. In drawing the “ficoles secondaires ” of France are superior to all other schools. It is significant that the drawings made there are much larger than with us; so are the models. Caps of columns for instance, were drawn nearly of natural size. The best work was sent by the city of Poitiers. The city of Paris had its own exhibit of manual training in the state pavilion of France. This exhibit proved conclusively what a happy thing the French Government had done when it organically connected manual training and the continuation schools with the people’s or elementary schools. It thus enables the pupils to follow their own individual talent in selecting suitable professions and occupations. As to Russia, the Americans said : “In manual training Russia stands at the head of all nations.” If we take as a criterion the great number of schools in which manual training is offered, this praise is well earned. I do not know the Russian system of public instruction from observation, hence I refrain from expressing an opinion. But I do not hesitate to praise the Russian technique, especially the work in different kinds of wood and the work of the peasant schools. Military uniforms made in the orphans’ schools were exhibited. The girls’ schools, established by Empress Maria, exhibited remarkably excellent needlework. We also saw work in gold, engraving in silver and copper, not done in special or professional schools, but by boys in manual training classes. In Egypt we find instruction in manual work fashioned exactly and sensibly in accordance with the needs of the country. Side by side with editions of the Koran and bamboo penholders, Ave find work in cedar wood, done in the schools of Cairo; also the odd, inlaid work of mothcr-of-pearl and wood seen in the Orient, made by young boys. The schools of the “Alliance Israelite,” the influence of which is felt around the eastern Mediterranean, had exhibited from the Jewish schools in Tunis work in chasing on copper, in the style of that country. England exhibited very little. Only the school board of London slioAved Avood and pasteboard work from elementary schools. But that England does not stand low in the scale of skilled workmanship is presumed from the fact that manual skill is valued A ery highly in England and America. Depreciation of manual labor as compared with mental labor is not found there ; manual labor is not thought humiliating to anyone. A French observer, Max Leclerc, ayIio quite recently investigated the conditions of England, says that in nearly all English schools, from the elementary to the aristo¬ cratic “public schools,” so called, manual training is offered; and he then points to the enormous importance this instruction must haAre for the progress in technical and industrial pursuits. 574 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. During the Exposition in Chicago congresses of education were held from July 17 to 24, with more than 120 sessions. Among these congresses was a department devoted to manual training, skillfully connected -with that of art education of the young. The department held 12 sessions, 3 of which were in connection with the kindergarten congress. They were well attended, and the interest evinced in the subject of manual training was intense. From the great number of papers read I mention merely the most'important : (1) Professor Richards, from the Pratt Institute, in Brooklyn, spoke on “The educational object of drawing and manual training;” (2) President Walter Hervey, of the College for the Training of Teachers, in New York, spoke on “Manual training in the American system of schools” (this college has a special department for the training of manual training teachers); (3) Dr. Emil Hirsch, of Chicago, on “The ethical side of manual training;” (4) Prof. Gustav Torngren, of Stockholm, on “The history of tools;” (5) Prof. Earl Barnes, of the Stanford University, at Palo Alto, Cal., on “Spontaneous drawings of children.” This lecture was made exceptionally interesting by an exhibit of numerous chil¬ dren s drawings found on the walls and fences and in exercise books. In them the individuality of the child’s soul in observation and reproduction of characteristic features in form and movement was illustrated. (6) Dr. Paul Carus, of Chicago, spoke on “'The philosophy of tools;” (7) Miss Mary T. Chapin, of Boston, on “Deco¬ rating the schoolrooms by the pupils themselves;” (8) Dr. Leipziger, of New York, on “ The physiology of manual training in high schools;” (9) Miss Dora Hicks, of Boston, on “Color sense of children.” Permit me to refer again, in a few words, to the peculiar manual training school in Chicago. It is called the English High and Manual Training School, and is sit¬ uated on Monroe, street. I made my visit to that school in company with Privy Councilor Dr. Bertram. We wnre both of the opinion that what wo there saw was praiseworthy and new. The school was established by the Commercial Club in 1883, .with the avowed purpose of fostering manual skill as an element of general culture during the high school years (14 to 18). In 1890 the city took charge of the school, numbering then about 2G0 students. In the northwest and southern portions of the city two more such manual training schools are being established. All the expenses, except a small fee for materials used by the pupils, aro defrayed by the city. In¬ struction is gratuitous. The course is one of three years. The studies in the first year are distributed as follows : Algebra, 4 hours a week ; zoology (during 24 weeks), 4 hours a week; botany (during 16 weeks), 4 hours; American literature, 3 hours; composition and letter writing, 1 hour; free-hand and mechanical drawing, 5 hours; joinery and carpentry, turning, modeling, 10 hours. Information is also given concerning wood as material and as merchandise. In the second year the following course is pursued : Geometry, 3 hours per week ; physics, 3 hours; universal history, 3 hours; English literature, 2 hours; composi¬ tion and business forms, 1 hour ; free-hand and mechanical drawing, 5 hours ; lessons in the workshops, learning to use the tools in smithing, forging, and welding, 10 hours. Information is also given concerning iron as material and in commerce. In the third year: Trigonometry and higher algebra, 3 hours; constitution and political economy, 2 hours ; English classics, 2 hours ; mechanical and architectural drawing, together with free-hand sketches, 5 hours; construction and the use of machines, 10 hours. Besides, information is given concerning machines, their his¬ tory, construction, and cost. During the second and third years a certain number of optional studies are offered, for instance, German or French, instead of English. This high school is like other high schools in many respects. It graduates its students, for instance. A second and a third of this kind of school aro soon to be opened in Chicago ; manual training in them is not to bo an ornamental branch, but one of the essentials. It is to occupy, together with drawing, 15 of the 30 hours per week. Manual work is not to be a gingerbread affair, but hard, serious work, under direction of thoroughly equipped artisans and technical experts. It appears to me that for manual work, skilled artisans and experts are preferred to academic teachers. GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 575 The enthusiasm of the hoys in this school in their manual work is quite obvious. We saw hoys varying in ago between 15 and- 19 years. Most of them had passed through the first nine years of the primary and grammar school courses, and now occupied most of their time in working in wood and iron and in the machine shop. These young people executed their work zealously and skillfully; they exihited a feverish pleasure in laboring especially in the smith shop at the anvil. Material, and the tools used/ are precisely as they are found in shops for adults, not “in min¬ iature.” Quite a number of these students enter commercial and other practical occupations, but most of them enter technical pursuits. The expense to the city of Chicago for the maintenance of this school is quite con¬ siderable. The site of the building represents a value of $50,000; the building cost $27,000; the equipment $1,500. During the year 1891-92 the salaries paid the teachers alone amounted to $21,865, or 101,006 marks. The costs per capita were 520 marks a year. The salary of the principal is $2,600 and that of the teachers aver¬ ages $1,800. The Americans have here, in obedience to the popular demand for manual train¬ ing, developed a new and peculiar kind of secondary school quite in harmony with their pedagogy, which places in the foreground that which is practical and imme¬ diately applicable. Their watchword is, “ To know and to do,” that is to say, “It is well to know something, but we must also be able to perform, that is, apply our knowledge.” Mr. Constantin Norrenberg, librarian of the University of Kiel, Germany, came to Chicago as the representative of his Government to act as commissioner of the Ger¬ man library exhibit. He attended the international congress of librarians, and was particularly active in examining the history and development of the library move¬ ment in America. His report was published in the Centralblatt fiir Bibliotliekswe- sen, vol. 11, 1894, Leipzig, and is worthy of perusal, since it gives a brief but good account of the congress of librarians, and is full of shrewd observations concerning the American public library. Mr. Norrenberg succeeded in establishing an exchange with European libraries, particularly university libraries, which will doubtless result in enriching these institutions on both sides of the Atlantic, and make the public documents of Europe available to students of education, who hitherto have been troubled in securing desirable matter. THE CONGRESS AND THE CONFERENCE OF LIBRARIANS IN CHICAGO. Report by Mr. Constantin Norrenberg, Librarian of ilio University of Kiel, Germany. The first conference of librarians took place in New York September 15-17, 1853, forty years ago. Its proceedings are reported in Norton’s Literary and Educational Register for 1854. Although intended to be an American gathering, it was, in a cer¬ tain sense, international, for two letters sent by French colleagues were read, one of which (from Alexander Yattemare) proposed an international exchange of State publications. A resolution to assemble at stated intervals was passed, but not car¬ ried out until many years afterwards, when a second conference was held in connec¬ tion with the World’s Exposition in Philadelphia (1876). This conference led to the organization of American experts by the formation of the American Library Associ¬ ation (A. L. A.). The next year, 1877, witnessed an international congress at London, in which America was comparatively better represented than the European continent. The Library Association of the United Kingdom (L. A. U. K. ) was formed on that occasion, and since then the librarians of the two nations of the English tongue have held regular conferences, in which they possess an invaluable organ for the exchange of experiences, the fostering of xirofessional spirit, and the promotion of an institution of culture to which they have devoted their lives. 576 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Tlie World’s Congress of Librarians in Chicago was not called together by the American professional librarians ; it formed a part of the long series of world’s con¬ gresses that accompanied the World’s Fair, and constituted only a section of the literary congress, sharing with it the rooms of the Art Palace and the attention of the public. Naturally it fell to the A. L. A. to invite the colleagues of the world to this and to conduct the proceedings. Expediency suggested that the A. L. A. hold its own conference, the sixteenth annual, in connection with this congress, and it was but natural that the same persons attended both meetings. Only three foreign librarians were present: Peter Cowell, chief librarian of the public libraries of Liverpool ; Miss Mary R. S. James, librarian of the People’s Palace Library, London, and the writer of this account. Other well-known librarians present, all of the United States, were: G-. H. Baker (Columbia College library); J. L. Tomkins (library University of the City of New York) and his first assistant, Charles A. Nelson ; Melvil Dewey (State library and the school of librarians in Albany, N. Y.),with his assistant, Miss Mary S. Cutler, and the cataloguer, W. S. Biscoe; W. IT. Brett (public library, Cleveland, Ohio) ; G. W. Cole (public library, Jersey City, N. J.); F. W. Crunden (public library, St. Louis, Mo.); C. A. Cutter (formerly of Boston library) and W. C. Lane (present chief librarian of the Athenteuin Boston, Mass.); W. I. Fletcher (Amherst College library); S. S. Green (public library, Wor¬ cester, Mass.); F. IL Hild (public library, Chicago, Ill.) and his assistant, E. F. L. Gauss; F. P. Hill (public library, Newark, N. J.); J. K. Hosmer (public library, Minneapolis, Minn.); G. M. Jones (public library, Salem, Mass.); Horace Kephart (Mercantile Library, St. Louis, Mo.) ; W. F. Poole (Newberry Library, Chicago, Ill.) ; R. B. Poole (Young Men’s Christian Association Library, New York). Among the ladies present there were, aside from those mentioned before, Miss Tessa L. Kelso (public library, Los Angeles, Cal.); Miss Cath. L. Sharp (Armour Institute, Chicago, Ill.); Miss Lodilla Ambrose (Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.); Miss Zella Allen Dixson (University of Chicago); Miss Theresa Wxest (public library, Milwau¬ kee, Wis.); Miss Jessie Allen (public library, Omaha, Nebr.). The publishing trade was represented by the firms of Messrs. Scribner’s Sons, B. Westermann ponents to free access had in view chiefly libraries of less popular character containing more valuable literary treasures. A plan, under the title •'•Book annotation,” was submitted, which was equally important for the managers and users of libraries. It is this : A catalogue of about 10,000 of the best works from all departments is contemplated, in which every book title is accompanied by brief characteristic notes from the pen of experts. This catalogue is to aid the librarian in the selection of books to be bought, and the reader in that of books to be read. The costs of this enterprise are estimated at $100,000, and it was proposed to raise this sum by a subscription on the part of all institutions interested in it. Dewey and others valued the saving of labor in the various libraries, and the value of protection from purchase of worthless books, much more than the estimated cost. If the German reader will kindly remember that American book dealers and publishers do not send to the libraries copies of new books for examination, he will properly gauge the importance of such a guide. An attempt in this direction is made in preparing a catalogue for a model library of 5,000 volumes which form a part of the A. L. A. library exhibit. The selection of these books is the result of suggestions of more than a hundred librarians. The cata¬ logue of this model library contains the titles without notes. Four little pamphlets have been prepared called New Aids for Readers, containing a small selection of the best works on electricity, i>hotography, American politics, and political economy, with notes characterizing their importance. In connection with this subject Mr. G. lies, of New York, announced that at the beginning of 1894 a weekly index of magazine articles would appear which would repeat the weekly statements with additions, until at the close of the term it would offer a summary. This enterprise is made possible through the linotype machine (Mergenthaler’s typesetting machine) that casts each line separately, so that the matter in type can be rearranged and used continually in every following number, 1 at a merely nominal price. With reference to the “adaptation of the library to its readers,” Mr. Green, of Worcester, Mass., made some noticeable suggestions, but found strong opposition. Ho considered it advisable not to let libraries in small places grow beyond a certain limit ; to dispose of dispensable books by assigning them to the next larger library, or by selling them, and rather make a small number of books useful by frequent reissue, and new editions of catalogues. He proposed JThe Rudolph Indexer Company (Ration, August 31, 1893) plans the reprinting of the titles of all new works published in America. This list can bo had with any new work purchased. The same is intended for hooks printed previous to 1893. In this list every hook title is to he accompanied hy notes with references to the subject, inde^ and signatures according to Dewey’s decimal and Cutter s expan¬ sive system, and may be utilized for the card catalogue as well as for the Rudolph Indexer (a newly invented form of catalogue). 580 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. to this end a division of labor among the libraries, i. e., according to a well matured, comprehensive plan ; each library should select a special branch of literature, and aim at a complete representation of works in that branch. Concerning the topic “ Fire, security, and insurance,” Mr. R. B. Pool, of New York, reported that bricks had been found to be the best fireproof material; granite crumbled in fire if water was poured over it, and iron could be considered safe only if surrounded by brick. He thought it impracticable to insure libraries. The com¬ munity that owns the library is the best insurance company. The case was differ¬ ent with libraries established by means of private funds. Miss Allan, of Omaha, stated that she insured books for the time they were in the hands of the bookbinder, and the card catalogue of her library is insured to the amount of $5,000. The utility of “Branch libraries and delivering” was then discussed. That prac¬ tice plays an important role in American cities which cover such great areas. There was unanimity concerning the value of branch reading rooms, but branch libraries would not pay, for the cost of these branch buildings might be better used to in¬ crease the stock of books in the central library, and by rapid delivery to all parts of the city the library could be made more useful. Messrs. Fletcher and Green had a high opinion of the educative influence of branch libraries upon their environments. Minneapolis and Chicago had both met with success by following a mixed system. In the discussion of the next topic, “ General management,” specific American con¬ ditions were presupposed : The trustees and the librarian’s relation to them ; whether he is to be the secretary of the board; whether he is to manage the funds of the library, and to that end give bond; his term of office — that is, wTh ether he is to be appointed for a number of years, or may retain his position during good behavior, as was the sense of the majority. The question of salary caused a lively debate; it was found that many librarians and assistants had a lower salary than principals in public schools. It v~as claimed that the salary should be at least equal to that of a school principal; a secondary education should be a requirement of admission to library service. Mr. Dewey here led the debate upon a higher point of view. “In our days a new kind of higher education has developed, whose foundation is the library. I mean the so-called university extension. It offers instruction for all conditions of life ; for the home, for people whose time is occupied by business, for young and old, and the library is the fountain head of this new education. * * * We see the library in a constant process of development. The idea of ancient times, when the reader had to storm a library like a fortress, has turned into the opposite. The librarian of to-day is aggressive; he wants to turn over his stock of books as fast as the merchant his stock of trade. * * * Let us say it openly that wre are doing a great work and may demand recognition accordingly.” Mr. Crunden compared the position of the librarian with that of the president of a university, and required for the head of a library similar qualifications. Mr. Dewey seconded this by refer¬ ring to Justin Winsor, the head of the library at Harvard, who is not second to the president of any American university. The discussion of the best mode of “buying books,” in which the booksellers present took part, presupposed conditions very different from those prevailing in Germany. In regard to purchasing foreign books, Mr. Brett, of • Cleveland, Ohio, remarked that at one time he had to order a large number of German books, and he had divided the order between a New York importer and a German firm. The prices had been almost alike, but the New York agent had been much more prompt in supplying the books. Mr. Dewey reported that for the purpose of utilizing duplicates, he had arranged a sort of clearing house in the State library at Albany, which is used by all the libraries of the State of New York. They send unnecessary books to this clearing house, where they are estimated by an official of the. State library, and may then select from the collection of duplicates books of an equal Aralue in money. We GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 581 also say to the officials of small libraries: “If you will send us with your dupli¬ cates a list of what you have, we can select from our stock of duplicates those which will best complete your library.” The subject of “Juvenile literature” brought up the question whether books for children should be placed in a separate room, or among the other books according to tlieir contents, only marked conspicuously with a “ J ” (juvenile books) on the back and in tho catalogue. In connection with this the other question was discussed, whether the library should assume control of the reading of minors, and restrict them to the reading of juvenile books. A vote proved that in 12 of the libraries represented the juvenile literature was placed separately ; in 24 it was not. Further discussion revealed the fact that tho different librarians adhered to the mode each had adopted, convinced that his was preferable. A discussion of the subject “Reference books ” revealed the fact that most libra¬ rians are accustomed to put dummies in the place of such works if they are taken from the shelf to be used in the reading room. These dummies are wooden blocks in book form, on the back of which a note is made stating the present location of the book. The query whether the dummies are used in place of all books taken out, as is done in the British Museum, was negatived unanimously. “Pamphlets” was a subject that gave rise to a discussion of its definition. While about one-half of those present designated an uubound publication of less than 100 pages as a pamphlet, the others called every unbound book a pamphlet. It seems that the question was not clearly defined, What shall be considered a pamphlet from a bibliographical and statistical point of view? And from the other consider¬ ation, What shall be bound and catalogued? In the Harvard University library pamphlets kept in cases are designated as such by cards stating: “'a collection of pamphlets on this subject still uncatalogued; see case so and so.” A similar prac¬ tice is found in Columbia College, New York. The subject of cataloguing gave rise to the question whether the days of “subject catalogue ” were not numbered ; whether in future it would not be better to give the readers printed bibliographies in which books to be found in the library are marked. It was the general opinion that the patrons of a library were more desirous to know what could be had on a certain subject than what existed. “In a public library net one in a hundred readers intends to exhaust a snbject; they want to read something on it.” The question as to whether tho subject or the author catalogue should give the title most accurately with regard to bibliography, was decided in faAmr of the author catalogue after Lane’s convincing argument. Tho majority thought it not necessary to find out and completely state the given names of foreign authors, but it was considered advisable to supplement in the card cata¬ logue each subject card by an information card containing biographical statements concerning the author. On this card the given names might be accurately stated. The topic “ Classification” was excellently treated in a paper by Horace Kephart, of St. Louis. Unfortunately, this paper was not discussed. He called attention to the fact that classification and notation, or system of division and system of signa¬ ture, are two very different things ; that one might have a very detailed classification, and yet very simple signatures. The criticism contained in this was directed against the two systems extensively used in America, Dewey’s decimal and Cutter’s expansive system. In these systems each subdivision is expressed by a new element in the signature. Tho consequence is that the signatures become as complicated as the Americans formerly and erroneously attributed them to the university library of Halle. Moreover, the classification of books is enslaved by such notation, as Kep¬ hart properly termed it. Kephart’s contribution to the programme was one of the few papers which remained undiscussed for reasons unknown. The remainder of the programme was completed. The report of the cooperation committee gave a history of its work. It was con¬ stituted in 1876, and has endeavored to inform the members of every improved 582 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1892-93. library method or j>racticc, and to place improvements at their disposal. It had, among other things, discussed and examined the various kinds of bookbinding; had formulated tables of comparative library statistics; recommended uniform blanks and cards, the dimensions of “which are divisible uniformly ; and had finally estab¬ lished a supply department, in order to have everything belonging to a library equipment manufactured and furnished. In course of time this department has become an independent firm, the Library Bureau, in Boston, with branch offices in Chicago and New York. This bureau still stands under the influence of the associa¬ tion. An illustrated catalogue of 176 pages, 8°, shows the extent of its business, which, from a paper pad to the writing desk, embraces everything a library needs. The committee also pays special attention to cooperative catalogue work. This work has assumed such importance that in 1886 a special section, the publishing section, was established. It caused a new edition of Poole’s Index to Periodicals up to 1881 to be published, and supplemented it up to 1891. The whole work contains now about 300,000 references in about 2,400 pages of two columns each. The section has also made a subject index, called the A. L. A. Index, for collected essays, mono¬ graphs, and books of miscellaneous character. Both works are continued together under the name of Annual Literary Index. Furthermore, it has published a list of the best juvenile literature and accompanied it by notes. This work was prepared by J. S. Sargent. By cooperation with a large number of professional librarians, the A. L. A. catalogue has been prepared by Miss Mary S. Cutler. This is a list of books contained in a model library of 5,000 Works selected from all branches of literature. This catalogue contains the titles in systematic order, according to Dewey’s and Cutler s systems, and with both signatures. It contains an author’s as well as a subject catalogue. This work has been printed and distributed by the Federal Government in thousands of copies. The public document committee reported its work, and Mr. Dewey read three letters of Senator Allen, who fathers a bill in Congress which provides “that all Government publications shall be regularly sent to all the libraries designated by the Government, and that the latter shall cause a subject index to be made of all previous publications, with annual supplements.” A resolution, in which the A. L. A. petitioned Congress to pass the bill, was adopted. A new proposition made by the committee on cooperation to the association had reference to foreign governmental publications. It was found desirable that a num¬ ber of libraries should try to obtain the official publications of Germany, France, and other European States. It was presupposed that the European libraries were also desirous to obtain American literature of that character. It was taken for granted that the Federal Government could arrange for an international exchange, for which a suitable organ existed in the Smithsonian Institution. The commission was authorized to pursue the matter further. Another committee had had the duty to inspect the library school of the State of New York, in Albany, conducted by Melvil Dewey. The members of this committee reported upon the work of the school, which, during the last year, had consisted chiefly in the preparation and cataloguing of the A. L. A. library exhibit. The com¬ mittee mentioned a branch of study of specially practical value, which branch had recently been introduced, to wit : Instruction in composing and reading proof of catalogues and other printed matter. The committee expressed high appreciation of the work of the school. Another report was read by the committee on index to subject headings. In order to decrease the work of each cataloguer, a model index of all possible catchwords, indicating the best catchwords to be used as subheadings, and specially for sub¬ jects, the literature of which is very extensive, was submitted. A sample list was recommended for the literature of any country, containing 25 subheads : Antiquities, army, bibliography, biography, etc. Mr. Lane thought it impossible to furnish a complete list of all existing .subheads. The subheads in the subject catalogue of GERMAN CRITICISM OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 583 tlio model library of 5,000 volumes was only a drop in the bucket, and Mr. Brett tbougbt a beginner in this kind of work might make use of tbe subheads in the catalogue of the Boston Athenseum. It was resolved, however, to continue the work of the committee. Simultaneous with the meeting of the A. L. A., certain sections held meetings; thus, the State Library Association, consisting of the officers of State libraries, and the College Library Section, consisting of the librarians of colleges and universi¬ ties. In this latter section Lane reported that the exchange of Harvard University with other libraries had increased to such an extent that special* blanks had to be printed. The writer of this report attended this meeting, and since the question under discussion was, “How to accustom the student to use the library success¬ fully,” the question was asked how that was done in Germany, and whether it was true that books ordered could be had only after the expiration of several hours? ■When the fact was confirmed it was, and remained, the subject of undisguised astonishment. The sessions took place in the forenoons between 9 and 1 ; the afternoons were used to see objects of interest mentioned on the programme. On one day the library of the Armour Institute was visited. This institute is a technical school founded by Mr. Armour. The librarian, Miss Catherine L. Sharp, had made arrangements for a library training class. Another day the ‘Woman's Library was visited, which con¬ tains a great collection of works written or translated by women. This library was found in the Woman’s Palace. Another day the German book publishing trade exhibit was visited. This exhibit was found in the German Building in Jackson Park. Another day was consumed in inspecting the French and the German univer¬ sity library exhibits. For the latter exhibit a special invitation had been sent out. If one considers what powerful attractions the treasures of the World’s Exposition exerted upon peo¬ ple who had spent a year in jmofessional work in libraries, it must bo esteemed of great importance that so largo a number of librarians gathered together in the room in which the German libraries exhibited their organization and management. Here were seen and examined with interest the bibliographical publications, annual book lists, title indexes, lists of periodicals, different kinds and forms of catalogues, blanks and methods for using them, and the librarians seemed to be impressed with the fact that in Germany the technique or the practical side of library work was highly appreciated. How much America values the scientific side of the work is seen from the fact that the systematic catalogue of the University Library of Halle has been imitated in newly arranging the large American libraries of Yale College and the Sutro Library of San Francisco. The proceedings cf the conference were closed on the 22d of July with an earnest address by the outgoing president, Mr. Dewey, who urged upon the members to work for the noble cause, and to devote themselves to their profession with their whole soul, saying: “I am proud that in the midst of the greatest collection of exhibits the world has ever seen we have proved our vital interest in the work of our lives by so splendid a series of meetings as we have held.” In Germany also the plan of an organization of librarians, with regular conferences, has been considered, but objections of various kinds have prevented the execution of that plan. Whether now, after our x>rofession has assumed a more index>endent asx>ect, the time has come to mature the xdan, may be decided by others ; at any rate, he who has followed the work of the American colleagues since the foundation of the A. L. A., and has witnessed the interesting labors of this year’s conference, as well as its exhibition, can not but exx>ress the desire that the Centralblatt fur Bibliothekswesen may not close its first decade before it has published a report of proceedings of &G. L. A. (German Librarian Association). CHAPTER IV. FRENCH VIEWS UPON AMERICAN EDUCATION AND THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS. The following* accounts of tlio Exposition are from the pen of M. Jules Steeg, director of the Musee Pedagogique (Paris), who was commissioned by the French minister of public instruction to superintend the installation of the French educa¬ tional exhibit. The matter was comprised in two articles, published originally in the Kevue Pedagogique. The first appeared before the Exposition was opened, i. e., June, 1893; the second, in the following July. The Exposition only occupies a point in this vast city, and yet it is of gigantic dimensions. There was full cloth to cut from, and it was cut freely. The plan called for large and numerous buildings separatedby great spaces. Except the proportions, which really are immense, it is a copy of our exposition of 1889. Our hall of machinery (but here the inner iron braces are clumsy and disgraceful) was the model for the central palace, which is called the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building. This is, to speak properly, the Exposition itself. Here it is that all industries are rep¬ resented. The four sections of the center are occupied by Germany, England, the United States, and France. Germany has made great effort, and the division is very attractive, but the interior does not correspond to the external promises. France, on the contrary, has sent an abundance of its choice products, stuffs, silks, furni¬ tures, bronzes, and so on, which will maintain its ancient fame. The palace of the fine arts, where wo occupy, without doubt, the first place, is a beautiful construc¬ tion. The buildings for electricity, mines, agriculture, horticulture, fisheries, and some others, all immense, form a remarkable whole, in which the coarse details are lost. If by chance the sun shines from a blue sky, which is reflected in the lakes where Venetian gondolas and electric barks are running, and illuminates these pal¬ aces and domes, these cathedrals, these glass and gilded roofs, this verdure just showing itself at. the tip of the branches, the effect is really grand, and “the World’s Fair,” as it is called by the Americans, merits perhaps better, another name Avhich they bestow upon it sometimes, and which I prefer, “the White City.” But as to the educational exposition? If I have not said anything about it, it is because it is not yet finished. In fact, the greater part of installations are still in a disordered state. When this article appears in the “Revue ” the Exposition will be at its height; at present, the latter part of May, it is in tho hands of the plasterers, carpenters, upholsterers, glaziers, unpackers. The glass cases of the exposition of the department of public instruction are not yet ready. * * * The American section occupies considerable space, a whole wing of the first story of the hall of manufactories. Every State, every Territory, without counting particular institu¬ tions, has reserved to itself a series of alcoves. It is necessary to make a veritable journey in order to examine somewhat particularly this abundance, this mass of documents which are here accumulated. As far as I have been able to discern in looking over that which is unpacked and put in place ihere will be a certain resem¬ blance and repetition in this profusion of materials. The schools of the most widely separated States resemble one another like sisters; the methods (if there are any), 585 586 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tlie distribution of studies, the results, the copy books, exercises, subjects, all seem to have been cast in the samo mold. An attractive feature 'will be the photographs; everything is photographed, the buildings, scholars, exercises of all sorts, classes in reading, writing, drawing, recitation, physical and chemical experiments, libraries and halls for gymnastics; every State, every school has its photographs in great plates, which adorn the walls of the alcoves — without counting pictures in swinging frames and innumerable albums on the desks and the tables. In time the examina¬ tion becomes tiresome, and it is only instructive as showing the great similarity of all the schools, all the classes, and all the exercises. The only State whose exposition is now ready is one of the New England States, Massachusetts. The superintendent of the schools of Malden, Mr. Gay, principal of a high school, has been charged by his State government to organize this exposition, and he has kindly done the honors of it for me. I looked with interest through the exercise books of the scholars from the first school year until the ninth. These have been made with reference to the Exposition, but according to the customary habits and methods. There is a school in which all exercises are written with lead pencil, at least for several years, and they have been written in the same way for Chicago. It does not seem to me that the Massachusetts scholars do better work than ours at the same age ; they write more legibly in very big characters and retain this habit until the end; they do less dictation, and they seem to me less advanced in arith¬ metic. For some years particular care has been given to drawing, which was for¬ merly neglected or even unknown. It became by degrees optional and at last obliga¬ tory. Three orders of exercises are followed which aim at a special end — exercises with straight lines, which tend to mechanical and industrial drawing; exercises with curved lines, which prepare for ornamentation, and exercises in copying and coloring, which lead to artistic drawing and painting. The series of these three exercises seemed to me very interesting and worthy of examination. Three years in the primary class grade, four or five in the grammar, lead to the high school, which is apparently better known and more largely attended than in our country. What surprised me most at first was the great number of women teachers. All the photographs give evidence of this also; I have not seen a single master, only women teachers. There are, however, some masters. Of 363,935 persons teaching in the United States, 125,602 are men and 238,333 women. The men as a rule only enter upon the work with the view of leaving it as soon as they find a position which is more lucrative; the women remain until they marry. The greatest number of the scholars of the normal schools are young ladies; some young men are also following the courses, but more usually they simply have an academic training. The position occupied by women in public life is considerable and surprises a Euro¬ pean. There is for instance in New York a medical college for women, and nothing is more curious than to see these ladies assembled in a lecture hall wearing black dresses with the doctors’ square hat on their heads. At this moment there is a women’s congress here. It is the one, I believe, which opens the series of the great congresses of the Exposition. It has already be^n in session two days, and proceeds with the perfect regularity of a parliament. Fifteen hundred ladies, regularly delegated by the women of their States or by some associ¬ ation, besides delegates of foreign nations, are united in general congregation and in sections, with presidents, vice-presidents, secretaries, and orators. I am told that very interesting reports have been read, eloquent discourses delivered. All subjects are treated: The moral influence of women, education, the school, religion, fashions, dress, political rights, the progress acconrplislied by women in the sciences, pdiysics, medicine, law, etc. One State, Wyoming, has already granted to women electoral and political rights, and Kansas is moving to this end. In America the girls and boys are educated together. They sit on the same benches, pursue the same lessons and the same exercises without any distinction whatever; FRENCH VIEWS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 587 for the boys even take part in the sewing exercises, and are very proud to exhibit their needlework every year beside that of their female companions. They would be astonished, I was told, if anyone seemed surprised at this. I refer here to the first school years. Later some separation takes place in spito of all the theories in the world. The manual training and the maternal (infant) schools — which are called here by the German name kindergarten — as well as regular instruction in drawing, are inno¬ vations in American pedagogics. In 1880 there were in the United States 232 kinder¬ gartens, with 524 teachers and 8,871 pupils. Ten years afterwards there were 521, with 1,202 teachers and 31,221 pupils. The Americans seem to me to be much interested in this institution, as if it were one of the things which they have dis¬ covered and of which they are very proud. This movement will grow, at least in the populous cities where these little schools can render great service. As is well known there is not in America a department of public instruction, nor a central authority of any kind that controls the schools. They are solely the charge of local districts (communes), subject only to the laws of the particular State which regulates the tax for the support of the schools and maintains a certain supervision or inspection over them. The only central institution which takes cognizance of pub¬ lic instruction is the Bureau of Education located at Washington, and under the Department of the Interior. This Bureau comprises four divisions, which employ altogether 42 persons. The first division is that of correspondence, the second that of American statistics, the third of international statistics ; the fourth constitutes a pedagogic library, analogous to that of our museum, but of less importance. A fifth division is occupied in establishing schools in Alaska. Churches of every denomination had already opened some schools near their missions; several had even established boarding schools, very necessary in these regions, which are so vast and uninhabitable during winter. This year the Bureau maintains in Alaska 15 public schools, with 20 teachers and 872 pupils, and it aids 14 denominational schools, which receive 1,069 scholars. This is still too little, as it is estimated that there are 8,000 children of school age. Under this polar ice civilization advances. I have seen a paper of Alaska, the Star of the North ; I have seen the photographs of the school of the little Eskimos ; I have read, with very heartfelt and sincere interest, their school exercises, their written pages, which are very neat and correct, their problems, narrations, little naive let¬ ters written by the small boys and girls of Karluk, Unga, Ufognac, Kadiak, Hoonak, Kilisnoo, Hydac, Anvit, etc. Look out on the map these forlorn points, where we have brothers, where little children walk joyfully to school, where women of heart devote themselves to tho sweet and difficult task of educating them well. Little Pctruska, of Anvik, writes the 9th of January : “ Yesterday it was cold; to-day it is not cold; sometimes it gets very cold, and men die. In summer sometimes men sleep in canoes.” All thoughts of this little one turn on the thermometer. The Americans, people of business and money, are at the same time fond of schools, some from custom and impulse, others from humanity ; the wise from patriotism and forethought. From the icy regions of Alaska to the luxuriance of Florida the school takes a place of honor in the regard of the citizens. The innu¬ merable halls which they have given to their school exposition among the buildings of the World’s Fair are a proof of that. Perhaps we shall have some interesting things to show to them ; at any rate, we shall have many things to see and to gather from them which will be of interest in the education of future generations. [SECOND ARTICLE.] The exposition of the department of public instruction and of the schools under other departments was officially opened the 10th of June. Invitations had been addressed to the delegates of the foreign Governments and of the American States, to the school authorities, to the teachers of the city, and to the press. Very many came, 588 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. especially ladies. We offered, according to the custom here, champagne, cakes, and flowers at the same time that wo did the honors of our collections, of our written exercises, and. of our hooks. The school exposition of France, which seemed at the beginning destined to be crowded within the most limited space, succeeded in securing considerable exten¬ sion, and it is certainly one of the most important, the richest in documents, and the most substantial. It seems to produce an excellent impression upon the numer¬ ous visitors who pass through. They say so, at least, in running over our albums and in asking us with much curiosity about our organization, which is so different from theirs. At the entrance of our alcove is a large and well lighted vestibule, which at the last moment was kindly granted to us by the American administration. It is ornamented with plaster models for the use of our normal schools and our lye£es. On the first panel are shown drawings of the scholars of the normal schools and very beautiful photographs of the schools of Lille and Roubais; in the center a maternal school, upon the blackboard of which the teacher has written in big letters: “The little Lillois salute their friends in Chicago.” The two pillars at the entrance are deco¬ rated with geographical maps; upon our eight panels (there were only two in the beginning) are specimens of manual wrork (wood, iron, modeling), specimens of our pictorial charts, mural maps, pictures used in object teaching, in natural history, etc., musical notation, drawings, statistics, and even stenography. A beautiful panel of water colors from the school in Ganneron street occupies a large space between two windows. In the high show cases of our principal hall are displayed: First, the publications of learned societies, books belonging to public libraries, scientific pub¬ lications. Second, thu doctors’ theses of the different faculties and the documents of snperior instruction. Third, the books, methods, programmes, tabular views of sec¬ ondary instruction, the best compositions offered last year at the competitive exer¬ cises of the lyc€es for girls, the compositions of last year for the several examina¬ tions (baccalaureates, licenses, certificates of aptitude, “agr^gations”). This is the part that most surprises observing visitors, because it does not correspond to any¬ thing in their own collections. Our secondary instruction is an organization unknown in America. Fourth, the publications of the pedagogical museum, monographs and documents, principal pedagogical works published in France from Fenelon andRous- scau to MM. Compayrd, Marion, Pecaut and others, the “Revue Pedagogique,” etc. Fifth, the principal books used in our superior primary schools collected from all classical libraries of Paris. Sixth, specimens of the works which constitute the most of our school libraries (this institution seems much appreciated). Seventh, our schools for boys, exercise books, drawings, photographs. Eighth, the same from our schools for girls. Ninth, the same from our superior primary schools. Tenth, our normal schools, programmes, works of scholars, exercise books, compositions, draw¬ ings, photographs. Eleventh, works of teachers, books, lectures, reports of inspec¬ tion, methods of teaching, agriculture, music, gymnastics. Twelfth, specimens of apparatus used in our superior primary and normal schools for instruction in sciences, physics, chemistry, natural history, including an electric machine, a pneumatic machine, and even a steam engine for demonstrations ; finally the school materials for writing and drawing, models of school furniture, etc. A fine, large, low glass case wo had the good fortune to obtain from the Woman’s Building. This we have placed in full view along the lake side. It is 11 meters long, and enables us to exhibit the whole series of our manual works, beginning with the cut paper and the little knitting of our maternal schools up to the sewing, embroideries, garments, lacework, and flowers from the great schools of Lyons, Bordeaux, Le Puy, Nice, Toulon, etc., and also a certain number of works by boys, which could not be placed upon the panels — carpentry specimens, ironworks, model¬ ing, and geometric figures. Three long tables, placed in the midst of our hall, and a desk, adjoining the glass cases, are loaded with albums and with cartoons of drawings, sewing, photographs, FRENCH VIEWS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 589 school plans, etc. I was ashamed at first of our poverty; to-day I am overwhelmed hy our abundance. In proportion as the boxes were unpacked and the objects were put one after the other in their places, I was struck with the richness, variety, orig¬ inality, and interest of our exhibit. I did not find anything equal to it in the other exhibits. Four adjoining halls contain the expositions of the Central School, the School of Mines, tho schools of arts and trades at Aix and Chalons, with enormous cases of work in iron, complicated machines, which people stop to examine ; schools for watch¬ making in Besanfon and Cluses, where the works are always in action, attract the eye; commercial schools of Paris and of Bordeaux, which are highly appreciated by the commercial classes; the Society of Franklin, the polytechnical and philotechnical associations. The works of the pupils of these institutions — the methods, flowers, drawings, and porcelains — form a charming panel. The maj)S of the topographical service of the ministry of war — central France, the Alps and Pyrenees, Tunis, and others, in black, in colors, in relief, really fine — are admired by connoisseurs, and a German professor confessed to me the other day that he never had seen anything so perfect. This entire collection is proof of great effort and of indisputable progress. Cur exhibit is evidence that we have not wasted our time, and if there remains much to bo done in the field of instruction, we have the satisfactory conviction that much has been accomplished already. The French exposition in general is a great success. The ground floor is devoted to our industries. The good taste of the show cases, the magnificence of the toilets displayed, tho silk dresses of all colors and styles, lavish embroideries, magnificent furniture, rich stuffs, furs, porcelains, artistic bronzes, excite admiration. Every minute one hears the women exclaim : il I havo never seen such a thing in my life !” It is true that this is an expression very common here. Cur school exhibit can not pretend to such popularity and does not provoke these comments of the passers by. It is severe; its principal treasures are of modest appearance; the mine must be dug to discover the nuggets. But when a man or a woman, engaged in school work, lingers there, hears the explanations, examines for himself the scries of our exercises, he becomes deeply interested. The school mono¬ graph of a French youth, his monthly exercise books, his compositions, his drawings, his certificates of studies, his books, the monograph of a pupil of the normal school, the monograph of a school in its different courses, tho rolled copy books, the pro¬ grammes, tho time-table, form a whole very clear and thoroughly honest. A brief visit is really sufficient for a sort of general inspection; for we put before the eyes the actual reports of inspectors of primary schools, of academic inspectors, and of principals of schools. Nothing is concealed ; nothing is gotten up for the occasion. The real life of our schools develops itself before the eyes. Manual work begins to engage attention in this country; it has been organized in certain schools; here and there special schools for the same have been established preparatory to apprenticeship or to technical schools. The specimens which we have brought excite great interest. They do not differ much from tho work exe¬ cuted in the American schools ; we have perhaps more method, more connection in the series of works. I speak of the boys’ work, which proceeds here too often by fits and starts. Our needlework seems generally superior to that of the American schools; it is true that wo havo brought the upper part of the casket, and that here little time is devoted to this kind of work. Tho American exposition of schools is very large and much scattered; under the circumstances it is very monotonous, as all of the forty-four States of the Union exhibit their schools and their universities, and several of them, the most impor¬ tant, upon a large scale. Immense spaces are covered by the exhibits of the uni¬ versities cr colleges. These include apparatus of physical laboratories, collections of mineralogy, botany, and zoology. These collections consist generally of large objects, which appear more appropriate for popular than for scientific instruc- 590 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. tion; for example, parts of the human skeleton, which resemble the remains of mam¬ moths, a colossal skull, gigantic tibias. The same is the case with the botanical specimens. This part of the exposition appears to me childish, and does not show a high degree of knowledge on the part of the young men for whom it is intended. With the, exception of some universities which are well known, higher education is indeed weak enough. Few here have time to devote themselves to deep studies, to lengthy and uninteresting works which science necessarily imposes ; everyone is in haste for results, for practice, for immediate application. Primary instruction is dividetl here into several categories. The primary school properly called, extends from the sixth to the tenth year of age, the grammar school from the tenth to the fourteenth, the secondary school from the fourteenth to the eighteenth year. There are many intelligent and industrious children who pass more rapidly through the different degrees. The exhibits of these schools consist of written exercises and drawings. The former do not include a series of books by the same pupils. The use of the exercise book is indeed almost unknown. For every exercise white sheets of paper are distributed, and on this the scholar inscribes his name and writes rapidly the given work. These sheets united and bound according to classes constitute the universal and invariable basis of the American school exposition. They correspond to our monthly exercise books in that they give the physiognomy of a class but for one day only and for a single subject. These exer¬ cises are generally very short and consist of a few lines, written large and rapidly. They do not show effort, struggle for improvement, hard work ; no spot nor erasure, this is avoided. I looked over only a few, those of the younger pupils and those of the most advanced. I did not discover in them what I expected, what I thought to be the distinctive mark of this country, even though it might be faulty. For the most part what meets the eye is uniformity. I understand very well the reason for this. I have visited a good number of public schools in this immense agglomeration called Chicago, which increases immeasurably from year to year by an incessant tide of immigration. Half of the population are Germans; there are 70,000 Scandinavians, many Italians, Russians, Canadians, etc. Their children who come to school do not understand English, they are foreigners. It is necessary to transform them during tho school years and make good Americans of them. This has been accomplished with surprising success. After a few years spent in this crucible they are cast, formed, coming out of the same mold they bear the same stamp, have the same language, the same handwriting, the same habit of mind, have read the samo books, sung the same songs, made the same movements; what one sees, tho other sees also; girls, boys, they are “American citizens;” this is the word which is used and which is repeated to them every minute, and of which they are taught rightly enough to bo proud. If this uniformity is necessary, if it is a necessity of the public welfare in a State like this, which is in constant process of formation, it is so in all new or developing States, and in a greater or less degree this is the condition of every State in the Union. One of tho most significant exercises in this respect which I have witnessed in the schools of Chicago, but which must be generally practiced, if I may judge from the photographs of different States, is the salute to the flag. Every pupil has two little flags, tricolored with white stars upon blue ground; at a signal of the mistress all rise and imitate her movements. They carry the two flags to their hearts, above their heads, around their necks; they make many graceful movements with them, extending them forward, backward, upward and downward, with a rhythmical, monotonous song. It is indeed strange to see these great boys and girls going gravely through this exercise, in which every movement is identified with the national banner. The ceremony is finished by a patriotic song. It is rather difficult to comprehend the whole school exposition, because outside of the halls of the Manufactures Building every State has its individual building, in which the exhibition of its special products and of its schools is found. There FRENCH VIEWS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 591 arc expositions of schools in the Women’s Building’ and in the Children’s Building. This latter is very unique. It comprises all kinds of toys, from rattles to the most complicated playthings, Christmas trees, pictures, etc. ; a library, very incomplete, however; works on infant pedagogics in different languages; a great hall for gym¬ nastics with equipments, a part of which has been recently rejected in France, ring, trapezes, fixed bars, horses, ladders, ropes, etc. Every day a class comes there to exercise under the direction of a teacher for the entertainment of the public. There is also a model nursery with all furniture, beds, cradles, the most perfect per¬ ambulators ; children are brought here and are taken in charge for 25 cents a day, in order to show to spectators the working of the institution. You find here a model asylum, in which a dozen babies, all clean and nice, can be seen through the windows, where the public crowds to watch them playing, singing, moving around, listening to the tales of the mistress. Here are piano, playthings, the whole Froebelianum ; nothing is wanting. There is also a class for cooking to be seen through the windows ; and through other windows a class for sloy d or working in wood and modeling in clay. This I was permitted to visit. Here three days in a week one class of boys and girls, and the other days another class work under the direction of a teacher and under the eyes of the public ; in the forenoon they work in wood, in the afternoon in clay. All this is very interesting, but a little too much advertised and placarded for our ideas. I have been more interested in looking at the actual school life than at its exhibi¬ tions. I was present at the class exercises, especially those of a normal school. The jCook County School in the south of Chicago consists of a large public school with 400 pupils, divided into eight grades and in sixteen classes, with which is combined a normal school — for this, I believe, is the way to regard it. One hundred and fifty student-teachers, of whom 20 are young men (the others are young women), follow the courses, which are not intended to teach them sciences, but to show them how to apply the instruction to schools. The course is one or two years. Each day from half past 1 until half past 2 is devoted to i>ractical exercises. This is the only time that the two schools come together, although all the courses take place in different stories in the same building. The primary school is then divided into groups of 10 pupils, and over each is placed a normal student; the other students of the, normal school seat themselves at the tables of the children, become pupils, take part in the exercises, raise their hands when the teacher asks a question, and sometimes answer. When the hour is over, things resume their ordinary course. The normal students who have assisted at the lesson make their notes, which they deliver to the director. If he finds the observations just, he makes use of them in the criticism of the lesson, which is made privately to the student who conducted it. There is no public criticism. Colonel Parker (of the family of the celebrated Theodore Parker, of Boston), principal of the establishment, is a distinguished original character, who has made his own school a model school; he tries with laudable zeal, and not without suc¬ cess, to develop in the children spontaneity and the passion for investigation and observation. From the first school year he gives great prominence to drawing from nature, or rather to painting; he puts into the hands of the little ones pencils, colors, a glass of water, jdaces them in front of a tree, a flower, and leaves them to make an effort. I have seen among these water colors some very charming “impres¬ sions.” He gives great attention to physical geography, the study of the surface of the earth, and of relief forms. He has exercises in this subject which are really curious and instructive. WHiatever the Americans may say against our system of emulation, they do not entirely disregard it. I have assisted in a distribution of prizes. It was the closing- exercises of the graduating class of a superior primary (high school). It is called here a “commencement,” but in most cases it is the end of school life, and at the the samo time, as they say here, the beginning of the school of life. We were in a church, which had been offered for this purpose, the school of Hyde Park, as an 592 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. exceptional case, not having an assembly hall. The church was decorated with flowers. Ninety young men, of whom 20 were hoys in jackets, all with flowers in their buttonholes, the rest young women, in very lino white dresses, defiled slowly before our eyes to the sound of the organ, and took their seats on the stage. The president of the young University of Chicago (it has existed only one year) read a discourse on the necessity of earnestness for American citizens who are entering into life. He explained that he meant by this “sincerity, courage, energy, persever¬ ance.” The director made an impressive address to his pupils who were about to leave him, and he bestowed upon some of them medals of gold or silver, given by rich persons (among them the chief editor of a paper), rewards for the best essays upon civic instruction. Two young women and one young man were especially praised. For the young man the director predicted the highest destiny, even in the distant future the chair of the President of the Republic. Then two of fhe pupils addressed us; one, a graceful young lady, had chosen for her subject, “The men of genius.” She explained what she understood by genius, what it is, what it is not, how it is favored by circumstances, but not created by the same. Then she finished with an eloquent valedictory to her school. The other, a boy of 17 years, entertained us with a dissertation on “ Originality,” of what it consists, its relations to “precedents,” what it takes from them of better or of worse. We are told over and over about what our fathers have done ; this is good, provided we do not con¬ fine ourselves to it; in truth there was only one man of absolute originality, i. e., Adam; as to us, we must be what our nature demands. This young man finished his speech also with a valedictory to the school. “Our promotion,” he said, “is really original, and instead of mourning over our departure let us rejoice like mariners whose sails are swollen by the wind, to travel boldly over the vast oceans.” This young man had an easy delivery and a pleasing accent; his gestures were graceful, and he was a great success. A teacher presented him a lyre of roses. He was besides the poet of the occasion; before the close the class sang a song composed by him (prosaic enough). In addition there was instrumental and choral music; then the solemn and silent distribution of the diplomas. These young men and women go from here, some to colleges, others to universities, others into offices and business. All this is not a part -of the exposition, but it is a living commentary upon it. It is, indeed, by its actual operations that school life is to be understood. On the occasion of these dei>artures, or “commencements,” the pupils of the different schools compose discourses, dissertations upon subjects which they have chosen. Here are some of the subjects selected in these days : “The necessity of political education in the United States.” “It is necessary to oppose immigration.” “There should be no obstacles to immigration.” “The regimen of the superior schools.” “The ques¬ tion of slavery.” “Influence of nature.” “What can I learn from the Exposition of Chicago?” “Heroism.” “Moral character of Jay Gould.” “The workers and the drones.” “Physical courage and moral courage.” There is in all this much show and emptiness, but there is also boldness and reflec¬ tion ; briefly, a mixture of good and bad, as in all human things. We see here customs, necessities, intellectual and social habits which are different from ours. We must not judge them by our standard. Neither would it be well for us to admire and to imitate them freely. What is best for them would not be best for us. Each of us has his own course, and should hold to it. We may modify our methods, we may take from others what serves our purposes, develop and expand it, but we should guard ourselves from the notion that blind imitation of others is a; essential condition of progress. The following extract is from a report by M. Jules Violle, professor at the Con¬ servatoire des Arts et Metiers, and also at the superior normal school (Paris), who was commissioned by his Government to study the scientific movement in the United States, especially as illustrated by the Exposition. This portion of his report appeared in the Revue des Deux Moudes of June 1, 1894 (pp. 607-611) : FRENCH VIEWS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 593 THE CHICAGO EXPOSITION AND AMERICAN SCIENCE. Jules Violle. The vigorous and constant effort of Americans to raise the level of their superior instruction testifies to the importance of the scientific movement in the United States. Indeed, here public education is provided for as one of the first necessities of a free country. The States, cities, and rural districts impose heavy taxes on themselves in order that every citizen may acquire elementary instruction. More than 200,000 elementary schools are scattered over the country, and the annual expense for these reaches 700,000,000 francs. But the original trait of the American democracy is its judicious predisposition toward the aristocracy of knowledge. This nation, justly renowned for its positive spirit, understands very well that superior instruction alone promotes the progress of ideas, the improvement of methods, and even the development of practical matters. The higher instruction is almost always the work of private individuals who have founded it and who maintain it, constantly adding to its resources. Its total receipts and expenditure, as given in the latest official documents, exceeded $16,500,000 (about 84,000,000 francs). These millions have come voluntarily from the farm, from the counter, or the manufactory, and the generous initiative of the givers does not decline. * * * The circle of the higher studies has been particularly enlarged, especially in recent times, and American universities have been multiplied in emulation one of another. Of course, it is necessary to make distinction among the number. Some, especially of the newer ones, promise, perhaps, more than they accomplish in spite of their title of university, in spite of their official endowments and patronage. Europe has not the monopoly of grand programmes on paper. Others, on the contrary, bearing the modest name of college and having complete independence, are universities of the first rank. Naturally the degrees differ in their value according to the different quality of the teaching bodies who grant them. We even hear that in certain, establishments of so-called superior instruction the diplomas are acquired by means unknown to science and are conferred “ honoris causa.” These are abuses insepa¬ rable from liberty. The graduates of America, whose interest it is to avoid all ambiguity, mention simply the source of their degrees. This spontaneous organization of superior education in the United States may be wanting in uniformity; nothing harmonious nor symmetrical; the effort has been to do much and do it quickly. But what powerful vitality in the tumultuous outburst of grand intentions ! What constant progress in scientific studies, even in recent foundations ! What generous ardor for competition with rivals in the Eastern States, which possess the advantage of experience and the prestige of previous service! The very absence of fixed method and established order in these efforts may make success so much the greater. The young universities of America find only encour¬ agement in the history of their j>redecessors, which were poor at the beginning and to-day are flourishing. The oldest of all and justly the most celebrated, Harvard College, was originally a little school founded in 1636 by the Puritans of Massachusetts, and two years after¬ wards, organized by the aid and pecuniary contribution of John Harvard, a noncon¬ formist minister, who had come from Cambridge, where he had taken his degrees at Emanuel College. However, the name of the great English university was given to the humble cradle of the American college. This title marked a noble ambition, which from that time the zeal of the professors and students endeavored to justify. The whole colony celebrated as a holiday the solemn day of the month of August, 1642, when the first nine students of Harvard received the degree of “bachelor pro more academiarum in Anglia.” The work went on slowly at first. Its financial situation was far from satisfying the wishes of its founders, for the local legislature, ED 93 - 38 594 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. in spite of the Puritan convictions by which it was animated, several times author¬ ized the administrators to procure money hy lotteries ; that of 1806 produced $25, COO (125,000 francs). The era of prosperity began about the second decade of the nine¬ teenth century. But it is especially during the last twenty years that the progress has been rapid and the transformation perfected. The college, confined formerly within the somewhat narrow limits of denominational ideas, presents to-day the amplitude of the true modern university as regards its teaching personnel, its equipment, and its complete departments. Two hundred teachers of every order there dispense the higher instruction to 2,000 students, whose earnest spirit, stim¬ ulated by a library of 350,000 volumes, may draw freely from the different sources of human knowledge. All instruments for working, all perfect means for learning,, laboratories, museums, observatories, botanical gardens, etc., here conduce to the intellectual initiative. The buildings impress the eye by their grand proportions. Two chapels, seven dormitories, five large dwelling houses, seven buildings, among them the beautiful edifice of granite which contains the library, arise on a quad¬ rangle, which covers almost 10 hectares (about 25 acres).. Moreover, these different buildings occupy only half of the whole domain belonging to the college. Further, to these must be added the numerous small buildings and important annexes which are situated in Cambridge or in Boston, and extend even into the adjoining districts. Thought goes back to the single building of former times established upon a small site covering less than 2 acres. The primitive seed has yielded fruit. At present the annual budget of the university reaches $1,000,000 (5,000,000 francs). Nevertheless these resources scarcely correspond to the need in spite of the prudent administration of the council and the skillful management of the treasurer, who secures from his funds more than 5 per cent, and the coffers would always be emidy if the generosity of the “ sens of Harvard ” did not keep them full. What intense life in all departments of the university! Physical exercises are not neglected. Care is taken to measure and photograph the students at regular intervals in order to control, experimentally, the progressive results of a methodical training, specially intended to preserve beauty and just proportions of form. This is the classical ideal of an accomplished man, to be at once both beautiful and good, jcadio^ k ctyarJoS the Greek type returns to America. Is there not even in New York a school of beauty for ladies, where they learn to speak, to walk, and even to sleep with graee ? Harvard University has become a nursery of learned men, who earry their knowl¬ edge to the four corners of the Union. Its doctors of science, to speak only of those, have no longer reason to envy their brothers in Great Britain or on the Continent. We will not say that they are identical. Without doubt with the prompt diffusion of ideas by means of papers and books^ by congresses and the intercourse of every kind that the ever-increasing facility and rapidity of communication among think¬ ing men establishes, higher instruction must be everywhere the same in its essential lines. But upon this common soil each nation impresses its own mark, and none is more jealous to leave its own than the United States. The American brings the qualities of his race to bear upon scientific culture, the patient energy, quickness of eye, inventive imagination, practical sense, which knows how to draw from science application and profit. This practical sense is not only manifested by ingenious inventions destined to facilitate the life of all persons and to make the fortune of the individual inventor. It is shown also in the creation of certain university specialties which we are not accustomed to see among the faculties properly ealled thus, for instance, schools of dentistry and of agriculture. The last arc of great service, especially in the districts where various crops are cultivated. The University of California possesses a model of this kind. This establishment undertakes the analysis of soils, indicates to those interested the species of plants best suited to different districts, and furnishes, gra¬ tuitously, the necessary seeds or grains. As to schools of dentistry they exist in nearly all American universities; Harvard itself has one. That of Philadelphia is FRENCH VIEWS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 595 the most renowned on account of its practical method, the luxuriance of its install¬ ment, and the importance of its works. Twenty-two thousand patients are mentioned in its recent reports. The weight of gold employed reached 6 pounds. The instruc¬ tion/which is very complete, constitutes areal faculty comprehending no less than seven distinct chairs. Students come from Europe and the Indies to take their degrees at Philadelphia. The Americans are the first dentists of the world. Can one speak of superior instruction in America without noting how eagerly the women strive to participate in it? The movement does not diminish, hut the con¬ trary. Every day sees an increase in the number of those who study mathematics, physics, law, medicine, Latin, or even Greek. The programmes of the studies and the examinations are, moreover, identical for both sexes in the very practical system of coeducation as well as in the special courses. The young female students bring to this high instruction, along with the ardent desire to learn, the determined resolu¬ tion to obtain social equality, of which scholarly equality is the prelude. But their native grace remains. They add to it solid qualities and a fund of varied knowledge. Thus conversation with American women constitutes the charm of society in the United States. A learned doctor of Boston points out some shadows in the picture. With statistics in his hands he pretends to prove that the number of births decreases in proportion as thedevel of female instruction rises. His patriotic fears even cause him to foresee the moment when the race will end in an “intellectual apotheosis.” Is this prog¬ nostic serious? If young America is already attacked by evils from which the older peoples suffer, its robust constitution and its exceptional resources assure conditions of resistance much superior. The Exposition of Chicago has shown with what vigor all branches of human activity are developed in the United States. Certainly science has not yet attained heights comparable with those on which at present the fortune of the capitalists is elevated; the dollar holds first place, but science advances with rapid steps. The scientific movement, of which we can only here give a summary idea, is not concen¬ trated in the old States of the East, which are like a transatlantic Europe, it extends over the youngest States. The Americans comprehend that high intellectual culture is not alone a question of elegant luxuriance or of national self-love ; the prosperity and even the future of the country depends upon it. A mere glance at the different nations of the two worlds suffices to prove this. CHICAGO EXPOSITION— PRINTING AND THE BOOK TRADE. One of the most important reports called forth by the Chicago Exposition is that of the exhibits of publishers and booksellers, by M. Henri le Soudier. Two tasks wero committed to M. le Soudier; first, to secure complete information as to the state and future possibilities of the trade in French books in the United States, with suggestions of such reforms as it might seem well to adopt; second, a comparative survey of the French book exhibits and those of other countries. Both subjects are fully treated and the work has scarcely less interest for the general reader than for the book trade. The report is introduced by general observations as to the plan of the Exposition, the buildings and grounds, with a glance at its commercial bearings. The author then proceeds to discuss the conditions offered by the United States for the sale of books. The reports of previous expositions have not, he says, attempted a study of this nature, which seems to him of greater importance than the comparative estimates of exhibits. In this study M. le Soudier dwells upon the libraries of the United States, their number, variety, ample resources, and the liberal spirit in which they are conducted. He notes, also, that women form a large proportion of readers, “the men,” he says, “too often lack the time for reading; they content themselves with newspapers. This explains the extraordinary circulation of certain political sheets, a circulation unknown in the old countries, and the number of pages in a 596 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. single paper as, for instance, in tlie Chicago Tribune. The women on the contrary- have more leisure. In contrast with the men, who generally quit school at the age of 15 or 16 years to devote themselves to business, entering at once upon their apprenticeship, the young women prolong their studies much longer, often even until 20 years of age. After marriage they continue their education, pursuing some department of fine arts, or some special study. As the man, unless he is engaged in some one of the liberal professions, has had only a limited education, while that of the woman has been much more extended, her mind is more cultivated, thanks to her reading.” “I speak here,” he adds, “only of the business class, which forms about four-fifths of the population of the United States. This intellectual predominance of the women explains the large place given to literary works and romances in the public libraries, while in the universities classical and scientific works predominate.” The reporter considers then the relative demand for German and French books in the United States. “In this respect,” he says, “the first thing to be noticed, although it is painful to confess it, is the prominence given to German books in a large num¬ ber of important libraries, a proportion which rises even as high as 90 per Cent in certain cities. Some libraries indeed, but these principally in the East, comprise a large number of French books, chiefly literary works ; but after leaving the Atlantic States the farther West you go the more the German language dominates. It is the same with periodicals. Thus, in the public library of Chicago, are comprised 65 German periodicals, more than 21 newspapers in the German language, published in the United States, chiefly at Chicago, while there are found only 21 French period¬ icals and 2 newspapers in the French language, published in the United States — the “Courrier de lTilinois,” published at Kankakee, and the “Courrier des Etats- Unis,” published at New York. This state of things is attributed very justly to the great German immigration and to the care which German families take to maintain their language and to impart it to their children. Moreover, as a consequence of the intimate relations that spring up between American and German youth, many of the former are influenced to complete their studies at Berlin, Leipsic, or Heidelberg, and thus the passion for German literature is diffused. Jle observes further that in the programmes of our leading universities German courses are generally more extended or numerous than the French. Whilo recognizing that there are causes for the superior influence of the German over the French language which can not be overcome, M. le Soudier is of the opinion that the circulation of French books in the United States might be greatly increased, and he suggests practical measures for accomplishing this end. There were, it will be seen, business reasons for the particular attention which he gave to the German exhibits. It must bo remembered that Germany was not represented in the Paris exhibitions of 1878 and 1889, and hence the Columbian Exposition afforded the French the first opportunity in twenty years for effective comparisons with their rivals. To this ^opportunity and the good judgment of the reporter we owe a most appreciative and reliable account of this important division of the German exhibit at Chicago. The value of the description is enhanced by detailed accounts of the rise and progress of the principal German publishing houses. Of the exhibition of German book dealers as a whole, M. le Soudier says: “Ger¬ many was very well represented in this section of the Exposition, and its exhibit, comprising a large number and variety of works, was very fine. The plan of piling up books upon tables left much to be desired so far as regards the effect upon the eye, but accomplished the desired end, which was to give the works the freest possible advertisement by putting them within reach of the public, not upon the shelves of bookcases, but, as it were, into the very hands of the visitors in such a manner as to excite their curiosity. The arrangement was not artistic, but in a country where Germany has so many representatives the result was not disappoint- FRENCH VIEWS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 597 ing. The corresponding section in the German pavilion, situated upon the borders of Lake Michigan, was always filled with visitors. Two superintendents and a number of assistants were employed to answer inquiries and give explanations. “ Before examining the exhibits in detail, a few words upon the German book trade will enable us to comprehend better the close relations that exist between the Ger¬ man book dealers, not alone those in Germany, but wherever they are established. ‘•'Of all countries Germany possesses the greatest number of bookstores. There are in all 6,104, according to the “ Fiihrer durcli die buchgewerbliche Kollectiv- Ausstellung des Deutschen Reichs 77 in Chicago, 1893, which contains the most inter¬ esting information upon this subject. These business houses are distributed in 1,204 cities. Moreover, they are found in nearly every country of the world. In Austria there are 772; in the other States of Europe, 869; in America, 125; in Asia, 9 ; in Africa, 8, and 6 in Australia. The interest has developed more readily among German- speaking peoples than among others; for example, in Austria-Hungary and in the German Cantons of Switzerland. It is represented in the most distant coun¬ tries, wherever German people have located. By the expression 1 book trade7 must be understood the commerce in books properly so called, including music books, art books, geographical charts, etc.77 M. le Soudier proceeds with a minute account of the manner in which business is con¬ ducted, describes the ox>erations of the book dealers’ association, the “Borsenverein der deutschen Buclfhandler,” founded at Leipsic in 1825 ; he considers the publishing houses and their equipments, from which issued 22,000 new books in 1891, besides many reprints; discusses the growth in illustrated editions, the printing of paper currency, and the nature and improvement in technical x>rocesses, engraving, stereo- typing; the manufacture of paper, inks, binding, etc. With respect to the provision for technical instruction, M. le Soudier says: “It remains to speak of this x>rovision which is of such immense importance to the development of the printing art. Besides the technical schools maintained by the State, there are in all the great publishing centers special schools for the training of apx>rentices, or side by side with the schools for ordinary instruction, technical courses, for the benefit of the future x^rinters. Such schools are found at Berlin, Leipsic, Hamburg, and Dresden. The great societies of x>rinters also foster techni¬ cal instruction. They make periodical reports on the subject, they give exhibitions of the best work, and maintain technical libraries for the use of those interested. The Royal Academy of Fine Arts and School of Arts and Trades at Leipsic has founded a superior course of tyx>ograpliic drawing; here also are taught all the graphic arts, and workshops are added with a view to uniting practice and theory. A society, the “ Zentralverein fiir das gesammte Buchgewerbe,” has centralized the technical instruction and charged itself with defending the interests of the cor¬ poration. This society possesses a remarkable museum and maintains permanent exx>ositions, which are of inestimable advantage for all those who seek to perfect themselves in the printing art. In this museum is the famous Klemm collection of incunabula. It was purchased by the Government of Saxony for about $100,000 and x>resented to the “Zentralverein;’7 the society constantly adds to the collection from gifts which it receives. In the annual exhibits all improvements affecting the book trade are displayed, and every week new works are added to the collection. From time to time great exxmsitions are opened, which afford those interested opportunity for perfecting themselves in the art of printing, particularly by means of the various models offered for their examination. Finally, for the last four years, the association of x>rinters has published an annual catalogue of models selected from every country and which, in this classified arrangement, can be consulted at one’s leisure.” Of our own country, M. le Soudier says : “As would naturally have been expected, the American book trade had full rexwesentation at Chicago ; it occupied a large space on the western side of the Manufactures Building. The American publishers 598 EDUCATION EEPOBT, 1892-93. did not join in a collective exhibit, bnt each bouse made its independent display. Here, again, it was noticeable, as in the German section, that the boohs were not exposed in closed cases, bnt were placed npon tables. The Americans, people of a practical and commercial spirit par excellence, have applied to boohs the means gen¬ erally employed for securing purchasers for ordinary merchandise; that is, to mahe the public see and appreciate them. Active and intelligent agents were present who, without losing sight of the business side, explained everything with great courtesy, and even invited visitors to examine their collections.’7 M. le Soudier then passes in review the statistics presented in the annual report of the Publishers7 Weekly for 1891, showing the development of the booh trade in the United States since 1830, following this with some general observations upon the dis¬ tribution of libraries, the chief features of the system of publishing and boohselling among us, i. e., the retail stores, the publishing houses, the news companies, etc. Of the art of printing as here practiced he says : “ Printing has reached a degree of development in the United States that surprises us. Whether we consider the printing of the great dailies with their enormous circulation — and we have seen already what facilities are here afforded by the Hoe presses — or of choice editions, “ouvrages de luxe,77 the triumph of the American machines is beyond question. “ The United States, perhaps, exceeds all other countries in the number of finely equipped printing houses. They work rapidly and well, both as regards the number of impressions and the various processes employed. There is, however, a shadow to the picture. It would seem that the proof readers are not quite equal to the require¬ ments, if we may judge from the official catalogue of the Exposition, in which mis¬ takes and misprints abounded, especially when it came to the names of exhibitors.77 The peculiar excellence of American autotypes and lithographs is noted, and the superior quality of the paper used in American books and in journals. As in the case of Germany, a detailed description is given of the exhibits of the principal publishing houses. Finally, after a survey of the exhibits of other countries less detailed than his accounts of those of Germany and of the United States, M. le Soudier sums up his work as follows : “My task is finished. I have spared no effort in its accomplishment, aiming above all to give a general idea, not alone of the production of books, but of the manage¬ ment of the book trade in the countries represented at Chicago. These two factors are intimately related, for it is beyond question that in many countries the conduct of the trade has a great influence upon the production and the sale of books. My chief desire has been to furnish valuable information to my countrymen. “Although better equipped as regards implements than many of our neighbors, France has yet much to learn in respect to this business. The retail book dealers are very useful auxiliaries in our system, but many of them have not a sufficient understanding of the business to conduct it successfully. We need special schools for training booksellers, as we already have for training printers, in which young- men who intend to take up this branch of trade may acquire the particular knowl¬ edge which relates thereto. It is necessary above all that they should acquire the foreign languages by an actual residence in the respective countries in order to per- frect themselves in the tongue, and at the same time study the commercial processes which differ from our own. Foreign countries offer a vast field for the circulation of books, but we must know them well to get an opening in them. To recapitulate conclusions already presented in the preceding chapters — “As regards Germany, we have seen that in the production ot books that country surpasses our own and that German books have a wider circulation abroad. Immi¬ gration explains this in great measure, and if the exportation of German books increases constantly, this must be attributed to the number of Germans who are found everywhere, and who penetrate as professors even into foreign universities, where they carry the language, the ideas, and as a consequence the books of their FRENCH VIEWS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 599 mother country; hut granting all this, we must not lose sight of the fact that a good organization has greatly facilitated this distribution. ‘•'The United States, although it produces less, has achieved some surprising results, thanks to the marvelous processes in vogue, to the excellent papers and the perfected implements. “England excites admiration by the clearness and uniform excellence of its impres¬ sions, by its fine paper and art processes, which equal those of America, from which they are so often borrowed. “Aside from these three countries, France encounters no serious rivalry, but if we take the first rank in most of the branches of the industry considered, in printing, lithography, and binding notably, as in everything that is a matter of art and of taste, our rivals press hard upon us in other branches and we can not deny that the struggle is becoming serious. We sustain our part bravely, and it must be admitted, with success, but in view of the surprise that awaited us in the processes of repro¬ duction employed by the Americans, and their marvelous implements, in view of the large exportation of books by our neighbors across the Rhine, we should redouble our energies and turn our efforts to this twofold purpose, namely, to maintain the superiority of our manufacturing processes, improving them constantly, and to cir¬ culate our publications more and more widely by the use of all the known means of advertising. This would be to serve at once the interests of our own business and those of France.” CHAPTER V. MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES AS PRE¬ SENTED BY FRENCH SPECIALISTS. Tlie measures for the reorganization and development of medical instruction in France, agitated for several years and culminating in the decrees of 1893, have been considered in full in a previous chapter of this report.1 This movement has drawn attention to the corresponding instruction in other countries, and naturally at the time of the Chicago Exposition medical instruction in the United States was a sub¬ ject of special investigation by accredited representatives of the French Government. Two valuable reports on the subject have appeared — one very brief, by Professor Bonet-Maury, member of the general council of the Paris faculties (University of Paris), and another extensive and exhaustive report by Dr. Marcel Baudouin, delegate from the French Government to the Chicago Exposition. Dr. Bonet-Maury confines himself to the courses preparatory to medical study in the United States, or rather, as we should say, the entrance requirements which are the index to the preparation. His matter consists very largely of these require¬ ments as published in the catalogues of the leading schools of medicine in this coun¬ try. These need not be reproduced here, as they are easily accessible in their original forms, and in several instances they have been greatly modified since the schemes quoted by Dr. Bonet-Maury were published. It is rather the reflections and com¬ parative estimates which accompany these citations from American catalogues that are of interest in this report. These are covered substantially by the following extracts : “There exist in the United States about 240 medical schools, 5 or 6 of which are exclusively reserved for women.2 The course of study is generally for three years, the summer terms being short. The entrance requirements are very elementary. Of 24 schools which responded to an inquiry of the Bureau of Education in 1890, 10 only had instituted an entrance examination, and 14 demanded some slight proof of capacity on the part of those desiring to study medicine. The condition announced on the majority of programmes is e knowledge of all branches of a good English education, including composition, mathematics, elements of physics, of chemistry and natural sciences/ Some add the rudiments of Latin and algebra. In many other cases the term ‘good English education’ is defined: Knowledge of grammar, arithmetic, geography, and history, or merely ability to read, write, and cipher. Now all this is included in the programmes of the public schools ; hence, in fact, the only condition for entrance into the majority of medical schools in America is ‘thorough primary instruction.’ In a few schools only an account is kept of the number of students who have secured the degree of bachelor of arts or sciences. It is evident that with such a system the diplomas of doctor of medicine are very unequal and generally of very small value. The degree of doctor does not offer 1 See pp. 228-237. 2 Schools of dentistry, pharmacy, and nurse training are included in this number. 601 602 EDUCATION REPORT,. 1892-93. therefore a sure guaranty to the public, and we understand the warning of one of our friends at our departure: ‘If you get sick in the United States, God preserve you from falling into the hands of an American physician ; rather let a good nurse tahe care of you/ The inconvenience of this state of things has not escaped the learned physicians and the universities, and there is no want of them in America, and for some years past no want of energetic reaction against the notorious insuffi¬ ciency of requirements for entrance into the medical schools, and of the length of medical studies. This movement, which aims at a four-years course with at least six months’ instruction each year, has found its most earnest advocates in the Illinois board of health, in Johns Hopkins University, and in the University of Michigan.” With regard to courses directly preparatory to the study of medicine, Dr. Bonet- Maury says : “ So far as my knowledge goes, 8 universities of the United States have established preparatory courses for the medical faculty: (1) The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia ; (2) Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. ; (3) Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; (4) Princeton College, New Jersey; (5) Lake Forest Lmiversity, Illinois; (6) Northwestern University, in Evanston, near Chicago, Ill. ; (7) Johns Hopkins Univer¬ sity, Baltimore, Md. ; (8) University of Wisconsin, at Madison. “I shall cite as models the universities of Pennsylvania and Yale, which I have visited, and which seemed to me to have established the most thorough scientific preparation for medical studies. “In Philadelphia the instruction was organized by Ur. Pepper, president of the university, professor of the medical faculty, a very renowned physician, and, let me add also, a great admirer of the French language and literature. According to the rules adopted by the faculty, eAmrybody desiring to enter upon medical studies must pass a written examination consisting of an English composition of about three hun¬ dred words and an oral examination upon the elements of physics. He is also advised that he will find it of great advantage to take the natural history and chemistry course of the college, which corresponds to our faculty of sciences. This course lasts for two years and comprises the following subjects: First year: 'Weekly hours. General biology (lectures and laboratory work) . . . 6 General zoology . 1 Anatomy of the mammifers . - . 6 Structural botany (phanerogamic plants ; lectures and laboratory work) .... 6 General inorganic chemistry (laboratory and class) . 3 Free-hand drawing from models . 3 Latin, French, or German (elective) . . . . - - - 3 Second year: Biology (systematic study of the invertebrates and the vertebrates ; labora¬ tory and class) . - . . . 6 Histology and animal embryology . 6 Histology of plants — cryptograms . 6 Animal physiology . 3 Human anatomy . 6 Analytic chemistry, qualitative analysis, laboratory work . 6 Latin, French, or German (elective) . 3 Mineralogy, crystallography (elective) . 2 Geology (principles), paleontology of vertebrates (elective) . 2 A total of about 25 hours a week the first year, 35 or 36 hours the second, including practice in the laboratory. “The students who have followed these courses and passed satisfactory examina¬ tions receive a certificate which gives them the right of entrance into the faculty of medicine without examination ; they also are able, as a rule, to pass at the end of the first year the examination upon certain branches of the second year, and are also MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. G 03 exempted from following certain courses of the first year. Those who can also prove that they havo done laboratory work in chemistry or in biology equivalent to that of the first year of medicine arc admitted to the courses of chemistry and the labora¬ tory exercises of the second year of the medical course. Finally, those who possess the diploma of bachelor of biology can enter immediately upon the second year of the medical course. “At Yale University there is a school of sciences, i. e., the Sheffield, which offers courses of i>hysical and natural sciences to the future students of medicine. No one can be admitted under 15 years of age and without passing an entrance examina¬ tion. After having followed the courses of biology for two or three years, the student may obtain a degree equivalent to bachelor of sciences (French). The fol¬ lowing is the programme : Fii'st year. First semester : Weekly hours. Organic chemistry (lectures and recitations) . 2 Qualitative analysis (laboratory practice, recitations) . 17 Mineralogy (analysis, determinative) . 4 English . 1 French . 3 German . . - . 3 About 30 hours, including 18 in the laboratory. Second semester: Organic chemistry . Comparative anatomy and general biology (lectures, recitations, and labora¬ tory work) . . . . . Mineralogy . . . Embryology, eight lectures in summer. Physiology . Botany (laboratory and herborization) . English, French, and German. . . . About 32 hours, including 20 in the laboratory. 2 19 4 2 5 6 Second year. First semester : Physiological chemistry and physiology (laboratory lectures and recitations) . 6 Organic chemistry (lectures and recitations) . 2 Geology . 3 Botany — vegetable chemistry; laboratory, microscopic preparation . 5 Zoology . . - . 2 French . 2 Total, 82 hours, including 18 in the laboratory. Second semester : Chemistry, physiology, toxicology . 27 Lectures, recitations, laboratory, theoretic chemistry . 2 Geology.... . 3 Zoology . 2 Laws of heredity and physical education . 2 Sanitary science . , . 2 French . 2 Total, 40 hours, including 20 in the laboratory. “At Johns Hopkins University, where medical instruction is just being organized on the basis of four years’ study, I was assured by President Gilman that the future students in medicine would be required to .give proof of solid attainments in chem¬ istry and natural history, the same to be acquired in the faculty of science. This is the case also at Cornell, Princeton, Lake Forest, Northwestern University, Michi¬ gan, Wisconsin, etc., and now, the impulse having been given by some of the most 604 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. renowned universities, a thorough scientific preparation will soon he the general condition required for admission to the study of medicine. ” In reviewing his observations and the facts collected, Dr. Bonet-Maury says: “From this investigation, made in the most important universities of the Atlantic States, I am convinced that the men who lead the medical instruction in the United States are strongly exercised over the system that actually exists in the greatest number of medical schools. They acknowledge the low standard of the medical body of their country, and attribute it to the following causes: The great number of medical schools, which is out of all proportion to the number and the wants of the population, the excessive shortness of the course of studies in general, and especially the facility with which the degree of doctor of medicine is secured. Remarkable things! The women doctors in the.United States enjoy the reputation of being better instructed than their brothers. This comes, without doubt, from the fact that their colleges are less numerous, and, having more perseverance, they remain longer in their apprenticeship to the services of the hospital which are open to them before seeking independent patronage.” The report concludes : “It is a good sign that the leaders of medical instruction in the United States have seen their weak points. As fast as evils are recognized the proper remedy is applied. The courses in the physical, natural, and biological sciences have been strengthened, and are considered as a preparation to or indispensable complement of medical studies. Moreover, these courses must be given by the professors of the fac¬ ulty of sciences or of philosophy, as they still call it in remembrance of the name given formerly to physics: 1 Philosophy of nature.’ “ To sum up, the Americans have entered resolutely that road in which we have already been for some time. Let us take care that they do not surpass us, for prog¬ ress in that country, as compared with us, is as much more rapid as is transmission by electricity than locomotion by steam.” THE MEDICAL SCHOOLS AND HOSPITALS OF THE NORTHERN UNITED STATES. As described by Dr. Marcel Baudouin. INTRODUCTION. Delegated by the minister of commerce to attend the Columbian Exposition, I arrived in the United States in the month of May, 1893, and, upon the advice of the commissioner-general of the French section, I decided to utilize my time in visiting the principal medical schools of the Northern States and the hospitals which form indispensable annexes to these schools. To the numerous documents which I have collected in the course of my trans¬ atlantic journeyings, of which a resume is given in this work, I have added at each stage of my journey, in order to break up the monotony of dry descriptions of uni¬ versities and hospitals, some reflections on the great scientific institutions of North America, and on the customs and manners of this interesting country, so far, at least, as regards the hygiene of the cities which I visited ; also the habits and actual tend¬ encies of the Americans whom I have met, studied, and understood. These digressions will be pardoned, since they give life and force to descriptions necessarily very technical and without color. The necessity of these observations, which at first may appear frivolous, will be better understood, perhaps, if I add that the chief interest of my excursion to America seems to me to-day to lie much more in the examinations of the customs of this country and the causes which have led to them than in the mere descriptions of private institutions, worthy, indeed, of admiration, but very unlike and not easily classified. It will readily be seen that I was not able in these few months to study the medi¬ cal schools of the numerous centers of medical instruction which flourish at present MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 605 in America. I did not go to Canada, but confined my visits to the United States, and I shall give only reports of the most diverse types of the institutions which I have myself seen and studied. Thus the old and renowned schools of Cambridge and Philadelphia from the first demanded my attention. The younger but already celebrated universities, such as Johns Hopkins, of Baltimore, and Clark, of Worcester, next engaged me, and I am convinced they merit all the good that has been said of them in the countries of Europe. Some colleges, modest but worthy, such as those of San Francisco, have never been described by a French doctor, and I believe I shall only fulfill my duty as a Frenchman in making known in the mother country the story of their progress, thanks to the ceaseless and accumulated efforts of some of her sons settled in a foreign country. Other schools more humble, like those of Buffalo, and still others, whose rapid development in the new sections challenged my attention, failed not to furnish me curious points of comparison with our provincial schools. I was anxious to visit them and do not in the least regret the time consumed in these long trips to the far West. I do not know that I have succeeded in my purpose, which was to satisfy the just expectations of those who, doubting neither my good will nor enthusiasm, did me the honor to confide to me so delicate a mission, a little heavy for young shoulders. They will, however, permit me to recall the fact that it is the first report made in France, full and detailed, on medical education in the United States, with added data of the schools of the far West. What is most astonishing, one may search in vain even in America for a work altogether comparable to this which I have sketched. My xrredecessors have studied only the notable institutions of the East. I have had the good fortune to push my researches further, and I have only the most profound thanks for those who gave me with no grudging hand their kindly counsel as well as their material and moral aid. Dr. Baudouin considers briefly the scientific departments of the Government located at Washington, dwelling at some length upon the Army Medical Museum, of which he says : ARMY MEDICAL MUSEUM. This medical museum and library is independent of the eight medical societies of the country. The building, an imposing mass of red brick, is situated near the Smithsonian Institution. It contains two interesting collections — one the library of the American surgeon, well known in all the medical libraries of Europe, and the other similar to the “Mus£e Orfila” of the medical faculty of Paris, constituting the most complete collection of specimens of surgery in the world. This museum has two stories and contains a great number of anatomical specimens and a collection of ancient instruments, some few of which were shown in the Expo¬ sition at Chicago. The affections of the bones are the lesions best represented. The anatomical preparations derived from the -wounded in the civil war constituted the basis of the collection, which has been enriched from time to time by the surgeons and doctors of the Army. Altogether it is like our museum of “ Yol de Grace.” Annexed to the two grand halls, in which are placed specimens preserved in alcohol (monsters and interesting cardiac lesions) and dried specimens (wounds, fractures by firearms), are two principal laboratories (histology and pathological anatomy, with bacteriology). We visited this institution in company with Dr. John S. Billings, who showed us magnificent preparations of human embryology. In this museum the famous library of the Surgeon-General’s Office is placed. It is one of the most remarkable medical libraries of the world and the largest in America, comprising 200,000 volumes. It has acquired its reputation through the activity of its chief, Dr. John S. Billings, who has published an index catalogue of this library, 606 EDUCATION BEPOET, 1892-93. made with, the most praiseworthy care. The last volumes of this work are in press and soon these fifteen great folios will form a publication which no medical library can afford to he without. Dr. Billings showed us at the same time the hall for the medical journals; the halls for card catalogues; and the rooms for the librarians — a model to imitate; an example which no one has followed in Europe. MILITARY MEDICAL SCHOOL. A few days after my arrival at Washington a military school of medicine was established for the young doctors recently appointed to the Army. These students will have, therefore, at their disposal a museum and library of the first order. After detailed description of the principal medical schools and departments of the Northern States, Dr. Baudowin sums up his observations substantially as follows: The study of the medical schools of the United States, taken as a whole, is a diffi¬ cult matter. The institutions which may be grouped under this head differ so much, the circumstances under which they have been founded and are now developing arc often so special in their nature that there is danger of falling into many errors and of expressing somewhat contradictory opinions if the attempt be made to describe these schools as a whole. If we consider also the extraordinary number of schools, which seems surprising at first, but is easily accounted for when one under¬ stands the general status of physicians in a country so vast, and where professional life is easily entered ; furthermore, if one considers the facility with which institu¬ tions are formed or disappear, without leaving any trace, the simplicity also of their early organization, the various resources of which they may avail themselves — with all these considerations in view, he will understand the difficulty of making selec¬ tions out of a long list, comprising colleges, medical departments of numerous universities, and sometimes mere factories for “ bogus diplomas.” However, to bring a certain clearness into this question, which seems at first so complicated, it suffices to examine it in the light of a single leading idea, namely, the basis of instruction in the United States, scientific as well as medical. I allude to the complete “liberty of instruction.” It suffices to remember that all instruction is absolutely free from Government interference, as was formerly medical practice also, diplomas being conferred by the most dissimilar institutions. As everybody knows, in the transatlantic country it is private initiative which undertakes to furnish to the fifty States, Territories, or districts of which it is constituted, physicians, pharmacists, and dentists, as well as lawyers, engineers, and architects. The public authorities exercise a control so restricted that it may be called none, compared with countries where centralization reigns. As regards medical schools, the States confine themselves to recognizing their creation by according to them a charter and registering the diplomas which they confer, with.out endeavoring to ascertain the intrinsic value of the same. There are at present in the United States several kinds of medical schools. For¬ merly the classes were still more numerous, but some have been abolished, owing to competition, which increases every day. The regular schools may be compared with those uf the Old Continent, and which in our country are called “ allopathic.” These predominate, and especially so at the present time, but in America, where some years ago homeopathy was appreciated by the majority of citizens about as much as the bonesetters in France, there exist also centers of homeopathic instruction which were at one time very important and which still enjoy much prestige. * * * Among schools called irregular schools, there exist also other types. I refer to the eclectic schools (eclectic colleges), and the physio-medical schools. The fraudulent schools, on the contrary, have totally disappeared. I will speak of them further on, but they are an invention which is dying out. MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 607 In the regular schools one principal feature is noticeable. Some arc attended by men and women, and the students of both sexes are admitted to these without diffi¬ culty, pass their examinations side by side, as in Europe, and obtain their diplomas. A smaller number are exclusively reserved for young women students of medicine. These institutions havo no analogy anywhere, and this is an American specialty which deserves more than simple mention. But whatever the variety, all these schools are of an essentially private order ; all have been originated by private individuals, and generally in the following manner: A very rich manufacturer or a successful speculator (there are but few other lucra¬ tive professions in the United States) gives from his fortune, and often although he has children (which is also a marked characteristic of the country beyond the ocean), considerable sums for the foundation of a university. First, very elementary instruction is organized; then, when other liberal gifts have increased the resources, professional schools are successively created — an important expedient for the grad¬ uated students— and rapidly enough a medical department. This was the case nearly three hundred years ago with Harvard University at Cambridge, near Boston, and has taken place at the present time in Worcester (Clark University), in Chicago (Rockefeller University), in Washington, San Francisco, etc. At other times the practicing physicians of a city which is young but flourishing and with promise of a successful future together found a school. In this case it is ordinarily called “College of Physicians and Surgeons.” It must be confessed that what prompts this action is the desire of the physicians to add to their title of doctor of medicine that of professor more than the wish to be useful to their fellow-citizens or to the future young men of the country. But what does it matter since these local attempts soon result in schools full of life and enthusiasm which become vigorous rivals of the older establishments. The latter are thus i>revented from reposing upon their laurels and forced onward incessantly. These physicians write out statutes* elect a council of administration, and request the State authorities to inscribe the new creation in the official registers. This is seldom refused, and is equal to a regular authorization. Then prosjiectuses are freely issued in order to announce the new creation ; the medical papers publish the course and the list of the professors, who but yesterday were simple physicians, more or less unknown. This is business ; it must be hurried, and here, as everybody knows, the Americans are at home. Students come in greater or less numbers, and in the second year diplo¬ mas are distributed. Is not the good will of those who, from the very beginning, have shown confidence in the enterprise and in the professional ability of the young teachers, to bo encouraged ? The graduates are then permitted to practice medicine in the State whero the school is established and often in almost all the States or Ter^ ritories of the Union. At first the resources of the school are limited, as the fees of the students and the sums given by the founders are the only sources of revenue. The buildings are rudi¬ mentary, and the laboratories poor and meagerly equipped. But if by chance some distinguished and energetic person has come into the corporation, reputation does not wait for the lapse of years, and endowments increase. Splendid iron and brick buildings are erected, dispensaries and soon hospitals are founded. Thus, following the examples of similar institutions which exist in England, the principal colleges for surgeons and physicians in the Union havo developed the old colleges of Philadelphia, New York, Boston, San Francisco, etc. F or some years past this liberty seems to have been a little restrained, and now in cer¬ tain cities diplomas can not be obtained with the same facility. Everywhere, indeed, where boards of health are organized the parchments presented for inscription are carefully examined, and if it is discovered that the school by which they were issued confers them too easily, they are not registered. This occurred some years ago in New Jersey, and a college where the examiners exposed the fact that too much indul¬ gence was shown toward students was forced to shut its doors. 608 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. The Illinois State hoard of health has endeavored with remarkable zeal to search out those institutions which are still questionable, and to this end it has published a prospectus setting forth the minimum of qualifications required from a school in order that it should be classified among those giving satisfaction. But, as may be imagined, many do not yet correspond to the required conditions, although recently very remarkable progress in this respect has been accomplished almost everywhere. Moreover, since 1877, there has existed an “ Association of Medical Colleges,” which has succeeded in grouping together into a strong society all those schools which desire that the level of the studies should be raised. The statutes of this association are such that at present all the colleges that are members of it may be considered as representing sufficient guaranties, for none of the irregular schools can be admitted there. In a country like the United States one can not ask more, and this control of the institutions by each other is certainly excellent; all this is very characteristic of this extraordinary country. Certainly I would not say that all these colleges are comparable to the European faculties, and that their diplomas are equivalent to those which are conferred in Germany, France, or in the cities of other European countries; but one must not ask the impossible; and in a country where superior instruction does not hold the first place it is not surprising that the students know a little less Latin or Greek than ours, and do not devote themselves willingly to transcendental studies. At the present time North America possesses 122 regular schools conferring diplo¬ mas either on men or women ; but of these 9 are exclusively reserved for women. With the 113 others must also be classed the regular post-graduate schools, which receive only students having already graduated, practitioners who desire to perfect their clinical instruction. These institutions may be compared with the German and Austrian polyclinics and other preparatory or special schools (schools for anat¬ omy, etc.), upon which I can not dwell here. The 113 regular schools, which I will now consider, show certain common char¬ acteristics. They are seldom installed in grand edifices. The most important, that of the University of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, is nothiug more than a modest building of moderate dimensions. The same is the case in New York, Boston, San Francisco. Often there is only an ordinary building of four stories, with halls for lectures, laboratories for chemistry, physiology, histology. Frequently a dispensary is annexed and occupies a part of the basement. Almost always (fact to be noted) the hall for dissections is found at the top of the house. We may say: “They dis¬ sect under the roof.” In this way, I am told, more light and air are secured, odors are not detected, and it is altogether more private. Naturally, the whole building is heated by steam, which circulates in pipes; it is lighted by electricity and abundantly provided with ice water, the beverage of the American citizen; no apartment for the dean, no imposing place for business transactions — nothing but what is necessary; a lodging for the porter, or rather for the watchman, for porters do not exist there. All that does not belong absolutely to the medical department is consigned to the other buildings of the university.. This explains also the absence of a physical laboratory, and also the rare appearance of laboratories of natural history. More¬ over, physics is not taught in the American schools. The budgets are very limited, save in rich institutions, which are admirably endowed, as Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore; often, also, the future is dis¬ counted. Appeals for funds are never made to the Central Government or to the municipalities. Very seldom does the State in which the college is located inter¬ vene to make up the expenses (the principal exception is the University of Ann Arbor, Mich., which possesses an old and highly esteemed medical department); the official subvention is unknown. Anyone can be a doctor in a few years in the United States, contrary to the custom in our old Europe, where a very careful preparatory instruction is necessary in order that one should obtain the degree of doctor. In America one may be at 20 years of age a grocer or a farm boy, at 22 a journalist, at MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 609 25 a lawyer or a doctor of medicine. The medical career is a profession like any other, and the epithet “ liberal” would not be understood in a country where only one thing is desired, namely, to gain with the greatest rapidity the greatest possible amount of money ; where the effort is only tc perfect one’s self in his art in order to get still richer. Therefore, of course, no one thinks of erecting high barriers at the entrances to the schools. This is the reason why admission into a medical college is so very easy. It is suffi¬ cient to have graduated from a secondary school which is approved by the State in which one desires to study ; in other words, to possess a diploma corresponding more or less to our ancient certificate of grammar, or to undergo a very easy exami¬ nation, which means simply it is necessary to know English and a little Latin. To sum up, the American physician must have a general education which is scarcely equal to that of our health officers. The professional courses which the students must follow bear a close analogy to those which the professors of our provincial schools have to take. The lectures even at Philadelphia and New York hardly bear comparison with those in the facul¬ ties of Bordeaux and Nancy. In America there is nothing to be compared with the faculties of Lyons, and especially those of Paris. The theoretical courses are gen¬ erally good, but elementary; the exercises in dissection are, as a rule, rudimentary. The practical work, except in chemistry, leaves also much to be desired. On the contrary, this is not the same with the dental schools, the triumphs of the United States. There are no competitive examinations ; all professors are appointed by choice. Almost all are young and enjoying an income which at first appears very large; but, all things considered, the conditions are about the same as in our own country. It must be remembered that life is expensive there; that pensions do not exist; that the long trips necessary in that country demand great expense, etc. The Yankee student, who never forgets the watchword of his fatherland, “ Time is money,” desires to finish his studies rapidly. He takes without much complaint a number of courses, lectures, quizzes, and subquizzes, which are perpetually pre¬ sented him from 8 o’clock in the morning until 5 in the evening, save Saturday even¬ ing, for, like the laborer, he holds fast to this vacation of half a day. Only he who desires to devote himself to a professorship in a large university, works from love of science, if not of the special art. The majority attend schools where they may get immediately to work, where nothing is very difficult. This explains the rapid suc¬ cess of ail new enterprises. The clinic instruction is a little more serious, thanks to the luxury which prevails in the teaching of the specialties. There is no small school which has not special professors of laryngology, otology, rhinolgy, orthopedy, etc. In spite of that the final examinations are not brilliant. If they should prove too severe, it would frighten the student, who would hasten to join a rival school. An important question for the future of American medicine and one which has already excited great discussion, is that of the length of the courses in the different colleges. Not more than ten years ago, in a great center, doctors were made in two years! But at the present time three years are demanded, with sessions of eight months each. Few schools require four years; but several advise their students to study four years. Evidently there is progress; but that is not sufficient. I will¬ ingly admit that the American loses less time than the Frenchman, yet I shall never believe that he can learn in three years what it takes us five or six years to impart. Four years’ attendance would not bo too long even in the United States. This would certainly be better than to be obliged finally to attend a post-graduate school, par¬ ticularly as those who practice in the country never can profit by these advanced schools. The post-graduate schools in America are organized like other schools, with teach¬ ing corps whose numbers surprise a European; but in reality, when the whole situation is learned, they are found to differ little from the German or Austrian polyclinics. ED 93 - 39 610 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. All specialties are tauglat in the post-graduate schools; and in those of established reputation, as those of New York, among others, are represented by teachers of undoubted authority. Unfortunately it is not the same in all cities; it has been justly stated that the professors are not always men adequately equipped, for the functions which they perform In these institutions which pretend to he superior schools for perfecting students, the corps of teachers ought to he picked from the very best. Complaint has also been made that the professors are sometimes induced to take their positions solely for money. In delicate matters like these it is necessary to look carefully at the results accomplished. Now, it is unquestionable that these post-graduate schools are of real service, allowing young doctors to complete their studies and to be better armed for the battle. It is not necessary to ask more— to hope, for example, to see them transformed some day into so many medical “Colleges de France.” Besides, the American, who especially appreciates the useful, would not make this his aim. There are at this time 19 post-graduate schools; but only 15 of them are regular schools; 4 are irregular, 2 being homeopathic and 2 eclectic. The earliest were founded in 1882 in New York, Philadelphia, and St. Louis; there are also similar schools in Boston, Baltimore, New Orleans, and in other cities, which I have already mentioned. One might well desire that in Paris some analogous schools should be organized, as we possess already all the essentials for this, thanks to the medico-chirurgical corps of our hospitals, but our customs and our extraordinary admiration for all ancient institutions will prevent us for a long time from entertaining this idea. The other regular schools of medicine which we have still to examine are those which are exclusively reserved for women. Whether familiar or not with the American customs and with the famous question of coeducation, the European physician does not understand at once the reason for, and the importance of, these creations. We are told that in the United States many young women wish to study medicine. Yery w'ell! But why do they not attend the ordinary schools, as from their earliest youth until leaving the high schools they live in intimate companionship with the young meu, on the same “ campus,” sometimes under the same roof, eating at the same table. Why are they more particular than their comrades in the schools of architecture, even in the law schools, who have no college reserved exclusively for them? What is the reason of this sudden change of opinion in a country where the system of coeducation has been so freely extended? It is only by recalling what happened when women attempted to force the doors of those schools wrhich they could not easily enter that one comprehends why these special colleges came into existence. America is certainly the country where the problem of the woman doctor is to bo studied; but it must not be supposed that in the beginning this little revolution in customs was accomplished without all kinds of opposition to the pioneers who sought to climb over the barrier erected at the entrance into the liberal professions by the most powerful half of mankind. At first the older American schools declined to admit young women. Such opposition might succeed elsewhere, but to suppose that it would do so in the case of Americans is to misprize their resources and the disposition of the women. Were the American women overcome by opposition ? No. This would have shown unpardonable shortsightedness, an insult to the national genius ! The outcome proves that in this country “What woman wills, God wills !” The women, resolved not to confess themselves vanquished, went to work with that patience the secret of which they alone know, which serves them always when they desire to attain a particular end. They did so well that out of the very opposition they secured the foundation of special schools, which at the present time have become rival institutions, sometimes dangerous rivals, if account be taken of the staudard of studies in the other regular colleges. The result of this is that at the present time the United States possesses 9 regular schools of this kind (there must be counted, too, a homeopathic school), which are MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 611 situated in New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Baltimore, Minneapolis, St. Louis, Cin¬ cinnati (where there are already two), and Atlanta. I visited some of them, especi¬ ally the most celebrated, that of Philadelphia, of which I secured a photograph. It must ho admitted that this is one of the objective points in a medical transatlantic excursion. The first of these schools was founded at Boston in 1848. It conferred diplomas until 1874, at which time it united with a homeopathic school. The second in date, and the one which is considered to be the tyi>e, the veritable mother of all the women’s colleges, is the celebrated College of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, which dates from 1850; the buildings were reconstructed in 1875. These schools are almost as well organized as those opened to both men and women. Certainly the courses, which only last for three years, are not brilliant ; the entrance examinations are easy, the studies elementary, the examinations on leaving somewhat weak. But is not this true also of the regular schools ? Besides, the women follow the studies with the greatest regularity. A little uncertain of their power and ability, they make so much the greater effort, as they desire to raise still higher the standard of their emancipation and to prove that they are fully equal to their brothers and friends in the rival institutions. They have, moreover, a solid elementary education, often even more solid than that of men (this is the rule in America), and have shown on different occasions that they were able to face the combat and to get out of it with all the honors of war. The corps of teachers is never composed exclusively of women. In Philadelphia about half the professors are men. In New York, Chicago, and elsewhere the proportion of women professors is still smaller. Hence it would seem that up to the present time the number could not he fully supplied from female physicians. But this is not the sole reason; other considerations lead also to the choice of men. These schools conferred in ten years (1880-1890) 635 diplomas, a respectable number, which indicates sufficiently how important a position women physicians have reached in the New World. For the exact total we must add to the number given the number of diplomas conferred upon women by other regular schools. As to these colleges, Yt is undeniable that the fruits have yielded what the flowers promised. In America, then, the female doctor is no longer an exception; in a few years, in the cities at least, she will play apart which is as yet only suggested. Tbe history of the schools called irregular is not less curious nor less interesting ; and among these latter some are so near their end that those who desire to know their character and their method must visit them as soon as possible. In a few years, without doubt, it will be too late. The fraudulent schools exist no more. So faT as I have been able to ascertain, they were constituted by medical associations, conferring doctors’ diplomas for money. Their students had scarcely to follow the courses for three months. They had at one time, it appears, a certain success. This could be easily understood ; but I do not guarantee the statement. Certainly all this is now a chapter of very old history, at least for the Americans, at the rate things move in their country. The physio-medical schools number only two, one in Indianapolis, Inch, founded in 1873, the other, later, in Chicago. That of Indiana is the type of these institu¬ tions, which are on the decline from day to day. The conditions for admission are the same as in the regular colleges, and the courses are comparable, although still more elementary. These schools, it appeared to me, were more elementary than those of the other classes. Instruction in them is rather theoretical than practical, and the clinic exercises are reduced to the most simple form. In fact, I am not prepared myself to give any particulars, on account of the short time I was in Chicago (the courses are finished at the end of June). Other French physicians who have crossed the Atlan¬ tic have not been more fortunate in this, respect. If I may venture an opinion, I should say that these schools do not seem to me to differ at all from the others except in name. In America, where simple minds abound, where all is industry and commerce, it is often sufficient to change the denomination of a ware in order to 612 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. give it a greater value in the eyes of the public. I am afraid that it may have been the same with the physio-medical institutions. The eclectic schools are more flourishing, but there are only 10 in existence, namely, at Cincinnati, New York, Chicago, St. Louis, Atlanta, San Francisco, Des Moines, and Indianapolis. These institutions differ from the regular medical depart¬ ments of the universities and colleges of medicine by the nature of the courses in medical subjects, therapeutics, and internal clinics. But the difference is only on these points, as in the homeopathic schools. In these schools all metals, without exception, are excluded from therapeutics, or, as the eclectic physicians say, iron, potassium, sodium, mercury, etc. — all this is of no value ; only the substances taken from the vegetable kingdom, such as extracts, tinctures, alcohols, balms, etc., have efficiency. As a matter of fact, this is not true, because it is demonstrated that metals have great efficiency. But where religion commences, science must not interfere. I must confess that I had not time to examine this matter for myself, but from what I could learn there seemed to me less difference between an eclectic school and a regular school than between the latter and a homeo¬ pathic school. The homeopathic schools are more numerous and more prosperous. In 1893 they numbered 17, of which 1, in New York, was exclusively reserved for women. There were, besides, two post-graduate schools of the same class. I do not exaggerate in saying that these schools are as unknown in France as the eclectic or physio-medical schools; all our classics are silent on the subject. These schools are found in most of the cities of the Union, in New York, Philadelphia — where are the oldest and most celebrated of those which exist to-day — Cleveland, Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Boston, Ann Arbor (University of Michigan), Iowa City (State University), San Francisco, Minneapolis (University of Minnesota), Kansas City, and Baltimore. This is not the place to explain the homeopathic doctrine. It is well known in our country and by the readers of the Scientific Beview. I will only say that tho ideas of Hahnemann, which were given out about the year 1790, have, in less than one hundred years, conquered a good part of America. For almost a century, the homeopathic schools have flourished in these places of liberty. * * * The studies in these schools last only for three years; but there are many pupils. In respect to everything outside of therapeutics the best known of these schools are equal to the regular schools. It is interesting to note that sometimes, as in Iowa, Ann Arbor, and Minneapolis, the homeopathic school and the allopathic school are represented in the same university, and that, accordingly, many professors are common to both schools. There are only special professors for the courses of medi¬ cine and clinics. For instance, it is frequently the case that there is one professor of obstetrics, rhinology, or homeopathic chirurgy. I have in vain asked myself what difference there could be between an accouche¬ ment or an amputation performed in this or that manner. I have tried to enlighten myself on this point and I could not find a solution. No one could help me in solv¬ ing the problem. It would be very interesting to compare the extraordinary success which homeopathy has, and especially has had, for some years in America with the indifference which it has met with in our ancient schools of unquestionable stand¬ ing. In Europe it may be said there are no schools of this kind. The physicians who devote themselves more or less to this profession have undergone the examina¬ tion in classics before our faculties, and have instructed themselves in the doctrine and its applications in some hospitals of limited number and little importance. In the United States the homeopathic colleges confer diplomas which have the same value as those of the regular schools, and which enjoy indisputable consideration from the public authorities. Taking all together and adding to the institutions we have already mentioned 10 preparatory schools or annexes of little interest, there existed in the United States in 1893 (I state intentionally the precise year, for probably in 1891 the number will be different on account of new creations or shipwrecks) 181 medical schools, of which. MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 613 152 conferred diplomas, located in G8 cities. The territory of the United States maintains at present 70,000,000 inhabitants; this gives, in round numbers, a center of instruction for 400,000 inhabitants and 23,000 square miles. If one compares these numbers with those furnished by French statistics, it appears that we have one school for 1,600,000 inhabitants and 10,000 square miles. The Americans possess, therefore, four times as many schools as we in proportion to the number of inhabitants of the two countries.1 This manifest excess is easily explained by the “liberty of teaching,” and by the desperate competition between the schools. This explains, also, why in America colleges fall to pieces like castles of cards; become bank¬ rupt sometimes after long years of financial prosperity and normal success. Within one hundred years more than 100 schools have gone down on account of this evident disproportion between the needs of the country and its means of production — between supply and demand. It is also one of the causes of the weakness of the courses. In spite of this, in proportion as the unsettled regions become peopled, new centers of instruction will be created in the East and the far West. The average number of doctors furnished by each school seems also higher than that of the European schools. This proves that we exaggerate a little if we follow exclusively the statistical information in order to judge of the causes and the effects of this multiplicity of schools. I could not learn the number of scholars who attended these centers of medical instruction in 1893, but I could get the number for the school years 1880-81 and 1890-91. They are eloquent enough to be quoted. In the year 1880-81 there were 11,864 students of medicine in the United States, of whom 9,750 were in the regular schools, 1,234, 826, and 54 in the homeopathic, eclectic, and physio-medical schools, respectively. For 1890-91 I noted in all 14,884 students, of whom 13,044 were regular, 1,128 homeopathic, 661 eclectic, 51 physiomedical. It is evident that these statistics, which are very exact, permit us to make a fair conclusion in the sense indicated in this article. There can be no doubt that these regular schools are progressing. The increase of 3,000 students in ten years is a sufficient proof of this. It is, furthermore, beyond doubt that the irregular schools go down from day to day, that the physio-medical schools exist only in name, and that the eclectic colleges are not flourishing. As to the homeopathic schools, iu respect to the number of students they make a good showing. Let me add, also, that the surprises and the easy pleasantry of the beginning of my voyage gave way in time to something of pity and benevolence. In this dizzy course which America has followed in the matter of public instruction the whole nation has shown the resources of its indomitable energy, and especially its love for liberty. As wealth and power increase it appears that the ambition of the rich who have founded fortunes must turn itself toward the culture of mind. This is the right way. Let us congratulate America. The end is perhaps distant, but with the ability Americans have in overcoming distances it must be attained soon. 1 Chicago alone has 17 schools. At St. Louis there are 8 regular schools. CHAPTER VI. NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS OX AMERICAN EDUCATION AND THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS, BY THE ITALIAN, SWEDISH, DANISH, AND RUSSIAN DELEGATES. Contexts. — “Popular education in the United States ,” by Luigi Bodio — “ Education in the United States by A. Ghisleri — “ Observations concerning American education,” by Dr. E. Osterberg — “ Studies on the educational exhibits at Chicago ” by V. G. TV. Layerstcdt — “ Notes in regard to the World’s Congresses by Eirstine Frederikscn — “Some characteristics of the educational exhibit of the World’s Fair,” by Eugraphe Kovalevsky. POPULAR EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. By Signor Cojdiexdatobe Luigi Bodio, Director of the Loyal Statistical Bureau, Lome, Italy. I had tire good fortune to visit tlie Exposition at Chicago during tlie autumn of the past year (1893). One of the most vivid and profound impressions made upon me during the fifty days passed in the States was produced by the prodigious activity among the people. What interested me especially, within the Exposition as well as without, was the organization of public instruction, so that to-day my intention is to say a few words in regard to the American elementary schools. The attendance upon the public schools is three times as great as in Italy. The number of persons enrolled during the year in Italy in proportion to the inhabitants is 7^ per eent, while in the United States the average attendance is 20 per cent. The countries of Europe which are the best supplied with schools stand between these two extremes. In France the enrollment in proportion to the inhabitants is 121 per cent; the per cen^ is similar in Austria; in Prussia it is 18 per cent; in England and Wales, 17 per cent. The schools in America are housed in more spacious buildings than elsewhere; the salaries are greater than anywhere else, so that the expend¬ iture for the public elementary school in America to each inhabitant is not only more than three times as great as in Italy, as is the case with the enrollment, but it is six times as great. Among the Italians the state, the communes, and prov¬ inces expend 62,000,000 lire (the ordinary and extraordinary expenditures included) for elementary instruction — that is, 2 lire (38.6 cents) per capita of the population of the Kingdom — while in the United States the expenditures amount to $14.6,000,000 — that is, 12 lire ($2.31) to each inhabitant. Salaries of male teachers average 4,500 lire ($838); of women teachers, 1,500 lire ($675); the women form about 65 per cent, the men 35 per cent of the whole number of teachers. The methods employed in carrying out the laws pertaining to obligatory instruc¬ tion are dissimilar to those in America. In the city of New York 12 inspectors had charge of this phase of the school question, and it is no rare thing to see a police- 615 616 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. man (truant officer) who, meeting a boy upon the street during school hours, ques¬ tions him as to his being a truant, conducts him to his home, and finds out the reasons for such absence; if it istfound that he is' playing truant, the justice of the peace disciplines him by placing him in a reformatory. * * * The rivalry between the States is such that each one desires to have the best school buildings, the best methods, the best text-books, and the best hygienic conditions, and the reports published annually by Commissioner Harris are a guide toward improvement in all directions. Anyone entering the American schools is impressed with the general cleanliness, the perfect order, and the sentiment of self-respect which pervade the atmosphere. The best arrangement of rooms, of windows for light, the best means of heating and ventilating, are studied. Then there are seats, one for each pupil, revolving chairs, slates, and blackboards, so that not more than two children work in close proximity to each other, and there is no crowding. The children by turning about on their chairs can direct their view to any part of the room. There is no need of hiding anything within the desks, and so the school, by the very arrangement of its furniture, becomes a means of forming a loyal character and of rendering the pupil alert, self-reliant, and respectful in bearing. Each school has a central room in which the classes congregate when entering and leaving. In silence and with a composed bearing, children of both sexes march along. The teacher leads the march by playing on the piano and a patriotic hymn is sung, but there are no orders given as to the marching. On entering and leaving- school the same method is employed; girls to the right, boys to the left, is the mode of march. The sight was one that moved me greatly, as if it were a generous action for the honoring of humanity. Truly, in the school is found the future of this wonderful people. I do not speak of the object lessons which are practically carried out in every school, and which habituate the children to reflect, to formulate thought, and to comprehend the mat¬ ter studied. The elements of botany, for instance, are taught in such a manner that each child is supposed to form for itself a small herbarium. Rewards are not given at the close of the year to the pupil who has distinguished himself the most in his studies. There are examinations, however, if the teacher has refused promo¬ tions to the pupils, the parents may demand a formal proof, the examination being therefore a kind of court of appeals. Drawing is an essential element of the primary school course, the students, both boys and girls, become first experts in drawing, then in reading, writing, language, natural history, etc. Moreover, there are normal schools for instruction in drawing and the plastic arts; a remarkably fine one is found in Boston. Drawing is considered as a means of learning and of communicating thought, and not alone from its aesthetic side; drawing is, so to speak, an alphabet for expressing the conceptions. The children are taught to come forward and in the simplest manner to sketch on the boards celebrated men, figures from natural history and from political history, or, again, they may be asked to illustrate a poem, such as Longfellow’s Evangeline. Another means of illustrating the lessons given is by the magic lantern, with which land¬ scapes, colored pictures, etc., are thrown on the canvas. Still another form of instruction is noticeable in America; this includes manual training schools, -where the shops and the forge for boys, cooking and sewing for girls, alternate with lessons in history, geography, English, German, and Latin languages. The elementary schools in general have eight years in the course. It can well be said that for the duration of the course, and for the methods employed in utilizing the time allowed, instruction is organized in the United States on a rational basis; more than this, it is liberal and democratic, as it procures for all a minimum of culture, which gives the people a high grade of cultivation as compared with many of the European peoples. The school is really the people’s school, and the American EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 617 nation may well be proud of it. One recognizes at once bow strongly the people feel in regard to the school question. In the educational department of the Chicago Exposition one of the Western States — Dakota, if I remember rightly — had pasted above the entrance “Education is the cheaper defense of the country.” EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. By Prof. A. Ghisleri. MUNICIPAL SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK. The agreeable impression made upon a person visiting the schools of America is enhanced by the well-constructed, well-ventilated, and well-aired buildings. The number of such buildings would indicate that American architects had made a special study and established a certain type of edifice, thus solving the problem of simplicity and commodiousness in all respects, hygienic and pedagogic as well. In the school buildings, as m all public edifices, there is no Cerberus guarding the door. In some of the schools a bright, active youth fulfills the duties of custodian, possibly for the day, and conducts you without any formality to the gentleman or lady principal. In each room is a placard indicating the maximum of pupils who can be accommodated. This serves as a guide to teacher and pupils, and in case of an excess of numbers they refer to this in their appeal to the authorities. In the school which I visited 45 pupils was the maximum. The rooms are not large, for in New York the ground is costly, but they are high, and the heat and ventilation are modified according to wish. No room contains the long bench or desk, with the stationary seat, incommodious and antididactic, which is to be found in about 80 per cent of the schools of Italy, the secondary technical and classical schools included. In the cooking schools each pupil has her own seat and desk ; in the other rooms two pupils are seated together. The desk is movable and inclined and per¬ mits the child’s free movements ; the seat turns on a screw, so that each pupil can move about from right to left as he desires without disturbing his neighbors and can bring himself into proper relation with the blackboard. The blackboard is not found resting on an upright frame, where it occupies space and intercepts the light, but the walls of the room are literally lined with these boards, and the pupil can draw his exercises upon the boards without disturbing. any one of his companions, and they in turn can follow whatever the teacher jots down upon the boards by simply turning about without even incommoding one another. But for exercises in arithmetic, for drawing, and for such exercises as all the pupils ought to carry on simultaneously, there are slates in use from the first class on. Socratic and objective methods are in vogue, and by means of illustrations and exercises, in all of which the whole room joins, the teacher and pupils are, in a measure, carrying on a type of spontaneous conversation or interchange of ideas. Another valuable feature is that the teacher has no special chair or desk. In Italy such a desk is raised from the floor; but the American teacher moves about from place to place, and the arrange¬ ment of the revolving seats gives the pupils opportunity to follow him in whatever explanation he may be giving on the blackboards or by other means of illustra¬ tion. I have every reason for believing that when I visited a group of schools on Greenwich street my visit was entirely unexpected, and yet I found the teacher standing before the blackboard, or in the midst of the pupils, all of whom were turned toward him, and it seemed as if I had interrupted an interesting dialogue in which all were participating. This method of instruction by moving among the pupils and conversing with them so engages the attention that it seems unnecessary to have any special means for keeping up discipline. The pupils, being visible from all quarters, have no opportunity or desire for concealment, and thus tho school, by the arrangement of desks and chairs, becomes in itself an instrument for the forma¬ tion of a loyal character and for the foundation of freedom of deportment. 618 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. Eacli scliool building has a central room, or ball, where the classes meet when entering and leaving school. From 400 to 800 pupils may come together there; it all depends upon the size of the school. The hall is so furnished with seats equi¬ distant from one another that such a number of children find their places or leave the room with the greatest case. The signal for the march is given on the piano, and two by two they fall into place, singing a patriotic air or repeating verses of a nonsectarian character, the girls to the right, the boys to the left, and march along to the entrance. It is truly an interesting sight, as if with their songs they were honoring humanity; and the unembarrassed and unassuming deportment of the American school children- always confronted me and led mo to meditate as to the causes which brought this state of things about. One thing which seemed to me essentially American is the fire escape, to be used only in case of fire. By these fireproof stairways the three to eight hundred children were supposed to escape in case of fire, and in each room a doorway led to this stairway. American forethought does not end there. It would be humiliat¬ ing to indicate how many (or how few) schools in Italy, even in the most populous districts, are furnished with these means of safety. If an architect were to rnako such arrangement, the doorways and stairways would bo absolutely hidden from the pupils’ vision. But the practical spirit of the Americans goes further; it includes the practice (twice a month) in the use of these firo escapes; the signal given, the pupils move with the utmost celerity toward and down the fire escape, and in .a moment are in the court or on the street. These movements are supervised by the teacher, and, oftentimes repeated, bring about precision and perfection of discipline. The parents themselves have less fear for their children, knowing that they are well drilled for such emergency. Hero again another aspect of the Ameri¬ can school impresses one, to wit, the courage inculcated and the quickness of thought necessary for any occasion. There are no decorations in the class rooms, but in the central room, where all are congregated together, there are busts or pictures of Presidents of the Republic or other ornamentation. Atlases, diagrams, natural-history charts, etc., are not lack¬ ing in any school building, but they are not found in conjunction with the black¬ boards. These stand forth in their plainness, which is only broken in upon by the necessary door and window frames. In pedagogical fields, as in other fields of action in America, the effort is to obtain the greatest results with the minimum of means to such end. Geographic maps aro closed up with wooden casings, each con¬ taining a series, so that they can be moved from room to room as they are wanted. They are so arranged that they can be hung up and opened to the map desired, while the other maps still remain encased. Pictures, models, and other objects required in the studies pursued are kept in cases, and simply placed before the scholars when needed. Thus one picture or model can be used in different tooius, and is kept clean and in good order. The pupil, too, does not have his atten¬ tion distracted from day to day by these aids to study. In Italy these wall maps, etc., are always stationary on the walls. The pupil profits more by seeing these maps, diagrams, etc., only when needed for use, than if they were before him every day. * '* * Some of the newer American cities, like Chicago, St. Paul, and San Francisco, have arranged their schools according to the very newest methods, and their programmes have theoretico-practical innovations in accordance with the latest pedagogical developments. In comparison with our Italian schools many comments and sug¬ gestions might be made, but I will limit myself to stating that in none of our scholastic institutions is the programme of study carried out practically from day to day as it is in the American schools. We have programmes, decrees, and regula¬ tions which are excellent m themselves, but even the ministers and Congress seem unable to carry them out, as, for instance, in the case of the laws of compulsory edu¬ cation. In America the regulations are few in number, precise, and clear, and they EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 619 do not suffer all sorts of changes and interpretations on the part of principals and superintendents, and these regulations indicate what is really carried out. Conse¬ quently one observes that the schools are really advancing more rapidly and earn¬ estly than one would surmise from a mere reading of their programmes. The public schools of New York and most of the larger and smaller cities are administered by a local school council. This council has different names (school committee, school directors, school commissioners, school board) in the various States and cities. The methods of electing the members, the number of them, and their duties vary also; still their aims are identical, inasmuch as they represent the wish and opinions of the people. Boston has a school council of 116 members, and this is one of the largest. In some States women are members of the school board; in other States their names may be used even if they can not be elected. A few cities have the members appointed by the maj'or instead of being elected by the people. Among these is New York, which can not in this respect be regarded as possessing the genuine type of school organization of North America. Still this is the city which, through immigration and its commercial connection with other coun¬ tries, is most affected by European influences. * * * The New York City school board has a superintendent as aid, who corresponds in part to the “provveditore general” of Italy. His authority, from the moral stand¬ point, is great, and he is generally a person of special culture, expert in educational affairs, and known to the jmblic as of indisputable pedagogical and literary merit. * * * The superintendent has manifold duties, which include inspection of schools, assisting at the examination of teachers, selecting educational apparatus, deciding in regard to repairs, revising accounts, making a report at close of the year, etc. In order to correct an error which has been often repeated by men off culture, by ministers in Italy, and by Italian educational journals, it is well to state that the primary and grammar schools of the municipality of New York are gratuitous. The school tax (tassa scolastica), as it is referred to in some of the States, is sim¬ ply a tax on real estate, etc., to be paid by all real estate owners, even bachelors. This tax is similar to the communal tax in Italy. The term “school tax” is used because the fund is raised for school purposes. But school registration is gratuitous in all the States. There is no tax [or fees] for entering on the courses, nor for examinations ; and more, the city authorities in New York furnish books, pencils, and other needed articles to the i>oorer pupils, spending considerable amounts for the same. * * * Elementary education in New York State is obligatory, by law of 1875, for all children of 8 to 14 years of age, but in order that this law may not be a dead letter on the statute books (as it is often in Italy) 12 agents (truant officers) are paid expressly for the purpose of watching for children who are inclined to shirk school privileges, and to so notify their parents. If the child is incorrigible he can be sent to a reformatory. In order to thoroughly understand public instruction in the United States it is necessary to state that, while the public schools represent a great factor in education, private institutions also add their quota to the cause. Among these private insti¬ tutions are many aided by societies; those for orphans, provided for by the Chil¬ dren’s Aid Society, some of which have special funds; others receive subsidies from and are under supervision of the municipality. In Leonard street I visited three Italian schools maintained by the Children’s Aid Society. I found a fine four-story building made of stone and brick and situated near the Five Points district. This d istrict is peopled by many of the Italian emigrants, and squalor and misery reach their very doors. Established in 1856, this school consisted of 40 pupils gathered together in a basement ; it now has 700 pupils and is opened day and evening to children of both sexes between the ages of 5 and 15 years. In the evening adults receive instruction. The attendance is quite regular, except in tho spring time, when many are obliged to 620 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. go away from New York to work. During the winter a midday lunch is given to the pupils and also garments, if needed. The society provides for newsboys or other youths who have no place to sleep. The programme includes studies from that of an infant school and a primary course to instruction in printing, domestic economy (cooking and sewing), while the elements of politics enter into the course in a study of the Constitution, and the pupils are taught to speak and write English. One of the teachers, an Italian, informed me that many Italians who hold excellent posi¬ tions and are much respected were originally instructed in this school. This prac¬ tical charity is entirely a work of Americans, and is so nonsectarian in character that many of the emigrants had images of the Virgin and of the Saints in the class rooms. Of the other two evening schools, one has 300 pupils from the Neapolitan provinces, and from all these schools the children are sent annually, if they need it, to rural districts or to the seaside for recuperation. The schools of New York are open to colored and white pupils, who are educated together, and the former seemed as well behaved as the white children. Instruction is given in evening schools to more than 20,000 persons who are at work during the day. While there is often irregularity of attendance, the pupils seem to appreciate being taught. Free lectures on hygiene, physiology, natural sciences, geography, description and travel, history, literature, and social science are given annually under the auspices of the hoard of education. The 200 to 300 lectures are given in half a dozen of the grammar schools on Mondays and Thursdays, in the evening hours, and were it not that it would lengthen this article too much I would like to give a resume of some of the lectures, which in 1892-93 were listened to by 130,830 hearers. * * * In regard to teachers’ salaries I desire to correct the erroneous impression which is entertained by many, that on account of cost of living in America a dollar may be reckoned as an equivalent for a lira (19.3 cents) in Italy. This is not true, for meat, bread, fish, sugar, coffee, etc., iu fact the daily necessaries, are no higher, in proportion, iu New York than in Italy. However, certain luxuries are more expen¬ sive. House rentals are not so much greater for the people who are not obliged to live in the centers of business in American cities ; these rentals and lodgings average the same as equivalent rentals in Italy. The salaries of teachers permit them, liow- •v. ever, to pay out for their own improvement (such as the buying of books, subscrib¬ ing for periodicals, trips to teachers’ associations, etc.) more than could be done in Italy. IMPRESSIONS OF SCHOOL EXHIBITS IN CHICAGO. The grand educational division of the Exposition at Chicago thoroughly con¬ firmed the impressions of school life in New York. Here at the Exposition one could learn much of the rivalry concerning schools, methods, progress, and the sacrifices made to bring about such advance in all the States of the Union. This noble rivalry merited profound study from its psychological aspect, if it were only to discover the methods of this wonderful nation. I did not linger in the educational exhibits from Massachusetts and Illinois, two States which, as regards education, rival New York, but in those from the far West, which only about thirty years ago was like a desert entombed in prehistoric times, the eloquent result of whose progress furnishes one of the most characteristic presentations offered in the Exposition. The oldest of the far Western States is California, which may well be pleased with the statistics presented. * * * The most important city in California, San Francisco, is reputed to have one of the most perfect systems of public schools, and it does not hesitate to consider itself a rival of the older cities, New York or Boston. To pass to a State newer in point of development. New Mexico reports as follows in regard to its progress; the statement is modest in quality, but no less noticeable for the spirit and method displayed: Bylaw of February 11, 1891, public schools were established, and a school tax for the construction of school buildings was authorized. From that date to December 31, 1892, there were 532 schools established, EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 621 557 teachers employed, 28,291 pupils enrolled, and an average daily attendance of 23,151. It is "well to say here that all the States presented educational information in the form of reports and diagrams or tables. Sometimes these last were printed on leather, -with gilt figures. The American people, who are parsimonious in their bureaucratic expenditures, are very lavish, with an almost patriarchal tendency, in their expenditures for schools and schooling. There were frequently pictures and photographs of pupils taken during the lessons. Numerous were the photographic reproductions of school buildings, of the internal arrangements, of the grounds, of the picturesque localities in which the schools are situated. The newer States, that is, those which have most lately come into the Union, seemed to vie with each other in their efforts to make a fine school exhibit. Among the most noticeable exhibits, in point of externals, was that of Colorado. * * * Most noticeable was the earnestness of purpose manifested in presenting a facsimile of the first schools estab¬ lished in the Territory, with a portrait of their founder and principal, and of the best-known teachers. To thus furnish a record of the humble origin of the schools in one of the last States to enter the Union surely indicated an intention of doing all that is possible to place it on a level with the older States. Colorado, with 412,000 inhabitants, has 65,490 pupils enrolled in its public schools and 7,072 in the private schools. * * * This State has founded a magnificent normal school which indicates the serious intention of those who established schools to provide the best- trained teachers for them. North Dakota interested me exceedingly. Its school exhibit had over the entrance, “ North Dakota has 3,000,000 acres of fertile schcol lands/’ Various laws of the Fed¬ eral Government have been the means of bringing benefactions in the shape of school lands; colonization and increasing value of such lands produce a school patrimony which the different States make use of for their schools. * * * This State has two normal schools for the instruction of teachers, and in the exhibit it was noticed that the State had made use of the best that progressive pedagogical methods could suggest. For example, I noticed the application and use of drawing or illus¬ tration as a means of assistance in all lines of pedagogical endeavor. Glancing at a synopsis of Greek history, I found upon the first page a drawing of three columns with both shafts and capitals. These were not made for the mere presentation of a drawing, but to record an idea. These columns represented the three styles, Doric, Ionian, and Corinthian, and here, even before the children learned aught of their history, were three simple presentations indicative of the art and culture of the Greek pepple thoroughly impressed upon the minds of the pupils, and in a manner which they will never forget. They may become bankers, commercial men, clerks, dealers in pork, sailors, or agriculturists, and yet they Avill never fail to recognize nor even become embarrassed before any representation of Hellenic art, the nation¬ ality and style having already been brought clearly before them. AYliat a number of useful things are recorded, as it were, from the association of ideas brought about by the grace and simplicity of the three columns drawn before commencing the work of a synopsis connected with school work. A few pages further on was a map on which the rivers and mountains, and the various subdivisions were left unnamed and bore simply numbers which were explained at the close of the page. Still another chance for reflection ! Not a word of geography to indicate what was intended, but simply blanks for the children to fill in or by word of mouth to indicate to the teacher the various places, mountains, rivers, etc. The school exhibit from Minnesota was especially fine, particularly that devoted to St. Paul, which is cited as a model. Here was introduced a plan of throwing the object to be exhibited upon a screen by means of the magic lantern. Thus the pupils were trained to observe the correct coloring of landscapes, costumes, and general subjects, while the instructor gave explanations which made the subjects of 622 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. history, geography, etc., most clear to the pupils. In the normal and practice schools of Trenton, N. J., the geographical exercises were most noticeable; but some of the subjects under discussion in the normal schools will bo spoken of elsewhere. The study of botany was most practical; the text-books used (Apgar’s New Plant Analysis), after giving the requisite terminology and the general classification, pre¬ sented a number of pages, partly blank and partly printed, which were to be filled in by the pupils after the plants were properly analyzed. The text consisted of the most simple explanations when compared with the complicated presentations in our [Italian] text-books. This can be thoroughly understood when one learns that the American school is founded essentially upon the instruction given orally by the teacher, who thus cooperates with the pupils in all grades from the lowest to the highest. In addition to this, the pupils have blank books in which they draw well-known plants and flowers from nature. * * ~ I studied at some length the object lesson and the methods employed in normal schools, so as to become thoroughly imbued with the system and spirit dominating in these important institutions, the graduates from which to become teachers in primary and grammar schools — that is, in the people’s schools of the United States. The woman teacher commences always with a drawing, if she has a special object to present to her pupils. Thus, at the same time that she is explaining the lesson she brings before the pupil an illustration placed on the blackboard, which illustration serves to conduct the pupil by degrees through the intricacies of quantity, space, and time (i. e., in arithmetic, geography, and history), if she is conducting a special lesson in these Subjects. Similar lessons actually take place in the practice schools connected with the normal schools; the pupil teachers point out the observations which they have made during the lessons, and it is curious to observe in these com¬ positions or synopses what caused the greatest embarrassment and difficulty to the pupil students. Observations and questions put to the teachers are also included in these books. The teaching is Socratic and experimental. In a volume of compositions I read three concerning a “ Comparison of the local government in New England and Virginia,” and, as a result of my curiosity, I am firmly impressed with the fact that the Americans are thoroughly persuaded of the superiority of their local government. As additions to the history lessons there are pictures of the house of William Penn, in Philadelphia (if he is the subject under study), or of General McClellan (if the campaign of the James River is under dis¬ cussion), united to topographical illustrations of the principal events of that cam¬ paign. This method of illustrating the subject under study is universal in America. * . * * In the same school volumes of art pictures were displayed * * * which contained reproductions of the most celebrated painters, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Giotto, Rubens, and of the most distinguished sculptors. This seemed to me a most excellent idea from the educational standpoint, because such a collection served to inculcate knowledge, to train the eye, and to contribute to form good taste. * * * As a continuance of this there were historical scenes and pictures of persons, the dates alone being given. The physiognomy and the general type are supposed to be enough to indicate who the personages are. Even upon the base of the public monuments erected to statesmen or generals of the Union it was rare to have the names given. As specimens of graphic art, I was not favorably impressed — in fact, I was amused at first, for it seemed to me that this was intended as a joke to pass away the time, and that as scholastic work it was lacking in historic precision and aesthetic taste. But when I came to reflect upon this matter, and when I recognized that this was not the result of a teacher’s hobby, then I began to understand the general underlying principle, and that the intention was not to make an art study, but that the exercises had an entirely different scope. To-day in America, drawing for the purpose of illustration is an indispensable part of instruction. The study of fine arts as such is very different from the drawing or illustration which becomes, as it were, the basis of universal elementary pedagogy. In this our EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 623 inferiority appears, for, proud inheritors of classic civilization, we regard drawing as a means of illustration, to be an art reserved for only a few vocations, and we only recognize instruction in it as an immediate end toward some professional, industrial, or aesthetic occupation. But in the American schools drawing has the same value as the alphabet or writing, and as all pupils, even if they do not wish to follow a literary profession, must know how to use alphabetical characters in order to signify their ideas, so they must know how to use that other universal language, drawing, as a means of expression. This is the reason, then, that from the kinder¬ garten upward all children have to draw in the simplest manner such objects as sur¬ round them, domestic animals, flowers, machinery, buildings, maps, the plan of a city, portraits of eminent men, artists, and patriots. It is not of so much impor¬ tance whether the drawings are well done, whether they are done by pencil or crayon; the main object is that they serve to make an impression on the mind. Thus, like the alphabet in its conditions, they form a language of which all can make use. It is easy to comprehend that with these sketches, made as an aid to the study of geography, history, natural sciences, the Americans, following out a child¬ like instinct, succeed in diverting themselves by illustrations, so that the school is not only advantageous from this standpoint, but has its amusing side. By means of this method the images or representations of men, facts, deeds, etc., are impressed upon the memory so that they will never be forgotten. And as all things are linked together in this fashionable and working world of America, so, after having investi¬ gated many school documents, I was not surprised to find at the World’s Fair every day, esj)ecially in October, girls and boys, both morning and evening, drawing in their copy books representations of whatever they saw which interested them most, and which they wished to retain in the memory. Naturally, this universal appli¬ cation of drawing has special tendency toward the schools of arts and trades, but to enter upon a discussion of. that branch would extend this essay to an undesirable length. * * * Liberty and variety ! Thus may be described the pictures, drawings, etc., on the walls of the technical schools — figures, animals, landscapes, copies of other pictures, all free-hand work. Nothing conventional ! No drawing which had not been brought before the senses, which was not a reality to the pupil. Such is the char¬ acter of the American school in divers forms of instruction. The themes given for discussion in the high and normal schools seem to me to follow the same general trend. Real live topics are given. I write down a few: “ The crisis in France,” which strange title induced me to read two or three compositions to see whether “the Panama scandal” or some other subject had been discussed by these pupils of 15 to 18 years of age. There was no attempt at rhetorical effect, but simply a col¬ lection of facts, which immediately led me to wonder whether the students had read journals and reviews on these subjects, or whether they had closely watched the politicians of the country of which they were writing. As for the comments made, they attributed the facts of the Panama scheme to the excess of confidence which the people had in Ferdinand de Lesseps, and to the fact that a privileged few (privilegi) had control of that undertaking. The impression made upon me was almost puritanical in its monitions, for it implied that there must be no deviation from the severity of the laws toward any citizen. Other subjects discussed were: “The banking question,” “ Should the World’s Fair be opened on the Sabbath?” “The silver question.” These live questions, treating of the politics of the day, of the functions of public officials, were discussed in the public schools, and were a part of the system of that education which forms the youth to be a citizen and pre¬ pares him for practical life. How different that is from the passive, conventional, traditional, and bureaucratic type of our [Italian] schools, where the individuality of both pupil and teacher is held m abeyance. There are many other observations which I would like to jot down, in order to demonstrate the liberty accorded to the teacher in the American school, and to 624 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. point out tlie progress and efficiency attained by tlie methods employed in the Amer¬ ican school. But the sj7stem is so different from the Italian system that it is diffi¬ cult to present the subject in a few words. I shall be glad if these few notes be the means of inducing others, more competent than myself, to make a profound study of the society and institutions of that young continent, which in so many partic¬ ulars has already to-day placed itself in advance of the older European civilization. OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING AMERICAN EDUCATION. By Dr. E. Osterberg (of Sweden). The observations recorded in the following pages were made on a trip to America during the summer of 1893. Dr. N. G. IV. Lagerstedt and myself were commissioned to examine the educational section of the great exhibits at the World’s Fair in Chicago, and to take part in the pedagogical congresses. Dr. Lagerstedt has given an account in this j ournal 1 of these congresses, so that I limit my remarks on that subject. The discussions in these congresses proved that there is a great deal of vitality and interest kept up among American teachers, and that pedagogical questions are generally and earnestly studied. I may also mention that American women took a very prominent part, in the discussions of the con¬ gresses, a natural feature, since the teachers of the United States are largely women, who are recognized as teachers even in higher schools and universities. Some of the most impressive discussions, especially those relating to moral instruction in schools and coeducation, were conducted by women. Another noticeable trait is the harmony apparently existing among the teachers, without regard to the higher or inferior positions occupied in the school. The congresses took into consideration all the various stages relating to instruction, from the kindergarten to the univer¬ sity, and the separate departments conferred with one another through their respective representatives of higher and lower instruction. The questions predomi¬ nating in the daily programme of the pedagogical discussions were those relating to the training of teachers; to promotions from the high school to the universities; to the importance of the classical languages; to coeducation in colleges and in the universities proper. In the schools which correspond to our people’s schools and in the higher grades of common schools (allmanna laroverk) coeducation is defi¬ nitely settled and not further discussed. Moral education of the young and, finally, the best mode of bringing the law on obligatory attendance into full effect were also discussed. The division of the World’s Fair devoted to instruction and education was princi¬ pally placed in the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building. In this immense building the larger part of the gallery was assigned to educational exhibits. Some of the American States, like Illinois and Washington, had noteworthy educational exhibits in their own State buildings ; and in the Woman’s Building education and instruction occupied a jirominent place. Several European countries had material of exceptional value. Even far-distant Japan and Brazil made themselves felt in the field of education. In the department of Brazil my attention was attracted by a very fair collection of work from manual training schools, according to the methods employed at Naas. The exhibits of France, Russia, Germany, and the United States, however, were the most noteworthy. Germany had a very complete and well-arranged exhibit of its school system, from the people’s schools to the university. Here one saw an abundance of material for instruction in natural sciences, geography, and history; collections of educational programmes and text-books, pupils’ work in manual training, etc. Elaborate accounts of the German educational system, which had been prepared for the Chicago Expo¬ sition, were distributed in print. 1 Reprint from Yerdandi, 1894. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 625 The United States exhibits were also very imposing. Nearly every State had a spacious section in which were found neatly arranged specimens of pupils’ work in all the various educational branches, with an abundance of reading matter, of feminine handiwork, manual training work in wood and metal, from the lowest to the highest stage of instruction. As a distinctive feature we mention that several schools (those of Omaha, Nebr.) reproduced their school songs by means of phono¬ graphs. Even the universities were represented by scientific work furnished by their teachers and post-graduate students ; also by accounts of their work and by photographs of their buildings, study halls, collections, etc. The States further distinguished themselves by their very excellent literature, mostly prepared for the occasion in the form of annual reports. These publications contained numerous engravings of the study halls, the appliances and material for instruction, etc. They also included reports of school inspectors, which reports often extended into pedagogical dissertations. The plan laid out for my journey included the study of the methods of instruction in American schools. Unfortu¬ nately I arrived too late for this purpose. In Boston and in Harvard University, however, I had a chance of attending some closing exercises. To judge by a few of my observations, I think that America has developed methods that well deserve a closer examination. An extended and thorough study would be very instructive, especially in regard to instruction in the mother tongue, also in geography, history, and political science, citizenship being connected with this as well as ethics. It is natural that the schools of so many States should differ greatly in respect to quality and organization. However, the general trend of their development shows that they approach the system of the Northeastern States more and more. Here schools of dissimilar standing and organization have sprung up, which at the present time form a more or less complete system. As an example I cite the school system of Boston. We find there kindergartens, primary and grammar schools for children up to 14 years of age, and high schools with four classes for the ages from 14 to 18 years. Next above these are colleges and universities. I wish first to call attention to the gradual extension of kindergarten work all over America. The sessions of the congresses devoted to the kindergarten system were attended by large audiences, and the work furnished by the little ones occupied a prominent place in the exhibits of the separate States. Daily lessons were given at different places in kindergartens in operation within the World’s Fair grounds, and these attracted the greatest interest from both children and adults. I have observed the same facts in England, where the kindergartens are highly appreciated. With us in Sweden a certain prejudice against kindergartens exists. This may be because this method is easily carried to extremes, and a groundless prejudice against “ Ger¬ manism” prevails. But it is evident that in education there are no leaps ; education should commence in infancy, should be well regulated for each age, and, in a well- managed kindergarten, training for the little ones should be obtained. How many parents understand how to carry on this training, even if they are willing and can devote their time to it? And how much could be done at an early age for the pur pose of developing the talents of a child? “Take the child into the kindergarten and there begin the work of physical, mental, and moral training. Put the child in possession of his powers ; develop his faculties; unfold his moral nature; cultivate mechanical skill in the use of his hands; give him a sense of symmetry and harmony; a quick judgment of numbers, measure, and size; stimulate his inventive faculties; make him familiar with the customs and usages of well-ordered lives; teach him to be kind, courteous, helpful, and unselfish ; inspire him to love whatsoever things are true and pure and right and kind and noble.” Supt. J. L. Pickard, from whose book, School Supervision, I have taken these citations, says : “ The importance of this preliminary work can not be overestimated, nor should the State depend upon private contributions for so necessary a work.” In New York and Boston the kindergartens are incorpor- ED 93 - 40 626 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. ated in the public school system, and this will soon be the case in most of the States. There are numerous private kindergartens in operation everywhere. Before I report my observations relating to the instruction in other grades I will call attention to the inferences under which it is conducted. The schools I visited in Boston, for example, made a very pleasing impression by their airy and light architecture. This impression was not lessened after having inspected the interior of the buildings. Statues and mural tablets decorated the corridors, stairways, and study halls. When visiting an American schoolroom, decorated with mural tablets, photographs, large charts, wall pictures, and bookcases, I found myself desiring to become a student. According to my idea, these pleasant surroundings must produce a very beneficial influence upon the schoolboy. It may be said that he becomes so used to these pictures, etc., that they no longer attract his attention. But why then do we decorate our homes and endeavor to give them a cozy appearance? The artistic impression produced upon the mind and soul of the children at school and at home by these externals is by no means insignificant. One excellent feature in the American mode of instruction seems to be the endeavor to make it as illustrative as possible. The blackboard is much used, and in the schools I visited in Boston the walls were supplied with blackboards all the way around the room. I have frequently observed the same feature in England (also in the new elementary schools of Stockholm). But the work of the school children at the Fair showed that the pupils are taught and encouraged to repro¬ duce their ideas at an early age by means of drawings. This is especially noticeable in the teaching of natural history and geography, and in teaching history and the mother tongue. I have seen maps drawn and colored by pupils of all ages, from the first attempt of children 8 to 10 years old to the artistically finished production furnished by the higher classes. It was a delight to see the charts prepared by pupils of the Cook County Normal School. Many of these maps, made by pupils of the lowest grades, doubtless gave great pleasure to those who prepared them. Grain, spices, pieces of iron, charcoal, cotton balls, etc., had been used to indicate the various products of the States or Territories. This kind of work is supposed to inspire the child with special interest and to awaken his self-activity. In addi¬ tion to physical arid geographical charts, there were others indicating the products of the different countries; also maps and globes with light outlines to be filled out and completed with chalk. Excellent stereoscopic pictures were also exhibited. The text-books are good and instructive, especially those in geography, with their excellent pictures and maps. My attention was called to a kind of historical chart (Linton’s Historical Chart). Instead of the usually dry and dreary aspect of chronological wall tablets, these seem to invite the pupils to make investigations and inquiries, and are of great help in memorizing. The history of the world was represented by pictures in chronological order upon large wall tablets. To illustrate the middle of the eighteenth century, for example, Clive in India, Franklin with a lightning rod, the journey of the youthful Washington to the French forts in North America, etc., were represented. One can well imagine how the interest and atten¬ tion is increased in a class where such resources of instruction are drawn upon. It hardly need to be mentioned that exceedingly fine charts and pictures of all kinds for instruction in history, geography, and natural history were exibited in the German section. Another feature to be pointed out is the diligent application of pen and paper at the examinations in all school studies. To be able to express one’s self correctly, both orally and in writing, is consideredto be a very important feature. Each pupil is led in this manner to think out the problem to be treated, and his answer will be more accurate than if left entirely to the method of oral instruction. Written answers are required, not only at the examinations and for promotions, but time periods are set apart for this exercise even during ordinary lessons. In this manner the lesson does not remain one incessant examination or recitation. The written EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 627 answers give more accurate knowledge of the conception of the teacher’s oral com¬ munications and at the same time require pupils to furnish independent and indi¬ vidual work. Complaints are made that the teacher’s work is greatly increased by the necessity of correcting all these written lessons. As answer to this it is stated that the teacher does not correct the work of each pupil, but certain answers are selected and discussed before the whole class. No stress seems to be laid upon the correction of each separate mistake in the written exercises. Each copybook is not required to be treated like a proof sheet ready for the printer. The exercises are the means by which the pupil develops his faculty of self-activity, the means to find out the standpoint of the pupil and of the class, a mirror, as it were, in which the teacher sees the shortcomings or merits of his own work reflected. It is quite natural that these exercises should have a favorable influence on the versatility of the pupil in using the mother tongue. This brings me to the subject of instruction in the mother tongue in American schools. From the conversations I had with teachers, from the text-books I read, and from the written exercises of the pupils, I learn that Americans are wide-awake in realizing the immeasurable impor¬ tance of education in this line. I observe that children, even in the lowest class, are given short compositions, so that they may make instant use of the little they have learned. It is, indeed, a great science to conduct instruction in this manner. Yet this science they try to develop in America. Some simple opinions are formed at an early age; short descriptions of a few lines on daily topics are made, and later these topics are discussed before the class. A letter is dictated, and the child itself writes the answer to it. An advertisement is read and the pupils answer it ; or are told to write an advertisement ; for example, to recover what they pretend to have lost. A picture is shown and the pupils state their view of the subject represented by the picture; or, if more advanced, they prepare an argument of what may have happened before or after the period of the scene given. In the copy books of the older pupils I noticed a secretary’s book of minutes of a board meeting, etc. The questions of the day are diligently discussed. “ The bad streets of Baltimore,” “Compulsory education,” “The Hawaiian question,” “Should the World’s Fair be opened on Sunday,” were some of the topics treated in the composition books of the highest classes. I am not able at present to go into further details of this question, but will add that a study of American text-books in regard to the native tongue would certainly offer many suggestions to our teachers. * * * The number of lessor s devoted to the mother tongue differs considerably, but as a rule it seems that a great many hours are devoted to this branch, even in the higher grades. In the Boston high school, for example, the English language is studied during the larger part of the year four hours a week in the two lower classes, and three hours in the two higher classes (third and fourth year). It must be observed that in the fourth class, which has very few regular studies, English literature takes an imjmrtant place among the optional studies, and thus language receives two hours more during the week. It is very evident that the reading of literature is encouraged. In the schools I visited each class had a separate bookcase, a hand¬ some ornament in the study hall. The book collection, consisting of selected litera¬ ture and adapted to the age of the class, is in care of the class teacher. Reference books for the use of teachers are also found there. The subjects treated in the com¬ positions bear witness that the books are really read. “ What I have learned from Ruskin,” “A half hour with Wordsworth,” and similar topics, seemed to have been handled by preference. The pupils also acquired great versatility in oral rendition. It was a pleasure to listen to the young girls and boys at the examinations in Bos¬ ton, which, as I mentioned before, I had an opportunity of attending. We have frequently heard of the independent manners of Englishmen and Americans in public life, and I had fair opportunities of observing this fact. No matter if the subject discussed referred to “The refraction of light,” or “The structure of the dactylic hexameter verse,” or “ The character of .Eneas as exhibited in the first six 628 EDUCATION EEPOBT, 1892-93. "books of the .iEneid,” or a “ Secretary’s report of an English recitation/’ one was always agreeably attracted by the free and easy manner with which tbe snbject was discussed, the speaker being aided by only a few notes. This universal faculty of unaffected and correct expression I observed frequently at the congresses in Chicago. Speaking of instruction in the mother tongue recalls some observations made while studying the German compositions of graduating students (Abiturienten) as seen in the German exhibit at Chicago. In our country, says Dr. Osterberg, I have frequently heard pupils, parents, and teachers express their uneasiness when the graduating compositions had to be written. This uneasiness does not originate from a doubt of the pupil’s ability to use the mother tongue correctly or to arrange the compositions logically, but from fear that the subject may be of such a nature that the pupil is not sufficiently familiar with it. To be sure, these topics are selected from the material which the pupil has gone over during his school years, yet a long time may have elapsed since he heard or read anything relating to the subject, and it may happen that these very points were never treated thoroughly enough to give him any essential facts to write about. It is not easy to write when material is wanting, hence these compositions often display loose and unsatisfactory arguments and are wanting in style. In Germany the teacher reads off three subjects, which he knows the pupils to have mastered, and then a higher authority determines the subject to be given (another topic may be selected, if necessary). In the proceedings of the “Abiturienten” examinations in Breslau, for example, the teacher announces that Goethe’s “Iphigenia” has been read, and proposes the following themes : “What ideas do the prayers of Iphigenia, addressed to the Gods, convey of her character?” “A noble man is greatly influenced by a woman’s good word. How is this proved by Thoas?” “In what manner does Pylades show himself a special friend in the hour of distress?” The first of these was chosen. The compositions indicated thoroughness and ease of treatment, which might be expected from thorough knowl¬ edge of the subject. In England and America the pupil sometimes knows, several years in advance, on what authors and works or on what period in history the ques¬ tions will touch. * * * These requirements prove that studies in the native literature are promoted. I have observed that, as a rule, the educated classes in England and America have a more thorough knowledge of their own country’s authors and their work than we find in Sweden in the same circles. Undoubtedly the interest with which libraries and the science of collecting books and arranging libraries are fostered in America may be one cause of this. Public libraries, and reading rooms connected with them, are considered almost indispensable in every advanced American community. It is not so well known that several schools have been founded and that departments in colleges have been established to disseminate a knowledge of library work and to give pupils an idea of the practical side of library questions. These schools have organized the exchange of books and made them accessible to the public in a most practical manner. * * * But more is needed than the mere establishment of libraries ; one should also stimulate a desire for reading and a taste for the pure enjoyment found in consult¬ ing good books, and I have reason to think that this will be brought about by school instruction. The possibility of calling forth a love for reading and the literature of the fatherland exists already in the fact that the mother tongue occupies so impor¬ tant a place on the school programme and in the methods employed. It must be remembered that the programme includes a small number of studies, and that the school does not take up all the time of the pupils. The first section of the Boston high-school regulations reads : “ The school hours shall be five each day, five days a week.” Of these, four hours for recitation and for study are set apart for the pupil’s individual work. Twelve hours a week are assigned for home work. Under such conditions the pupil has leisure to take interest in a more thorough study of the master works of the literature of his native country. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 629 A question that greatly occupies the pedagogical world of the United States is that of the training of teachers. In a country where such numerous changes take place among teachers, and where new schools are constantly erected in large num¬ bers, this must be a very difficult problem. But the difficulties stand out clearly before their eyes, and they struggle with all their might to conquer them. Some of the teachers are trained in the so-called normal schools ; but these can not supply the schools with the requisite number of new teachers. Most of the normal schools seem to rank with the high schools, but the instruction is given with special con¬ sideration for the student’s future occupation as a teacher, and courses in pedagogy are given also. In this manner, however, only kindergarten, primary, and grammar school teachers can be obtained. Teachers of the high school, who usually pass through a college course, or take a degree at a university, rarely have a pedagogical training. To accomplish this, however, is the desire of America and England, where at this moment lively discussions are carried on in regard to “secondary education” and the training of teachers for secondary schools. This discussion was brought about by a bill that had previously been considered in Congress. In the meantime, and this I wish to bring chiefly before the public, the study of method in education and instruction is encouraged in every part of the United States, and pedagogy is by no means disdained. Some of the normal schools seem to have raised their standard far above others, and comprise among their students persons who have even passed a university examination. The State Normal School of Michigan, for example, grants degrees in pedagogy. The degrees of bachelor of pedagogy and master of pedagogy are granted to students who, after a complete course at a normal school, or examination for admission to a university, devote one or two years more to peda¬ gogical studies and write a treatise on that subject. Several universities have separate chairs for pedagogy. * * * That the teachers of America were well versed in the theory of pedagogy and history could be observed at the deliberations of the international congress. An English woman, a teacher, who during the sum¬ mer took part in the congresses, mentions an utterance made by an American teacher in one of the section meetings: “We all acknowledge a certain philosophical sys¬ tem underlying all education. How many English teachers,” she added, “ are famil¬ iar with philosophy of teaching?” And we Swedes may well have reason to ask the same question. The difficulty of obtaining efficient and well -trained teachers has brought about the natural result that school supervision plays an important role in the United States, especially the so-called State supervision, which is carried on by one inspector in each State for all schools. School superintendents like Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, and William T. Harris have had unprecedented influence on the develop¬ ment of the American school system. Since the years 1830 and 1840 they have, as it appears, been indefatigable in promoting the interests of education in their own and other States, and by advice given to individual teachers, through teachers’ meetings and lecture courses, and through their valuable and extensive official reports, they have exerted influence upon lawmaking bodies, boards, and councils. One institution which originated in this manner is the so-called teachers’ insti¬ tute. * * * In connection with these there are reading circles in which certain books are studied by each teacher in the course of the year and then later are discussed at stated meetings. Summer schools are also held at the normal schools previously mentioned. * * * Even Harvard College has a summer school for teachers. These institutes also include the courses given at Chautauqua, which are connected with reading circles during the remainder of the year. The Chautauqua system has given rise to a number of similar institutions all over the Union. As another example of how opportunities are offered to teachers to avail themselves of the experience of renowned colleagues, I refer to a paragraph of the school statutes in Cleveland, according to which opportunities are offered each teacher to visit other schools on certain days. 630 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Especially numerous are the pedagogical societies and teachers’ associations. These frequently issue publications of their transactions. There are a great many pedagogical journals in America and some of them rank very high. The National Educational Association, whose proceedings are of great importance, and under whose auspices the international congress was held last summer in Chicago, issues annually a volume containing a full account of its proceedings. These large volumes are a veritable mine of instruction, and offer pedagogical reading matter of no mean character. Among American educational writings, the reports of Messrs. Mann, Barnard, and Harris, previously mentioned, most assuredly take the lead, as do the journals edited by these eminent educators. The valuable publications issued by the United States Commissioner of Education should be included. To judge from the interest displayed in pedagogy by American teachers, by the highest officials of schools and universities, as well as from the importance the public bestows upon school education, and the sacrifices made in its behalf, one must expect fair progress in future within the province of education. My oinnion is that a thorough investigation of the United States school system and a profound study of the schools in operation would bring to light various instructive details worthy of imitation. STUDIES ON THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT CHICAGO. From a report by Dr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt, of Stockholm, Sweden. [Mr. Lagerstedt was commissioned by the Swedish government to visit the Exposition, and was required to make a report to the department of worship and education. He left Stockholm in June, 1893, and after visiting the United States Bureau of Education proceeded to Chicago, where he remained until the middle of August. He gave particular attention to the educational exhibits, took part in the educational congresses, and visited some of the educational institutions in Illinois and Minnesota. In his opinion, the German exhibits were the most important after the American, but other exhibits are mentioned. After a short notice the author passes on to a more detailed and minute account of American schools. He begins with a brief review of the public school system of the United States, and notes the effect of independent management by the various States, but points out the fact that there are still certain leading features common to all schools. These features are then discussed, anl the schools of Columbus, Ohio, and Tacoma, Wash., taken as characteristic of certain types. He finds that the public school system of the United States corresponds to the secondary schools of Sweden, but is inferior to them. Hormal schools are then considered, as is the preparation of teachers and their characteristic weak¬ ness in America. After a few sections devoted to the United States Bureau of Education, the powers and functions of State boards of education and city school boards are considered. The next few pages are devoted to American universities and colleges, to the higher education of women, and to expend¬ itures for education. After this general introduction he begins his study of educational questions as follows :] * * * The largest proportion of the United States school exhibit consisted of pupils’ work. This is probably due to the fact that the school children of the United Status, more than with us, devote their time to work that leaves visible results — to productive work. The latter includes short compositions in the mother tongue, besides penmanship, written exercises in spelling, arithmetic, drawing, painting, manual work, modeling in clay, natural-history collections and other work, map drawing, relief maps, kindergarten work, etc. The exercises in the mother tongue seem to me especially noteworthy. These begin, in Columbus, Ohio, during the latter part of the first year of the primary school (pupils of 6 years). The children, for example, fill blanks in sentences, using words from a given list. During the second year the pupils express their ideas, first verb¬ ally, then in Avriting, on some object or action observed. They describe simple pictures, and toward the end of the year write short letters or repeat in writing subjects that were discussed during lesson hours. In the third year (at first daily) written opinions and short compositions on general topics within the comprehension of the pupils are required; then further descriptions of animals and plants, and of actions, letters of greater length, or narrations with certain words interwoven. The EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 631 regulations for the fourth year prescribe the reproduction of short stories from Amer¬ ican history, read by the teacher; also, descriptions of animals, plants, scenes, etc., narratives of journeys, accounts of picnics, etc., and letter writing. At times the pupil may choose his own subject and relate things that interest him. For the fifth year, or the first of the grammar school (pupil’s age, 10 years), there are prescribed, among other things, descriptions of current events, or of more extended trips made by the pupil, and compositions on subjects taken from natural history, physiology, the science of hygiene, or other branches taught in the school, or on general topics of interest in city and country. The compositions are furnished in rough copy, and after correction are rewritten. This year’s work includes stories from outlines, writ¬ ing from memory, and original work. During the two following years, the sixth and seventh, nothing new seems to be added in this line. During the seventh year a written exercise is required once a week. For the eighth year, short letters, business accounts, short historical and biographical sketches, in accordance with given out¬ lines- No separate courses for written work are prescribed for the several classes of the high school. The foregoing courses show that these written exercises are introduced much earlier than with us. As they are continued throughout the whole school course, parallel with oral exercises of a similar nature, it is very evident whence proceeds the remarkable skill of American school children in writing and speaking their mother tongue. Furthermore, attention must be called to the practical character of the written exercises. Letter writing occupies a prominent place, and careful attention is paid to the common rules of heading, closing sentences, and signature, folding of letters, and addressing. Special training is observed in drawing up business letters and similar composition work. For purposes of a more practical character we may also mention such as describing current events, for example, pi\blic festivals, etc. One kind of exercise often resorted to is certainly very appropriate ; it consists in describing a picture. Such exercises are commenced at a very early stage. The pupil is given a small colored picture, which is pasted on paper, and then he states what it represents. The following may serve as an example;1 it was written by a little girl 8 years of age : “ Mary and her lamb. There are a little girl and a lamb in the picture. The lamb is jumping through a hoop. There is a boy by the well. There are two trees; I can just see their leaves. There is a seat between the trees. There is a boy leaning against an old-fashioned well. There is a bucket by the well. There is a rolling stick on the ground. There is an old country fence. There is a house behind the fence. I can just see the top of the house. There is a rock near the little girl’s foot. I think it is summer, because the little girl has short sleeves. The little girl is laughing at the lamb.” Writing of this kind was also presented in the French educational exhibit at the Chicago Exposition. Among written exercises of pupils many could be found that were connected with drawing exercises. A plant, or a part of a plant, an animal and certain parts of the same, a physical apparatus, etc., were drawn, frequently even colored, and described. Some examples derived from a high school in Pitts¬ burg may be mentioned. A pa\3er with the heading “ Study of a crab” represented this animal, with illustrations of separate parts and descriptions. A sparrow was pictured and described in the same manner. Another exercise, “ The growth of maize,” consisted of illustrations, mostly colored, and representing maize in differ¬ ent stages of development from the growing seed to a full-grown plant. In another composition a fruit-bearing branch of a cherry tree was seen, illustrated and described. Another showed a colored india-rubber leaf of natural size, with descrip¬ tion which read as follows: “This is the leaf of an india-rubber plant; the princi- being personally in possession of a copy, I have taken tbis from Buisson, Rapport sur l’lnstruction piimaire a l’Exposition universelle h Philadelphia. 632 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. pal parts are the blade and petiole ; the margin is entire. The shape is elliptical, the apex is acute, the base obtuse, the surface is smooth, the veins are paralleled costal, and the. texture leathery.’7 Sometimes, instead of a drawing, a pressed specimen of the plant treated was fastened on the paper. In this connection I mention that at examinations the answers to the questions are mostly given in writing. To what an extent this is done in different cities and places I am not able to say. This method of examina¬ tion has no doubt advantages which are worth considering. The similarity of questions addressed to all pupils will cause more correct answers; the questions are considered more carefully ; the answer is given with greater composure and caution ; and the result of the examination depends less on mere chance. This method is also carried on in England to a large extent, from the lowest classes of the school to the university and governmental examinations. My opinion is that this method of examining deserves to be introduced in our schools to a certain extent. It certainly would be practical in the higher classes of our secondary schools in connection with oral exercises in mathematics. The experiments which I made when an inspector at the normal school for higher grade women teachers brought out the good features of this method. First and foremost, it is of great advantage in grading the certifi¬ cates that there should exist a written evidence of the student’s efficiency. In most instances it happened that the examination agreed with my previously formed judg¬ ment in regard to the student’s ability. Sometimes, indeed, a student, through the accuracy and keenness of her answers, showed herself worthy of a better rating than I had hitherto awarded her. Yet I do not remember any case in which a favorable judgment of mine, previously arrived at, was ever set at naught after inspection of the written answers. At times, of course, I became assured on one point or another where I hitherto had been undecided informing a final judgment. However, to per¬ mit the results of written answers to solely influence the certificates or opinions at an examination would be entirely out of place. Oral examinations give the exam¬ iner an opportunity to see the examinee in a different light from that in a written examination. It seems best, therefore, to have both kinds, if possible. For that purpose one might submit questions for written answers different from those used in the oral examination. For one pupil it may be easier to express himself orally, while another pupil is more able to state his ideas in writing. It is no more than just that each should be afforded an opportunity to show his ability in the best light. It is preferable to make an examination as many sided as possible. With this end, one might propose questions differing in nature, so as to bring out the indi¬ viduality of the student in his written answers. Besides, some of the questions may require only a brief statement of facts, others a more detailed answer ; the latter, however, without leading to a composition, which is a question that can not be considered here. In regard to instruction in drawing and coloring, the schools of the United States present some features that are of great interest to us and very instructive. A closer study of this branch would be most profitable to a professional teacher. I will pre¬ sent only those sides which attracted my attention most. I have already mentioned that a drawing lesson is usually combined with a written composition ; the pupil must at the same time draw, perhaps color, and describe a subject. This subject is generally taken from the study of natural science ; for example, a plant, or an animal, or a piece of physical apparatus, etc. The teacher tries in this manner to connect the instruction of drawing and painting with other school branches. Some work sent by the pupils of Grand Rapids, Mich., in colored pictures of leaves or other parts of plants, bore the inscription: “ Our aim is to aid the instruction in botany by in¬ struction in drawing.” Instruction in the natural sciences is of course best adapted for combination with that of drawing. In schools where efforts are made to combine these branches the pupils of the lowest grades (from 6 to 7 years of age) begin with these drawing and coloring exercises. The children are supplied with paper, color EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 633 box, pencil, etc., and a flower, and then without further preparation they are told to paint it. The picture which the child produces is naturally very primitive, hut then all first results are crude, no matter at what hind of handiwork we make our first trial • in fact, the production of something defective and incomplete is a means of practice and instruction that will effect better results in future. The child’s skill in coloring soon improves and surpasses the expectations of everybody. In the Indianapolis schools,1 and probably in Various other places, the children are kept occupied with so-called “ silent exercises ” in coloring. To the picture they add in writing their own thoughts or ideas on the subject represented. Instead of writing they express them at times by fastening on the paper a number of loose letters, arranged into a sentence. For example, one child wrote under the picture of a buttercup : “ Come again buttercup, where didst thou grow little flower?” Another child, representing the leaf of an apple tree, wrote : 11 This is the leaf of an apple tree. This leaf does not resemble a geranium leaf, it has the form of an egg.” It is easily understood that exercises of this kind tend much more to educate and are more apt to widen the perceptive powers, as well as to amuse a child, than if it were forced to write over and over again the same words or short sentences.2 To give an example of the com¬ bining method of drawing and coloring other branches of study, it may be mentioned that the pupil, naturally at a more advanced stage than that just referred to, has to color maps or characteristic landscape pictures ; and that they make draw¬ ings of historical events, as the engagement between the Monitor and Merrimac. Besides this kind of drawing and painting, however, there should he carried on, at all times, a more methodical study of drawing. In this respect the pupil is to a large extent kept busy inventing new designs and composing decorative forms, at first under the guidance of a teacher and according to certain geometrical motives or forms conventionalized from nature. As examples of such forms from nature, I saw used oak leaves and acorns, the leaf and flower of a wild rose, leaf of a vine branch, blossom and buds of a lilac, an ilex leaf. Some specimens of this kind dis¬ played much taste and inventive talent and were well executed. All this refers to the mode of teaching in the practice department of Cook County Normal School, Chicago. This practical study occupies quite a conspicuous place on the programme of the normal school. Drawing on a blackboard is used extensively with the general lessons, and the teacher must possess greater skill in drawing than is usually the case with us. In a school at Moline, Ill., near Rock Island, I saw drawings on the blackboard that were executed with chalk by one of the teachers and had remained on the board from the preceding term. I can only say that they were surprisingly well done and indicated a high degree of artistic execution. Modeling in clay is a branch that has been introduced in more recent years and has been adopted in a great many schools. In the kindergarten children are set to work with it. They first draw and then model some geometrical figures, as a cube, globe, pyramid, cylinder, cone, etc., or some other easy figures, as a mug, vase, etc. In the Boston schools, where it was first introduced, this subject is taught on a dif¬ ferent plan. A few hours’ instruction of modeling in clay was every day (except on Saturdays) given to children during the Exposition in one of the rooms of the Children’s Building. The instruction was carried on in conformity with the Boston plan. Guided by things I saw and heard, and by a printed paper distributed among visitors and explaining methods, I will attempt to give a few particulars on the subject in question. The aim of this plan is an educational one ; endeavors are made to train the child’s capacity for comprehending and reproducing forms, or, in other words, to train his eye and hand. The models are after drawings that have been made previously from other models or oral descriptions. The child first forms 1 J. M. Hice, The Public School System of the United States, Xew York, 1893, p. 106. 2 Ibid., pp. 126, 127. 634 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. a square disk of clay (about 6 inches edge and one-half inch thickness). Upon this raised figures are then formed by means of new layers of clay. The contours are first traced on the disk and must conform with the drawing on the paper that serves as a model for the work. All patterns for the figures are based upon geometric forms. The pupil is sometimes required to personally produce the designs from which he models. Fupils from 7 to 12 years old execute in this manner really diffi¬ cult tasks upon the square disks mentioned. Older phpils model separate leaves and fruit forms, later animal studies, and finally, parts of the human body. In doing this only the distances from the principal points are measured, and the contours are drawn by eye measure. Thus the work is commenced, to the execution of which, first and foremost, accuracy is requisite, and the models are of such a nature that the parts can be easily measured by the pupil and later corrected by him from measurements. After the eye has been trained to judge and the hand to reproduce such forms correctly, some smaller mechanical designs are attempted that make a transition to more purely artistic work. That the collecting of natural science objects and other things belongs to the reg¬ ular school work of pupils, at least in some places, was shown by the exhibits. There were, for example, in the New York State division, herbariums and other col¬ lections furnished by pupils ; collections of wood specimens, rocks, fossils, specimens of stone and flints. From a high school in Kansas City, Mo., there was a collection of about 300 insects, mostly large butterflies, with notes attached saying that nearly all these specimens had been prepared in a room specially devoted to natural science. From a normal school for women in Wisconsin physical apparatus was exhibited that had been constructed by the students after a pattern which they had themselves invented. To judge by the exhibits, the making of geographical relief maps is an ordinary occurrence. The raised parts are formed by means of putty or a kind of pulp of boiled paper. The base consists of a wooden plate, sometimes only of cardboard. I wish to lay stress upon the fact that the branches taught in the United States schools are designed to awaken productive activity. This aim is not subordinate to the regular lessons, but constitutes in fact the principal part, at least much more than with us. Productive work is in our country included in the school programme also, to wit, writing, drawing, arithmetic, etc., but the larger amount of our school work consists in lessons being read over by the pupils and later recited at school. Besides this, our teachers endeavor to inculcate the pupils with ideas; they convince themselves that the pupils have a true understanding and retention of these by their answers to queries in recitations. Our pupils’ work, therefore, is preeminently of a receptive kind. It is evident that the instruction given in the United States schools exacts a many-sided self-activity on the part of the pupil, by way of occu¬ pying him to such a great extent with work which requires productive activity. To study lessons and to comprehend and recite the information gained calls forth naturally a certain amount of self- activity, but only a one-sided self-activity. It is indeed one of the most important problems of good instruction to tax, in a proper man¬ ner, the pupil’s self-activity, and this it seems to me is done by the work referred to. This work is also apt to keep the pupil’s interest awake, a fact which can be easily understood. It is also evident that the kuowledge acquired in such occupations will be better retained by the memory and applied in life. To adopt various kinds of such work in our schools would be most decidedly of advantage. This change could not be introduced without a corresponding curtailing of courses and lessons, but this loss probably would be more than counterbalanced by the advantages gained. The practical character of the school work in the United States is plain. The aim is to place it, as far as possible, in connection with actual life, during and after school. That this, however, by no means need imply an overlooking of the school’s aim to act in the service of education is well understood from the above statement. Finally, I shall dwell upon the movement and efforts of more recent date throughout EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 635' tlie United States in relation to “raising tlie standard of fclie teachers’ professional training/’ and in relation to the progress of the science of pedagogy. The estab¬ lishment of chairs of pedagogy at the universities is included in the above scheme. The first chair of this kind in the United States was established in 1879 at the Stato University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor. There is also a chair of pedagogy in Clark University, where Dr. G. Stanley Hall performs the functions of a professor of psy¬ chology and pedagogy; another in Leland Stanford Junior University, besides one in the State University of Minnesota, at Minneapolis. The last-named chair was established in 1893. The “school of pedagogy,” founded in the University of New York City in 1890, is certainly quite unique in its nature. This faculty holds the same position in the uni¬ versity as the faculties of law, medicine, and philosophy. The faculty of pedagogy (it is thus designated on a pamphlet sent to me from there) is founded upon the principle that the special training for a teacher’s career should be placed on the same level with the training required for other professions. The corps of teachers consists of 5 members, a dean, 3 professors, and a lecturer. The faculty grants two degrees, the lower, “Master of pedagogy” and the higher, “Doctor of pedagogy.” To secure the latter it is requisite that the candidate be in possession of a certificate and have had at least four years’ successful experience as a teacher; to have pursued for at least two years the studies of the higher section of the faculty, and to pass a good examination in the following five subjects: (1) History of education and instruction; (2) psychology and ethics; (3) pedagogy and methods, including school hygiene, etc. ; (4) literature of pedagogy and esthetics ; (5) the educational systems of different countries, besides the writing of a scientific dissertation on pedagogy which displays an independent treatment of the subject and bears witness to original research. The first graduates of the faculty of pedagogy obtained their degree as doctors of pedagogy and masters of pedagogy in 1891 ; in all, 26. Among the doc¬ tors of pedagogy who have graduated hitherto there are 5 women. During the school year 1892-93 the faculty counted about 135 students. The persons who pur¬ sue these studies are principally those who wish to educate themselves to become school inspectors, superintendents, professors at normal schools, etc. A recent pedagogical movement, of which Dr. G. Stanley Hall is the originator and leader, attracts much attention. Its aim is to make the child, in the interests of education, an object of empirical study and to base education and instruction more than heretofore upon a true knowledge of the child’s physical and psychical nature. Dr. Hall’s journal, The Pedagogical Seminary, may be regarded as the organ of this movement. Two volumes have thus far been published. With refer¬ ence to articles in that journal, and to an article by Dr. Hall in The Forum in 1893, a few remarks will be added here to point out the work which has been accomplished and the aims and endeavors connected with it. It should be understood, however, that efforts in this line are not confined to America alone. The leading incentive of the movement may lie in the fact that Dr. Hall is both a practical educator and a psychologist, and as such a follower of the modern tendency, which, being based on psychology and the method of the exact sciences, endeavors to investigate the activity of the soul. This movement origi¬ nated in Europe, and has there its representatives in Wundt, Fechner, Helmholtz, etc. Valuable works on empirical child psychology have been published in France by Compayre and Perez; in Germany by Preyer. Examinations of a large number of children in regard to their physical condition and for other purposes have been made repeatedly in Europe. Among others, I call attention to the investigations made in 1884, ordered by the Swedish school council, and which became known and famous through the book edited by Prof. Axel Key. Questions of this kind have at present been taken hold of with great zeal by the followers of the American leaders in. this question. They endeavor to accomplish cooperation among persons who study the child from various standpoints — teachers, parents, physicians, psycholo- 636 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. gists. Their principal endeavor is to gain safe ground for a better education and instruction. Whatever has been done, though, to advance this study can not he compared with what may yet he done. “ The future of the movement,” Dr. Hall says, “ depends essentially on never-ceasing, laborious work.” The study of a child is very far-reaching, according to Dr. Hall’s theory. He divides it into four parts, each comprising one of four stages of development : (1) Prenatal age 5 (2) the period from birth to the age of 3 or 4 years ; (3) from then until 13 or 14 years; (4) from the last-named age to 20 or 24 years. Children belonging to the third stage, or that comprising the larger portion of the school period, have hitherto been the principal object of study and research. The usual mode of research consists in examining a large number of children, say several thousand, on one and the same point or points. They are measured and weighed, their strength is tested by means of dynamometers ; their teeth, eyes, lungs, nose, throat, hearing, their sense of precision and speed in movements, etc., are exam¬ ined under observance of every precaution to avoid error and to gain a uniformly accurate result. If it is a question of investigating what a chilyL knows in certain lines much tact is required and the cross-questioning is done by experienced and competent persons who are fond of children and accustomed to their ways. One kind of examination in vogue consists in letting a child, write down his thoughts on some subject. The child, as has been previously stated, obtains much drill in this line, and even in the lowest classes commits his thoughts to paper. The child even attempts to draw pictures and to illustrate short narratives read to him beforehand. A very simple method of investigation is one that for a number of years has been followed by the students of Worcester Normal School, at the instance of the princi¬ pal, E. H. Russel. The students are instructed not to make fixed observations with¬ out paying the most scrupulous attention to the actions and speech of the child, and to write down the facts obtained in this manner. These written notes are kept and arranged under appropriate headings, as memory, imagination, anger, imitation, etc. At present there are more than 14,000 such notes on file. They touch upon all ques¬ tions of psychology, and the best of them are used in the instruction of this branch at the normal school instead of a text-book. The following are examples of notes: (1) “While I examined what the child had been writing Carrie asked my permis¬ sion to take her slate home and show the writing to her mother. Immediately following, six or seven other children asked permission to do the same.” (2) “Charlie, the child under observation, aged 5 years 8 months. One evening several chickens had been killed, and Charlie was sent to one of the extreme rooms to fetch a chicken that had already been plucked. After a moment’s absence we heard him scream as though he were greatly frightened. Somebody ran out to see what had happened to him and found him very pale and leaning against a table ; in the open doorway stood a young, live chicken. After a long time of questioning we finally learned the cause of the boy’s fright. He thought that the chicken he had come to fetch had come to life again and was the one standiug in the open door. Charlie was, as a rule, not afraid of anything.” (3) “ E. (5 years), a girl, went out into a rain storm and, without having a hat on, placed herself in the middle of the road. The mother: fE., come in and do not stand out in the rain.’ E. : ‘No ; I will remain here until I am soaked, so that I may grow and become tall. I do not want to wear dresses any longer; I want a pair of pants.’” According to common experience, the instances recited are by no means remark¬ able facts. The future importance of these annotations to educational psychology is by no means settled yet, but without doubt they will be of some service. “ This is no science as yet, but without experiments there is no science.” 1 The gain derived from these notes is in one respect immediate. They have proved to be of great help 1 Ribot. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 637 to graduating teachers. They take greater interest in each child, individually, instead of meditating too much on the pedagogical abstraction called the child. This study of the child, as it is expressed by some people, is done “directly for the sake of the teachers, indirectly for the sake of the child, and has the additional pur¬ pose to benefit science.” Some separate examinations of a large number of children and their results will be mentioned here. Professor Bowditch has examined weight and height of 24,500 pupils in the Boston schools. He found that until 11 or 12 years of age the boys were taller and heavier than the girls. Later the girls begin to grow more rapidly and within a few years they are taller and heavier than the boys. However, the latter soon catch up and outgrow the girls. Measurements of about 10,000 children in Milwaukee showed that a child grows more rapidly from May to November than dur¬ ing the other part of the year. By weighing more than 30,000 children it has been ascertained that children who are intellectually developed early are heavier, and lazy children lighter, than other children on an average would be at the same age. Investigations regarding the eyesight of school children made in Breslau among 10,000 children and worked out by Dr. Cohn show that the nearsightedness increased from grade to grade. Similar investigations by other authorities show the same results. Examinations have been made even regarding the hearing of children, and it was proved that many children who are not thought deaf nevertheless possess a less acute capacity of hearing, and do not, therefore, profit fully by the oral instruc¬ tion. Such children are considered less talented, while in truth they are deaf to a cer¬ tain degree. In Berlin it has been found that 25 per cent of the children examined were more or less afflicted with deafness, and in most cases sufficiently so as to impede- the progress of their school work. The examination of a number of school children in St. Petersburg showed that more than 11 per cent suffered with headaches. Among school children in Hamburg there were 32 per cent having more or less defective nervous systems ; the percent¬ age increased from grade to grade. A comparison of investigations in this line led to the conclusion that more than 30 per cent of the school children in Europe have defective nervous systems; moreover, that the percentage in the lowest classes was almost zero in this respect, but increased to 66 per cent during the last year in a classical high school. According to statistical information in Prussia, 289 pupils committed suicide within the period of five years, in most instances from causes arising in school. The question concerning the effects of fatigue has been treated also. A decrease in the accuracy with which school children performed their work in the morning was observed in various grades. The decrease amounted to 33 per cent during the day, after four or five hours of work. Some investigations regarding a child’s intellectual life should also be mentioned. The first one ever attempted was made in Berlin in 1869, with the object of ascer¬ taining what knowledge a child possesses of things in general. The result was that children showed great ignorance of many things thought to be known by every child. Dr. G. Stanley Hall brought about a similar investigation in Boston in 1880. A great many children, about 6 years old, who had just entered school, were interro¬ gated as to their knowledge in various respects. The questions were put by tactful and experienced persons, usually women teachers. I mention the following results : 14 per cent of the children had never observed the stars and did not have the least conception of them; 35 per cent had never been in the country; 20 per cent did not know that the milk comes from cows ; 25 per cent that wooden utensils were made of trees; 13 to 15 per cent did not know the name of the colors green, blue, and yellow; from 13 to 18 per cent did not know what their cheek bones, fore¬ head, and throat were. More than three-fourths of all children did not remember to have seen any kind of seeds, trees, or vegetables in growth. The subjects asked 638 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. after were mostly such as are treated in the first reader and discussed with the child at the beginning of the common school course. One danger closely connected ■with this may be easily recognized if those teaching do not sufficiently consider how little they may expect from a child — namely, that much of what a child learns in school remains simply a matter of memory and empty words, instead of becoming real knowledge. A child’s capacity of retaining in the memory numbers of about nine figures has been proved, and also that this capacity increases with age more than other facul¬ ties; besides, that it is greater with girls than with boys, and that it necessitates a great amount of talent in continuous and concentrated attention. Mr. Earl Barnes, professor of pedagogy in Leland Stanford Junior University, made an investigation concerning the religious conceptions of a child. The investigation was based upon 1,091 compositions, which were written without previous prepara¬ tion by pupils of different ages in the schools or California; and also upon conversa¬ tions between children and mothers or teachers, as well as upon a few recollections of older children. Among other things it appears that little children have most real¬ istic ideas about God, angels, heaven, etc. God, for example, is a big blue man who pours water out of a big bucket in order to produce rain, and who beats the skies when it thunders. Professor Barnes advances the idea that the teaching of religion to little children has to be done under an anthropomorphic or realistic form. If we really teach them, as it should be done, that God is a spirit, their imagination will never¬ theless give Him a human form with human attributes. A child’s imaginations are founded largely on pictures which they see. For this reason it is very important that such pictures be good and well done whenever a religious subject is treated, as, for example, Baphael’s Sistine Madonna. Very recently a society has been founded in the United States for the purpose of working in the interests of child study. The society’s name is National Associa¬ tion for the Study of Children. Its establishment was determined upon at one of the pedagogical congresses in Chicago last year. The president or chairman of the society is Dr. G. Stanley Hall. The object of the society is “to promote, through the organization and cooperation of its members, the scientific study of children, among teachers living aj)art in different places of the country, and among parents or other people who pursue scientific child study, so that they may assist each other with advice, suggestions, and study plans, and in order that material which belongs to one or the other special study may come into the hands of persons who are spe¬ cially interested in working up such matter.” One circular distributed by the chair¬ man of the society contains, among others, suggestions for formulating a general plan for child study in its entirety. The headings of this plan are as follows : (A) Physical growth; (1) weighing; (2) measurement; (3) photographs, taking casts, etc. (B) Motor tests; (1) general researches; (2) annotations of particular move¬ ments and plays, which children can execute in the lower classes of the school; (3) strength; (4) promptness; (5) accuracy; (6) fatigue; (7) language. (C) Inquiries regarding the senses. (D) Higher intellectual faculties. (E) Emotions and pas¬ sions. (F) General observations (such as mentioned and directed by E. H. Bussell, of the normal school in Worcester. (G) Abnormal and peculiar children. (H) Mis¬ cellaneous. In the circular it is advanced that observations such as mentioned under (F) may be considered as introductory to the whole study, and should, so to speak, be practiced as a first stage as often as circumstances permit. These observations are comparatively easy, while the others, on the contrary, require more complicated methods or apparatus. The persons who devote themselves to special researches should apply the strictest attention to the whole plan and make notes of the kind last named (F). The enlarged knowledge of a child’s physical and mental characteristics, which may result from the movement in question, will no doubt also influence the school and everything belonging to it. It is indeed desirable that the whole educational EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 639 activity, as far as possible, should be regulated in conformity with the results obtained by means of this research work. On the other hand, the school itself offers the very best opportunity to collect practical experience respecting children, and to apply and try whatever is best for them. Dr. Hall at present entertains the scheme of establishing a school which in every way shall be an ideal school. He intends to place it in Worcester and connect it with Clark University. Efforts will be made to make the buildings exemplary in regard to plan, heating, lighting, ventilation, etc. The grounds will, among other things, show what can be done within a limited space. The writing desks, as well as other school furniture and ajiparatus, will be of the best kind. Only prominent men and women teachers are to he appointed, who are able to comprehend the best methods and to make practical use of them. The school is to be under the direction of men of university education, well versed in the history of education, in pedagogy, psychology, and hygiene, besides having a personal knowledge of the best schools in other countries. The financial condition of the school should be such that it can in every respect use and furnish whatever is the best, and make necessary changes whenever they are desirable. It is easy to under¬ stand that a school with such characteristics will become very useful, and its bene¬ fits will probably not be restricted to America. The readiness to make sacrifices for public purposes, and the enthusiasm which distinguishes Americans, leave room to hope that the plan of this school will not remain on paper only, but become a reality. GERMANY. The German educational exhibit was very excellent. Great pains and attention had been bestowed and large expenditures had been made for the purpose. To j udge by the several divisions of this exhibit, which I inspected more in detail, it must have been among the best of the whole World’s Exposition. Whoever wished to make a thorough study of the German educational system found here ample opportunities, and the material had been selected with such painstaking care that it would be difficult to imagine anything more appropriate for a study of this kind. The German educational exhibit had its place in the western gallery of the Manu¬ factures and Liberal Arts Building, on the same side of the building that contained the other exhibits of Germany. A portion of the educational exhibits were placed in a smaller gallery above the first named. The educational exhibit comprised the university system, higher education for boys, secondary schools for girls, people’s schools, with normal schools, and schools for abnormals. In this division I paid special attention to the higher schools for hoys and girls and the people’s schools. However, I have not found it convenient to give an account of their details. The printed catalogue and guides which were distrib¬ uted furnish all the information that can be desired. Nevertheless, I will here touch upon a few general features, and on such other items as appear to me of interest. The largest part of the German school exhibit consisted of apparatus and material of various kinds, text-books, wall maps, charts, models, instruments for the study of physics, etc. One may say that the German exhibit showed, above all, what is done for the pupils, while the United States exhibit contained that which is done by the pupils. An important part of the exhibit consisted of collections of various kinds of lit¬ erature; works treating of schools and educational systems; text-books for different branches of study, and a library for school children. There was exhibited a collec¬ tion of eminent German pedagogical works, partly of more general character, partly treating of the history of education in all Germany or in separate provinces or cities, biographies of prominent educators, etc. Then there were books containing rules and regulations which at the present time are in force for the different kinds of schools, educational journals and annuals, all the proceedings of the directors’ con¬ ferences and the famous December conferences in Berlin, etc. Several publications 640 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. relating to the German educational system were specially written for the exhibition, and these, with several other works, were accessible in duplicate copies to interested visitors. Furthermore, there were collections of annual programmes from various kinds of institutions, among these a number of programmes for secondary schools for boys in Germany in 1892, besides a complete series of annual programmes from 1839 to 1892 from the gymnasium in Frankfort-on-the-Main. For the different branches of instruction there were collections of the best and most commonly used text-books, or such as indicated certain new tendencies, besides works touching upon the methods of teaching various subjects. A complete collection of German readers for the people’s schools was of great interest. The collection comprised 225 volumes and contained all the readers of this class up to date, beginning with F, E. von Rocliow’s Der Kinderfreund, published for the first time in 1776, the first Ger¬ man reader for people’s schools ever written. A division of the pupils’ library, designated the “Normal library for girls’ secondary schools,” contained 420 volumes; another, from a people’s school in Berlin, had 256 volumes, and still another library, for normal school students, contained 560 volumes. Of the abundant material for instruction, only the most important will be noted here, and this was intended for instruction in natural history. Several series of charts for this branch were exhibited. Among these, it seems to me that the well- known zoological charts by Lekman-Leutemann (Zoologischer Atlas) occupy the most prominent place, and would be of benefit to our own schools. Worthy of notice were also Meinkoldt’s 1 * Wandbilder fur den Unterricht in der Zoologie,” which probably contain more species than the foregoing work; also Leuckart und Nitschl’s “ Zoologische Wandtafeln,” besides Engleder’s “ Wandtafeln fur dennaturkundlichen Unterricht.” The latter work contains a botanical and zoological division. Very good were Niepel’s “Wandbilder des niederen Tkierreich.es.” Of charts for the anat¬ omy of the human body, there were, besides those by Dr. Fiedler, which are more familiar to us, some issued by Max Eschner, four in number and very much like the former, but perhaps a little better. A pretty pictorial work is that of Jung, with several others, newly issued, “Neue Wandtafeln fur den Unterricht in der Naturge- sckiclite,” 22 large charts painted on a black background, and each representing a plant or animal type, with many analyses. As a purely botanical picture work may be mentioned, above all, Zippel und Bollmans “Auslandische Kulturpflanzen,” an excellent pictorial work, with carefully elaborated and very valuable text. In the edition on exhibit the background was kept in black, while the illustrations themselves were colored. The charts in Dodel-Ports “Anatomisck-pkysiologischer Atlas der Botanik” showed very fair illustrations. The work by Lubarsch, “Wand¬ tafeln zur Bliitenkunde,” showing flower diagrams of various coloring, I consider very valuable in the instruction of plant families. Fine biological and zootomical preparations were exhibited by W. Haferlandt, of Berlin. They were preserved in alcohol and kept in air-tight, square glass bottles. As examples, I quote of the biological preparations : Common frogs (two specimens of spawn periods), nine larvae, one younger and one older frog, besides a working bee (eggs, larvae, chrysalides, full-grown insects). Of the zootomical preparations: Large house rats (opened and the interior organs exposed) ; further, a bird, a fish, a helix, a crawfish, etc., treated in the same manner. School material which was not at the same time material for instruction was sparsely represented. A kind of blackboard deserves mention. In one kind the board itself was made of black glass. These boards or slates are manufactured by F. Bender, in Dusseldorf. It was easy to write on them; they are easily cleaned and are no doubt of greater durability than blackboards of wood. Their surface is luster- less, although they are of glass. Another kind of blackboard was exhibited by A. C. Lemcke, of Cassel.. These were made of papier-mach^, long and lusterless. The pupils’ work occupied only a small space in the German exhibit, nevertheless it was not entirely absent. Some series of copy books, drawings, manual work, etc., EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. (541 from various kinds of schools, "were exhibited. Among others, there was a collection, of compositions by graduating classes of 1892, from 20 secondary schools in Prussia, belonging to different grades. NOTES IN REGARD TO THE WORLD’S CONGRESSES. By Kirstlne Frederiksen, Copenhagen (Frederiksberg). In connection with the World’s Exposition at Chicago a number of congresses were held during the summer, at which representatives from all parts of the world met. Mr. Charles Bonney, the president of these congresses, expressed the hope in his opening address that they, as well as the Exposition, might aid in the promotion of general fraternity and harmony among the different nations. One of the speakers said that he considered the Exposition to be an “ annex” to the congresses which the participants should not fail to see. Several celebrated persons from Europe were present specially for the purpose of delivering addresses at these meetings. Unfor¬ tunately, some representatives restricted themselves to sending in papers, which were read by other persons, while the great names were, nevertheless, displayed upon the programme. To the Americans, who are fond of having hobbies, these congresses frequently seemed to be of much greater interest than the Exposition itself, however proud they were of the latter. They threw themselves with astonishing vigor and independence into the discussions ; yet even the most callous European could hardly fail to become interested in the variety of types and conceptions which he met here. A critic could have found various things to criticise, but the person seeking for instruction was rarely disappointed. The last two weeks in July were devoted to education in all its numerous forms, and there was scarcely an educational question which did not appear on the pro¬ gramme and in the discussions. Sometimes the proceedings took the form of a simple debate ; more frequently a number of previously prepared treatises were read, viewing the subject from different points. By addressing their words directly to the audience the speakers often succeeded in having a theme well discussed. Most successful were the “round-table” discussions. Mr. Harper, rector of the new University of Chicago, although a clerical gentle¬ man, seems to be well informed in worldly matters. He thoroughly understood how to engage prominent professors for the university ; many of them are distinguished scientific men of mature age, who attract pupils, and there are younger men who can bear the burden of heavy work. The university, recently founded, has already, among other collections, a richly equipped psycho-physical laboratory, which was in full operation within the Exposition grounds. In the selection of the women professors the authorities seem to have been very fortunate. Mrs. Martha Foote Crow, professor of English literature, who took an active part in the congress, gave an excellent lecture on liberty of teaching at the university. “Too often,” said she — no doubt she is perfectly right in her assertion — “the leading mind at the smaller American universities is proved to be an energetic person, but narrow minded withal, and sectarian interests are promoted above science.” The question of coeducation at the university was also treated thoroughly by Mrs. Crow. In her opinion coeducation is worthy of recommendation, though only as the smaller of two evils. As in England, many women in America, especially in the Eastern States, prefer a university education in institutions for women, even if they are in favor of coeducation in the lower classes of the schools. I heard the argument advanced in a private conversation that the young girls easily become conceited by studying with men, because the latter rarely read with as much dili¬ gence and earnestness as the girls. In a series of pupils’ exercises from a high school I found the same opinion expressed by boys. In addition to the excellently equipped women’s colleges of the East and the coedu¬ cational universities, usually found in the West, there exists in America a third form — the “Annex,” at Harvard University. The professors who give instruction to male ed 93 - 41 642 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. students liold separate lectures for women. This is doubtless only a transition state, called forth by the peculiar prudery that reigns even in the most cultivated society of America (see Howell’s novels). Mrs. Crow stated that she had been confirmed in her faith in the coeducation of the sexes when visiting European universities, as she had been especially impressed with the fact that young men are greatly in need of the comradeship of women. Another woman advocate of coeducation in universities called attention to the fact that the mere admission of female students to an ordinary university could not be considered the final solution of the question. Such a solution could only be found in the proper arrangement of the course of study and in taking into consideration the influence consequent upon companionship and cooperation. A notable woman who attracted special attention was Elizabeth Hughes, from England, directress of a teachers’ seminary at Cambridge University. Her most excellent thesis touched principally upon the education of teachers, both for higher and lower schools. She held the decided opinion that the acquirement of general knowledge should be separated from the technical or professional education of teachers, which should cover at least a whole year. Let the young men and women first endeavor to become' well educated, and then let them devote all their mental power and energy to the study of their special profession as a teacher. Miss Hughes herself received a university education, and she, with Mrs. Crow, anxiously desires an international organization for the higher education of women. In 1882 the society of “The Collegiate Alumnae” was founded in the New World, with the twofold aim of encouraging a high standard among women students and of making their knowledge and education productive in practical life. This society has so high a reputation that universities and colleges consider it both an honor and an advantage if their students are admitted as members. Its exhibition in Jack- son Park indicated that it had taken hold of such practical problems as the so-called “College settlements,” a kind of “people’s palaces,” which are exclusively con¬ ducted by college girls, and it has also taken up work of a more theoretical charac¬ ter, as, for example, the study of child nature. The idea of extending this society by means of European branch institutions seemed to meet with the approbation of the majority of women who had received a university education, and was especially favored by the English women. The protection of higher education against a too rapid extension is a problem of urgent importance in America. For this reason, members of the most prominent universities were appointed at the congress, and it i3 hoped that they may find means for preventing unworthy persons from obtaining the doctor’s degree. Of more positive interest were the congresses at which the university professors from Worcester and California submitted the results of their psychological exx>eri- ments. They, like the women who received a university education, study the child’s early manifestations of soul life with special interest. The leader of this school of young, enthusiastic men and women is Dr. G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark Uni¬ versity, Worcester, Mass. This university is the center of a recent pedagogical movement. The normal school students of the city stand in close relation to the university, whose x^rofessors take pleasure in lecturing to the future x>ublic-school teachers, while these willingly collect various facts from daily school life and submit them to the disposal of the learned exxierimentists. In an interesting lecture at the congress President Hall expounded, his thoughts on the relations between x>edagogy and psychology. “ The hour has come,” he said, “ when the Americans are no longer in need of the leading strings of the Germans. So much young and fresh talent ought to be able to create something original.” When wo consider the result of the congress, we may say that experiments are always carried on on a broader basis in America than wit’ll us. In regard to child psychology we have (with a few exceptions) during late years been directed to whatever can be learned from Preyer’s observations of a child. When the Ameri- EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 643 cans take hold of a question, suck as tke color vision in children, examinations are simultaneously carried on in Boston with perhaps 500 children, in Worcester with double that number, and in California with from 5,000 to 6,000 children. Mrs. Dana Hicks, from Boston, gave some very interesting statistics on this subject. As a prominent representative of Prang’s methodical instruction in drawing, she put great stress upon the importance of cultivating the child’s sense of color. Several curious facts were mentioned. Among others, that difference of race makes itself conspicuous in the little child’s partiality for certain colors. White children prefer — or recognize — first, yellow and red ; negro and Chinese children, usually blue or green. A young professor, Mr. Barnes, from the new university in San Francisco, showed a number of quite simple drawings made by children of all ages in illustration of a piece of poetry read to them. Just as surprising and amusing as were these draw¬ ings — reproduced upon the wall and enlarged side by side with the originals — just so ingenious and sympathetic were his interpretations of what the little ones intended to express. In the Pedagogical Seminary and the American Journal of Psychology one can follow the proceedings and experiments carried on by that group of men and women who gather around Dr. G. Stanley Hall. Taking place at the same time as the congress of “ Experimental psychology” was that of “ Rational psychology.” A strange contrast it*made; a meeting of men of venerable years. Their speech seemed in accordance with their age ; in so far as I could understand, a mixture of Emerson’s transcendentalism, of German philosophy, and American theology. However, at a later meeting, I met on that side a youthful professor, a man with a powerful head, and who was evidently highly gifted, Mr. Royce, from Harvard. He tried, apparently, to enter into a compromise with the representatives of the Roman Catholic Church. Another group of younger men represented the “ Herbartian school.” Professor de Garmo, the author of popular educational text-books, seems to be the leader of this movement, which is by no means inferior to the above mentioned in regard to the enthusiasm and ardor with which they endeavor to introduce their theories into practical school life. Some dissension arose in respect to the practicability of Herbart’s psychology as a founda¬ tion of education, while harmony reigned in regard to the adoption of his practical educational ideas concerning correlation of the various branches taught at school. As original writers and eloquent advocates of the latter, several teachers from Francis W. Parker’s Normal School, near Chicago, made themselves heard. Mr. Parker himself discussed the subject “What shall be taught in the public school?” He is known as one of the most prominent “faddists.” A “fad” is some¬ thing temporarily fashionable — a kind of epidemic — and the taxpaying citizen places under that head all modern subjects that cost money, such as slojd — sewing in¬ cluded — drawing, physics, and foreign languages. The press and a powerful party in the municipal council designate the introduction of such professional training as contrary to true American theories. The German population alone, it is said, want the introduction of a foreign language in the schools, and a storm of opposition is heard in regard to expenditures for teaching sewing and manual training whenever a woman is proposed as candidate for a position in the municipal council. It is assumed that there will not be time enough given to the poor children for acquiring a knowledge of the three useful R’s (reading, Titing and ’rithmetic). Probably all this commotion is raised in the interest of the taxpayers and their votes on election day. On the other side stand, for instance, the adherents of Prang’s method of drawing, at present in use in Chicago. They proceed with so little consideration and make such high demands for certain sets of apparatus that forcible remonstrance is easily understood. Great impression was made by the lecture of Rabbi Emil Hirsch on the subject of manual training. He told the Americans the truth on this subject. Their unbounded admiration for “smartness” and exclusive culture of the intellect causes a neglect 644 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. of both physical training and manual labor. The American press asserts quite undisguisedly as something perfectly natural and correct that the Americans leave the foreigners to do the manual labor, while they themselves work with the brain. Meanwhile, in the pedagogical world, the current takes a very different trend. This was plainly proved by the fact that the discussion on the kindergarten and its principles played so large a role at the teachers’ congress. The many manual train¬ ing exhibits, sent in by public schools, seemed to give significance to the words of those people who maintain that the press exerts little influence in America, while, on the contrary, the so-called “faddists” indicate greater wisdom by going on in their own way, with or without the assistance of the press. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF THE WORLD’S FAIR.1 By M. Eugraphe Kovalevsky, Delegate of the Department of Public Instruction in Russia. The first three universal exhibitions, those of London (1851 and 1862) and of Paris (1855), did not contain an educational department. This feature appeared for the first time at the second Paris Exposition, in 1867, and met with considerable success. At the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, in 1876, the department of public instruction received due consideration, and visiting foreign instructors were enabled to become acquainted with the American public school system. Only a limited number of States, however, took part in it — twelve in all — and their exhibits were far from complete. The present Exhibition naturally could not dispense with the educational depart¬ ment. Americans are proud of their public school system, and resolved not to spare any pains to represent it at the Exhibition in the most complete manner. Besides all the States, the different religious denominations, educational societies, publishing firms, and even private persons, were invited to send their exhibits. The result was an enormous number of exhibits, for the accommodation of which a space was assigned many times larger than that of the last exhibition. The American exhibit occupied 175,000 square feet and the foreign exhibit 50,000 square feet. The number of exhibits in this department, judging from catalogues and lists furnished, must have been at least 25,000 or 30,000, and as some of these exhibits contained 100 or more different objects, the whole was a proof of the un¬ precedented development of the art of instruction in America, as well as in other countries. Considerable embarrassment was caused to those interested in educational matters by the fact that these exhibits were placed not only in the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, but also in many other buildings. * * * The chief interest cen¬ tered, however, in the exhibits placed in the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building. The exhibits in the different State buildings were outside of competition. In the American department the chief importance was given to elementary instruc¬ tion. By this is understood in the United States the instruction given in the schools for young children, kindergarten, infant schools, primary schools, grammar schools, and high schools.2 Here belong also evening schools, special training schools, and normal schools of different grades, whose business it is to prepare teachers for the different kinds of schools. * * * Having made an arrangement with L. de Dimcha, delegate of the department of instruction from Russia, under which I took charge of elementary instruction, while Abridged from complete report in the journal of the minister of public instruction, St. Petersburg, 1893-1894. 2M. Kovalevsky is in error here. High schools in this country are always classed as “second¬ ary.”— Ed. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 645 he took up secondary and higher education, I shall, in my report, speak principally of the elementary side, and refer to the other only incidentally. * * * He states that “ the arbitrary mode of naming institutions of learning in the United States must have presented a considerable obstacle to correct classification. In absence of a normal classification fixed by law, States, municipalities, and private persons give their institutions names which do not correspond to the reality. In many institutions named universities the pupils receive only secondary instruction, while some colleges, which contain several faculties, in reality correspond to uni¬ versities in the European sense of the word. “ On the other hand, there are colleges, Girard College, in Philadelphia, for instance, which consist really of a preparatory school with some professional instruction. 1 Academies ’ sometimes appear in their course of instruction below the public high schools, and these last again are not at all alike. An entirely inappropriate term is 1 State normal university/ “It is evident that this variety of names causes a great difficulty in the correct classification of the institutions; but whatever was done in that direction will prove of assistance for future exhibitions.” The diagrams and statistical tables, seen in connection with the State exhibits, “proved very useful, as they enabled the visitor to decide whether the exhibit deserved a closer examination.” * * * The phonographs presented very original innovations. At a certain time they were wound up, and delivered opening addresses and discourses on public instruc¬ tion and sometimes — what was still more interesting — the explanations of teachers on different subjects, their questions, and the answers of the pupils; or again, a les¬ son in music and recitation. The State of Colorado exhibited besides a very inter¬ esting innovation, a stenographic report of class recitations. Photography, of course, played a very important part. Besides the usual collec¬ tions representing buildings and pupils, there were some instantaneous photographs representing pupils at work in the class room. The most complete exhibit in that line was from the State of Indiana. These iffiotographs were very interesting ; some of them represented the pupils during gymnastic exercises. The Boston Normal School had a series of them showing the positions of girls during the exercises. The faces in these were veiled in order not to show the features. Drawings vied in number and variety with photography. There were thousands of these drawings beginning with the simplest by children of 6 or 7 years, and finishing with paint¬ ings in oil and water colors. In the first rank must be mentioned here the Industrial Art School of Philadel¬ phia; a very high-sounding name for an institution where the pupils of intermediate schools come twice a week to receive instruction in drawing, modeling, and wood carving. This school has worked out a new method in drawing which attracted considerable attention at the Exhibition. According to the idea of Mr. J. L. Tadd, the director of this school, the drawing is done by the pupils on the blackboard, free-hand, using both hands alternately. Of the Russian representatives, Prince Wolkonski and Mme. T. B. Semetchkine pronounced in favor of the system. Mr. T. H. Gerb expressed himself as skeptical. In my opinion the system is deserving of investigation, both from a hygienic and educational point of view. The manual training exhibit occupied a very considerable space. The collections in this were of three kinds: the Swedish (slojd),the French (the system of Salicis), and the American, which is still in a state of development. Side by side with the manual training exhibit were placed an infinite number of articles prepared according to the Froebel system in the kindergarten schools. Col¬ lections of models in clay made in these latter schools and also in the lower grades of primary schools filled the show cases of the State exhibits. 646 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Some of tlie States did not content themselves with the above-mentioned exhibi¬ tions, and had arranged some exhibitions of the school children at work. In the Illinois State exhibit were two of these, a Froebel school and a school for the blind. In a separate building put up by the Indian Bureau was an exhibition of the Indian school system. The pupils were living in the building, and were also pre¬ paring their own food there. Among the State exhibits those of the older States excelled. The first place among these must be accorded to Massachusetts, the city of Boston at the head, the so-called Athens of America. * * * Exceedingly interesting in this department were the photographs of free public libraries, which exist in such numbers and are so situated throughout the State [Massachusetts] that the whole population, almost without exception, has access to them. * * * A magnificent and extensive exhibit was presented by the State and city of New York. * * * Not less extensive and complete was tlio exhibition of the State of Illinois, in which is the city of Chicago. Besides the exhibition of children at their work and the model schoolroom, this department showed very rich and complete collections. The manual training work was very fine. The first place was occupied by the city of Chicago, whoso exhibits were excellent. Both of the State normal schools sent interesting exhibits. Of the exhibitions of the Northwestern States the best was from Minnesota. A number of cities and towns took part in it, but the chief place belonged to St. Paul and Minneapolis, twin cities. The general course of elementary instruction was very complete there. In the exhibit of the State of Indiana the principal place also belonged to two cities, Indianapolis and Laporte. The first of these sent a beautiful collection of photographs. In the schools of this city the method of teaching is based as far as possible on the immediate observation of nature. Exceedingly interesting were two large wall diagrams showing the distribution of young people’s reading circles and of reading circles of teachers. In the State of Indiana nearly every school has a library attached, to which the pupils have access. * * * The teachers also have their special clubs and circles, the aim of which is prin¬ cipally to discuss the latest works on education and compare views on the same. * * * From Pennsylvania, as one of the richest and most advanced States of the Union, more could have been expected. However, the superintendent had sent a very com¬ plete report of the school work and statistics of public instruction. The visitor was impressed by the great number of schools in the State, 23,000. The department of the State of Colorado was interesting by its exhibition of phonographs already mentioned, and the stenographic reports of school work of the city of Denver. The English language is particularly well taught in the schools of that State. The rest of the exhibits were simpler in character, but full of interest. Besides tno exhibits of kindergarten connected with the different State exhibits, this system of instruction had several sections exclusively devoted to it. The kin¬ dergarten, as a preparatory step to the primary school, has met with success in America. It attracts the attention of teachers, although two-thirds of the kinder¬ gartens are private institutions. They have not yet become a part of the system of public instruction, as is the case in France with the so-called “ maternal schools,” and so far exist only in cities. At the present time 137 cities and several States have acknowledged their usefulness and furnish means for their support. Besides several local societies, there was established in 1892 in the city of Saratoga the Interna¬ tional Kindergarten Union, the aim of which is the unification of efforts in that direction. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 647 The different show cases in this department belonged to the Kindergarten College of the city of Chicago. The work of the pupils was systematically and beautifully displayed in the show cases. In the first division of the school, children of 2£ to 5£ years attend; in the preparatory department, children from to 6 years; and in the elementary department, children from 6 to 7 years ; in the industrial classes, children are taught from 6 to 14 years of age. The house of Pestalozzi-Froebel presented the kindergarten system in its most complete and purest form. Close to the house was a large garden with all the necessary complementary arrangements. For the training of instructors in these schools there is a kindergarten college in the city of Chicago. The course in- it embraces three years — the studies are theoretical and practical. For technical education we shall point to a group of institutions called normal training schools. Two schools of the city of Chicago took part in the exhibition — one for beginners, the other a professional school; also technical schools of the fol¬ lowing cities : St. Louis, Toledo, Baltimore, Cincinnati, and New York. Near by was the exhibition of the Jewish school of Baron Hirsch, also from New York. For an exposition like the Columbian this is a very meager presentation of techni¬ cal education, particularly for a country where technical knowledge stands so high. However, Americans do not deceive themselves on the subject and confess that tech¬ nical education is not as general with them as it ought to be. Tverskoi, the author of Letters from America, speaks of a justice of the peace who, having sentenced a young offender to the reformatory, congratulated him on the happy prospect for him of acquiring a trade, which, owing to the lack of insti¬ tutions of that kind, did not fall to the lot of many. From the present short review of the exhibition we shall have to exclude the institutions for the blind, for the deaf and dumb, and for the feeble minded; also the schools for the colored race, and the school of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, whose work is deserving of particular attention. The department of school appliances, text-books, and school material was located in the northern part of the building. The exhibit of books for school use was very large. * * * Besides the International Educational Series, Appleton has published many volumes of compilations on similar subjects. Other firms pay principal atten¬ tion to text-books, which, being in great demand, prove very profitable. There is a great variety in the quality of text-books. Some of the poor, out-of-the-way schools, consisting of one class, use only small editions printed on cheap paper, while the rich city schools of such centers as New York or Boston and St. Louis use very hand¬ some editions. This variety, however, has its inconveniences, and lately there has been a tendency to centralization in that line. We made a collection of text-books used in the primary schools which can give an idea of the character and distinctive features of the books used for instruction in American schools. It has been forwarded to the educational library of the depart¬ ment of public instruction in Russia. In the exhibit of the United States Bureau of Education a model library of 5,000 volumes was arranged. Reports and statistical tables were displayed ; also photo¬ graphs of school buildings. A separate show case was devoted to the schools of Alaska. The model library was selected by a special commission of experts from the Ameri¬ can Library Association. It consisted of 5,000 of the most suitable books, in the opinion of the experts, for a city public library. The publishers’ prices of the books, without reduction, amounted to $12,000. All these books were entered in a special catalogue of 300 pages. Those interested in the formation of a library were especially attracted to this exhibit, as all the most modern inventions for the cataloguing, finding, and preser¬ vation of books and pamphlets were made use of. At the close of the Exposition this library will be sent to Washington to be placed In the Bureau of Education. 648 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. Professor Rice, who was commissioned by The Forum to make a study of the school work of the country, characterized the first impression of his visit by the very expressive word “chaos.” Doubtless there is a great difference in the mode of instruction, programmes, and results achieved by the different primary schools. At the same time they also have a great deal in common ; essentially the same Ameri¬ can spirit animates them all. There is also a constant tendency toward a unification of the methods of instruction. Of the three fundamental principles on which the work of public instruction is agitated in western Europe, namely, compulsory attendance, free instruction, and neutrality in regard to religion, the two last are acknowledged in all the States of the Union. * * * Gradually, but not without a severe struggle, the people came to the conviction that elementary education must be accessible to all, to the poor as well as the rich. A decidedly new departure in this direction was taken in 1837 under the leadership of Horace Mann, the well-known worker in the educa¬ tional field. The free school system is at present firmly established in the States of the Union. * * * The second in importance is the nonsectarian character of the schools, which is acknowledged by all the States. A great many different denomi¬ nations and sects exist in the Union, and in the absence of a state religion, and in the presence of a complete separation of church and state, it is natural that the schools should exclude from their programme dogmatic theology. The children of the different denominations receive religious instruction from their spiritual instruct¬ ors in the so-called Sunday schools. In the public schools the duties of the teacher are to set their pupils a good example in morality and good conduct. In some States the custom of reading the Bible in the schools is still kept up, but without any special comment being made. The third principle, compulsory attendance, is so far in force only in 27 States ; the others are on the way to its introduction. Since 1886 this tendency has been increasing. Free admission of all children to the schools exists in principle in the Northern, Eastern, and Western States. All the children of a certain district or town have a right to attend the same school, without distinction of sex, condition, or race. In the 16 Southern States separate schools are established for the negroes. In practice the children of colored races attend separate schools in the other States also. This is principally the case in the primary grades ; in the higher grades this distinction is not made. A very characteristic trait of American schools is the coeducation of the sexes and the similarity of the education of girls to that of boys in all branches. Coeduca¬ tion is in practice now in the whole country, with the exception of a few large cities. The girls study with the boys, not only in the elementary schools, but also in the secondary schools and in the universities. The results, according to the unanimous testimony of American instructors, are very satisfactory. The young people are gen¬ tle in their behavior in class ; the girls work more diligently in trying to emulate their companions. There are no shortened programmes or simplified text-books for girls; they are working with the boys on an equal footing and frequently surpass them in the progress made. * * * In the sphere of State legislation a tendency toward unification and centralization is noticeable. At the head of the school work of each State stands (1) the State board of education, (2) county boards of education, (3) city boards of education, (4) district school boards. With the committees of the first three orders are superin¬ tendents, whose duty it is to inspect the schools and the school work. * * * In view of the great importance given to school hygiene in recent years, it is the duty of inspectors to see that all the rules are complied with in regard to vaccina¬ tion, the prevention of the spread of contagious diseases, heating and ventilation of the buildings, etc. The number of supervising officers in this branch in the United States is 2,694. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 649 In tlie public press and in the reports of the Commissioner of Education it is con¬ stantly pointed out that this work has not yet attained its proper proportion. The opposition to it comes from the local school committees, but the tendency is to increase it. The school committees of large cities rival frequently in influence the State committees. They are generally quite independent and merely send their sta¬ tistical reports to the State superintendent. In the schools of the far West, situated on the prairies or in mountainous districts, the teachers manifest great independence in their school work, in teaching as well as in the government of the schools. But it is different in the older States. There the school boards define very carefully how and what shall be taught during the year. The regulations to this effect form whole volumes — a schoolroom guide, where teachers can find full instructions for action in every possible contingency. These regulations for the duties of teachers are not made from a desire to narrow down their liberty of action, which would be contrary to the American spirit, but in view of a practical necessity. Owing to the conditions of American life, teachers do not remain long in their places. Buisson, in his valuable work on American schools, mentions the State of Kansas, where one-third of the teachers are changed annually; in the New England States it is one-fifth. The certificates presented by the candidates for teaching testify to their knowledge of subjects taught, not to their ability to conduct a class; consequently in some of these regulations furnished to young teachers innovations are expressly forbidden, as they would lead only to a loss of valuable time. The committee makes a written contract with the teacher in which all the duties of the latter are enumerated. At the end of the year the teachers have to present to the superintendent a full report on the condition of the schools intrusted to them. For the preparation of teachers there are special institutions — normal schools — in which the course lasts from two to four years. For negro teachers there exist special normal schools and educational institutions to the number of 40. One-third of them are supported by religious and educational societies. Graduates of normal schools do not form a large percentage of teachers. Per cent. For Maine . 28 For New Hampshire . 17 For Connecticut . 42 And only in the small State of Rhode Island it amounts to 70 per cent. The female teachers outnumber the males. In the Froebel schools they reign supreme, and predominate also in the one-class schools, in the elementary and intermediate schools. * * * Evidently the passing of elementary instruction into the hands of women exclusively is only a question of time in the United States. * * * In the programme of study for the different elementary schools there is great variety. American elementary schools are divided into two large groups, the graded and ungraded schools. The ungraded schools consist of one class with one teacher. Their principal aim is to teach those attending them u the three R’s ” : Reading, writ¬ ing, arithmetic. As soon as there is an opportunity these schools are converted into graded schools. The graded schools, as already stated, are of three kinds, primary, intermediate or grammar, and high schools. The course in these extends from five to six or eight years. * * * The English language is unconditionally compulsory in the public schools of the United States, even where the majority of the population speak a different language. The American schools have a very difficult task to perform. They have to train children to become citizens capable of taking part in public affairs from such diverse material as the native Yankees, the negroes, the Indians, and the foreign immi¬ grants, consisting of Germans, Irish, French, Italians, Swedes, Norwegians, Poles, Russians, and Danes. All these persons could not take part in the affairs of the country unless they were familiar with its language, for which reason the schools 650 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1892-93. pay particular attention to this instruction. The number of schools and pupils is very great, and during the last decade great progress has been noticed in this direc¬ tion. * * * Private denominational elementary schools are of little importance. Of the whole number of pupils only 9 per cent attend them. The remaining 91 per cent attend the public schools. * * * The high average cost of school buildings in the United States is due to the fact that they are put up now in the most modern style. They are remarkable for the comfort and fitness in their arrangement of class rooms as well as for handsome architecture. Many of the schools contain large halls for gymnastic and other exer¬ cises and meetings, workshops for manual training, libraries, and physical and chemical laboratories. In contrast to these city schools, the country schools have frequently very poor accommodations. In the mountain districts and on the prairies the common log schoolhouse is still met with. The majority of these schools have frame buildings. These last are a special American invention. Externally they resemble pretty cot¬ tages; they do not cost much, and are furnished complete from the manufactory. But they have their disadvantages ; in the winter they are cold, in the summer very warm, and when the wind blows high they are turned over like card houses.1 The reports that cyclones have carried off whole villages are not fables. I myself had a chance of seeing a little village destroyed by the wind. The inhabitants had encamped around the spot and seemed not to grieve much about what had happened. Some of the houses, among them the schoolhouse, which had been lying on its side, were propped up, and the people were rebuilding the other houses. The division of gymnastic apparatus was especially examined by T. Tv. Guerd, who purchased at the Exposition some portions of the apparatus which seemed to him particularly new and interesting. Such gymnastic apparatus as was purchased was forwarded to the educational museum connected with the military institutions in St. Petersburg, where it can be seen by those interested in the subject. Besides the section of gymnastic apparatus, a very extensive collective exhibition of the so-called Korth American Turn-Tcrein was deserving of attention. These gymnastic associations, judging from the pamphlets at the Exposition, have for their aim the physical development of children, youths, and grown persons; besides, they are trying to improve the mental development of their members by instituting reading circles and clubs where debates are carried on and pamphlets and books published. The leaders in this movement assert that gymnastic exercises, practiced in circles and in schools, tend to form a nation of good soldiers in case of need, and in the meantime develop in the young courage, independence, presence of mind, and cheerfulness. * * * The collective exhibit of commercial schools attracted the attention of specialists and merchants. Commercial education in America presents peculiar characteris¬ tics suited to the local needs and circumstances of the great transatlantic Repub¬ lic. * * * These colleges, or schools, very well supply the demand for trained bookkeepers, stenographers, and typewriters, and are a great convenience to candi¬ dates for these positions. At the Universal Exposition in Paris in 1889 the Catholic clergy declined to take part, the relations of the clerical power and the Republic were strained, and in the French educational department the public school reigned supreme. It was con¬ cluded to make up for this omission at the Columbian Exposition. According to the idea of Cardinal Gibbons, of Baltimore, there were to be col¬ lected for the Exposition exhibits of Catholic schools of the whole world, and the arrangement was to be as interesting and extensive as possible, in order to present to the public the results of the labors of the Catholic clergy in the field of popular 1 In reasoning from the particular case narrated in the closing portion of the paragraph to the general, the author has allowed too free play to the imagination. — Ed. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 651 instruction, and thus to advocate tlie idea of parisli schools. To the appeal of the Cardinal the majority of Catholic schools of America and some institutions of France, Spain, and England responded. Tho exhibits from these countries formed together a collective exhibition which occupied the enormous space of 29,000 square feet. There were taking part in it 12 brotherhoods of Benedictines, Capuchins, Jesuits, and the order of Christian Brothers; 37 sisterhoods, of which we noticed the Sisters of Notre Dame, the Sisters of Mercy, the Sisters of the Poor in Christ, etc. * * * Of tho European institutions there were represented at the exhibition 68 from France, 5 from Spain, and 2 from England. There was plenty of material for inspection, even an excess of it. Most promi¬ nent were female handiwork and drawings. The Christian Brothers exhibited in their American schools the work of pupils in the English language of very good quality, also in composition. In the diocese of Kentucky some water colors were prominent; in woodwork a carved altar of very fine execution, the work of the pupils of St. Joseph’s Orphan Asylum, in Columbus, Ohio. In looking over the programme of study in the parish schools of the diocese of Philadelphia I noticed that in the grammar grade schools the geographies only men¬ tioned, in regard to Russia, that the River Volga flowed there and that there were three cities, St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Odessa. The schools for deaf-mutes of St. Etienne, Besancon, Bourg, and Bienne exhibited appliances for the instruction of their pupils, with illustrations of the position of the lips in pronouncing the letters. In the commercial department of the schools of Havre a small museum was established, where all imported products were exhibited as an assistance in the study of commercial geograjiky and natural science. In some of the French schools the study of stenography was introduced as an inno¬ vation, which is of great practical importance at present. In examining the albums and collections in this department I was more than once surprised to find that the character of the subjects was throughout connected with the church. The drawings were copies of images and church frescos ; architectural work was devoted to church edifices; even cabinetmaking and the ironwork had a church character. Such specialization can hardly prove desirable, in view of the small industrial importance of such work. Taken in general, this department showed that the Catholic clergy was working very energetically in the field of public instruction. ; The department of the different Protestant churches and religious associations pre¬ sented a mass of facts in regard to their activity in public instruction. The first place must be assigned here to the section of tho Congregationalists. * * * . The Methodists have founded 10 religious seminaries, theological faculties at some universities, 45 male and female colleges, and 61 classical seminaries; tho Baptists, 34 colleges, 7 theological institutions, and 50 academies, principally in the South¬ ern States; the United Brethren in Christ, 2 universities, 9 colleges, 6 academies, and 1 male seminary; the Disciples of Christ, 5,756 Sunday schools. In this department was also the exhibit of a very attractive association, called the Young Men’s Chris¬ tian Association. Branches of tbis association exist in many countries of Europe,1 Asia, and Africa, and in the islands of the Pacific. In Russia (probably in Finland and the Baltic provinces) there arc 9 of them. The association exercises an extensive and beneficial influence, and its activity has the sympathy of the people. The Jews had two exhibits, the professional institutions of Baron Hirsch and the collective exhibition of the Alliance Israelite Universelle. The schools of this asso-f ciation did not present a denominational character. Their aims are purely educa¬ tional, and they try to avoid the narrow spirit of exclusiveness. It has nearly 40,000 members. It has taken up the difficult task of assisting the moral and intellectual development of the Jews, of encouraging the acquirement of professions and trades, of struggling against their ignorance and faults, frequently the result of ill-founded prejudices, and of assisting as much as possible in their emancipation in those coun- 652- education REPORT, 1892-93. tries where they do not enjoy full civil and religious liberty. This association, work¬ ing outside of political and religious questions, directs its activity, according to a circular published, principally to the work of education, and has established schools founded on the modern demands of education, in place of the old Talmud Toro’s school, which is of a sectarian character. These schools have been established in Turkey, Bulgaria, and on the shores of the Mediterranean in Asia Minor and Africa. The show cases at the Exposition were filled with a quantity of articles ; the exhibits of agricultural institutions excited special interest, as they proved that with proper education the young Jews were capable of taking an interest in agriculture, for which in Eussia they generally show an aversion. In the same proportion as the exhibit of the United States was extensive, many- sided, and interesting, the exhibit of foreign countries was modest and incomplete, with the exception of, perhaps, Germany, Eussia, and France. This is quite nat¬ ural. Those who come to an exhibition generally come with the intention of study¬ ing the local educational system, caring comparatively little for the education of foreign countries, which is already known to them. The school, and particularly the primary school, is so intimately connected with the conditions and customs of the country to which it belongs that it is necessary for the proper understanding of it to know something of the country itself, of its inhabitants, and to be able to visit personally some of its institutions. Since exhibitions have become so frequent, pupils and teachers would be losing valuable time in preparing 'for them. In-the case of one’s own exposition this is different, for it appears to those in charge' of public instruction similar to a general examination with the whole nation for its audience. Of the European countries, Eussia, France, Germany, and England had arranged fairly good exhibitions. The first place must doubtless be awarded to Germany for the fullness, variety, and interest of its exhibit. The external fagade of the build¬ ing was very handsome. There were over 500 exhibits sent, representing primary schools, intermediate schools, universities, special institutions of all kinds, and the German department of public instruction. A very large collection of text-books, books, atlases, globes, wall maps, and other school appliances, work of pupils, and photographs completed the exhibit. The second place belonged to the Eussian school exhibit, which occupied five rooms. In the first room was the exhibit of the educational museum — a complete col¬ lection of school appliances, text-books, different editions, etc., all very tastefully and cleverly arranged by the distinguished educator, T. Tv. Guerd. Next came the room with the exhibit of the department of communication (roads), 'and the room containing private exhibits, conspicuous among which was a beautiful show case from the cartographical establishment of Illiine; a copy of the book of Mme. ALtchevski, What the People Should Eead; the section of the association for the extension of the Holy Scriptures, the calculating machine of Oder, the universal school bench of Professor Brandt, of the University of Charkoff, and the exhibits of the Technical Institute of St. Petersburg, etc. To the left of the second corridor were arranged two alcoves; one was occupied by the exhibit of the Central School of Technical Drawing of Baron Stieglitz, the other by that of the School of Draw¬ ing of the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Art. Opposite to these was a large room devoted to the institutions of the Empress Marie. This department was in the care of Mme. Semetchkme, who is well known in America and who was at the Exposition in Philadelphia. The handiwork of women attracted general attention. The Demidoff Asylum for Working People in St. Petersburg had on exhibition a present intended for the President of the United States, a handsome scarf of red satin embroidered after an antique Eussian design of the thirteenth century. For the wife of the President was a large sachet, on which was represented the arrival of the steamer Leo with Ameiican cereals in the unfortunate year of our famine. The majority of the exhibits of the department of EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 653 tlie Empress Marie were presented to the Americans as an acknowledgment of their fraternal assistance. Next came the room of the department of public instruction,1 the exhibit of which was very complete. The exhibit of the school district of the Caucasus was very complete and interesting. Here also were the publications of the imperial commission for the introduction of reading among tho people. France occupied three rooms filled with cases in which were displayed text-books, other school books, and the work of pupils. Of these last must be noticed the so-called “caliiers de rouleinent,” in which each pupil in turn writes his school task. A book is received in which all the pupils of the- class have taken part, and which gives the inspector a clear idea of the condition of the class and serves as a great stimulus to the pupils for carrying on their tasks in an earnest manner. Next to the room of the department of public instruction was the exhibition of the well-known Paris school “ficole des Arts et Metiers.” In the English division of the exhibition in the Manufactures Building was the exhibit of the city of London, of the science and art department whicn had sent the w<5rk of pupils, and of the University of Oxford, demonstrating the system of university extension. This system is known in Russia through the works of the Moscow professor, T. T. Yanjul. In the Woman’s Building, Great Britain presented many interesting things in regard to female education, principally the higher education; in primary education there was very little to be seen in this building. Very interesting and convincing was an exhibition of card photographs of the babies of some ladies who had received a degree in the English universities. The object of these cards was to show that study did not unfit women to be mothers. The proof was very striking, for the babies looked so well, so fat, and so full of life that it was a pleasure to see them, and the mothers by their side in their professors’ caps had reason to be proud of them. The attention of foreign educators and representatives of learning centered, after the United States, principally on the other American countries and colonies. The exhibitions of the two countries adjacent to the United States, Canada and Mexico, although placed side by side, were very dissimilar. Tho race characteristics of each were immediately apparent. The exhibits of Canada occupied several rooms. There were sections of public instruction in the different provinces, which are perfectly independent of each other in this respect ; there were those of Catholic and Protest¬ ant schools, and those of private firms and individuals. Among the provincial exhibitions the most interesting was that of the Province of Ontario. The department of public instruction of this Province had published for the exhibition a very excellent book, The Educational System of the Province of Ontario. In Mexico public instruction has advanced considerably of late years, but the percentage of students is still only 4.7. In theory, education is considered free and compulsory, but in practice, particularly in the less populous States where the Indians predominate, compulsory attendance can not be enforced yet. Coeducation is found only in exceptional cases. The civilized Indians are taught with the whites. For those not yet civilized special schools are established, where the teachers are young Indians, taken from the same tribe and trained in institutions for teachers. There are in Mexico 2,878 Government schools for boys, and 1,079 for girls; mixed schools, 327; municipal schools for boys, 3,176, and 1,056 for girls; mixed, 503. Total, 9,039. There are schools for the training of male teachers, and one in the City of Mexico for the training of female teachers. Besides these, there are in the country 2 agricul¬ tural colleges, 1 commercial college, and 3 technical schools for pupils of both sexes. Side by side with the public schools there flourish also a considerable number of private schools, principally under the direction of the Catholic clergy. Among the countries of South America let us consider in passing the little Repub¬ lic of Uruguay, which has given a good example of energy and perseverance in the 654 EDUCATION EEPOBT, 1892-93. work of public instruction. Until 1877, when tbe law for general education was first passed there, the schools were in a very low state. There were only 412 schools in the whole country, and these furnished a limited amount of instruction. In 1891, the date of latest statistics, the number of schools had more thau doubled, and the number of pupils was more than three times as great. Education was made free and compulsory; for the training of teachers of both sexes there were two semi¬ naries; the teachers were twice assembled in educational congress; for the study of the latest subjects of investigation specialists were sent to Europe; an educational museum was established at the capital. The instruction in the schools is according to the latest demands in education. The school buildings are improved and well sup¬ plied; many have libraries attached to them. The number of pupils to each teacher is 86, which is not excessive. The country has one kindergarten and an industrial school. By the side of the public schools there are also private institutions. In each department (the Government subdivisions of the country) is organized a committee of public instruction, the members of which serve without pay and each division has an inspector. The Government spends annually one-ninth of its income for public instruction; the price of the education of each pupil amounts to $13.27. As a result of these efforts there is a great improvement in primary instruction. In the words of the report, “;E1 caracter de la ensenanza e3 educativo, racional, apro- piado, rigorosamente gradual, y por lo tanto, progresivo, integro, armonio, vivo, agradable y, sobre toda, pr^ctico' a fin de que dicha ensenanza repose sobre bases solides ! ” To a Northerner this excessive enthusiasm and delight may appear naive, but when the object of it is the education of the people we must respect it. Every country could be and ought to be proud of a similar success. The people of Uruguay must have remembered the words of the late President Garfield, that “Good schools are less expensive than revolutions/7 It would take too long to examine the other American countries, particularly since only a few of them (Brazil, Jamaica) had school exhibits; for this reason we shall content ourselves with the following statistical table : Countries. Population. Pupils. Per cent. Argentine Republic ............................................ 4. 036, 492 1, 192, 162 14, 002. 335 4, 829t411 2, 766, 747 3, 878, 600 238, 782 276, 983 27, 764 6.8 Bolivia _ _ .......... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .... _ _ _ _ _ 2. 3 Brazil _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 305, 193 998. 823 2.2 20.8 4.4 Canada _ _ ... _ ................... _ ..... _ ......... _ _ Chile . 122, 664 93, 187 Crdmnhip, . . _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ 2. 4 Costa Rica . . . ...... _ _ _ _ _ 17, 5C0 7.3 Cnha, . . . . . _ 1. 521, G84 50, 000 3.3 Ecuador . . . . . . 1, 271, 861 58, 308 57, 380 4. 6 Guatemala ... _ ..... _ .... _ _ _ _ _ .......... 1, 452, C03 4.0 Guiana (British.) ................... _ ... _ ...... . . 284, 887 25, 796 27, 884 1, 678 10, 000 9.8 C-iiiana. (French) _ _ _ _ 6.4 Haiti . . . . . . . . . 960, 000 1.0 Honduras . . . . . ... _ ... _ ....... _ ......... 431, 917 23, 000 2, 450 75, 680 5.3 Honduras (British) _ _ _ ... _ _ _ ....... _ ......... _ 31, 471 639, 491 8.0 11.8 M artiniquo . . . - . - . . . 324, 462 11, 632. 924 400, 000 329, 645 2, 700, 945 18. 073 543, 977 5.5 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Nicaragua . . . . . . 11, 914 25, 594 71, 435 3.0 Paraguay _ ....... . . . . . 8.0 2.0 Prtrtn Tlien . _ 806, 708 Salvador . . _ _ _ _ _ 777, 895 28, 473 10, 000 5, 684 3.7 San Tlnmiurro _ _ ...... _ 610, 000 1.6 Surinam. . . . . . . 55, 968 208, 030 10.0 Trinidad . 19, 685 14, 377, 536 3, 694, 067 1, 903, 468 5, 647. 308 2, 558, 378 9.4 United States . . . - . - _ _ _ _ 62, 622, 250 23.3 Uorth Atlantic _ _ _ _ _ _ 17, 410, 545 8, 857, 920 22, 362. 279 21.2 South Atlantic _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 21.5 South Central . _ _ 25.0 Horth Central _ _ _ _ _ _ 10, 972, 893 23.0 "Western . 3, 027, 613 574, 315 19.0 Uruguay . . . 706, 524 2, 285, 054 65. 621 9.0 Venezuela . . . . . 104, 840 5.0 EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 655 The only province from Australia to take part in this department of the Exhibi¬ tion was New South Wales. In the whole of Australia the number of students in the different institutions is 256,151, or 22 per cent of the population. The expenses of school education for each pupil amounts to $18.65, which is a very high figure. Among the Asiatic countries the exhibition of Japan was most interesting. The movement for better school organization began there comparatively late in 1872. The laws governing the present school system date from the year 1886. Owing to their natural power of imitation the Japanese have taken the European school sys¬ tem, and, after making some slight alterations in it, present it as a national one. The education is compulsory ; it is nonsectarian and free, although the children of the rich pay a certain sum on entering the school. The number of pupils is consid¬ erable. The small number of girls in comparison with that of boys (less than one- third) shows that the principle of female education has not as yet taken root in Japan. The expenditures for public instruction reach the sum of $9,000,000, of which 80 per cent is spent on primary education. Of the other countries in Asia the Island of Ceylon had a separate building where very interesting ethnological collections were exhibited. In public instruction the exhibits were very few, although the cause of education is beginning to develop in this colony. To the north of Ceylon is the great Indian Empire. Here the work of education is still weaker, although on the whole it is making progress. From Africa, Egypt took part in the Exhibition. The exhibits there were not large but interesting. In the city primary schools both English and French are taught. English language is used in 2,237 schools, the French in 2,840 schools. In conclusion we must notice the exhibitions of some associations not directly connected with the work of education but whose activity is of a humanitarian character. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and the Society for the Pre¬ vention of Cruelty to Animals were fairly well represented. An interesting exhibit was that of the Society of the Friends of Peace, which counts several millions of members and advocates peace, fraternity of nations, and the establishment of international courts of arbitration, and which is gaining so many adherents. Until the present time there have been seventy-five cases of arbi¬ tration between the people of Europe, Asia, and America, which have resulted in a peaceful solution of the difficulties. In 1890 all the St ates of America had adopted the principle of arbitration. The Peace Society of the last international congress expressed the wish to have this principle introduced in the study of history and to have the cult of war diminished. The American Bible Society occupied considerable space. The extensive and ener¬ getic work of this society is known the world over. Its editions are printed in thirty- two languages, and the Bible published by this society can be found in the remotest parts of Siberia, as well as in the extreme north of Canada, in the center of Africa, and in the torrid parts of Asia. Lastly, the exhibit of the National Temperance Union showed that the yearly amount spent by the population of the United States for spirituous liquors, tobacco, and stimulants exceeded the expenses for bread, meat, clothing, education, or religion. With this we shall conclude our brief report on the educational department of the Universal Exhibition in the city of Chicago. This department was, on the whole, extensive, many-sided, and interesting, and embraced every possible kind of institu¬ tion of learning. The grouping of the exhibits, the introduction of phonographs, the practical exhibition of school children at work, the model school building, the large part taken in the Exhibition by the clergy and by various associations formed its chief characteristics. * * * The departments of foreign countries, particu¬ larly of new countries, “testified to the fact that the organization and proper maintenance of public instruction forms at the present time one of the chief cares of a government, and that the fundamental principles of gratuitous public instruc- 606 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. made Tvitli the most praiseworthy care. The last volumes of this work are in press and soon these fifteen great folios will form a publication which no medical library can afford to be without. Dr. Billings showed us at the same time the hall for the medical journals, the halls for card catalogues, and the rooms for the librarians — a model to imitate ; an example which no one has followed in Europe. MILITARY MEDICAL SCHOOL. A few days after my arrival at Washington a military school of medicine was established for the young doctors recently appointed to the Army. These students will have, therefore, at their disposal a museum and library of the first order. After detailed description of the principal medical schools and departments of the Northern States, Dr. Baudowin sums up his observations substantially as follows: The study of the medical schools of the United States, taken as a whole, is a diffi¬ cult matter. The institutions which may be grouped under this head differ so much, the circumstances under which they have been founded and are now developing arc often so special in their nature that there is danger of falling into many errors and of expressing somewhat contradictory opinions if the attempt be made to describe these schools as a whole. If we consider also the extraordinary number of schools, which seems surprising at first, but is easily accounted for when one under¬ stands the general status of physicians in a country so vast, and where professional life is easily entered ; furthermore, if one considers the facility with which institu¬ tions are formed or disappear, without leaving any trace, the simplicity also of their early organization, the various resources of which they may avail themselves — with all these considerations in view, he will understand the difficulty of making selec¬ tions out of a long list, comprising colleges, medical departments of numerous universities, and sometimes mere factories for “bogus diplomas.” However, to bring a certain clearness into this question, which seems at first so complicated, it suffices to examine it in the light of a single leading idea, namely, the basis of instruction in the United States, scientific as well as medical. I allude to the complete “liberty of instruction.” It suffices to remember that all instruction is absolutely free from Government interference, as was formerly medical practice also, diplomas being conferred by the most dissimilar institutions. As everybody knows, in the transatlantic country it is private initiative which undertakes to furnish to the fifty States, Territories, or districts of which it is constituted, physicians, pharmacists, and dentists, as well as lawyers, engineers, and architects. The public authorities exercise a control so restricted that it may be called none, compared with countries where centralization reigns. As regards medical schools, the States confine themselves to recognizing their creation by according to them a charter and registering the diplomas which they confer, withput endeavoring to ascertain the intrinsic valuo of the same. There are at present in the United States several kinds of medical schools. For¬ merly the classes were still more numerous, but some have been abolished, owing to competition, which increases every day. The regular schools may be compared with those uf the Old Continent, and which in our country are called “ allopathic.” These predominate, and especially so at the present time, but in America, where some years ago homeopathy was appreciated by the majority of citizens about as much as the bonesetters in France, there exist also centers of homeopathic instruction which were at one time very important and which still enjoy much prestige. * * * Among schools called irregular schools, there exist also other types. I refer to the eclectic schools (eclectic colleges), and the physio-medical schools. The fraudulent schools, on the contrary, have totally disappeared. I will speak of them further on, but they are an invention which is dying out. MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 607 In tlio regular schools one principal feature is noticeable. Some are attended by men and women, and the students of both sexes are admitted to these without diffi¬ culty, pass their examinations side by side, as in Europe, and obtain their diplomas. A smaller number are exclusively reserved for young women students of medicine. These institutions havo no analogy anywhere, and this is an American specialty which deserves more than single mention. But whatever the variety, all these schools are of an essentially private order; all have been originated by private individuals, and generally in the following manner: A very rich manufacturer or a successful speculator (there are but few other lucra¬ tive professions in the Lmited States) gives from his fortune, and often although he has children (which is also a marked characteristic of the country beyond the ocean), considerable sums for the foundation of a university. First, very elementary instruction is organized; then, when other liberal gifts have increased the resources, professional schools are successively created — an important expedient for the grad¬ uated students— and rapidly enough a medical department. This was the case nearly three hundred years ago with Harvard University at Cambridge, near Boston, and has taken place at the present time in Worcester (Clark University), in Chicago (Rockefeller University), in Washington, San Francisco, etc. At other times the practicing physicians of a city which is young but nourishing and with promise of a successful future together found a school. In this case it is ordinarily called “College of Physicians and Surgeons.” It must be confessed that what prompts this action is the desire of the physicians to add to their title of doctor of medicine that of professor more than the wish to be useful to their fellow-citizens or to the future young men of the country. But what dees it matter since these local attempts soon result in schools full of life and enthusiasm which become vi'gorous rivals of the older establishments. The latter are thus prevented from reposing upon their laurels and forced onward incessantly. These physicians write out statutes* elect a council of administration, and request the State authorities to inscribe the new creation in the official registers. This is seldom refused, and is equal to a regular authorization. Then prospectuses are freely issued in order to announce the new creation; the medical papers publish the course and the list of the x>rofessors, who but yesterday were simple jihysicians, more or less unknown. This is business ; it must be hurried, and here, as everybody knows, the Americans are at home. Students come in greater or less numbers, and in the second year diplo¬ mas are distributed. Is not the good will of those who, from the very beginning, have shown confidence in the enterprise and in the professional ability of the young teachers, to bo encouraged ? The graduates are then permitted to practice medicine in the State where the school is established and often in almost all the States or Ter¬ ritories of the Union. At first the resources of the school are limited, as the fees of the students and the sums given by the founders are the only sources of revenue. The buildings are rudi¬ mentary, and the laboratories poor and meagerly equipped. But if by chance some distinguished and energetic person has come into the corporation, reputation does not wait for the lapse of years, and endowments increase. Splendid iron and brick buildings are erected, dispensaries and soon hospitals are founded. Thus, following the examples of similar institutions which exist in England, the principal colleges for surgeons and x>hysicians in the Union have developed the old colleges of Philadelphia, New York, Boston, San Francisco, etc. For some years x>ast this liberty seems to have been a little restrained, and now in cer¬ tain cities diplomas can not be obtained with the same facility. Everywhere, indeed, where boards of health are organized the parchments x>resented for inscription are carefully examined, and if it is discovered that the school by which they were issued confers them too easily, they are not registered. This occurred some years ago in New Jersey, and a college where the examiners exposed the fact that too much indul¬ gence was shown toward students was forced to shut its doors. 608 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. The Illinois State hoard of health has endeavored with remarkable zeal to search out those institutions which are still questionable, and to this end it has published a prospectus setting forth the minimum of qualifications required from a school in order that it should be classified among those giving satisfaction. But, as may be imagined, many do not yet correspond to the required conditions, although recently very remarkable progress in this respect has been accomplished almost everywhere. Moreover, since 1877, there has existed an “ Association of Medical Colleges,” which has succeeded in grouping together into a strong society all those schools which desire that the level of the studies should be raised. The statutes of this association are such that at present all the colleges that are members of it may be considered as representing sufficient guaranties, for none of the irregular schools can be admitted there. In a country like the United States one can not ask more, and this control of the institutions by each other is certainly excellent; all this is very characteristic of this extraordinary country. Certainly I would not say that all these colleges are comparable to the European faculties, and that their diplomas are equivalent to those which are conferred in Germany, France, or in the cities of other European countries; but one must not ask the impossible; and in a country where superior instruction does not hold the first place it is not surprising that the students know a little less Latin or Greek than ours, and do not devote themselves willingly to transcendental studies. At the present time North America possesses 122 regular schools conferring diplo¬ mas either on men or women ; but of these 9 are exclusively reserved for women. With the 113 others must also be classed the regular post-graduate schools, which receive only students having already graduated, practitioners who desire to perfect their clinical instruction. These institutions may be compared with the German and Austrian polyclinics and other preparatory or special schools (schools for anat¬ omy, etc.), upon which I can not dwell here. The 113 regular schools, which I will now consider, show certain common char¬ acteristics. They are seldom installed in grand edifices. The most important, that of the University of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, is nothing more than a modest building of moderate dimensions. The same is the case in New York, Boston, San Francisco. Often there is only an ordinary building of four stories, with halls for lectures, laboratories for chemistry, physiology, histology. Frequently a dispensary is annexed and occupies a part of the basement. Almost always (fact to be noted) the hall for dissections is found at the top of the house. We may say: “They dis¬ sect under the roof.” In this way, I am told, more light and air are secured, odors are not detected, and it is altogether more private. Naturally, the whole building is heated by steam, which circulates in pipes; it is lighted by electricity and abundantly provided with ice water, the beverage of the American citizen; no apartment for the dean, no imposing place for business transactions — nothing but what is necessary; a lodging for the porter, or rather for the watchman, for porters do not exist there. All that does not belong absolutely to the medical department is consigned to the other buildings of the university.. This explains also the absence of a physical laboratory, and also the rare appearance of laboratories of natural history. More¬ over, physics is not taught in the American schools. The budgets are very limited, save in rich institutions, which are admirably endowed, as Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore; often, also, the future is dis¬ counted. Appeals for funds are never made to the Central Government or to the municipalities. Very seldom does the State in which the college is located inter¬ vene to make up the expenses (the principal exception is the University of Ann Arbor, Mich., which possesses an old and highly esteemed medical department); the official subvention is unknown. Anyone can be a doctor in a few years in the United States, contrary to the custom in our old Europe, where a very careful preparatory instruction is necessary in order that one should obtain the degree of doctor. In America one may be at 20 years of age a grocer or a farm boy, at 22 a journalist, at MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 609 25 a lawyer or a doctor of medicine. The medical career is a profession like any other, and the epithet “liberal” would not he understood in a country where only one thing is desired, namely, to gain with the greatest rapidity the greatest possible amount of money; where the effort is only tc perfect one’s self in his art in order to get still richer. Therefore, of course, no one thinks of erecting high barriers at the entrances to the schools. This is the reason why admission into a medical college is so very easy. It is suffi¬ cient to have graduated from a secondary school which is approved by the State in which one desires to study; in other words, to possess a diploma corresponding more or less to our ancient certificate of grammar, or to undergo a very easy exami¬ nation, which means simply it is necessary to know English and a little Latin. To sum up, the American physician must have a general education which is scarcely equal to that of our health officers. The professional courses which the students must follow bear a close analogy to those which the professors of our provincial schools have to take. The lectures even at Philadelphia and New York hardly bear comparison with those in the facul¬ ties of Bordeaux and Nancy. In America there is nothing to be compared with the faculties of Lyons, and especially those of Paris. The theoretical courses are gen¬ erally good, but elementary ; the exercises in dissection are, as a rule, rudimentary. The practical work, except in chemistry, leaves also much to be desired. On the contrary, this is not the same with the dental schools, the triumphs of the United States. There are no competitive examinations; all professors are appointed by choice. Almost all are young and enjoying an income which at first appears very large; but, all things considered, the conditions are about the same as in our own country. It must be remembered that life is expensive there; that pensions do not exist; that the long trips necessary in that country demand great expense, etc. The Yankee student, who never forgets the watchword of his fatherland, “Time is money,” desires to finish his studies rapidly. He takes without much complaint a number of courses, lectures, quizzes, and subquizzes, which are jjerpetually pre¬ sented him from 8 o’clock in the morning until 5 in the evening, save Saturday even¬ ing, for, like the laborer, he holds fast to this vacation of half a day. Only he who desires to devote himself to a professorship in a large university, works from love of science, if not of the special art. The majority attend schools where they may get immediately to work, where nothing is very difficult. This explains the rapid suc¬ cess of all new enterprises. The clinic instruction is a little more serious, thanks to the luxury which prevails in the teaching of the specialties. There is no small school which has not special professors of laryngology, otology, rhinolgy, orthopedy, etc. In spite of that the final examinations are not brilliant. If they should prove too severe, it would frighten the student, who would hasten to join a rival school. An important question for the future of American medicine and one which has already excited great discussion, is that of the length of the courses in the different colleges. Not more than ten years ago, in a great center, doctors were made in two years! But at the present time three years are demanded, with sessions of eight months each. Few schools require four years; but several advise their students to study four years. Evidently there is progress; but that is not sufficient. I will¬ ingly admit that the American loses less time than the Frenchman, yet I shall never believe that he can learn in three years what it takes us five or six years to impart. Four years’ attendance would not bo too long even in the United States. This would certainly be better than to be obliged finally to attend a post-graduate school, par¬ ticularly as those who practice in the country never can profit by these advanced schools. The post-graduate schools in America are organized like other schools, with teach¬ ing corps whose numbers surprise a/ European; but in reality, when the whole situation is learned, they are found to differ little from the German or Austrian polyclinics. ED 93 - 39 610 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. All specialties are tauglit in tlie post-graduate schools; and in those of established reputation, as those of New York, among others, are represented by teachers of undoubted authority. Unfortunately it is not the same in all cities; it has been justly stated that the professors are not always men adequately equipped for the functions which they perform In these institutions which pretend to he superior schools for perfecting students, the corps of teachers ought to he picked from the very best. Complaint has also been made that the professors are sometimes induced to take their positions solely for money. In delicate matters like these it is necessary to look carefully at the results accomplished. Now, it is unquestionable that these post-graduate schools are of real service, allowing young doctors to complete their studies and to be better armed for the battle. It is not necessary to ask more — to hope, for example, to sec them transformed some day into so many medical u Colleges de France.” Besides, the American, who especially appreciates the useful, would not make this his aim. There are at this time 19 post-graduate schools ; but only 15 of them are regular schools; 4 are irregular, 2 being homeopathic and 2 eclectic. The earliest were founded in 1882 in New York. Philadelphia, and St. Louis; there are also similar schools in Boston, Baltimore, New Orleans, and in other cities, which I have already mentioned. One might well desire that in Paris some analogous schools should be organized, as we possess already all the essentials for this, thanks to the medico-chirurgical corps of our hospitals, but our customs and our extraordinary admiration for all ancient institutions will prevent us for a long time from entertaining this idea. The other regular schools of medicine which we have still to examine are those which are exclusively reserved for women. Whether familiar or not with the American customs and with the famous question of coeducation, the European physician does not understand at once the reason for, and the importance of, these creations. We are told that in the United States many young women wish to study medicine. Yery well! But why do they not attend the ordinary schools, as from their earliest youth until leaving the high schools they live in intimate companionship with the young meu, on the same 11 campus, ” sometimes under the same roof, eating at the same table. Why are they more particular than their comrades In the schools of architecture, even in the law schools, who have no college reserved exclusively for them? What is the reason of this sudden change of opinion in a country where the system of coeducation has been so freely extended? It is only by recalling what happened when women attempted, to force the doors of those schools which they could not easily enter that one comprehends why these special colleges came into existence. America is certainly the country wdiere the problem of the woman doctor is to be studied; but it must not be supposed that in the beginning this little revolution in customs was accomplished without all kinds of opposition to the pioneers who sought to climb over the barrier erected at the entrance into the liberal professions by the most powerful half of mankind. At first the older American schools declined to admit young women. Such opposition might succeed elsewhere, but to suppose that it would do so in the case of Americans is to misprize their resources and. the disposition of the women. Were the American women overcome by opposition? No. This would have shown unpardonable shortsightedness, an insult to the national genius ! The outcome proves that in this country “ What woman wills, God wills ! ” The women, resolved not to confess themselves vanquished, went to work with that patience the secret of which they alone know, which serves them always when they desire to attain a particular end. They did so well that out of the very opposition they secured the foundation of special schools, which at the present time have become rival institutions, sometimes dangerous rivals, if account be taken of the standard of studies in the other regular colleges. The result of this is that at the present time the United States possesses 9 regular schools of this kind (there must be counted, too, a homeopathic school), which are MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 611 situated in New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Baltimore, Minneapolis, St. Louis, Cin¬ cinnati (where there are already two), and Atlanta. I visited some of them, especi¬ ally the most celebrated, that of Philadelphia, of which I secured a photograph. It must bo admitted that this is one of the objective points in a medical transatlantic excursion. The first of these schools was founded at Boston in 1848. It conferred diplomas until 1874, at which time it united with a homeopathic school. The second in date, and the one which is considered to be the type, the veritable mother of all the women’s colleges, is the celebrated College of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, which dates from 1850; the buildings were reconstructed in 1875. These schools are almost as well organized as those opened to both men and women. Certainly the courses, which only last for three years, are not brilliant; the entrance examinations are easy, the studies elementary, the examinations on leaving somewhat weak. But is not this true also of the regular schools? Besides, the women follow the studies with the greatest regularity. A little uncertain of their power and ability, they make so much the greater effort, as they desire to raise still higher the standard of their emancipation and to prove that they are fully equal to their brothers and friends in the rival institutions. They have, moreover, a solid elementary education, often even more solid than that of men (this is the rule in America), and have shown on different occasions that they were able to face the combat and to get out of it with all the honors of wuir. The corps of teachers is never composed exclusively of women. In Philadelphia about half the professors are men. In New York, Chicago, and elsewhere the proportion of women professors is still smaller. Hence it would seem that up to the present time the number could not be fully supplied from female physicians. But this is not the sole reason; other considerations lead also to the choice of men. These schools conferred in ten years (1880-1890) 635 diplomas, a respectable number, which indicates sufficiently how important a position women physicians have reached in the New World. For the exact total we must add to the number given the number of diplomas conferred upon women by other regular schools. As to these colleges, It is undeniable that the fruits have yielded what the flowers promised. In America, then, the female doctor is no longer an exception; in a few years, in the cities at least, she will play apart which is as yet only suggested. The history of the schools called irregular is not less curious nor less interesting ; and among these latter some are so near their end that those who desire to know their character and their method must visit them as soon as possible. In a few years, without doubt, it will be too late. The fraudulent schools exist no more. So far as I have been able to ascertain, they were constituted by medical associations, conferring doctors’ diplomas for money. Their students had scarcely to follow the courses for three months. They had at one time, it appears, a certain success. This could be easily understood ; but I do not guarantee the statement. Certainly all this is now a chapter of very old history, at least for the Americans, at the rate things move in their country. The physio-medical schools number only two, one in Indianapolis, Ind., founded in 1873, the other, later, in Chicago. That of Indiana is the type of these institu¬ tions, which are on the decline from day to day. The conditions for admission are the same as in the regular colleges, and the courses are comparable, although still more elementary. These schools, it appeared to me, were more elementary than those of the other classes. Instruction in them is rather theoretical than practical, and the clinic exercises are reduced to the most simple form. In fact, I am not prepared myself to give any particulars, on account of the short time I was in Chicago (the courses are finished at the end of June). Other French physicians who have crossed the Atlan¬ tic have not been more fortunate in this, respect. If I may venture an opinion, I ' should say that these schools do not seem to me to differ at all from the others except in name. In America, where simple minds abound, where all is industry and commerce, it is often sufficient to change the denomination of a ware in order to 612 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. give it a greater value in the eyes of the public. I am afraid that it may have been the same with the physio-medical institutions. The eclectic schools are more flourishing, hut there are only 10 in existence, namely, at Cincinnati, New York, Chicago, St. Louis, Atlanta, San Francisco, Des Moines, and Indianapolis. These institutions differ from the regular medical depart¬ ments of the universities and colleges of medicine by the nature of the courses in medical subjects, therapeutics, and internal clinics. But the difference is only on these points, as in the homeopathic schools. In these schools all metals, without exception, are excluded from therapeutics, or, as the eclectic physicians say, iron, potassium, sodium, mercury, etc. — all this is of no value'; only the substances taken from the vegetable kingdom, such as extracts, tinctures, alcohols, balms, etc., have efficiency. As a matter of fact, this is not true, because it is demonstrated that metals have great efficiency. But where religion commences, science must not interfere. I must confess that I had not time to examine this matter for myself, but from what I could learn there seemed to me less difference between an eclectic school and a regular school than between the latter and a homeo¬ pathic school. The homeopathic schools are more numerous and more prosperous. In 1893 they numbered 17, of which 1, in New York, was exclusively reserved for women. There were, besides, two post-graduate schools of the same class. I do not exaggerate in saying that these schools are as unknown in France as the eclectic or physio-medical schools; all our classics are silent on the subject. These schools are found in most of the cities of the Union, in New York, Philadelphia — where are the oldest and most celebrated of those which exist to-day — Cleveland, Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Boston, Ann Arbor (University of Michigan), Iowa City (State University), San Francisco, Minneapolis (University of Minnesota), Kansas City, and Baltimore. This is not the place to explain the homeopathic doctrine. It is well known in our country and by the readers of the Scientific Keview. I will only say that the ideas of Hahnemann, which were given out about the year 1790, have, in less than one hundred years, conquered a good part of America. For almost a century, the homeopathic schools have flourished in these places of liberty. * * * The studies in these schools last only for three years; but there are many pupils. In respect to everything outside of therapeutics the best known of these schools are equal to the regular schools. It is interesting to note that sometimes, as in Iowa, Ann Arbor, and Minneapolis, the homeopathic school and the allopathic school are rej)resented in the same university, and that, accordingly, many professors are common to both schools. There are only special professors for the courses of medi¬ cine and clinics. For instance, it is frequently the case that there is one professor of obstetrics, rhinology, or homeopathic chirurgy. I have in vain asked myself what difference there could be between an accouche¬ ment or an amputation performed in this or that manner. I have tried to enlighten myself on this point and I could not find a solution. No one could help me in solv¬ ing the jn'oblem. It would be very interesting to compare the extraordinary success which homeopathy has, and especially has had, for some years in America with the indifference which it has met with in our ancient schools of unquestionable stand¬ ing. In Europe it may be said there are no schools of this kind. The physicians who devote themselves more or less to this profession have undergone the examina¬ tion in classics before our faculties, and have instructed themselves in the doctrine and its applications in some hospitals of limited number and little importance. In the United States the homeopathic colleges confer diplomas which have the same value as those of the regular schools, and which enjoy indisputable consideration from the public authorities. Taking all together and adding to the institutions we have already mentioned 10 preparatory schools or annexes of little interest, there existed in the LTnited States in 1893 (I state intentionally the precise year, for probably in 1894 the number will be different on account of new creations or shipwrecks) 181 medical schools, of which MEDICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 613 152 conferred diplomas, located in G8 cities. Tlic territory of tlie United States maintains at present 70,000,000 inhabitants ; this gives, in round numbers, a center of instruction for 400,000 inhabitants and 23,000 square miles. If one compares these numbers with those furnished by French statistics, it appears that we have one school for 1,600,000 inhabitants and 10,000 square miles. The Americans possess, therefore, four times as many schools as we in proportion to the number of inhabitants of the two countries.1 This manifest excess is easily explained by the “liberty of teaching, ” and by the desperate competition between the schools. This explains, also, why in America colleges fall to pieces like castles of cards; become bank¬ rupt sometimes after long years of financial prosperity and normal success. Within one hundred years more than 100 schools have gone down on account of this evident disproportion between the needs of the country and its means of production — between supply and demand. It is also one of the causes of the weakness of the courses. In spite of this, in proportion as the unsettled regions become peopled, new centers of instruction will be created in the East and the far West. The average number of doctors furnished by each school seems also higher than that of the European schools. This proves that we exaggerate a little if we follow exclusively the statistical information in order to judge of the causes and the effects of this multiplicity of schools. I could not learn the number of scholars who attended these centers of medical instruction in 1893, but I could get the number for the school years 1880-81 and 1890-91. They are eloquent enough to be quoted. In the year 1880-81 there were 11,864 students of medicine in the United States, of whom 9,750 were in the regular schools, 1,234, 826, and 54 in the homeopathic, eclectic, and physio-medical schools, respectively. For 1890-91 I noted in all 14,884 students, of whom 13,044 were regular, 1,128 homeopathic, 661 eclectic, 51 physiomedical. It is evident that these statistics, which are very exact, permit us to make a fair conclusion in the sense indicated in this article. There can be no doubt that these regular schools are progressing. The increase of 3,000 students in ten years is a sufficient proof of this. It is, furthermore, beyond doubt that the irregular schools go down from day to day, that the physio-medical schools exist only in name, and that the eclectic colleges are not flourishing. As to the homeopathic schools, iu respect to the number of students they make a good showing. Let me add, also, that the surprises and the easy pleasantry of the beginning of my voyage gave way in time to something of pity and benevolence. In this dizzy course which America has followed in the matter of public instruction the whole nation has shown the resources of its indomitable energy, and especially its love for liberty. As wealth and power increase it appears that the ambition of the rich who have founded fortunes must turn itself toward the culture of mind. This is the right way. Let us congratulate America. The end is perhaps distant, but with the ability Americans have in overcoming distances it must be attained soon. 1 Chicago alone has 17 schools. At St. Louis there are 8 regular schools. CHAPTER VI. NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS OX AMERICAN EDUCATION AND THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS, BY THE ITALIAX, SWEDISH, DANISH, AND RUSSIAN DELEGATES. Contents. — “ Popular education in the United States ,” by Luigi Bodio — “Education in the United States,'’ by A. Ghisleid — “ Observations concerning American education by Dr. E. Osterberg — “Studies on the educational exhibits at Chicago,” by X. O. TV. Lagerstedt — “Xotes.in regard to the World’s Congresses,” by Kirstine FrederiJcsen — “Some characteristics of the educational exhibit of the World’s Fair,” by Eugraplie Kovalevsky. POPULAR EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. By Signor Comvf.xdatobe Luigi Bodio, Director of tbe Loyal Statistical Bureau, Borne, Italy. I had the good fortune to visit the Exposition at Chicago during the autumn of the past year (1893). One of the most vivid and profound impressions made upon me during the fifty days passed in the States was produced by the prodigious activity among the people. What interested me especially, within the Exposition as well as without, was the organization of public instruction, so that to-day my intention is to say a few words in regard to the American elementary schools. The attendance upon the public schools is three times as great as in Italy. The number of persons enrolled during the year in Italy in proportion to the inhabitants is 7-§- per eent, while in the United States the average attendance is 20 per cent. The countries of Europe which are the best supplied with schools stand between these two extremes. In France the enrollment in jiroportion to the inhabitants is 12| per cent; the per cen£ is similar in Austria; in Prussia it is 18 per cent; in England and Wales, 17 per cent. The schools in America are housed in more spacious buildings than elsewhere; the salaries are greater than anywhere else, so that the expend¬ iture for the public elementary school in America to each inhabitant is not only more than three times as great as in Italy, as is the case with the enrollment, but it is six times as great. Among the Italians the state, the communes, and prov¬ inces expend 62,000,000 lire (the ordinary and extraordinary expenditures included) for elementary instruction — that is, 21ire (38.6 cents) per capita of the population of the Kingdom — while in the United States the expenditures amount to $146,000,000 — that is, 12 lire ($2.31) to each inhabitant. Salaries of male teachers average 4,500 lire ($838) ; of women teachers, 1,500 lire ($675) ; the women form about 65 per cent, the men 35 per cent of the whole number of teachers. The methods employed in carrying out the laws pertaining to obligatory instruc¬ tion are dissimilar to those in America. In the city of New York 12 inspectors had charge of this phase of the school question, and it is no rare thing to see a police- 615 616 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1892-93. man (truant officer) who, meeting a boy upon the street during school hours, ques¬ tions him as to his being a truant, conducts him to his home, and finds out the reasons for such absence; if it istfound that he is’ playing truant, the justice of the peace disciplines him by placing him in a reformatory. * * * The rivalry between the States is such that each one desires to have the best school buildings, the best methods, the best text-boots, and the best hygienic conditions, and the reports published annually by Commissioner Harris are a guide toward improvement in all directions. Anyone entering the American schools is impressed with the general cleanliness, the perfect order, and the sentiment of self-respect which pervade the atmosphere. The best arrangement of rooms, of windows for light, the best means of heating and ventilating, are studied. Then there are seats, one for each pupil, revolving chairs, slates, and blackboards, so that not more than two children work in close proximity to each other, and there is no crowding. The children by turning about on their chairs can direct their view to any part of the room. There is no need of hiding anything within the desks, and so the school, by the very arrangement of its furniture, becomes a means of forming a loyal character and of rendering the pupil alert, self-reliant, and respectful in bearing. Each school has a central room in which the classes congregate when entering and leaving. In silence and with a composed bearing, children of both sexes march along. The teacher leads the march by playing on the piano and a patriotic hymn is sung, but there are no orders given as to the marching. On entering and leaving' school the same method is employed ; girls to the right, boys to the left, is the mode of march. The sight was one that moved me greatly, as if it were a generous action for the honoring of humanity. Truly, in the school is found the future of this wonderful people. I do not speak of the object lessons which are practically carried out in every school, and which habituate the children to reflect, to formulate thought, and to comprehend the mat¬ ter studied. The elements of botany, for instance, are taught in such a manner that each child is supposed to form for itself a small herbarium. Rewards are not given at the close of the year to the pupil who has distinguished himself the most in his studies. There are examinations, however, if the teacher has refused promo¬ tions to the pupils, the parents may demand a formal proof, the examination being therefore a kind of court of appeals. Drawing is an essential element of the primary school course, the students, both boys and girls, become first experts in drawing, then in reading, writing, language, natural history, etc. Moreover, there are normal schools for instruction in drawing and the j)lastic arts; a remarkably fine one is found in Boston. Drawing is considered as a means of learning and of communicating thought, and not alone from its aesthetic side; drawing is, so to speak, an alphabet for expressing the conceptions. The children are taught to come forward and in the simplest manner to sketch on the boards celebrated men, figures from natural history and from political history, or, again, they may be asked to illustrate a poem, such as Longfellow’s Evangeline. Another means of illustrating the lessons given is by the magic lantern, with which land¬ scapes, colored pictures, etc., are thrown on the canvas. Still another form of instruction is noticeable in America; this includes manual training schools, where the shops and the forge for boys, cooking and sewing for girls, alternate with lessons in history, geography, English, German, and Latin languages. The elementary schools in general have eight years in the course. It can well be said that for the duration of the course, and for the methods employed in utilizing the time allowed, instruction is organized in the United States on a rational basis; more than this, it is liberal and democratic, as it procures for all a minimum of culture, which gives the people a high grade of cultivation as compared with many of the European peoples. The school is really the people’s school, and the American EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 617 nation may well be proud of it. One recognizes at once bow strongly the people feel in regard to the school question. In the educational department of the Chicago Exposition one of the Western States — Dakota, if I remember rightly — had pasted above the entrance “ Education is the cheaper defense of the country.” EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. By Prof. A. Ghisleri. MUNICIPAL SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK. The agreeable impression made upon a person visiting the schools of America is enhanced by the well-constructed, well-ventilated, and well-aired buildings. The number of such buildings would indicate that American architects had made a special study and established a certain type of edifice, thus solving the problem of simplicity and commodiousness in all respects, hygienic and pedagogic as well. In the school buildings, as m all public edifices, there is no Cerberus guarding the door. In some of the schools a bright, active youth fulfills the duties of custodian, possibly for the day, and conducts you without any formality to the gentleman or lady principal. In each room is a placard indicating the maximum of pupils who can be accommodated. This serves as a guide to teacher and pupils, and in case of an excess of numbers they refer to this in their appeal to the authorities. In the school which I visited 45 pupils was the maximum. The rooms are not large, for in New York the ground is costly, but they are high, and the heat and ventilation are modified according to wish. No room contains the long bench or desk, with the stationary seat, incommodious and antididactic, wdiicli is to be found in about 80 per cent of the schools of Italy, the secondary technical and classical schools included. In the cooking schools each pupil has her own seat and desk; in the other rooms two pupils are seated together. The desk is movable and inclined and per¬ mits the child’s free movements ; the seat turns on a screw, so that each pupil can move about from right to left as he desires without disturbing his neighbors and can bring himself into proper relation with the blackboard. The blackboard is not found resting on an upright frame, where it occupies space and intercexits the light, but the walls of the room are literally lined with these boards, and the pupil can draw his exercises upon the boards without disturbing. any one of his companions, and they in turn can follow whatever the teacher jots down upon the boards by simply turning about without even incommoding one another. But for exercises in arithmetic, for drawing, and for such exercises as all the pupils ought to carry on simultaneously, there are slates in use from the first class on. Socratic and objective methods are in vogue, and by means of illustrations and exercises, in all of which the whole room joins, the teacher and pupils are, in a measure, carrying on a type of spontaneous conversation or interchange of ideas. Another valuable feature is that the teacher has no special chair or desk. In Italy such a desk is raised from the floor; but the American teacher moves about from place to place, and the arrange¬ ment of the revolving seats gives the pupils opportunity to follow him in whatever explanation he may be giving on the blackboards or by other means of illustra¬ tion. I have every reason for believing that when I visited a group of schools on Greenwich street my visit was entirely unexpected, and yet I found the teacher standing before the blackboard, or in the midst of the pupils, all of whom were turned toward him, and it seemed as if I had interrupted an interesting dialogue in which all were participating. This method of instruction by moving among the pupils and conversing with them so engages the attention that it seems unnecessary to have any special means for keeping up discipline. The pupils, being visible from all quarters, have no opportunity or desire for concealment, and thus the school, by the arrangement of desks and chairs, becomes in itself an instrument for the forma¬ tion of a loyal character and for the foundation of freedom of deportment. 618 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Each school building has a central room, or hall, where the classes meet when entering and leaving school. From 400 to 800 pupils may come together there; it all depends upon the size of the school. The hall is so furnished with seats equi¬ distant from one another that such a number of children find their places or leave the room with the greatest ease. The signal for the march is given on the piano, and two by two they fall into place, singing a patriotic air or repeating verses of a nonsectarian character, the girls to the right, the boys to the left, and march along to the entrance. It is truly an interesting sight, as if with their songs they were honoring humanity; and the unembarrassed and unassuming deportment of the American school children- always confronted mo and led me to meditate as to the causes which brought this state of things about. One thing which seemed to me essentially American is the fire escape, to be used only in case of fire. By these fireproof stairways the three to eight hundred children were supposed to escape in case of fire, and in each room a doorway led to this stairway. American forethought does not end there. It would be humiliat¬ ing to indicate how many (or how few) schools in Italy, even in the most populous districts, are furnished with these means of safety. If an architect were to make such arrangement, the doorways and stairways would bo absolutely hidden from the pupils’ vision. But the practical spirit of the Americans goes further; it includes the practice (twice a mouth) in the use of these fire escapes; the signal given, the pupils move with the utmost celerity toward and down the fire escape, and in a moment are in the court or on the street. These movements are supervised by the teacher, and, oftentimes repeated, bring about precision and perfection of discipline. The parents themselves have less fear for their children, knowing that they are well drilled for such emergency. Here again another aspect of the Ameri¬ can school impresses one, to wit, the courage inculcated and the quickness of thought necessary for any occasion. There are no decorations in the class rooms, but in the central room, where all are congregated together, there are busts or pictures of Presidents of the Republic or other ornamentation. Atlases, diagrams, natural-history charts, etc., arc not lack¬ ing in any school building, but they are not found in conjunction with the black¬ boards. These stand forth in their plainness, which is only broken in upon by the necessary door and window frames. In pedagogical fields, as in other fields of action in America, the e'ffort is to obtain the greatest results with the minimum of means to such end. Geographic maps are closed up with wooden casings, each con¬ taining a series, so that they can be moved from room to room as they are wanted. They are so arranged that they can be hung up and opened to the map desired, while the other maps still remain encased. Pictures, models, and other objects required in the studies pursued are kept in cases, and simply placed before the scholars when needed. Thus one picture or model can be used in different rooms, and is kept clean and in good order. The pupil, too, does not have his atten¬ tion distracted from day to day by these aids to study. In Italy these wall maps, etc., are always stationary on the walls. The pupil profits more by seeing these maps, diagrams, etc., only when needed for use, than if they were before him every day. * * * Some of the newer American cities, like Chicago, St. Paul, and San Francisco, have arranged their schools according to the very newest methods, and their programmes have theoretico-practical innovations in accordance with the latest xiedagogical developments. In comparison with our Italian schools many comments and sug¬ gestions might be made, but I will limit myself to stating that in none of our scholastic institutions is the programme of study carried out practically from day to day as it is in the American schools. VCe have programmes, decrees, and regula¬ tions which are excellent in themselves, but even the ministers and Congress seem unable to carry them out, as, for instance, in the case of the laws of compulsory edu¬ cation. In America the regulations are few in number, precise, and clear, and they EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 619 do not suffer all sorts of changes and interpretations on the part of principals and superintendents, and these regulations indicate what is really carried out. Conse¬ quently one observes that the schools are really advancing more rapidly and earn¬ estly than one would surmise from a mere reading of their programmes. The public schools of New York and most of the larger and smaller cities are administered by a local school council. This council has different names (school committee, school directors, school commissioners, school board) in the various States and cities. The methods of electing the members, the number of them, and their duties vary also ; still their aims are identical, inasmuch as they represent the wish and opinions of the people. Boston has a school council of 116 members, and this is one of tho largest. In some States women are members of the school board; in other States their names may be used even if they can not be elected. A few cities have the members appointed by the mayor instead of being elected by tho people. Among these is New York, which can not in this respect be regarded as possessing the genuine type of school organization of North America. Still this is the city which, through immigration and its commercial connection with other coun¬ tries, is most affected by European influences. * * * The New York City school board has a superintendent as aid, who corresponds in part to the “provveditore general” of Italy. His authority, from the moral stand¬ point, is great, and he is generally a person of special culture, expert in educational affairs, and known to the £3ublic as of indisputable pedagogical and literary merit. * * * The superintendent has manifold duties, which include inspection of schools, assisting at the examination of teachers, selecting educational apparatus, deciding in regard to repairs, revising accounts, making a report at close of the year, ete. In order to correct an error which has been often repeated by men of* culture, by ministers in Italy, and by Italian educational journals, it is well to state that tho primary and grammar schools of the municipality of New York are gratuitous. The school tax (tassa scolastica), as it is referred to in some of the States, is sim¬ ply a tax on real estate, etc., to be paid by all real estate owners, even bachelors. This tax is similar to the communal tax in Italy. The term “school tax” is used because the fund is raised for school purposes. But school registration is gratuitous in all tho States. There is no tax [or fees] for entering on the courses, nor for examinations; and more, the city authorities in New York furnish books, pencils, and other needed articles to the poorer pupils, spending considerable amounts for the same. * * * Elementary education in New York State is obligatory, by law of 1875, for all children of 8 to 14 years of age, but in order that this law may not be a dead letter on the statute books (as it is often in Italy) 12 agents (truant officers) are paid expressly for the purpose of watching for children who are inclined to shirk school privileges, and to so notify their parents. If the child is incorrigible ho can be sent to a reformatory. In order to thoroughly understand pablic instruction in the United States it is necessary to state that, while the public schools represent a great factor in education, private institutions also add their quota to the cause. Among these private insti¬ tutions are many aided by societies; those for orphans, provided for by the Chil¬ dren’s Aid Society, some of which have special funds; others receive subsidies from and are under supervision of the municipality. In Leonard street I visited three Italian schools maintained by the Children’s Aid Society. I found a fine four-story building made of stone and brick and situated near the Five Points district. This d istrict is peopled by many of the Italian emigrants, and squalor and misery reach their very doors. Established in 1856, this school consisted of 40 pupils gathered together in a basement ; it now has TOOpupils and is opened day and evening to children of both sexes between the ages of 5 and 15 years. In the evening adults receive instruction. The attendance is quite regular, except in tho spring time, when many are obliged to 620 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. go away from New York to work. During tlie winter a midday luncli is given to tlie pupils and also garments, if needed. The society provides for newsboys or other youths who have no place to sleep. The programme includes studies from that of an infant school and a primary course to instruction in printing, domestic economy (cooking and sewing), while the elements of politics enter into the course in a study of the Constitution, and the pupils are taught to speak and write English. One of the teachers, an Italian, informed me that many Italians who hold excellent posi¬ tions and are much respected were originally instructed in this school. This prac¬ tical charity is entirely a work of Americans, and is so nonsectarian in character that many of the emigrants had images of the Virgin and of the Saints in the class rooms. Of the other two evening schools, one has 300 pupils from the Neapolitan provinces, and from all these schools the children are sent annually, if they need it, to rural districts or to the seaside for recuperation. The schools of New York are open to colored and white pupils, who are educated together, and the former seemed as well behaved as the white children. Instruction is given in evening schools to more than 20,000 persons who are at work during the day. While there is often irregularity of attendance, the pupils seem to appreciate being taught. Free lectures on hygiene, physiology, natural sciences, geography, description and travel, history, literature, and social science are given annually under the auspices of the board of education. The 200 to 300 lectures are given in half a dozen of the grammar schools on Mondays and Thursdays, in the evening hours, and were it not that it would lengthen this article too much I would like to give a resume of some of the lectures, which in 1892-93 were listened to by 130,830 hearers. * * * In regard to teachers’ salaries I desire to correct the erroneous impression which is entertained by many, that on account of cost of living in America a dollar may be reckoned as an equivalent for a lira (19.3 cents) in Italy. This is not true, for meat, bread, fish, sugar, coffee, etc., in fact the daily necessaries, are no higher, in proportion, in New York than in Italy. However, certain luxuries are more expen¬ sive. House rentals are not so much greater for the people who are not obliged to live in the centers of business in American cities; these rentals and lodgings average the same as equivalent rentals in Italy. The salaries of teachers permit them, how- "v ever, to pay out for their own improvement (such as the buying of books, subscrib¬ ing for periodicals, trips to teachers’ associations, etc.) more than could be done in Italy. IMPRESSIONS OF SCHOOL EXHIBITS IN CHICAGO. The grand educational division of the Exposition at Chicago thoroughly con¬ firmed the impressions of school life in New York. Here at the Exposition one could learn much of the rivalry concerning schools, methods, progress, and the sacrifices made to bring about such advance in all the States of the Union. This noble rivalry merited profound study from its psychological aspect, if it were only to discover the methods of this wonderful nation. I did not linger in the educational exhibits from Massachusetts and Hlinois, two States which, as regards education, rival New York, but in those from the far West, which only about thirty years ago was like a desert entombed in prehistoric times, the eloquent result of whose progress furnishes one of the most characteristic presentations offered in the Exposition. The oldest of the far Western States is California, which may well be pleased with the statistics presented. * * * The most important city in California, San Francisco, is reputed to have one of the most perfect systems of public schools, and it does not hesitate to consider itself a rival of the older cities, New York or Boston. To pass to a State newer in point of development. New Mexico reports as follows in regard to its progress; the statement is modest in quality, but no less noticeable for the spirit and method displayed: Bylaw of February 11, 1891, public schools were established, and a school tax for the construction of school buildings Aras authorized. From that date to December 31, 1892, there were 532 schools established, EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 621 557 teachers employed, 28,291 pupils enrolled, and an average daily attendance of 23,151. It is well to say here that all the States presented educational information in the form of reports and diagrams or tables. Sometimes these last were printed on leather, with gilt figures. The American people, who are parsimonious in their bureaucratic expenditures, are very lavish, with an almost patriarchal tendency, in their expenditures for schools and schooling. There were frequently pictures and photographs of pupils taken during the lessons. Numerous were the photographic reproductions of school buildings, of the internal arrangements, of the grounds, of the picturesque localities in which the schools are situated. The newer States, that is, those which have most lately come into the Union, seemed to vie with each other in their efforts to make a fine school exhibit. Among the most noticeable exhibits, in point of externals, was that of Colorado. * * * Most noticeable was the earnestness of purpose manifested in presenting a facsimile of the first schools estab¬ lished in the Territory, with a portrait of their founder and principal, and of the best-known teachers. To thus furnish a record of the humble origin of the schools in one of the last States to enter the Union surely indicated an intention of doing all that is possible to place it on a level with the older States. Colorado, with 412,000 inhabitants, has 65,490 pupils enrolled in its public schools and 7,072 in the private schools. * * * This State has founded a magnificent'normal school which indicates the serious intention of those who established schools to provide the best- trained teachers for them. North Dakota interested me exceedingly. Its school exhibit had over the entrance, “ North Dakota has 3,000,000 acres of fertile school lands/’ Various laws of the Fed¬ eral Government have been the means of bringing benefactions in the shape of school lands; colonization and increasing value of such lands produce a school patrimony which the different States make use of for their schools. * * * This State has two normal schools for the instruction of teachers, and in the exhibit it was noticed that the State had made use of the best that progressive pedagogical methods could suggest. For example, I noticed the application and use of drawing or illus¬ tration as a means of assistance in all lines of pedagogical endeavor. Glancing at a synopsis of Greek history, I found upon the first page a drawing of three columns with both shafts and capitals. These were not made for the mere presentation of a drawing, but to record an idea. These columns represented the three styles, Doric, Ionian, and Corinthian, and here, even before the children learned aught of their history, were three simple presentations indicative of the art and culture of the Greek people thoroughly impressed upon the minds of the pupils, and in a manner which they will never forget. They may become bankers, commercial men, clerks, dealers in pork, sailors, or agriculturists, and yet they will never fail to recognize nor even become embarrassed before any representation of Hellenic art, the nation¬ ality and style having already been brought clearly before them. "What a number of useful things are recorded, as it were, from the association of ideas brought about by the grace and simplicity of the three columns drawn before commencing the work of a synopsis connected with school work. A few pages further on was a map on which the rivers and mountains, and the various subdivisions were left unnamed and bore simply numbers which were explained at the close of the page. Still another chance for reflection ! Not a word of geography to indicate what was intended, but simply blanks for the children to fill in or by word of mouth to indicate to the teacher the various places, mountains, rivers, etc. The school exhibit from Minnesota was especially fine, particularly that devoted to St. Paul, which is cited as a model. Here was introduced a plan of throwing the object to be exhibited upon a screen by means of the magic lantern. Thus the pupils were trained to observe the correct coloring of landscapes, costumes, and general subjects, while the instructor gave explanations which made the subjects of 622 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. history, geography, etc., most clear to the pupils. In the normal and practice schools of Trenton, N. J., the geographical exercises -were most noticeable; but some of the subjects under discussion in the normal schools will bo spoken of elsewhere. The study of botany was most practical; the text-books used (Apgar’s New Plant Analysis), after giving the requisite terminology and the general classification, pre¬ sented a number of pages, partly blank and partly printed, which were to be filled in by the pupils after the plants were properly analyzed. The text consisted of the most simple explanations when compared with the complicated presentations in our [Italian] text-books. This can be thoroughly understood when one learns that the American school is founded essentially upon the instruction given orally by the teacher, who thus cooperates with the pupils in all grades from the lowest to the highest. In addition to this, the pupils have blank books in which they draw well-known plants and flowers from nature. •* * * I studied at some length the object lesson and the methods employed in normal schools, so as to become thoroughly imbued with the system and spirit dominating in these important institutions, the graduates from which to become teachers in primary and grammar schools — that is, in the people’s schools of the United States. The woman teacher commences always with a drawing, if she has a special object to present to her pupils. Thus, at the same time that she is explaining the lesson she brings before the pupil an illustration placed on the blackboard, which illustration serves to conduct the pupil by degrees through the intricacies of quantity, space, and time (i. e., in arithmetic, geography, and history), if she is conducting a special lesson in these subjects. Similar lessons actually take place in the practice schools connected with the normal schools ; the pupil teachers point out the observations which they have made during the lessons, and it is curious to observe in these com¬ positions or synopses what caused the greatest embarrassment and difficulty to the pupil students. Observations and questions put to the teachers are also included in these books. The teaching is Socratic and experimental. In a volume of compositions I read three concerning a “Comparison of the local government in New England and Virginia,” and, as a result of my curiosity, I am firmly impressed with the fact that the Americans are thoroughly persuaded of the superiority of their local government. As additions to the history lessons there are pictures of the house of William Penn, in Philadelphia (if he is the subject under study), or of General McClellan (if the campaign of the James River is under dis¬ cussion), united to topographical illustrations of the principal events of that cam¬ paign. This method of illustrating the subject under study is universal in America. * * * In the same school volumes of art pictures were displayed * * * which contained reproductions of the most celebrated painters, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Giotto, Rubens, and of the most distinguished sculptors. This seemed to me a most excellent idea from the educational standpoint, because such a collection served to inculcate knowledge, to train the eye, and to contribute to form good taste. * * * As a continuance of this thero were historical scenes and pictures of persons, the dates alone being given. The physiognomy and the general type are supposed to be enough to indicate who the personages are. Even upon the base of the public monuments erected to statesmen or generals of the Union it was rare to have the names given. As specimens of graphic art, I was not favorably impressed — in fact, I was amused at first, for it seemed to me that this was intended as a joke to pass away the time, and that as scholastic work it was lacking in historic precision and aesthetic taste. But when I came to reflect upon this matter, and when I recognized that this was not the result of a teacher’s hobby, then I began to understand the general underlying principle, and that the intention was not to make an art study, but that the exercises had an entirely different scope. To-day in America, drawing for the purpose of illustration is an indispensable part of instruction. The study of fine arts as such is very different from the drawing or illustration which becomes, as it were, the basis of universal elementary pedagogy. In this our EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 623 inferiority appears, for, proud inheritors of classic civilization, wo regard drawing as a means of illustration, to be an art reserved for only a few vocations, and we only recognize instruction in it as an immediate end toward some professional, industrial, or aesthetic occupation. But in the American schools drawing has the same value as the alphabet or writing, and as all pupils, even if they do not wish to follow a literary profession, must know how to use alphabetical characters in order to signify their ideas, so they must know how to use that other universal language, drawing, as a means of expression. This is the reason, then, that from the kinder¬ garten upward all children have to draw in the simplest manner such objects as sur¬ round them, domestic animals, flowers, machinery, buildings, max>s, the plan of a city, portraits of eminent men, artists, and patriots. It is not of so much impor¬ tance whether the drawings are well done, whether they are done by pencil or crayon; the main object is that they serve to make an impression on the mind. Thus, like the alphabet in its conditions, they form a language of which all can make use. It is easy to comprehend that with these sketches, made as an aid to the study of geography, history, natural sciences, the Americans, following out a child¬ like instinct, succeed in diverting themselves by illustrations, so that the school is not only advantageous from this standpoint, but has its amusing side. By means of this method the images or representations of men, facts, deeds, etc., are impressed upon the memory so that they will never be forgotten. And as all things are linked together in this fashionable and working world of America, so, after having investi¬ gated many school documents, I was not surprised to find at the World’s Fair every day, especially in October, girls and boys, both morning and evening, drawing in their copy books representations of whatever they saw which interested them most, and which they wished to retain in the memory. Naturally, this universal appli¬ cation of drawing has special tendency toward the schools of arts and trades, but to enter upon a discussion of. that branch would extend this essay to an undesirable length. * * * Liberty and variety ! Thus may be described the pictures, drawings, etc., on the walls of the technical schools — figures, animals, landscapes, copies of other pictures, all free-hand work. Nothing conventional! No drawing which had not been brought before the senses, which was not a reality to the pupil. Such is the char¬ acter of the American school in divers forms of instruction. The themes given for discussion in the high and normal schools seem to me to follow the same general trend. Real live topics are given. I write down a few: “The crisis in France,77 which strange title induced me to read two or three compositions to see whether “the Panama scandal77 or some other subject had been discussed by these pupils of 15 to 18 years of age. There was no attempt at rhetorical effect, but simply a col¬ lection of facts, which immediately led me to wonder whether the students had read journals and reviews on these subjects, or whether they had closely watched the politicians of the country of which they were writing. As for the comments made, they attributed the facts of the Panama scheme to the excess of confidence which the people had in Ferdinand de Lesseps, and to the fact that a privileged few (privilegi) had control of that undertaking. The impression made upon me was almost puritanical in its monitions, for it implied that there must be no deviation from the severity of the laws toward any citizen. Other subjects discussed were: “The banking question,77 “ Should the "World’s Fair be opened on the Sabbath?77 “The silver question.77 These live questions, treating of the politics of the day, of the functions of public officials, were discussed in the public schools, and were a part of the system of that education which forms the youth to be a citizen and pre¬ pares him for practical life. How different that is from the passive, conventional, traditional, and bureaucratic type of our [Italian] schools, where the individuality of both pupil and teacher is held m abeyance. There are many other observations which I would like to jot down, in order to demonstrate the liberty accorded to the teacher in the American school, and to 624 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. point out tlie progress and efficiency attained by the methods employed in the Amer¬ ican school. But the system is so different from the Italian system that it is diffi¬ cult to present the subject in a few words. I shall be glad if these few notes be the means of inducing others, more competent than myself, to make a profound study of the society and institutions of that young continent, which in so many partic¬ ulars has already to-day placed itself in advance of the older European civilization. OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING AMERICAN EDUCATION. By Dr. E. Osterberg (of Sweden). The observations recorded in the following pages were made on a trip to America during the summer of 1893. Dr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt and myself were commissioned to examine the educational section of the great exhibits at the World’s Fair in Chicago, and to take part in the pedagogical congresses. Dr. Lagerstedt has given an account in this j ournal 1 of these congresses, so that I limit my remarks on that subject. The discussions in these congresses proved that there is a great deal of vitality and interest kept up among American teachers, and that pedagogical questions are generally and earnestly studied. I may also mention that American women took a very prominent part in the discussions of the con¬ gresses, a natural feature, since the teachers of the United States are largely women, who are recognized as teachers even in higher schools and universities. Some of the most impressive discussions, especially those relating to moral instruction in schools and coeducation, were conducted by women. Another noticeable trait is the harmony apparently existing among the teachers, without regard to the higher or inferior positions occupied in the school. The congresses took into consideration all the various stages relating to instruction, from the kindergarten to the univer¬ sity, and the separate departments conferred with one another through their respective representatives of higher and lower instruction. The questions predomi¬ nating in the daily programme of the pedagogical discussions were those relating to the training of teachers; to promotions from the high school to the universities; to the importance of the classical languages; to coeducation in colleges and in the universities proper. In the schools which correspond to our people’s schools and in the higher grades of common schools (allmanna liiroverk) coeducation is defi¬ nitely settled and not further discussed. Moral education of the young and, finally, the best mode of bringing the law on obligatory attendance into full effect were also discussed. The division of the World’s Fair devoted to instruction and education was princi¬ pally placed in the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building. In this immense building the larger part of the gallery was assigned to educational exhibits. Some of the American States, like Illinois and Washington, had noteworthy educational exhibits in their own State buildings; and in the Woman’s Building education and instruction occupied a prominent place. Several European countries had material of exceptional value. Even far-distant Japan and Brazil made themselves felt in the field of education. In the department of Brazil my attention was attracted by a very fair collection of work from manual training schools, according to the methods employed at Naas. The exhibits of France, Russia, Germany, and the United States, however, were the most noteworthy. Germany had a very complete and well-arranged exhibit of its school system, from the people’s schools to the university. Here one saw an abundance of material for instruction in natural sciences, geography, and history; collections of educational programmes and text-books, pupils’ work in manual training, etc. Elaborate accounts of the German educational system, which had been prepared for the Chicago Expo¬ sition, were distributed in print. Reprint from Verdandi, 1894. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 625 The United States exhibits were also very imposing. Nearly every State had a spacious section in which were found neatly arranged specimens of pupils’ work in all the various educational branches, with an abundance of reading matter, of feminine handiwork, manual training work in wood and metal, from the lowest to the highest stage of instruction. As a distinctive feature we mention that several schools (those of Omaha, Nebr.) reproduced their school songs by means of phono¬ graphs. Even the universities were represented by scientific work furnished by their teachers and post-graduate students; also by accounts of their work and by photographs of their buildings, study halls, collections, etc. The States further distinguished themselves by their very excellent literature, mostly prepared for the occasion in the form of annual reports. These publications contained numerous engravings of the study halls, the appliances and material for instruction, etc. They also included reports of school inspectors, which reports often extended into pedagogical dissertations. The plan laid out for my journey included the study of the methods of instruction in American schools. Unfortu¬ nately I arrived too late for this purpose. In Boston and in Harvard University, however, I had a chance of attending some closing exercises. To judge by a few of my observations, I think that America has developed methods that well deserve a closer examination. An extended and thorough study would be very instructive, especially in regard to instruction in the mother tongue, also in geography, history, and political science, citizenship being connected with this as well as ethics. It is natural that the schools of so many States should differ greatly in respect to quality and organization. However, the general trend of their development shows that they approach the system of the Northeastern States more and more. Here schools of dissimilar standing and organization have sprung up, which at the present- time form a more or less complete system. As an example I cite the school system of Boston. We find there kindergartens, primary and grammar schools for children up to 14 years of age, and high schools with four classes for the ages from 14 to 18 years. Next above these are colleges and universities. I wish first to call attention to the gradual extension of kindergarten work all over America. The sessions of the congresses devoted to the kindergarten system were attended by large audiences, and the work furnished by the little ones occupied a prominent place in the exhibits of the separate States. Daily lessons were given at different places in kindergartens in operation within the World’s Fair grounds, and these attracted the greatest interest from both children and adults. I have observed the same facts in England, where the kindergartens are highly appreciated. With us in Sweden a certain prejudice against kindergartens exists. This may be because this method is easily carried to extremes, and a groundless prejudice against “ Ger¬ manism” prevails. But it is evident that in education there are no leaps ; education should commence in infancy, should be well regulated for each age, and, in a well- managed kindergarten, training for the little ones should be obtained. How many parents understand how to carry on this training, even if they are willing and can devote their time to it? And how much could be done at an early age for the pur¬ pose of developing the talents of a child? “Take the child into the kindergarten and there begin the work of physical, mental, and moral training. Put the child in possession of his powers ; develop his faculties; unfold his moral nature; cultivate mechanical skill in the use of his hands; give him a sense of symmetry and harmony; a quick judgment of numbers, measure, and size; stimulate his inventive faculties; make him familiar with the customs and usages of well-ordered lives; teach him to be kind, courteous, helpful, and unselfish ; inspire him to love whatsoever things are true and pure and right and kind and noble.” Supt. J. L. Pickard, from whose book, School Supervision, I have taken these citations, says: “The importance of this preliminary work can not be overestimated, nor should the State depend upon private contributions for so necessary a work.” In New York and Boston the kindergartens are incorpor- ED 93 - 40 626 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. ated in tlie public school system, and this will soon be the case in most of the States. There are numerous private kindergartens in operation everywhere. Before I report my observations relating to the instruction in other grades I will call attention to the inferences under which it is conducted. The schools I visited in Boston, for example, made a very pleasing impression by their airy and light architecture. This impression was not lessened after having inspected the interior of the buildings. Statues and mural tablets decorated the corridors, stairways, and study halls. When visiting an American schoolroom, decorated with mural tablets, photographs, large charts, wall pictures, and bookcases, I found myself desiring to become a student. According to my idea, these pleasant surroundings must produce a very beneficial influence upon the schoolboy. It may be said that he becomes so used to these pictures, etc., that they no longer attract his attention. But why then do we decorate our homes and endeavor to give them a cozy appearance? The artistic impression produced upon the mind and soul of the children at school and at home by these externals is by no means insignificant. One excellent feature in the American mode of instruction seems to be the endeavor to make it as illustrative as possible. The blackboard is much used, and in the schools I visited in Boston the walls were supplied with blackboards all the way around the room. I have frequently observed the same feature in England (also in the new elementary schools of Stockholm). But the work of the school children at the Fair showed that the pupils are taught and encouraged to repro¬ duce their ideas at an early age by means of drawings. This is especially noticeable in the teaching of natural history and geography, and in teaching history and the mother tongue. I have seen maps drawn and colored by pupils of all ages, from the first attempt of children 8 to 10 years old to the artistically finished production furnished by the higher classes. It was a delight to see the charts prepared by pupils of the Cook County Normal School. Many of these maps, made by pupils of the lowest grades, doubtless gave great pleasure to those who prepared them. Grain, spices, pieces of iron, charcoal, cotton balls, etc., had been used to indicate the various products of the States or Territories. This kind of work is supposed to inspire the child with special interest and to awaken his self-activity. In addi¬ tion to physical and geographical charts, there were others indicating the products of the different countries; also maps and globes with light outlines to be filled out and completed with chalk. Excellent stereoscopic pictures were also exhibited. The text-books are good and instructive, especially those in geography, with their excellent pictures and maps. My attention was called to a kind of historical chart (Linton’s Historical Chart). Instead of the usually dry and dreary aspect of chronological wall tablets, these seem to invite the pupils to make investigations and inquiries, and are of great help in memorizing. The history of the world was represented by pictures in chronological order upon large wall tablets. To illustrate the middle of the eighteenth century, for example, Clive in India, Franklin with a lightning rod, the journey of the youthful Washington to the French forts in North America, etc., were represented. One can well imagine how the interest and atten¬ tion is increased in a class where such resources of instruction are drawn upon. It hardly need to be mentioned that exceedingly fine charts and pictures of all kinds for instruction in history, geography, and natural history were exibited in tlie German section. Another feature to be pointed out is the diligent application of pen and paper at the examinations in all school studies. To be able to express one’s self correctly, both orally and in writing, is considered to be a very important feature. Each juipil is led in this manner to think out the problem to be treated, and his answer will be more accurate than if left entirely to the method of oral instruction. Written answers are required, not only at the examinations and for promotions, but time periods are set apart for this exercise even during ordinary lessons. In this manner the lesson does not remain one incessant examination or recitation. The written EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 627 answers give more accurate knowledge of the conception of the teacher’s oral com¬ munications and at the same time require pupils to furnish independent and indi¬ vidual work. Complaints are made that the teacher’s work is greatly increased by the necessity of correcting all these written lessons. As answer to this it is stated that the teacher does not correct the work of each pupil, but certain answers are selected and discussed before the whole class. No stress seems to be laid upon the correction of each separate mistake in the written exercises. Each copybook is not required to be treated like a proof sheet ready for the printer. The exercises are the means by which the pupil develops his faculty of self-activity, the means to find out the standpoint of the pupil and of the class, a mirror, as it were, in which the teacher sees the shortcomings or merits of his own work reflected. It is quite natural that these exercises should have a favorable influence on the versatility of the pupil in using the mother tongue. This brings me to the subject of instruction in the mother tongue in American schools. From the conversations I had with teachers, from the text-books I read, and from the written exercises of the pupils, I learn that Americans are wide-awake in realizing the immeasurable impor¬ tance of education in this line. I observe that children, even in the lowest class, are given short compositions, so that they may make instant use of the little they have learned. It is, indeed, a great science to conduct instruction in this manner. Yet this science they try to develop in America. Some simple opinions are formed at an early age; short descriptions of a few lines on daily topics are made, and later these topics are discussed before the class. A letter is dictated, and the child itself writes the answer to it. An advertisement is read and the pupils answer it ; or are told to write an advertisement ; for example, to recover what they pretend to have lost. A picture is shown and the pupils state their view of the subject represented by the picture ; or, if more advanced, they prepare an argument of what may have happened before or after the period of the scene given. In the copy books of the older pupils I noticed a secretary’s book of minutes of a board meeting, etc. The questions of the day are diligently discussed. “The bad streets of Baltimore,” “Compulsory education,” “The Hawaiian question,” “'Should the World’s Fair be opened on Sunday,” were some of the topics treated in the composition books of the highest classes. I am not able at present to go into further details of this question, but will add that a study of American text-books in regard to the native tongue would certainly otter many suggestions to our teachers. * * * The number of lessor s devoted to the mother tongue differs considerably, but as a rule it seems that a great many hours are devoted to this branch, even in the higher grades. In the Boston high school, for example, the English language is studied during the larger part of the year four hours a week in the two lower classes, and three hours in the two higher classes (third and fourth year). It must be observed that in the fourth class, which has very few regular studies, English literature takes an important place among the optional studies, and thus language receives two hours more during the week. It is very evident that the reading of literature is encouraged. In the schools I visited each class had a separate bookcase, a hand¬ some ornament in the study hall. The book collection, consisting of selected litera¬ ture and adapted to the age of the class, is in care of the class teacher. Reference books for the use of teachers are also found there. The subjects treated in the com¬ positions bear witness that the books are really read. “ What I have learned from Ruskin,” “A half hour with Wordsworth,” and similar topics, seemed to have been handled by preference. The pupils also acquired great versatility in oral rendition. It was a pleasure to listen to the young girls and boys at the examinations in Bos¬ ton, which, as I mentioned before, I had an opportunity of attending. We have frequently heard of the independent manners of Englishmen and Americans in public life, and I had fair opportunities of observing this fact. No matter if the subject discussed referred to “The refraction of light,” or “'The structure of the dactylic hexameter verse,” or “ The character of iEneas as exhibited in the first six 628 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. books of the JEneid,” or a “ Secretary’s report of an English recitation/’ one was always agreeably attracted by the free and easy manner with which the subject was discussed, the speaker being aided by only a few notes. This universal faculty of unaffected and correct expression I observed frequently at the congresses in Chicago. Speaking of instruction in the mother tongue recalls some observations made while studying the German compositions of graduating students (Abiturienten) as seen in the German exhibit at Chicago. In our country, says Dr. Osterberg, I have frequently heard pupils, parents, and teachers express their uneasiness when the graduating compositions had to be written. This uneasiness does not originate from a doubt of the pupil’s ability to use the mother tongue correctly or to arrange the compositions logically, but from fear that the subject may be of such a nature that the pupil is not sufficiently familiar with it. To be sure, these topics are selected from the material which the pupil has gone over during his school years, yet a long time may have elapsed since he heard or read anything relating to the subject, and it may happen that these very points were never treated thoroughly enough to give him any essential facts to write about. It is not easy to write when material is wanting, hence these compositions often display loose and unsatisfactory arguments and are wanting in style. In Germany the teacher reads off three subjects, which he knows the pupils to have mastered, and then a higher authority determines the subject to be given (another topic may be selected, if necessary). In the proceedings of the “Abiturienten” examinations in Breslau, for example, the teacher announces that Goethe’s “Iphigenia” has been read, and proposes the following themes : “What ideas do the prayers of Iphigenia, addressed to the Gods, convey of her character?” “A noble man is greatly influenced by a woman’s good word. How is this proved by Thoas?” “In what manner does Pylades show himself a special friend in the hour of distress?” The first of these was chosen. The compositions indicated thoroughness and ease of treatment, which might be expected from thorough knowl¬ edge of the subject. In England and America the pupil sometimes knows, several years in advance, on what authors and works or on what period in history the ques¬ tions will touch. * * * These requirements prove that studies in the native literature are promoted. I have observed that, as a rule, the educated classes in England and America have a more thorough knowledge of their own country’s authors and their work than we find in Sweden in the same circles. Undoubtedly the interest with which libraries and the science of collecting books and arranging libraries are fostered in America may be one cause of this. Public libraries, and reading rooms connected with them, are considered almost indispensable in every advanced American community. It is not so well known that several schools have been founded and that departments in colleges have been established to disseminate a knowledge of library work and to give pupils an idea of the practical side of library questions. These schools have organized the exchange of books and made them accessible to the public in a most practical manner. * * * But more is needed than the mere establishment of libraries; one should also stimulate a desire for reading and a taste for the pure enjoyment found in consult¬ ing good books, and I have reason to think that this will be brought about by school instruction. The possibility of calling forth a love for reading and the literature of the fatherland exists already in the fact that the mother tongue occupies so impor¬ tant a place on the school programme and in the methods employed. It must be remembered that the programme includes a small number of studies, and that the school does not take up all the time of the pupils. The first section of the Boston high-school regulations reads : “ The school hours shall be five each day, five days a week.” Of these, four hours for recitation and for study are set apart for the pupil’s individual work. Twelve hours a week are assigned for home work. Under such conditions the pupil has leisure to take interest in a more thorough study of the master works of the literature of his native country. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 629 A question that greatly occupies the pedagogical world of the United States is that of the training of teachers. In a country where such numerous changes take place among teachers, and where new schools are constantly erected in large num¬ bers, this must be a very difficult problem. But the difficulties stand out clearly before their eyes, and they struggle with all their might to conquer them. Some of the teachers are trained in the so-called normal schools ; but these can not supply the schools with the requisite number of new teachers. Most of the normal schools seem to rank with the high schools, but the instruction is given with special con¬ sideration for the student’s future occupation as a teacher, and courses in pedagogy are given also. In this manner, however, only kindergarten, primary, and grammar school teachers can be obtained. Teachers of the high school, who usually pass through a college course, or take a degree at a university, rarely have a pedagogical training. To accomplish this, however, is the desire of America and England, where at this moment lively discussions are carried on in regard to “secondary education” and the training of teachers for secondary schools. This discussion was brought about by a bill that had previously been considered in Congress. In the meantime, and this I wish to bring chiefly before the public, the study of method in education and instruction is encouraged in every part of the United States, and pedagogy is by no means disdained. Some of the normal schools seem to have raised their standard far above others, and comprise among their students persons who have even passed a university examination. The State Normal School of Michigan, for example, grants degrees in pedagogy. The degrees of bachelor of pedagogy and master of pedagogy are granted to students who, after a complete course at a normal school, or examination for admission to a university, devote cue or two years more to peda¬ gogical studies and write a treatise on that subject. Several universities have separate chairs for pedagogy. * * * That the teachers of America were well versed in the theory of pedagogy and history could be observed at the deliberations of the international congress. An English woman, a teacher, who during the sum¬ mer took part in the congresses, mentions an utterance made by an American teacher in one of the section meetings: “We all acknowledge a certain philosophical sys¬ tem underlying all education. How many English teachers,” she added, “ are famil¬ iar with philosophy of teaching?” And we Swedes may well have reason to ask the same question. The difficulty of obtaining efficient and well -trained teachers has brought about the natural result that school supervision plays an important role in the United States, especially the so-called State supervision, which is carried on by one inspector in each State for all schools. School superintendents like Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, and William T. Harris have had unprecedented influence on the develop¬ ment of the American school system. Since the years 1830 and 1810 they have, as it appears, been indefatigable in promoting the interests of education in their own and other States, and by advice given to individual teachers, through teachers’ meetings and lecture courses, and through their valuable and extensive official reports, they have exerted influence upon lawmaking bodies, boards, and councils. One institution which originated in this manner is the so-called teachers’ insti¬ tute. * * * In connection with these there are reading circles in which certain books are studied by each teacher in the course of the year and then later are discussed at stated meetings. Summer schools are also held at the normal schools previously mentioned. * * * Even Harvard College has a summer school for teachers. These institutes also include the courses given at Chautauqua, which are connected with reading circles during the remainder of the year. The Chautauqua system has given rise to a number of similar institutions all over the Union. As another example of how opportunities are offered to teachers to avail themselves of the experience of renowned colleagues, I refer to a paragraph of the school statutes in Cleveland, according to which opportunities are offered each teacher to visit other schools on certain days. 630 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Especially numerous are the pedagogical societies and teachers’ associations. These frequently issue publications of their transactions. There are a great many pedagogical journals in America and some of them rank very high. The National Educational Association, whose proceedings are of great importance, and under whose auspices the international congress was held last summer in Chicago, issues annualiy a volume containing a full account of its proceedings. These large volumes are a veritable mine of instruction, and offer pedagogical reading matter of no mean character. Among American educational writings, the reports of Messrs. Mann, Barnard, and Harris, j>reviously mentioned, most assuredly take the lead, as do the journals edited by these eminent educators. The valuable publications issued by the United States Commissioner of Education should be included. To judge from the interest displayed in pedagogy by American teachers, by the highest officials of schools and universities, as well as from the importance the public bestows upon school education, and the sacrifices made in its behalf, one must expect fair progress in future within the province of education. My opinion is that a thorough investigation of the United States school system and a profound study of the schools in operation would bring to light various instructive details worthy of imitation. STUDIES ON THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AT CHICAGO. From a report by Dr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt, of Stockholm, Sweden. [Mr. Lagerstedt was commissioned by the Swedish government to visit the Exposition, and was required to make a report to the department of worship and education. He left Stockholm in June, 1893, and after visiting the United States Bureau of Education proceeded to Chicago, where he remained until the middle of August. He gave particular attention to the educational exhibits, took part in the educational congresses, and visited some of the educational institutions in Hlinois and Minnesota. In his opinion, the German exhibits were the most important after the American, but other exhibits are mentioned. After a short notice the author passes on to a more detailed and minute account of American schools. He begins with a brief review of the public school system of the United States, and notes the effect of independent management by the various States, but points out the fact that there are still certain leading features common to all schools. These features are then discussed, an I the schools of Columbus, Ohio, and Tacoma, TTash., taken as characteristic of certain types. He finds that the public school system of the United States corresponds to the secondary schools of Sweden, but is inferior to them. Normal schools are then considered, as is the preparation of teachers and their characteristic weak¬ ness in America. After a few sections devoted to the United States Bureau of Education, the powers and functions of State boards of education and city school boards are considered. The next few pages are devoted to American universities and colleges, to the higher education of women, and to expend¬ itures for education. After this general introduction he begins his study of educational questions as follows :] * * * The largest proportion of tlie United States school exhibit consisted of pupils’ work. This is probably due to the fact that the school children of the United States, more than with ns, devote their time to work that leaves visible results — to productive work. The latter includes short compositions in the mother tongue, besides penmanship, written exercises in spelling, arithmetic, drawing, painting, manual work, modeling in clay, natural-history collections and other work, map drawing, relief maps, kindergarten work, etc. The exercises in the mother tongue seem to me especially noteworthy. These begin, in Columbus, Ohio, during the latter part of the first year of the primary school (pupils of 6 years). The children, for example, fill blanks in sentences, using words from a given list. During the second year the pupils express their ideas, first verb¬ ally, then in writing, on some object or action observed. They describe simple pictures, and toward the end of the year write short letters or repeat in writing subjects that were discussed during lesson hours. In the third year (at first daily) written opinions and short compositions on general topics within the comprehension of the pupils are required; then further descriptions of animals and plants, and of actions, letters of greater length, or narrations with certain words interwoven. The EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 631 regulations for the fourth year prescribe the reproduction of short stories from Amer¬ ican history, read by the teacher; also, descriptions of animals, plants, scenes, etc., narratives of journeys, accounts of picnics, etc., and letter writing. At times the pupil may choose his own subject and relate things that interest him. For the fifth year, or the first of the grammar school (pupil’s age, 10 years), there are prescribed, among other things, descriptions of current events, or of more extended trips made by the pupil, and compositions on subjects taken from natural history, physiology, the science of hygiene, or other branches taught in the school, or on general topics of interest in city and country. The compositions are furnished in rough copy, and after correction are rewritten. This year’s work includes stories from outlines, writ¬ ing from memory, and original work. During the two following years, the sixth and seventh, nothing new seems to be added in this line. During the seventh year a written exercise is required once a week. For the eighth year, short letters, business accounts, short historical and biographical sketches, in accordance with given out¬ lines^ No separate courses for written work are prescribed for the several classes of the high school. The foregoing courses show that these written exercises are introduced much earlier than with us. As they are continued throughout the whole school course, parallel with oral exercises of a similar nature, it is very evident whence proceeds the remarkable skill of American school children in writing and speaking their mother tongue. Furthermore, attention must be called to the practical character of the written exercises. Letter writing occupies a prominent place, and careful attention is paid to the common rules of heading, closing sentences, and signature, folding of letters, and addressing. Special training is observed in drawing up business letters and similar composition work. For purposes of a more practical character we may also mention such as describing current events, for example, i>i\blic festivals, etc. One kind of exercise often resorted to is certainly very appropriate ; it consists in describing a picture. Such exercises are commenced at a very early stage. The pupil is given a small colored picture, which is pasted on paper, and then he states what it represents. The following may serve as an example;1 it was written by a little girl 8 years of age : “ Mary and her lamb. There are a little girl and a lamb in the picture. The lamb is jumping through a hoop. There is a boy by the well. There are two trees; I can just see their leaves. There is a seat between the trees. There is a boy leaning against an old-fashioned well. There is a bucket by the well. There is a rolling stick on the ground. There is an old country fence. There is a house behind the fence. I can just see the top of the house. There is a rock near the little girl’s foot. I think it is summer, because the little girl has short sleeves. The little girl is laughing at the lamb.” Writing of this kind was also presented in the French educational exhibit at the Chicago Exposition. Among written exercises of pupils many could be found that were connected with drawing exercises. A plant, or a part of a plant, an animal and certain parts of the same, a physical apparatus, etc., were drawn, frequently even colored, and described. Some examples derived from a high school in Pitts¬ burg may be mentioned. A paper with the heading “ Study of a crab ” represented this animal, with illustrations of separate parts and descriptions. A sparrow was pictured and described in the same manner. Another exercise, “ The growth of maize,” consisted of illustrations, mostly colored, and representing maize in differ¬ ent stages of development from the growing seed to a full-grown plant. In another composition a fruit-bearing branch of a cherry tree was seen, illustrated and described. Another showed a colored india-rubber leaf of natural size, with descrip¬ tion which read as follows: “This is the leaf of an india-rubber plant; the princi- 1Not being personally in possession of a copy, I have taken this from Buisson, Rapport sur l’lnstruetion primaire a l’Exposition umverselle a Philadelphia. 632 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. pal parts are the blade and petiole j the margin is entire. The shape is elliptical, the apex is acute, the base obtuse, the surface is smooth, the veins are paralleled costal, and the. texture leathery.” Sometimes, instead of a drawing, a pressed specimen of the plant treated was fastened on the paper. In this connection I mention that at examinations the answers to the questions are mostly given in writing. To what an extent this is done in different cities and places I am not able to say. This method of examina¬ tion has no doubt advantages which are worth considering. The similarity of questions addressed to all pupils will cause more correct answers ; the questions are considered more carefully; the answer is given with greater composure and caution; and the result of the examination depends less on mere chance. This method is also carried on in England to a large extent, from the lowest classes of the school to the university and governmental examinations. My opinion is that this method of examining deserves to be introduced in our schools to a certain extent. It certainly would be practical in the higher classes of our secondary schools in connection with oral exercises in mathematics. The experiments which I made when an inspector at the normal school for higher grade women teachers brought out the good features of this method. First and foremost, it is of great advantage in grading the certifi¬ cates that there should exist a written evidence of the student’s efficiency. In most instances it happened that the examination agreed with my previously formed judg¬ ment in regard to the student’s ability. Sometimes, indeed, a student, through the accuracy and keenness of her answers, showed herself worthy of a better rating than I had hitherto awarded her. Yet I do not remember any case in which a favorable judgment of mine, previously arrived at, was ever set at naught after inspection of the written answers. At times, of course, I became assured on one point or another where I hitherto had been undecided informing a final judgment. However, to per¬ mit the results of written answers to solely influence the certificates or opinions at an examination would be entirely out of place. Oral examinations give the exam¬ iner an opportunity to see the examinee in a different light from that in a written examination. It seems best, therefore, to have both kinds, if possible. For that purpose one might submit questions for written answers different from those used in the oral examination. For one pupil it may be easier to express himself orally, while another pupil is more able to state his ideas in writing. It is no more than just that each should be afforded an opportunity to show his ability in the best light. It is preferable to make an examination as many sided as possible. With this end, one might propose questions differing in nature, so as to bring out the indi¬ viduality of the student in his written answers. Besides, some of the questions may require only a brief statement of facts, others a more detailed answer; the latter, however, without leading to a composition, which is a question that can not be considered here. In regard to instruction in drawing and coloring, the schools of the United States present some features that are of great interest to us and very instructive. A closer study of this branch would be most profitable to a professional teacher. I will pre¬ sent only those sides which attracted my attention most. I have already mentioned that a drawing lesson is usually combined with a written composition ; the pupil must at the same time draw, perhaps color, and describe a subject. This subject is generally taken from the study of natural science ; for example, a plant, or an animal, or a piece of physical apparatus, etc. The teacher tries in this manner to connect the instruction of drawing and painting with other school branches. Some work sent by the pupils of Grand Rapids, Mich., in colored pictures of leaves or other parts of plants, bore the inscription: “ Our aim is to aid the instruction in botany by in¬ struction in drawing.” Instruction in the natural sciences is of course best adapted for combination with that of drawing. In schools where efforts are made to combine these branches the pupils of the lowest grades (from 6 to 7 years of age) begin with these drawing and coloring exercises. The children are supplied with paper, color EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 633 box, pencil, etc., and a flower, and then without further preparation they are told to paint it. The picture which the child produces is naturally very primitive, hut then all first results are crude, no matter at what kind of handiwork we make our first trial • in fact, the production of something defective and incomplete is a means of practice and instruction that will effect better results in future. The child’s skill in coloring soon improves and surpasses the expectations of everybody. In the Indianapolis schools,1 and probably in Various other places, the children are kept occupied with so-called 11 silent exercises ” in coloring. To the picture they add in writing their own thoughts or ideas on the subject represented. Instead of writing they express them at times by fastening on the paper a number of loose letters, arranged into a sentence. For example, one child wrote under the picture of a buttercup : “ Come again buttercup, where didst thou grow little flower?” Another child, representing the leaf of an apple tree, wrote : u This is the leaf of an apple tree. This leaf does not resemble a geranium leaf, it has the form of an egg.” It is easily understood that exercises of this kind tend much more to educate and are more apt to widen the perceptive powers, as well as to amuse a child, than if it were forced to write over and over again the same words or short sentences.2 To give an example of the com¬ bining method of drawing and coloring w'th other branches of study, it may he mentioned that the pupil, naturally at a more advanced stage than that just referred to, has to color maps or characteristic landscape pictures ; and that they make draw¬ ings of historical events, as the engagement between the Monitor and Merrimac. Besides this kind of drawing and painting, however, there should be carried on, at all times, a more methodical study of drawing. In this respect the pupil is to a large extent kept busy inventing new designs and composing decorative forms, at first under the guidance of a teacher and according to certain geometrical motives or forms conventionalized from nature. As examples of such forms from nature, I saw used oak leaves and acorns, the leaf and flower of a wild rose, leaf of a vine branch, blossom and buds of a lilac, an ilex leaf. Some specimens of this kind dis¬ played much taste and inventive talent and were well executed. All this refers to the mode of teaching in the practice department of Cook County Normal School, Chicago. This practical study occupies quite a conspicuous place on the programme of the normal school. Drawing on a blackboard is used extensively with the general lessons, and the teacher must possess greater skill in drawing than is usually the case with us. In a school at Moline, Ill., near Rock Island, I saw drawings on the blackboard that were executed with chalk by one of the teachers and had remained on the board from the preceding term. I can only say that they were surprisingly well done and indicated a high degree of artistic execution. Modeling in clay is a branch that has been introduced in more recent years and has been adopted in a great many schools. In the kindergarten children are set to work with it. They first draw and then model some geometrical figures, as a cube, globe, pyramid, cylinder, cone, etc., or some other easy figures, as a mug, vase, etc. In the Boston schools, where it was first introduced, this subject is taught on a dif¬ ferent plan. A few hours’ instruction of modeling in clay was every day (except on Saturdays) given to children during the Exposition in one of the rooms of the Children’s Building. The instruction was carried on in conformity with the Boston plan. Guided by things I saw and heard, and by a printed paper distributed among visitors and explaining methods, I will attempt to give a few particulars on the subject in question. The aim of this plan is an educational one ; endeavors are made to train the child’s capacity for comprehending and reproducing forms, or, in other words, to train his eye and hand. The models are after drawings that have been made previously from other models or oral descriptions. The child first forms 1 J. M. Rice, The Public School System of the United States, htew York, 1898, p. 106. 2 Ibid., pp. 126, 127. 634 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. a square disk of clay (about 6 inches edge and one-half inch thickness). Upon this raised figures are then formed by means of new layers of clay. The contours are first traced on the disk and must conform with the drawing on the paper that serves as a model for the work. All patterns for the figures are based upon geometric forms. The pupil is sometimes required to personally produce the designs from which he models. Tupils from 7 to 12 years old execute in this manner really diffi¬ cult tasks upon the square disks mentioned. Older pdpils model separate leaves and fruit forms, later animal studies, and finally, parts of the human body. In doing this only the distances from the principal points are measured, and the contours are drawn by eye measure. Thus the work is commenced, to the execution of which, first and foremost, accuracy is requisite, and the models are of such a nature that the parts can be easily measured by the pupil and later corrected by him from measurements. After the eye has been trained to judge and the hand to reproduce such forms correctly, some smaller mechanical designs are attempted that make a transition to more purely artistic work. That the collecting of natural science objects and other things belongs to the reg¬ ular school work of pupils, at least in some places, was shown by the exhibits. There were, for example, in the New York State division, herbariums and other col¬ lections furnished by pupils ; collections of wood specimens, rocks, fossils, specimens of stone and flints. From a high school in Kansas City, Mo., there was a collection of about 300 insects, mostly large butterflies, with notes attached saying that nearly all these specimens had been prepared in a room specially devoted to natural science. From a normal school for women in Wisconsin physical apparatus was exhibited that had been constructed by the students after a pattern which they had themselves invented. To judge by the exhibits, the making of geographical relief maps is an ordinary occurrence. The raised parts are formed by means of putty or a kind of pulp of boiled paper. The base consists of a wooden plate, sometimes only of cardboard. I wish to lay stress upon the fact that the branches taught in the United States schools are designed to awaken productive activity. This aim is not subordinate to the regular lessons, but constitutes in fact the principal part, at least much more than with us. Productive work is in our country included in the school programme also, to wit, writing, drawing, arithmetic, etc., but the larger amount of our school work consists in lessons being read over by the pupils and later recited at school. Besides this, our teachers endeavor to inculcate the pupils with ideas ; they convince themselves that the pupils have a true understanding and retention of these by their answers to queries in recitations. Our pupils’ work, therefore, is preeminently of a receptive kind. It is evident that the instruction given in the United States schools exacts a many-sided self-activity on the part of the pnpil, by way of occu¬ pying him to such a great extent with work which requires productive activity. To study lessons and to comprehend and recite the information gained calls forth naturally a certain amount of self activity, but only a one-sided self-activity. It is indeed one of the most important problems of good instruction to tax, in a proper man¬ ner, the pupil’s self-activity, and this it seems to me is done by the work referred to. This work is also apt to keep the pupil’s interest awake, a fact which can be easily understood. It is also evident that the knowledge acquired in such occupations will be better retained by the memory and applied in life. To adopt various kinds of such work in our schools would be most decidedly of advantage. This change could not be introduced without a corresponding curtailing of courses and lessons, but this loss probably would be more than counterbalanced by the advantages gained. The practical character of the school work in the United States is plain. The aim is to place it, as far as possible, in connection with actual life, during and after school. That this, however, by no means need imply an overlooking of the school’s aim to act in the service of education is well understood from the above statement. Finally, I shall dwell upon the movement and efforts of more recent date throughout EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 635f tlie United States in relation to “raising the standard of the teachers’ professional training,” and in relation to the progress of the science of pedagogy. The estab¬ lishment of chairs of pedagogy at the universities is included in the above scheme. The first chair of this kind in the United States was established in 1879 at the Stato University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor. There is also a chair of pedagogy in Clark University, where Dr. G. Stanley Hall performs the functions of a professor of psy¬ chology and pedagogy; another in Leland Stanford Junior University, besides one in the State University of Minnesota, at Minneapolis. The last-named chair was established in 1893. The “school of pedagogy,” founded in the University of New York City in 1890, is certainly quite unique in its nature. This faculty holds the same position in the uni¬ versity as the faculties of law, medicine, and philosophy. The faculty of pedagogy (it is thus designated on a pamphlet sent to me from there) is founded upon the principle that the special training for a teacher’s career should be placed on the same level with the training required for other professions. The corps of teachers consists of 5 members, a dean, 3 professors, and a lecturer. The faculty grants two degrees, the lower, “Master of pedagogy” and the higher, “Doctor of pedagogy.” To secure the latter it is requisite that the candidate be in possession of a certificate and have had at least four years’ successful experience as a teacher; to have pursued for at least two years the studies of the higher section of the faculty, and to pass a good examination in the following five subjects: (1) History of education and instruction; (2) psychology and ethics; (3) pedagogy and methods, including school hygiene, etc.; (4) literature of pedagogy and esthetics; (5) the educational systems of different countries, besides the writing of a scientific dissertation on pedagogy which displays an independent treatment of the subject and bears witness to original research. The first graduates of the faculty of pedagogy obtained their degree as doctors of pedagogy and masters of pedagogy in 1891 ; in all, 26. Among the doc¬ tors of pedagogy who have graduated hitherto there are 5 women. During the school year 1892-93 the faculty counted about 135 students. The persons who pur¬ sue these studies are principally those who wish to educate themselves to become school inspectors, superintendents, professors at normal schools, etc. A recent pedagogical movement, of which Dr. G. Stanley Hall is the originator and leader, attracts much attention. Its aim is to make the child, in the interests of education, an object of empirical study and to base education and instruction more than heretofore upon a true knowledge of the child’s physical and psychical nature. Dr. Hall’s journal, The Pedagogical Seminary, may be regarded as the organ of this movement. Two volumes have thus far been published. With refer¬ ence to articles in that journal, and to an article by Dr. Hall in The Forum in 1893, a few remarks will be added here to point out the work which has been accomplished and the aims and endeavors connected with it. It should be understood, however, that efforts in this line are not confined to America alone. The leading incentive of the movement may lie in the fact that Dr. Hall is both a practical educator and a psychologist, and as such a follower of the modern tendency, which, being based on psychology and the method of the exact sciences, endeavors to investigate the activity of the soul. This movement origi¬ nated in Europe, and has there its representatives in Wundt, Fechner, Helmholtz, etc. Valuable works on empirical child psychology have been published in France by Compayr6 and Perez; in Germany by Preyer. Examinations of a large number of children in regard to their j>hysical condition and for other purposes have been made repeatedly in Europe. Among others, I call attention to the investigations made in 1884, ordered by the Swedish school council, and which became known and famous through the book edited by Prof. Axel Key. Questions of this kind have at present been taken hold of with great zeal by the followers of the American leaders in. this question. They endeavor to accomplish cooperation among persons who study the child from various standpoints — teachers, parents, physicians, psycholo- 636 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. gists. Their principal endeavor is to gain safe ground for a better education and instruction. Whatever has been done, though, to advance this study can not be compared with what may yet be done. “ The future of the movement,” Dr. Hall says, “ depends essentially on never-ceasing, laborious work.” The study of a child is very far-reaching, according to Dr. Hall’s theory. He divides it into four parts, each comprising one of four stages of development : (1) Prenatal age ; (2) the period from birth to the age of 3 or 4 years ; (3) from then until 13 or 14 years; (4) from the last-named age to 20 or 24 years. Children belonging to the third stage, or that comprising the larger portion of the school period, have hitherto been the principal object of study and research. The usual mode of research consists in examining a large number of children, say several thousand, on one and the same point or points. They are measured and weighed, their strength is tested by means of dynamometers ; their teeth, eyes, lungs, nose, throat, hearing, their sense of precision and speed in movements, etc., are exam¬ ined under observance of every precaution to avoid error and to gain a uniformly accurate result. If it is a question of investigating what a chi],d knows in certain lines much tact is required and the cross-questioning is done by experienced and competent persons who are fond of children and accustomed to their ways. One kind of examination in vogue consists in letting a child, write down his thoughts on some subject. The child, as has been previously stated, obtains much drill in this line, and even in the lowest classes commits his thoughts to paper. The child even attempts to draw pictures and to illustrate short narratives read to him beforehand. A very simple method of investigation is one that for a number of years has been followed by the students of Worcester Normal School, at the instance of the princi¬ pal, E. H. Russel. The students are instructed not to make fixed observations with¬ out paying the most scrupulous attention to the actions and speech of the child, and to write down the facts obtained in this manner. These written notes are kept and arranged under appropriate headings, as memory, imagination, anger, imitation, etc. At present there are more than 14,000 such notes on file. They touch upon all ques¬ tions of psychology, and the best of them are used in the instruction of this branch at the normal school instead of a text-book. The following are examples of notes : (1) “WTiile I examined what the child had been writing Carrie asked my permis¬ sion to take her slate home and show the writing to her mother. Immediately following, six or seven other children asked permission to do the same.” (2) “Charlie, the child under observation, aged 5 years 8 months. One evening several chickens had been killed, and Charlie was sent to one of the extreme rooms to fetch a chicken that had already been plucked. After a moment’s absence we heard him scream as though he were greatly frightened. Somebody ran out to see what had happened to him and found him very pale and leaning against a table ; in the open doorway stood a young, live chicken. After a long time of questioning we finally learned the cause of the boy’s fright. He thought that the chicken he had come to fetch had come to life again and was the one standing in the open door. Charlie was, as a rule, not afraid of anything.” (3) “ E. (5 years), a girl, went out into a rain storm and, without having a hat on, placed herself in the middle of the road. The mother: ‘E., come in and do not stand out in the rain.’ E. : fNo ; I will remain here until I am soaked, so that I may grow and become tall. I do not want to wear dresses any longer; I want a pair of pants.’” According to common experience, the instances recited are by no means remark¬ able facts. The future importance of these annotations to educational psychology is by no means settled yet, but without doubt they will be of some service. “ This is no science as yet, but without experiments there is no science.” 1 The gain derived from these notes is in one respect immediate. They have proved to be of great help J Eibot. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 637 to graduating teachers. They take greater interest in each child, individually, instead of meditating too much on the pedagogical abstraction called the child. This study of the child, as it is expressed by some people, is done “directly for the sake of the teachers, indirectly for the sake of the child, and has the additional pur¬ pose to benefit science.” Some separate examinations of a large number of children and their results will he mentioned here. Professor Bowditch has examined weight and height of 24,500 pupils in the Boston schools. He found that until 11 or 12 years of age the hoys were taller and heavier than the girls. Later the girls begin to grow more rapidly and within a few years they are taller and heavier than the hoys. However, the latter soon catch up and outgrow the girls. Measurements of about 10,000 children in Milwaukee showed that a child grows more rapidly from May to November than dur¬ ing the other part of the year. By weighing more than 30,000 children it has been ascertained that children who are intellectually developed early are heavier, and lazy children lighter, than other children on an average would be at the same age. Investigations regarding the eyesight of school children made in Breslau among 10,000 children and worked out by Dr. Cohn show that the nearsightedness increased from grade to grade. Similar investigations by other authorities show the same results. Examinations have been made even regarding the hearing of children, and it was proved that many children who are not thought deaf nevertheless possess a less acute capacity of hearing, and do not, therefore, profit fully by the oral instruc¬ tion. Such children are considered less talented, while in truth they are deaf to a cer¬ tain degree. In Berlin it has been found that 25 per cent of the children examined were more or less afflicted with deafness, and in most cases sufficiently so as to impede the progress of their school work. The examination of a number of school children in St. Petersburg showed that more than 11 per cent suffered with headaches. Among school children in Hamburg there were 32 per cent having more or less defective nervous systems ; the percent¬ age increased from grade to grade. A comparison of investigations in this line led to the conclusion that more than 30 per cent of the school children in Europe have defective nervous systems; moreover, that the percentage in the lowest classes was almost zero in this respect, but increased to 66 per cent during the last year in a classical high school. According to statistical information in Prussia, 289 pupils committed suicide within the period of five years, in most instances from causes arising in school. The question concerning the effects of fatigue has been treated also. A decrease in the accuracy with which school children performed their work in the morning was observed in various grades. The decrease amounted to 33 per cent during the day, after four or five hours of work. Some investigations regarding a child’s intellectual life should also be mentioned. The first one ever attempted was made in Berlin in 1869, with the object of ascer¬ taining what knowledge a child possesses of things in general. The result was that children showed great ignorance of many things thought to be known by every child. Dr. G. Stanley Hall brought about a similar investigation in Boston in 1880. A great many children, about 6 years old, who had just entered school, were interro¬ gated as to their knowledge in various respects. The questions were put by tactful and experienced persons, usually women teachers. I mention the following results : 14 per cent of the children had never observed the stars and did not have the least conception of them; 35 per cent had never been in the country; 20 per cent did not know that the milk comes from cows ; 25 per cent that wooden utensils were made of trees ; 13 to 15 per cent did not know the name of the colors green, blue, and yellow; from 13 to 18 per cent did not know what their cheek bones, fore¬ head, and throat were. More than three-fourths of all children did not remember to have seen any kind of seeds, trees, or vegetables in growth. The subjects asked 638 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. after were mostly such as are treated in the first reader and discussed with the child at the beginning of the common school course. One danger closely connected with this may be easily recognized if those teaching do not sufficiently consider how little they may expect from a child — namely, that much of what a child learns in school remains simply a matter of memory and empty words, instead of becoming real knowledge. A child’s capacity of retaining in the memory numbers of about nine figures has been proved, and also that this capacity increases with age more than other facul¬ ties; besides, that it is greater with girls than with boys, and that it necessitates a great amount of talent in continuous and concentrated attention. Mr. Earl Barnes, professor of pedagogy in Leland Stanford Junior University, made an investigation concerning the religious conceptions of a child. The investigation was based upon 1,091 compositions, which were written without previous prepara¬ tion by pupils of different ages in the schools or California; and also upon conversa¬ tions between children and mothers or teachers, as well as upon a few recollections of older children. Among other things it appears that little children have most real¬ istic ideas about Cod, angels, heaven, etc. Cod, for example, is a big blue man who pours water out of a big bucket in order to produce rain, and who beats the skies when it thunders. Professor Barnes advances the idea that the teaching of religion to little children has to be done under an anthropomorphic or realistic form. If we really teach them, as it should be done, that Cod is a spirit, their imagination will never¬ theless give Him a human form with human attributes. A child's imaginations are founded largely on pictures which they see. For this reason it is very important that such pictures be good and well done whenever a religious subject is treated, as, for example, Raphael’s Sistine Madonna. Very recently a society has been founded in the United States for the purpose of working in the interests of child study. The society’s name is National Associa¬ tion for the Study of Children. Its establishment was determined upon at one of the pedagogical congresses in Chicago last year. The president or chairman of the society is Dr. C. Stanley Hall. The object of the society is “to promote, through the organization and cooperation of its members, the scientific study of children, among teachers living apart in different places of the country, and among parents or other people who pursue scientific child study, so that they may assist each other with advice, suggestions, and study plans, and in order that material which belongs to one or the other special study may come into the hands of persons who are spe¬ cially interested in working up such matter.” One circular distributed by the chair¬ man of the society contains, among others, suggestions for formulating a general plan for child study in its entirety. The headings of this plan are as follows : (A) Physical growth; (1) weighing; (2) measurement; (3) photographs, taking casts, etc. (B) Motor tests; (1) general researches; (2) annotations of particular move¬ ments and plays, which children can execute in the lower classes of the school; (3) strength; (4) promptness; (5) accuracy; (6) fatigue; (7) language. (C) Inquiries regarding the senses. (D) Higher intellectual faculties. (E) Emotions and pas¬ sions. (F) General observations (such as mentioned and directed by E. H. Russell, of the normal school in Worcester. (G) Abnormal and peculiar children. (H) Mis¬ cellaneous. In the circular it is advanced that observations such as mentioned under (F) may be considered as introductory to the whole study, and should, so to speak, be practiced as a first stage as often as circumstances permit. These observations are comparatively easy, while the others, on the contrary, require more complicated methods or apparatus. The persons who devote themselves to special researches should apply the strictest attention to the whole plan and make notes of the kind last named (F). The enlarged knowledge of a child’s physical and mental characteristics, which may result from the movement in question, will no doubt also influence the school and everything belonging to it. It is indeed desirable that the whole educational EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 639 activity, as far as possible, sliould be regulated in conformity -with the results obtained by means of this research work. On the other hand, the school itself offers the very best opportunity to collect practical experience respecting children, and to apply and try whatever is best for them. Dr. Hall at present entertains the scheme of establishing a school which in every way shall be an ideal school. Ho intends to place it in Worcester and connect it with Clark University. Efforts will be made to make the buildings exemplary in regard to plan, heating, lighting, ventilation, etc. The grounds will, among other things, show what can be done within a limited space. The writing desks, as well as other school furniture and apparatus, will be of the best kind. Only prominent men and women teachers are to be appointed, who are able to comprehend the best methods and to make practical use of them. The school is to be under the direction of men of university education, well versed in the history of education, in pedagogy, psychology, and hygiene, besides having a personal knowledge of the hest schools in other countries. The financial condition of the school should be such that it can in every respect use and furnish whatever is the best, and make necessary changes whenever they aTe desirable. It is easy to under¬ stand that a school with such characteristics will become very useful, and its bene¬ fits will probably not be restricted to America. The readiness to make sacrifices for public purposes, and the enthusiasm which distinguishes Americans, leave room to hope that the plan of this school will not remain on paper only, but become a reality. GERMANY. The German educational exhibit was very excellent. Great pains and attention had been bestowed and large expenditures had been made for the purpose. To j udge by the several divisions of this exhibit, which I inspected more in detail, it must have been among the best of the whole World’s Exposition. Whoever wished to make a thorough study of the German educational system found here ample opportunities, and the material had been selected with such painstaking care that it would be difficult to imagine anything more appropriate for a study of this kind. The German educational exhibit had its place in the western gallery of the Manu¬ factures and Liberal Arts Building, on the same side of the building that contained the other exhibits of Germany. A portion of the educational exhibits were placed in a smaller gallery above the first named. The educational exhibit comprised the university system, higher education for boys, secondary schools for girls, people's schools, with normal schools, and schools for abnormals. In this division I paid special attention to the higher schools for boys and girls and the people’s schools. However, I have not found it convenient to give an account of their details. The printed catalogue and guides which were distrib¬ uted furnish all the information that can be desired. Nevertheless, I will here touch upon a few general features, and on such other items as appear to me of interest. The largest part of the German school exhibit consisted of apparatus and material of various kinds, text-books, wall maps, charts, models, instruments for the study of physics, etc. One may say that the German exhibit showed, above all, what is done for the pupils, while the United States exhibit contained that which is done by the pupils. An important part of the exhibit consisted of collections of various kinds of lit¬ erature; works treating of schools and educational systems; text-book3 for different branches of study, and a library for school children. There was exhibited a collec¬ tion of eminent German pedagogical works, partly of more general character, partly treating of the history of education in all Germany or in separate provinces or cities, biographies of prominent educators, etc. Then there were books containing rules and regulations which at the present time are in force for the different kinds of schools, educational journals and annuals, all the proceedings of the directors’ con¬ ferences and the famous December conferences in Berlin, etc. Several publications 640 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. relating to the German educational system were specially written for the exhibition, and these, with several other works, were accessible in duplicate copies to interested visitors. Furthermore, there were collections of annual programmes from various kinds of institutions, among these a number of programmes for secondary schools for boys in Germany in 1892, besides a complete series of annual programmes from 1839 to 1892 from the gymnasium in Frankfort-on-the-Main. For the different branches of instruction there were collections of the best and most commonly used text-books, or such as indicated certain new tendencies, besides works touching upon the methods of teaching various subjects. A complete collection of German readers for the people’s schools was of great interest. The collection comprised 225 volumes and contained all the readers of this class up to date, beginning with F, E. von Rocliow’s Per Kinderfreund, published for the first time in 1776, the first Ger¬ man reader for people’s schools ever written. A division of the pupils’ library, designated the “Normal library for girls’ secondary schools,” contained 420 volumes; another, from a people’s school in Berlin, had 256 volumes, and still another library, for normal school students, contained 560 volumes. Of the abundant material for instruction, only the most important will be noted here, and this was intended for instruction in natural history. Several series of charts for this branch were exhibited. Among these, it seems to me that the well- known zoological charts by Lehman-Leutemann (Zoologischer Atlas) occupy the most prominent place, and would be of benefit to our own schools. Worthy of notice were also Meinholdt’s “ Wandbilder fur den Unterricht in der Zoologie,” which probably contain more species than the foregoing work ; also Leuckart und Nitschl’s “ Zoologische Wandtafeln,” besides Engleder’s “Wandtafeln fur den naturkundlichen Unterricht.” The latter work contains a botanical and zoological division. Very good were Niepel’s “Wandbilder des niederen Thierreiches.” Of charts for the anat¬ omy of the human body, there were, besides those by Dr. Fiedler, which are more familiar to us, some issued by Max Eschner, four in number and very much like the former, but perhaps a little better. A pretty pictorial work is that of Jung, with several others, newly issued, “Neue Wandtafeln fur den Unterricht in der Naturge- schichte,” 22 large charts painted on a black background, and each representing a plant or animal type, with many analyses. As a purely botanical picture work may be mentioned, above all, Zippel und Bollman’s “Auslandische Kulturpflanzen,” an excellent pictorial work, with carefully elaborated and very valuable text. In the edition on exhibit the background was kept in black, while the illustrations themselves were colored. The charts in Dodel-Ports “Anatomisch-physiologischer Atlas der Botanik” showed very fair illustrations. The work by Lubarsch, “ Wand¬ tafeln zur Bliitenkunde,” showing flower diagrams of various coloring, I consider very valuable in the instruction of plant families. Fine biological and zootomical preparations were exhibited by W. Haferlandt, of Berlin. They were preserved in alcohol and kept in air-tight, square glass bottles. As examples, I quote of the biological preparations : Common frogs (two specimens of spawn periods), nine larvae, one younger and one older frog, besides a working bee (eggs, larvae, chrysalides, full-grown insects). Of the zootomical preparations s Large house rats (opened and the interior organs exposed) ; further, a bird, a fish, a helix, a crawfish, etc., treated in the same manner. School material which was not at the same time material for instruction was sparsely represented. A kind of blackboard deserves mention. In one kind the board itself was made of black glass. These boards or slates are manufactured by F. Bender, in Dusseldorf. It was easy to write on them; they are easily cleaned and are no doubt of greater durability than blackboards of wood. Their surface is luster¬ less, although they are of glass. Another kind of blackboard was exhibited by A. C. Lemcke, of Cassel.. These were made of papier-macht), long and lusterless. The pupils’ work occupied only a small space in the German exhibit, nevertheless it was not entirely absent. Some series of copy books, drawings, manual work, etc., EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. (5 41 from various kinds of schools, were exhibited. Among others, there was a collection of compositions by graduating classes of 1892, from 20 secondary schools in Prussia, belonging to different grades. NOTES IN REGARD TO THE WORLD’S CONGRESSES. By Kirstlne Frederiksen, Copenhagen (Frederiksberg). In connection with the World’s Exposition at Chicago a number of congresses were held during the summer, at which representatives from all parts of the world met. Mr. Charles Bonney, the president of these congresses, expressed the hope in his opening address that they, as well as the Exposition, might aid in the promotion of general fraternity and harmony among the different nations. One of the speakers said that he considered the Exposition to be an “ annex” to the congresses which the participants should not fail to see. Several celebrated persons from Europe were present specially for the purpose of delivering addresses at these meetings. Unfor¬ tunately, some representatives restricted themselves to sending in papers, which were read by other persons, while the great names were, nevertheless, displayed upon the programme. To the Americans, who are fond of having hobbies, these congresses frequently seemed to be of much greater interest than the Exposition itself, however proud they were of the latter. They threw themselves with astonishing vigor and independence into the discussions ; yet even the most callous European could hardly fail to become interested in the variety of types and conceptions which he met here. A critic could have found various things to criticise, but the person seeking for instruction was rarely disappointed. The last two weeks in July were devoted to education in all its numerous forms, and there was scarcely an educational question which did not appear on the pro¬ gramme and in the discussions. Sometimes the proceedings took the form of a simple debate; more frequently a number of previously prepared treatises were read, viewing the subject from different points. By addressing their words directly to the audience the speakers often succeeded in having a theme well discussed. Most successful were the “ round-table” discussions. Mr. Harper, rector of the new University of Chicago, although a clerical gentle¬ man, seems to be well informed in worldly matters. He thoroughly understood how to engage prominent professors for the university ; many of them are distinguished scientific men of mature age, who attract pupils, and there are younger men who can bear the burden of heavy work. The university, recently founded, has already, among other collections, a richly equipped psycho-physical laboratory, which was in full operation within the Exposition grounds. In the selection of the women professors the authorities seem to have been very fortunate. Mrs. Martha Foote Crow, professor of English literature, who took an active part in the congress, gave an excellent lecture on liberty of teaching at the university. “Too often,” said she — no doubt she is perfectly right in her assertion — “the leading mind at the smaller American universities is proved to be an energetic person, but narrow minded withal, and sectarian interests are promoted above science.” The question of coeducation at the university was also treated thoroughly by Mrs. Crow. In her opinion coeducation is worthy of recommendation, though only as the smaller of two evils. As in England, many women in America, especially in the Eastern States, prefer a university education in institutions for women, even if they are in favor of coeducation in the lower classes of the schools. I heard the argument advanced in a private conversation that the young girls easily become conceited by studying with men, because the latter rarely read with as much dili¬ gence and earnestness as the girls. In a series of pupils’ exercises from a high school I found the same opinion expressed by boys. In addition to the excellently equipped women’s colleges of the East and the coedu¬ cational universities, usually found in the West, there exists in America a third form — the “Annex,” at Harvard University. The professors who give instruction to male ED 93 - 41 642 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. students hold separate lectures for women. This is doubtless only a transition state, called forth by the peculiar prudery that reigns even in the most cultivated society of America (see Howell’s novels). Mrs. Crow stated that she had been confirmed in her faith in the coeducation of the sexes when visiting European universities, as she had been especially impressed with the fact that young men are greatly in need of the comradeship of women. Another woman advocate of coeducation in universities called attention to the fact that the mere admission of female students to an ordinary university could not be considered the final solution of the question. Such a solution could only be found in the proper arrangement of the course of study and in taking into consideration the influence consequent upon companionship and cooperation. A notable woman who attracted special attention was Elizabeth Hughes, from England, directress of a teachers’ seminary at Cambridge University. Her most excellent thesis touched principally upon the education of teachers, both for higher and lower schools. She held the decided opinion that the acquirement of general knowledge should be separated from the technical or professional education of teachers, which should cover at least a whole year. Let the young men and women first endeavor to become' well educated, and then let them devote all their mental power and energy to the study of their special profession as a teacher. Miss Hughes herself received a university education, and she, with Mrs. Crow, anxiously desires an international organization for the higher education of women. In 1882 the society of “The Collegiate Alumnae7’ was founded in the New World, with the twofold aim of encouraging a high standard among women students and of making their knowledge and education productive in practical life. This society has so high a reputation that universities and colleges consider it both an honor and an advantage if their students are admitted as members. Its exhibition in Jack- son Park indicated that it had taken hold of such practical problems as the so-called t( College settlements,’7 a kind of “ people’s palaces,” which are exclusively con¬ ducted by college girls, and it has also taken up work of a more theoretical charac¬ ter, as, for example, the study of child nature. The idea of extending this society by means of European branch institutions seemed to meet with the approbation of the majority of women who had received a university education, and was especially favored by the English women. The protection of higher education against a too rapid extension is a problem of urgent importance in America. For this reason, members of the most prominent universities were appointed at the congress, and it is hoped that they may find means for preventing unworthy persons from obtaining the doctor’s degree. Of more positive interest were the congresses at which the university professors from Worcester and California submitted the results of their psychological experi¬ ments. They, like the women who received a university education, study the child’s early manifestations of soul life with special interest. The leader of this school of young, enthusiastic men and women is Dr. G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark Uni¬ versity, Worcester, Mass. This university is the center of a recent pedagogical movement. The normal school students of the city stand in close relation to the university, whose professors take pleasure in lecturing to the future public-school teachers, while these willingly collect various facts from daily school life and submit them to the disposal of the learned experimentists. In an interesting lecture at the congress President Hall expounded his thoughts on the relations between pedagogy and j)sychology. 11 The hour has come,” he said, “ when the Americans are no longer in need of the leading strings of the Germans. So much young and fresh talent ought to be able to create something original.” When we consider the result of the congress, we may say that experiments are always carried on on a broader basis in America than witli us. In regard to child psychology we have (with a few exceptions) during late years been directed to whatever can be learned from Preyer’s observations of a child. When the Ameri- EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 643 cans take hold of a question, such as the color vision in children, examinations are simultaneously carried on in Boston with perhaps 500 children, in Worcester with double that number, and in California with from 5,000 to 6,000 children. Mrs. Dana Hicks, from Boston, gave some very interesting statistics on this subject. As a prominent representative of Prang’s methodical instruction in drawing, she put great stress upon the importance of cultivating the child’s sense of color. Several curious facts were mentioned. Among others, that difference of race makes itself conspicuous in the little child’s partiality for certain colors. White children prefer — or recognize — first, yellow and red ; negro and Chinese children, usually blue or green. A young professor, Mr. Barnes, from the new university in San Francisco, showed a number of quite simple drawings made by children of all ages in illustration of a piece of poetry read to them. Just as surprising and amusing as were these draw¬ ings — reproduced upon the wall and enlarged side by side with the originals— just so ingenious and sympathetic were his interpretations of what the little ones intended to express. In the Pedagogical Seminary and the American Journal of Psychology one can follow the proceedings and experiments carried on by that group of men and women who gather around Dr. G. Stanley Hall. Taking place at the same time as the congress of “ Experimental psychology” was that of “Rational psychology.” A strange contrast itfmade; a meeting of men of venerable years. Their speech seemed in accordance with their age; in so far as I could understand, a mixture of Emerson’s transcendentalism, of German philosophy, and American theology. However, at a later meeting, I met on that side a youthful professor, a man with a powerful head, and who was evidently highly gifted, Mr. Royce, from Harvard. He tried, apparently, to enter into a compromise with the representatives of the Roman Catholic Church. Another group of younger men represented the “ Herbartian school.” Professor de Garmo, the author of popular educational text-books, seems to be the leader of this movement, which is by no means inferior to the above mentioned in regard to the enthusiasm and ardor with which they endeavor to introduce their theories into practical school life. Some dissension arose in respect to the practicability of Herbart’s psychology as a founda¬ tion of education, while harmony reigned in regard to the adoption of his practical educational ideas concerning correlation of the various branches taught at school. As original writers and eloquent advocates of the latter, several teachers from Francis W. Parker’s Normal School, near Chicago, made themselves heard. Mr. Parker himself discussed the subject “What shall be taught in the public school?” He is known as one of the most prominent “faddists.” A “fad” is some¬ thing temporarily fashionable — a kind of epidemic — and the taxpaying citizen places under that head all modern subjects that cost money, such as slojd — sewing in¬ cluded — drawing, physics, and foreign languages. The press and a powerful party in the municipal council designate the introduction of such professional training as contrary to true American theories. The German population alone, it is said, want the introduction of a foreign language in the schools, and a storm of opposition is heard in regard to expenditures for teaching sewing and manual training whenever a woman is proposed as candidate for a position in the municipal council. It is assumed that there will not be time enough given to the poor children for acquiring a knowledge of the three useful R’s (reading, ’riting and ’rithmetic). Probably all this commotion is raised in the interest of the taxpayers and their votes on election day. On the other side stand, for instance, the adherents of Prang’s method of drawing, at present in use in Chicago. They proceed with so little consideration and make such high demands for certain sets of apparatus that forcible remonstrance is easily understood. Great impression was made by the lecture of Rabbi Emil Hirsch on the subject of manual training. He told the Americans the truth on this subject. Their unbounded admiration for “smartness” and exclusive culture of the intellect causes a neglect 644 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. of both physical training and manual labor. The American press asserts quite un disguise dly as something perfectly natural and correct that the Americans leave the foreigners to do the manual labor, while they themselves work with the brain. Meanwhile, in the pedagogical world, the current takes a very different trend. This was plainly proved by the fact that the discussion on the kindergarten and its principles played so large a role at the teachers’ congress. The many manual train¬ ing exhibits, sent in by public schools, seemed to give significance to the words of those people who maintain that the press exerts little influence in America, while, on the contrary, the so-called u faddists ” indicate greater wisdom by going on in their own way, with or without the assistance of the press. SOME CHAEACTEEISTICS OF THE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF THE WOELD’S FAIE.1 By M. Eugraphe Kovalevsky, Delegate of the Department of Public Instruction in Russia. The first three universal exhibitions, those of London (1851 and 1862) and of Paris (1855), did not contain dn educational department. This feature appeared for the first time at the second Paris Exposition, in 1867, and met with considerable success. At the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, in 1876, the department of public instruction received due consideration, and visiting foreign instructors were enabled to become acquainted with the American public school system. Only a limited number of States, however, took part in it — twelve in all — and their exhibits were far from complete. The present Exhibition naturally could not dispense with the educational depart¬ ment. Americans are proud of their public school system, and resolved not to spare any pains to represent it at the Exhibition in the most complete manner. Besides all the States, the different religious denominations, educational societies, publishing firms, and even private persons, were invited to send their exhibits. The result was an enormous number of exhibits, for the accommodation of which a space was assigned many times larger than that of the last exhibition. The American exhibit occupied 175,000 square feet and the foreign exhibit 50,000 square feet. The number of exhibits in this department, judging from catalogues and lists furnished, must have been at least 25,000 or 30,000, and as some of these exhibits contained 100 or more different objects, the whole was a proof of the un¬ precedented development of the art of instruction in America, as well as in other countries. Considerable embarrassment was caused to those interested in educational matters by the fact that these exhibits were placed not only in the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building, but also in many other buildings. * * * The chief interest cen¬ tered, however, in the exhibits placed in the Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building. The exhibits in the different State buildings were outside of competition. In the American department the chief importance was given to elementary instruc¬ tion. By this is understood in the United States the instruction given in the schools for young children, kindergarten, infant schools, primary schools, grammar schools, and high schools.2 Here belong also evening schools, special training schools, and normal schools of different grades, whose business it is to prepare teachers for the different kinds of schools. * * * Having made an arrangement with L. de Dimcha, delegate of the department of instruction from Eussia, under which I took charge of elementary instruction, while Abridged from complete report in the journal of the minister of public instruction, St. Petersburg, 1893-1894. 2M. Kovalevsky is in error here. High schools in this country are always classed as “second¬ ary.”— Ed. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 645 lie took up secondary and higher education, I shall, in my report, speak principally of the elementary side, and refer to the other only incidentally. * * * He states that 11 the arbitrary mode of naming institutions of learning in the United States must have presented a considerable obstacle to correct classification. In absence of a normal classification fixed by law, States, municipalities, and private persons give their institutions names which do not correspond to the reality. In many institutions named universities the pupils receive only secondary instruction, while some colleges, which contain several faculties, in reality correspond to uni¬ versities in the European sense of the word. “On the other hand, there are colleges, Girard College, in Philadelphia, for instance, which consist really of a preparatory school with some professional instruction. ‘Academies’ sometimes appear in their course of instruction below the public high schools, and these last again are not at all alike. An entirely inappropriate term is 1 State normal university.’ “It is evident that this variety of names causes a great difficulty in the correct classification of the institutions; but whatever was done in that direction will prove of assistance for future exhibitions.” The diagrams and statistical tables, seen in connection with the State exhibits, “proved very useful, as they enabled the visitor to decide whether the exhibit deserved a closer examination.” * * * The phonographs presented very original innovations. At a certain time they were wound up, and delivered opening addresses and discourses on public instruc¬ tion and sometimes — what was still more interesting — the explanations of teachers on different subjects, their questions, and the answers of the pupils; or again, a les¬ son in music and recitation. The State of Colorado exhibited besides a very inter¬ esting innovation, a stenographic report of class recitations. Photography, of course, played a very important part. Besides the usual collec¬ tions representing buildings and pupils, there were some instantaneous photographs representing pupils at work in the class room. The most complete exhibit in that line was from the State of Indiana. These photographs were very interesting ; some of them represented the pupils during gymnastic exercises. The Boston Normal School had a series of them showing the positions of girls during the exercises. The faces in these were veiled in order not to show the features. Drawings vied in number and variety with photography. There were thousands of these drawings beginning with the simplest by children of 6 or 7 years, and finishing with paint¬ ings in oil and water colors. In the first rank must be mentioned here the Industrial Art School of Philadel¬ phia; a very high-sounding name for an institution where the pupils of intermediate schools come twice a week to receive instruction in drawing, modeling, and wood carving. This school has worked out a new method in drawing which attracted considerable attention at the Exhibition. According to the idea of Mr. J. L. Tadd, the director of this school, the drawing is done by the pupils on the blackboard, free-hand, using both hands alternately. Of the Russian representatives, Prince Wolkonski and Mme. T. B. Semetchkine pronounced in favor of the system. Mr. T. H. Gerb expressed himself as skeptical. In my opinion the system is deserving of investigation, both from a hygienic and educational point of view. The manual training exhibit occupied a very considerable space. The collections in this were of three kinds: the Swedish (slojd),the French (the system of Salicis), and the American, which is still in a state of development. Side by side with the manual training exhibit were placed an infinite number of articles prepared according to the Froebel system in the kindergarten schools. Col¬ lections of models in clay made in these latter schools and also in the lower grades of primary schools filled the show cases of the State exhibits. 646 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Sonic of tlie States did not content themselves with the above-mentioned exhibi¬ tions, and had arranged some exhibitions of the school children at work. In the Illinois State exhibit were two of these, a Froebel school and a school for the blind. Ill a separate building put up by the Indian Bureau was an exhibition of the Indian school system. The pupils were living in the building, and were also pre¬ paring their own food there. Among the State exhibits those of the older States excelled. The first place among these must be accorded to Massachusetts, the city of Boston at the head, the so-called Athens of America. * * * Exceedingly interesting in this department were the photographs of free public libraries, which exist in such numbers and are so situated throughout the State [Massachusetts] that the whole population, almost without exception, has access to them. * * * A magnificent and extensive exhibit was presented by the State and city of New York. * * * Not less extensive and complete was the exhibition of the State of Illinois, in which is the city of Chicago. Besides the exhibition of children at their work and the model schoolroom, this department showed very rich and complete collections. The manual training work was very fine. The first place was occupied by the city of Chicago, whoso exhibits were excellent. Both of the State normal schools sent interesting exhibits. Of the exhibitions of the Northwestern States the best was from Minnesota. A number of cities and towns took part in it, but the chief place belonged to St. Paul and Minneapolis, twin cities. The general course of elementary instruction was very complete there. In the exhibit of the State of Indiana the principal place also belonged to two cities, Indianapolis and Laporte. The first of these sent a beautiful collection of photographs. In the schools of this city the method of teaching is based as far as possible on the immediate observation of nature. Exceedingly interesting were two large wall diagrams showing the distribution of young people’s reading circles and of reading circles of teachers. In the State of Indiana nearly every school has a library attached, to which the pupils have access. * * * The teachers also have their special clubs and circles, the aim of which is prin¬ cipally to discuss the latest works on education and compare views on the same. * * * From Pennsylvania, as one of the richest and most advanced States of the Union, more could have been expected. However, the superintendent had sent a very com¬ plete report of the school work and statistics of public instruction. The visitor was impressed by the great number of schools in the State, 23,000. The department of the State of Colorado was interesting by its exhibition of phonographs already mentioned, and the stenographic reports of school work of the city of Denver. The English language is particularly well taught in the schools of that State. The rest of the exhibits were simpler in character, but full of interest. Besides tno exhibits of kinclergarten connected with the different State exhibits, this system of instruction had several sections exclusively devoted to it. The kin¬ dergarten, as a preparatory step to the primary school, has met with success in America. It attracts the attention of teachers, although two-thirds of the kinder¬ gartens arc private institutions. They have not yet become a part of the system of public instruction, a3 is the case in France with the so-called “ maternal schools, ” and so far exist only in cities. At the present time 137 cities and several States have acknowledged their usefulness and furnish means for their support. Besides several local societies, there was established in 1892 in the city of Saratoga the Interna¬ tional Kindergarten Union, the aim of which is the unification of efforts in that direction. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 647 Tlie different show cases in this department belonged to the Kindergarten College of the city of Chicago. The work of the pupils was systematically and beautifully displayed in the show cases. In the first division of the school, children of 2£ to 5 £ years attend; in the preparatory department, children from to 6 years; and in the elementary department, children from 6 to 7 years ; in the industrial classes, children are taught from 6 to 14 years of age. The house of Pestalozzi-Froebel presented the kindergarten system in its most complete and purest form. Close to the house was a large garden with all the necessary complementary arrangements. For the training of instructors in these schools there is a kindergarten college in the city of Chicago. The course in- it embraces three years — the studies are theoretical and practical. For technical education we shall point to a group of institutions called normal training schools. Two schools of the city of Chicago took part in the exhibition — one for beginners, the other a professional school; also technical schools of the fol¬ lowing cities: St. Louis, Toledo, Baltimore, Cincinnati, and New York. Near by was the exhibition of the Jewish school of Baron Hirsch, also from New York. For an exposition like the Columbian this is a very meager presentation of techni¬ cal education, particularly for a country where technical knowledge stands so high. However, Americans do not deceive themselves on the subject and confess that tech¬ nical education is not as general with them as it ought to be. Tverskoi, the author of Letters from America, speaks of a justice of the peace who, having sentenced a young offender to the reformatory, congratulated him on the happy prospect for him of acquiring a trade, which, owing to the lack of insti¬ tutions of that kind, did not fall to the lot of many. From the present short review of the exhibition we shall have to exclude the institutions for the blind, for the deaf and dumb, and for the feeble minded; also the schools for the colored race, and the school of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, whose work is deserving of particular attention. The department of school appliances, text-books, and school material was located in the northern part of the building. The exhibit of books for school use was very large. * * * Besides the International Educational Series, Appleton has published many volumes of compilations on similar subjects. Other firms pay principal atten¬ tion to text-books, which, being in great demand, prove very profitable. There is a great variety in the quality of text-books. Some of the poor, out-of-the-way schools, consisting of one class, use only small editions printed on cheap paper, while the rich city schools of such centers as New York or Boston and St. Louis use very hand¬ some editions. This variety, however, has its inconveniences, and lately there has been a tendency to centralization in that line. We made a collection of text-books used in the primary schools which can give an idea of the character and distinctive features of the books used for instruction in American schools. It has been forwarded to the educational library of the depart¬ ment of public instruction in Russia. In the exhibit of the United States Bureau of Education a model library of 5,000 volumes was arranged. Reports and statistical tables were displayed ; also photo¬ graphs of school buildings. A separate show case was devoted to the schools of Alaska. The model library was selected by a special commission of experts from the Ameri¬ can Library Association. It consisted of 5,000 of the most suitable books, in the opinion of the experts, for a city public library. The publishers’ prices of the books, without reduction, amounted to $12,000. All these books were entered in a special catalogue of 300 pages. Those interested in the formation of a library were especially attracted to this exhibit, as all the most modern inventions for the cataloguing, finding, and jireser- vation of books and pamphlets were made use of. At the close of the Exposition this library will be sent to Washington to be placed in the Bureau of Education. 648 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Professor Eice, who was commissioned by The Forum to make a study of the school work of the country, characterized the first impression of his visit by the very expressive word “chaos.” Doubtless there is a great difference in the mode of instruction, programmes, and results achieved by the different primary schools. At the same time they also have a great deal in common ; essentially the same Ameri¬ can spirit animates them all. There is also a constant tendency toward a unification of the methods of instruction. Of the three fundamental principles on which the work of public instruction is agitated in western Europe, namely, compulsory attendance, free instruction, and neutrality in regard to religion, the two last are acknowledged in all the States of the Union. * * * Gradually, but not without a severe struggle, the people came to the conviction that elementary education must be accessible to all, to the poor as well as the rich. A decidedly new departure in this direction was taken in 1837 under the leadership of Horace Mann, the well-known worker in the educa¬ tional field. The free school system is at present firmly established in the States of the Union. * * * The second in importance is the nonsectarian character of the schools, which is acknowledged by all the States. A great many different denomi¬ nations and sects exist in the Union, and in the absence of a state religion, and in the presence of a complete separation of church and state, it is natural that the schools should exclude from their programme dogmatic theology. The children of the different denominations receive religious instruction from their spiritual instruct¬ ors in the so-called Sunday schools. In the public schools the duties of the teacher are to set their pupils a good example in morality and good conduct. In some States the custom of reading the Bible in the schools is still kept up, but without any special comment being made. The third principle, compulsory attendance, is so far in force only in 27 States ; the others are on the way to its introduction. Since 1886 this tendency has been increasing. Free admission of all children to the schools exists in principle in the Northern, Eastern, and Western States. All the children of a certain district or town have a right to attend the same school, without distinction of sex, condition, or race. In the 16 Southern States separate schools are established for the negroes. In practice the children of colored races attend separate schools in the other States also. This is principally the case in the primary grades ; in the higher grades this distinction is not made. A very characteristic trait of American schools is the coeducation of the sexes and the similarity of the education of girls to that of boys in all branches. Coeduca¬ tion is in practice now in the whole country, with the exception of a few large cities. The girls study with fhe boys, not only in the elementary schools, but also in the secondary schools and in the universities. The results, according to the unanimous testimony of American instructors, are very satisfactory. The young people are gen¬ tle in their behavior in class ; the girls work more diligently in trying to emulate their companions. There are no shortened programmes or simplified text-books for girls; they are working with the boys on an equal footing and frequently surpass them in the progress made. * * * In the sphere of State legislation a tendency toward unification and centralization is noticeable. At the head of the school work of each State stands (1) the State board of education, (2) county boards of education, (3) city boards of education, (4) district school boards. With the committees of the first three orders are superin¬ tendents, whose duty it is to inspect the schools and the school work. * * * In view of the great importance given to school hygiene in recent years, it is the duty of inspectors to see that all the rules are complied with in regard to vaccina¬ tion, the prevention of the spread of contagious diseases, heating and ventilation of the buildings, etc. The number of supervising officers in this branch in the United States is 2,694. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 649 In tlie public press and in the reports of the Commissioner of Education it is con¬ stantly pointed out that this work has not yet attained its proper proportion. The opposition to it comes from the local school committees, but the tendency is to increase it. The school committees of large cities rival frequently in influence the State committees. They are generally quite independent and merely send their sta¬ tistical reports to the State superintendent. In the schools of the far West, situated on the prairies or in mountainous districts, the teachers manifest great independence in their school work, in teaching as well as in the government of the schools. But it is different in the older States. There the school boards define very carefully how and what shall be taught during the year. The regulations to this effect form whole volumes — a schoolroom guide, where teachers can find full instructions for action in every possible contingency. These regulations for the duties of teachers are not made from a desire to narrow down their liberty of action, which would be contrary to the American spirit, but in view of a practical necessity. Owing to the conditions of American life, teachers do not remain long in their places. Buisson, in his valuable work on American schools, mentions the State of Kansas, where one-third of the teachers are changed annually; in the New England States it is one-fifth. The certificates presented by the candidates for teaching testify to their knowledge of subjects taught, not to their ability to conduct a class; consequently in some of these regulations furnished to young teachers innovations are expressly forbidden, as they would lead only to a loss of valuable time. The committee makes a written contract with the teacher in which all the duties of the latter are enumerated. At the end of the year the teachers have to present to the superintendent a full report on the condition of the schools intrusted to them. For the preparation of teachers there are special institutions — normal schools — in which the course lasts from two to four years. For negro teachers there exist special normal schools and educational institutions to the number of 40. One-third of them are supported by religious and educational societies. Graduates of normal schools do not form a large percentage of teachers. Per cent. For Maine . 28 For New Hampshire . 17 For Connecticut . 42 And only in the small State of Rhode Island it amounts to 70 per cent. The female teachers outnumber the males. In the Froebel schools they reign supreme, and predominate also in the one-class schools, in the elementary and intermediate schools. * * * Evidently the passing of elementary instruction into the hands of women exclusively is only a question of time in the United States. * * * In the programme of study for the different elementary schools there is great variety. American elementary schools are divided into two large groups, the graded and ungraded schools. The ungraded schools consist of one class with one teacher. Their principal aim is to teach those attending them “the three R’s ” : Reading, writ¬ ing, arithmetic. As soon as there is an opportunity these schools are converted into graded schools. The graded schools, as already stated, are of three kinds, primary, intermediate or grammar, and high schools. The course in these extends from five to six or eight years. * * * The English language is unconditionally compulsory in the public schools of the United States, even where the majority of the population speak a different language. The American schools have a very difficult task to perform. They have to train children to become citizens capable of taking part in public affairs from such diverse material as the native Yankees, the negroes, the Indians, and the foreign immi¬ grants, consisting of Germans, Irish, French, Italians, Swedes, Norwegians, Poles, Russians, and Danes. All these persons could not take part in the affairs of the country unless they were familiar with its language, for which reason the schools 650 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. pay particular attention to tills instruction. Tlie number of schools and pupils is very great, and during the last decade great progress has been noticed in this direc¬ tion. * y*' * Private denominational elementary schools are of little importance. Of the whole number of pupils only 9 per cent attend them. The remaining 91 per cent attend the public schools. * * * The high average cost of school buildings in the United States is due to the fact that they are put up now in the most modern style. They are remarkable for the comfort and fitness in their arrangement of class rooms as well as for handsome architecture. Many of the schools contain large halls for gymnastic and other exer¬ cises and meetings, workshops for manual training, libraries, and physical and chemical laboratories. In contrast to these city schools, the country schools have frequently very poor accommodations. In the mountain districts and on the prairies the common log schoolhouse is still met with. The majority of these schools have frame buildings. These last are a special American invention. Externally they resemble pretty cot¬ tages; they do not cost much, and are furnished complete from the manufactory. But they have their disadvantages; in the winter they are cold, in the summer very warm, and when the wind blows high they are turned over like card houses.1 The reports that cyclones have carried off whole villages are not fables. I myself had a chance of seeing a little village destroyed by the wind. The inhabitants had encamped around the spot and seemed not to grieve much about what had happened. Some of the houses, among them the schoolhouse, which had been lying on its side, were propped up, and the people were rebuilding the other houses. The division of gymnastic apparatus was especially examined by T. Tv. Gnerd, who purchased at the Exposition some portions of the apparatus which seemed to him particularly new and interesting. Such gymnastic apparatus as was purchased was forwarded to the educational museum connected with the military institutions in St. Petersburg, where it can be seen by those interested in the subject. Besides the section of gymnastic apparatus, a very extensive collective exhibition of the so-called Forth American Turn-Yerein was deserving of attention. These gymnastic associations, judging from the pamphlets at the Exposition, have for their aim the physical development of children, youths, and grown persons; besides, they are trying to improve the mental development of their members by instituting reading circles and clubs where debates are carried on and pamphlets and books published. The leaders in this movement assert that gymnastic exercises, practiced in circles and in schools, tend to form a nation of good soldiers in case of need, and in the meantime develop in the young courage, independence, presence of mind, and cheerfulness. * * * The collective exhibit of commercial schools attracted the attention of specialists and merchants. Commercial education in America presents peculiar characteris¬ tics suited to the local needs and circumstances of the great transatlantic Repub¬ lic. * * * These colleges, or schools, very well supply the demand for trained bookkeepers, stenographers, and typewriters, and are a great convenience to candi¬ dates for these positions. At the Universal Exposition in Paris in 1889 the Catholic clergy declined to take part, the relations of the clerical power and the Republic were strained, and in the French educational department the public school reigned supreme. It was con¬ cluded to make up for this omission at the Columbian Exposition. According to the idea of Cardinal Gibbons, of Baltimore, there were to be col¬ lected for the Exposition exhibits of Catholic schools of the whole world, and the arrangement was to be as interesting and extensive as possible, in order to present to the public the results of the labors of the Catholic clergy in the field of popular 1 In reasoning from tlie particular case narrated in the closing portion of the paragraph to the general, the author has allowed too free play to the imagination. — Ed. EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 651 instruction, and tlius to advocate tlie idea of parish schools. To the appeal of the Cardinal the majority of Catholic schools of America and some institutions of France, Spain, and England responded. The exhibits from these countries formed together a collective exhibition which occupied the enormous space of 29,000 square feet. There were taking part in it 12 brotherhoods of Benedictines, Capuchins, Jesuits, and the order of Christian Brothers; 37 sisterhoods, of which we noticed the Sisters of Notre Dame, the Sisters of Mercy, the Sisters of the Poor in Christ, etc. * * * Of the European institutions there were represented at the exhibition 68 from France, 5 from Spain, and 2 from England. There was plenty of iiiaterial for inspection, even an excess of it. Most promi¬ nent were female handiwork and drawings. The Christian Brothers exhibited in their American schools the work of pupils in the English language of very good quality, also in composition. In the diocese of Kentucky some water colors were prominent; in woodwork a carved altar of very fine execution, the work of the pupils of St. Joseplfs Orphan Asylum, in Columbus, Ohio. In looking over the programme of study in the parish schools of the diocese of Philadelphia I noticed that in the grammar grade schools the geographies only men¬ tioned, in regard to Russia, that the River Volga flowed there and that there were three cities, St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Odessa. The schools for deaf-mutes of St. Etienne, Besancon, Bourg, and Bienne exhibited appliances for the instruction of their pupils, with illustrations of the position of the lips in pronouncing the letters. In the commercial department of the schools of Havre a small museum was established, where all imported products were exhibited as an assistance in the study of commercial geograjdiy and natural science. In some of the French schools the study of stenography was introduced as an inno¬ vation, which is of great practical importance at present. In examining the albums and collections in this department I was more than once surprised to find that the character of the subjects was throughout connected with the church. The drawings were copies of images and church frescos ; architectural work was devoted to church, edifices; even cabinetmaking and the ironwork had a church character. Such specialization can hardly prove desirable, in view of the small industrial importance of such work. Taken in general, this department showed that the Catholic clergy was working very energetically in the field of public instruction. The department of the different Protestant churches and religious associations pre¬ sented a mass of facts in regard to their activity in public instruction. The first place must be assigned here to the section of the Congregationalists. * * * . The Methodists have founded 10 religious seminaries, theological faculties at some universities, 45 male and female colleges, and 61 classical seminaries; the Baptists, 34 colleges, 7 theological institutions, and 50 academies, principally in the South¬ ern States; the United Brethren in Christ, 2 universities, 9 colleges, 6 academies, and 1 male seminary; the Disciples of Christ, 5,756 Sunday schools. In this department was also the exhibit of a very attractive association, called the Young Men’s Chris¬ tian Association. Branches of this association exist in many countries of Europe,’ Asia, and Africa, and in the islands of the Pacific. In Russia (probably in Finland and the Baltic provinces) there are 9 of them. The association exercises an extensive and beneficial influence, and its activity has the sympathy of the people. The Jews had two exhibits, the professional institutions of Baron Hirsch and the collective exhibition of the Alliance Israelite Universelle. The schools of this asso¬ ciation did not present a denominational character. Their aims are purely educa¬ tional, and they try to avoid the narrow spirit of exclusiveness. It has nearly 40,000 members. It has taken up the difficult task of assisting the moral and intellectual development of the Jews, of encouraging the acquirement of professions and trades, of struggling against their ignorance and faults, frequently the result of ill-founded prejudices, and of assisting as much as possible in their emancipation in those coun- 652^ EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tries where they do not enjoy full civil and religious liberty. This association, work¬ ing outside of political and religious questions, directs its activity, according to a circular published, principally to the work of education, and has established schools founded on the modern demands of education, in place of the old Talmud Toro’s school, which is of a sectarian character. These schools have been established in Turkey, Bulgaria, and on the shores of the Mediterranean in Asia Minor and Africa. The show cases at the Exposition were filled with a quantity of articles ; the exhibits of agricultural institutions excited special interest, as they proved that with proper education the young Jews were capable of taking an interest in agriculture, for which in Russia they generally show an aversion. . In the same proportion as the exhibit of the United States was extensive, many- sided, and interesting, the exhibit of foreign countries was modest and incomplete, with the exception of, perhaps, Germany, Russia, and France. This is quite nat¬ ural. Those who come to an exhibition generally come with the intention of study¬ ing the local educational system, caring comparatively little for the education of foreign countries, which is already known to them. The school, and particularly the primary school, is so intimately connected with the conditions and customs of the country to which it belongs that it is necessary for the proper understanding of it to know something of the country itself, of its inhabitants, and to be able to visit personally some of its institutions. Since exhibitions have become so frequent, pupils and teachers would be losing valuable time in preparing 'for them. In-the case of one’s own exposition this is different, for it appears to those in charge' of public instruction similar to a general examination with the whole nation for its audience. Of the European countries, Russia, France, Germany, and England had arranged fairly good exhibitions. The first place must doubtless be awarded to Germany for the fullness, variety, and interest of its exhibit. The external facade of the build¬ ing was very handsome. There were over 500 exhibits sent, representing primary schools, intermediate schools, universities, special institutions of all kinds, and the German department of public instruction. A very large collection of text-books, books, atlases, globes, wall maps, and other school appliances, work of pupils, and photographs completed the exhibit. The second place belonged to the Russian school exhibit, which occupied five rooms. In the first room was the exhibit of the educational museum — a complete col¬ lection of school appliances, text-books, different editions, etc., all very tastefully and cleverly arranged by the distinguished educator, T. Tv. Guerd. Rext came the room with the exhibit of the department of communication (roads), "and the room containing private exhibits, conspicuous among which was a beautiful show case from the cartographical establishment of IlUine; a copy of the book of Mme. Altchevski, What the People Should Read; the section of the association for the extension of the Holy Scriptures, the calculating machine of Oder, the universal school bench of Professor Brandt, of the University of Charkoff, and the exhibits of the Technical Institute of St. Petersburg, etc. To the left of the second corridor were arranged two alcoves; one was occupied by the exhibit of the Central School of Technical Drawing of Baron Stieglitz, the other by that of the School of Draw¬ ing of the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Art. Opposite to these was a large room devoted to the institutions of the Empress Marie. This department was in the care of Mme. Semetchkme, who is well known in America and who was at the Exposition in Philadelphia. The handiwork of women attracted general attention. The Demidoff Asylum for Working People in St. Petersburg had on exhibition a present intended for the President of the United States, a handsome scarf of red satin embroidered after an antique Russian design of the thirteenth century. For the wife of the President was a large sachet, on which was represented the arrival of the steamer Leo with Ameiican cereals in the unfortunate year of our famine. The majority of the exhibits of the department of EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 653 the Empress Marie were presented to the Americans as an acknowledgment of their fraternal assistance. Next came the room of the department of public instruction, the exhibit of which was very complete. The exhibit of the school district of the Caucasus was very complete and interesting. Here also were the publications of the imperial commission for the introduction of reading among the people. France occupied three rooms filled with cases in which were displayed text-books, other school books, and the work of pupils. Of these last must be noticed the so-called “cahiers de roulement,” in which each pupil in turn writes his school task. A book is received in which all the pupils of the- class have taken part, and which gives the inspector a clear idea of the condition of the class and serves as a great stimulus to the pupils for carrying on their tasks in an earnest manner. Next to the room of the department of public instruction was the exhibition of the well-known Paris school “ £eole des Arts et M6tiers.” In the English division of the exhibition in the Manufactures Building was the exhibit of the city of London, of the science and art department which had sent the wdrk of pupils, and of the University of Oxford, demonstrating the system of university extension. This system is known in Russia through the works of the Moscow professor, T. T. Yanjul. In the TVoman’s Building, Great Britain presented many interesting things in regard to female education, principally the higher education; in primary education there was very little to be seen in this building. Very interesting and convincing was an exhibition of card photographs of the babies of some ladies who had received a degree in the English universities. The object of these cards was to show that study did not unfit women to be mothers. The proof was very striking, for the babies looked so well, so fat, and so full of life that it was a pleasure to see them, and the mothers by their side in their professors’ caps had reason to be proud of them. The attention of foreign educators and representatives of learning centered, after the United States, principally on the other American countries and colonies. The exhibitions of the two countries adjacent to the United States, Canada and Mexico, although placed side by side, were very dissimilar. The race characteristics of each were immediately apparent. The exhibits of Canada occupied several rooms. There were sections of public instruction in the different provinces, which are perfectly independent of each other in this respect; there were those of Catholic and Protest¬ ant schools, and those of private firms and individuals. Among the provincial exhibitions the most interesting was that of the Province of Ontario. The department of public instruction of this Province had published for the exhibition a very excellent book, The Educational System of the Province of Ontario. In Mexico public instruction has advanced considerably of late years, but the percentage of students is still only 4.7. In theory, education is considered free and compulsory, but in practice, particularly in the less populous States where the Indians predominate, compulsory attendance can not be enforced yet. Coeducation is found only in exceptional cases. The civilized Indians are taught with the whites. For those not yet civilized special schools are established, where the teachers are young Indians, taken from the same tribe and trained in institutions for teachers. There are in Mexico 2,878 Government schools for boys, and 1,079 for girls; mixed schools, 327; municipal schools for boys, 3,176, and 1,056 for girls; mixed, 503. Total, 9,039. There are schools for the training of male teachers, and one in the City of Mexico for the training of female teachers. Besides these, there are in the country 2 agricul¬ tural colleges, 1 commercial college, and 3 technical schools for pupils of both sexes. Side by side with the public schools there flourish also a considerable number of private schools, principally under the direction of the Catholic clergy. Among the countries of South America let us consider in passing the little Repub¬ lic of Uruguay, which has given a good example of energy and perseverance in the 654 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. work of public instruction. Until 1877, when the law for general education was first passed there, the schools were in a very low state. There were only 412 schools in the whole country, and these furnished a limited amount of instruction. In 1891, the date of latest statistics, the number of schools had more than doubled, and the number of pupils was more than three times as great. Education was made free and compulsory; for the training of teachers of both sexes there were two semi¬ naries ; the teachers were twice assembled in educational congress ; for the study of the latest subjects of investigation specialists were sent to Europe; an educational museum was established at the capital. The instruction in the schools is according to the latest demands in education. The school buildings are improved and well sup¬ plied ; many have libraries attached to them. The number of pupils to each teacher is 36, which is not excessive. The country has one kindergarten and an industrial school. By the side of the public schools there are also private institutions. In each dej)artment (the Government subdivisions of the country) is organized a committee of public instruction, the members of which serve without pay and each division has an inspector. The Government spends annually one-ninth of its income for public instruction; the price of the education of each pupil amounts to $13.27. As a result of these efforts there is a great improvement in primary instruction. In the words of the report, “;E1 caracter de la ensenanza es educativo, racional, apro- piado, rigorosamente gradual, y por lo tanto, progresivo, integro, armonio, vivo, agradable y, sobre toda, practico' d fin de que dicha ensenanza repose sobre bases solides ! ” To a Northerner this excessive enthusiasm and delight may appear naive, but when the object of it is the education of the people we must respect it. Every country could be and ought to be proud of a similar success. The people of Uruguay must have remembered the words of the late President Garfield, that “Good schools are less expensive than revolutions.” It would take too long to examine the other American countries, particularly since only a few of them (Brazil, Jamaica) had school exhibits ; for this reason we shall content ourselves with the following statistical table : Countries. Population. Pupils. Per cent. Argentine _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4. 036, 492 1, 192, 162 14, 002. 335 4, 829, 411 2, 766, 747 276, 983 27, 764 6.8 2.3 Bolivia . _ . . . . . .............. _ ......... _ ... _ .... Brazil _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ „ 305, 193 2. 2 Canada _ _ ... _ ............................ _ ............. 998. 823 20.8 Chile . 122, 664 93, 187 4.4 Cnlomhia, _ ... _ _ _ _ _ _ 3, 878, 600 2. 4 Costa Rica. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 238, 782 17, 5C0 7.3 f!nha _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, 521, 684 1, 271, 861 1,452, C03 284, 887 50, 000 3.3 Ecuador .... . . . - . . . 58, 308 57, 380 4. 6 Guatemala . ....... _ .... _ _ _ ...... _ .......... 4. 0 Guiana (British) .................. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...... 27, 884 1, 678 10, 000 9.8 C-uiana, ('French^ __ _ _ _ 25, 796 960, 000 6.4 Haiti .... _ _ ....... _ _ _ _ .... _ - _ .............. 1.0 TT nn rl n ra s _ _ _ _ _ 431, 917 23, 000 2, 450 75, 680 5. 3 Honduras (British) _ _ _ ... _ .... _ ....... _ 31, 471 8.0 639, 491 324, 462 11, 632. 924 400, 000 329, 645 11.8 TVT a rti n i rp 1 r . . __ _ _ _ ..... 18, 073 543, 977 5.5 Mexico _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4.7 Nicaragua . - . . . . . . 11, 914 3.0 Paraouav . ... _ _ _ ............................. _ ....... 25, 594 71, 435 8.0 2, 700, 945 2.0 Pnrtn T?.ir.r» _ _ _ 806, 708 777, 895 Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 473 10, 000 5, 684 3.7 San Domingo . ................ . . . 610, 000 1.6 Surinam ....................................... 55, 968 208, 030 62, 622, 250 10.0 Trinidad _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 19, 6S5 9.4 United States . . . - . - _ _ _ 14, 377, 536 23.3 Horth Atlantic . . . . . . . . . 17, 410, 545 3, 694, 067 21.2 South Atlantic _ _ _ 8, 857, 920 22, 362. 279 1, 903, 468 21.5 South Central . . . _ _ 5. 647, 308 2, 558, 378 574, 315 25.0 "North Central _ - . - ---- _ -_- _ _ 10, 972, 893 23.0 Western . 3, 027, 613 19.0 Uruguay . 706. 524 65. 621 9.0 Venezuela . . . 2, 285, 054 104, 840 5.0 EUROPEAN COMMENTS ON AMERICAN EDUCATION. 655 The only province from Australia to take part in this department of the Exhibi¬ tion was New South Wales. In the whole of Australia the number of students in the different institutions is 256,151, or 22 per cent of the population. The expenses of school education for each pupil amounts to $18.65, which is a very high figure. Among the Asiatic countries the exhibition of Japan was most interesting. The movement for better school organization began there comparatively late in 1872. The laws governing the present school system date from the year 1886. Owing to their natural power of imitation the Japanese have taken the European school sys¬ tem, and, after making some slight alterations in it, present it as a national one. The education is compulsory; it is nonsectarian and free, although the children of the rich pay a certain sum on entering the school. The number of pupils is consid¬ erable. The small number of girls in comparison with that of boys (less than one- third) shows that the principle of female education has not as yet taken root in Japan. The expenditures for public instruction reach the sum of $9,000,000, of which 80 per cent is spent on primary education. Of the other countries in Asia the Island of Ceylon had a separate building where very interesting ethnological collections were exhibited. In public instruction the exhibits were very few, although the cause of education is beginning to develop in this colony. To the north of Ceylon is the great Indian Empire. Here the work of education is still weaker, although on the whole it is making progress. From Africa, Egypt took part in the Exhibition. The exhibits there were not large but interesting. In the city primary schools both English and French are taught. English language is used in 2,237 schools, the French in 2,840 schools. In conclusion we must notice the exhibitions of some associations not directly connected with the work of education but whose activity is of a humanitarian character. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and the Society for the Pre¬ vention of Cruelty to Animals were fairly well represented. An interesting exhibit was that of the Society of the Friends of Peace, which counts several millions of members and advocates peace, fraternity of nations, and the establishment of international courts of arbitration, and which is gaining so many adherents. Until the present time there have been seventy-five cases of arbi¬ tration between the people of Europe, Asia, and America, which have resulted in a peaceful solution of the difficulties. In 1890 all the States of America had adopted the principle of arbitration. The Peace Society of the last international congress expressed the wish to have this principle introduced in the study of history and to have the cult of war diminished. The American Bible Society occupied considerable space. The extensive and ener¬ getic work of this society is known the world over. Its editions are printed in thirty- two languages, and the Bible published by this society can be found in the remotest parts of Siberia, as well as in the extreme north of Canada, in the center of Africa, and in the torrid parts of Asia. Lastly, the exhibit of the National Temperance Union showed that the yearly amount spent by the population of the United States for spirituous liquors, tobacco, and stimulants exceeded the expenses for bread, meat, clothing, education, or religion. With this we shall conclude our brief report on the educational department of the Universal Exhibition in the city of Chicago. This department was, on the whole, extensive, many-sided, and interesting, and embraced every possible kind of institu¬ tion of learning. The grouping of the exhibits, the introduction of phonographs, the practical exhibition of school children at work, the model school building, the large part taken in the Exhibition by the clergy and by various associations formed its chief characteristics. * * * The departments of foreign countries, particu¬ larly of new countries, “testified to the fact that the organization and proper maintenance of public instruction forms at the present time one of the chief cares of a government, and that the fundamental principles of gratuitous public instruc- 656 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tion, compulsory attendance, and the proper training of teachers are generally acknowledged.” Collectively the exhibit of American schools “presented overpowering material. It showed how broad and deep was the spread of public instruction in the United States. Granted that it is not yet firmly established, that there are sometimes inex¬ perienced teachers, and as yet many a flaw in the school laws, yet its general ten¬ dency is such as to make one forget these shortcomings.” Americans have reached the conviction that the “ ignorance of the people is a shame to the country and its greatest misfortune. They are trying by all the means in their power to dispel the darkness of ignorance, and, notwithstanding great obstacles and the constant influx of immigrants, they are attaining these ends.” * * * It is true that their general school system “presents much patchwork and want of harmony, but in the present feverish state of American life there is no time to wait ; the accessible must be made use of. The result shows us thousands of schools spread over the country where millions of children are taught,, and the spread of knowledge among the population greater than anywhere else.” The Exposition itself is the “'best proof of it. Only an independent, wealthy, and educated people would create such an Exposition, and only an educated and thinking population could appreciate it.” CHAPTER VII. AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.1 Report of Professor Riedler, of the Royal Polytechnicum at Berlin. INTRODUCTION. The question as to what schools in America may be considered technological (or polytechnical) schools can not he answered definitely, since there are no sharply defined lines between the various institutions with regard to that which they teach. Public education is an affair of the separate States and communities, and the con¬ ceptions of the State and city boards of education, as well as the views of princi¬ pals and teachers of the various institutions, differ very much with reference to matter and method of instruction. The consequence is a very great variety of schools despite their uniform nomenclature. In order to gain a proper point of view, I was obliged, on my earlier journeys undertaken for the purpose of study, to devote more time and labor to the schools than to professional studies. I was not satisfied with the information gathered from catalogues or from visiting the institutions and asking for explanation from princi¬ pals and professors, who naturally give only a picture of the school as it should be or might be, but fail to let the visitor see the actual results and their connection with the prevailing circumstances. Sound judgment and deep insight could be secured only by long-continued intercourse with former students, now renowned authoritative American engineers, and with young men who are at present students of the institutions. I was actually obliged to become a student myself to get acquainted with particulars concerning which it was impossible to obtain informa¬ tion in any other way. Owing to the great number of “ technological schools” in America (over 200) I had to confine my research to the most noted ones. In this work I enjoyed the coopera¬ tion of my colleague, Mr. Gutermuth, of Aachen, which I gratefully acknowledge. In the following report the characteristics of technological schools are pointed out. A critical comparison with our conditions and institutions is at present pre¬ cluded. The simple description of the instruction offered requires a thorough study conducted without prejudice, and European standards of measurement mast not be applied. Criticism is very difficult, because it is hard to separate it from personal views, and also because it can not be done without entering into the totality of the work of the schools and their historical development. This would lead us back to ancient and to modern educational controversies which must be excluded from the expose I desire to offer. Critical comparisons in questions of education are most thankless tasks, not that they are not extremely interesting, but owing to the endless attacks which, as is well known, invariably follow an undertaking like this. The difficulties caused by a simple comparison of American schools with one another may be seen from the following facts : A contributor of the Engineering News, Mr. 1Tlie following report on technological schools, hy Prof. A. Piedler, of the Polytechnical School at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, is inserted here for two reasons. It gives an unbiased description of a kind of school concerning which there is not as yet unanimity of opinion in America, and also, because the author offers some standards of measurement and comparison in graphic manner that deserve to he studied. A praiseworthy absence of prejudice distinguishes the author and his report. 657 ED 93 - 42 658 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. Wellington, last year published a series of articles on the establishment and the present status of American schools for the preparation of civil engineers, and thereby rendered great service, since they offered for the first time a review at least of this particular kind of technological school; and he attempted the beginning of statis¬ tical summaries that were in every way new and instructive for America. Although Mr. Wellington had refrained, for obvious reasons, from expressing his own opinion of the results of these schools, he was so overwhelmed with communications and corrections that he abandoned the idea of gathering his articles in book form. These articles contain very valuable statistical matter concerning the schools for civil engineering, which I have used, with some additions collected by myself. His historical statements, those of attendance, and his comparative summaries of courses of study I have used copiously. Through conversations with him I gathered much information and valuable suggestions. My studies embraced the institutions of learning which prepare for, or give, poly- technical instruction, first of all the universities that have a school of engineering, and then the independent polytechnica. Generally my remarks refer to the schools of mechanical engineering, though many of my remarks hold good for the other schools also. PREPARATION OF ENGINEERS IN THE UNITED STATES PREVIOUS TO 1862. Engineering as a profession in America dates back no further than 1850. Its first beginnings may have been as early as 1830. Polytechnical institutions are therefore not old; their prosperity commenced at the beginning of the sixties. Hence it is obvious that the greatest number of these schools, especially in the West, are still in an imperfect state of development. Before the polytechnica were called into existence the preparation of engineers was possible only through self-study, occupation in workshops, private instruction from experienced engineers, or in military schools. (1) Self-instruction. — A large number of the older engineers are self-taught. Self- instruction is not a correct term, for even self-taught men go to school, to the school of experience. Individual experience without comprehension of cause and effect has little, if any, value. Franklin said in his old-fashioned manner, “Experience keeps a dear school, but fools learn in no other.” But where experience is coupled with investigation of the connection between cause and effect a basis is given for scientific knowledge. Such a course of development was formerly customary, but is at present considered an exception. It can be demonstrated that many of the most noted engineers of all civilized countries^ without having had real “instruction,” are yet scientifically equipped, because they have used their experience in the way referred to, and, as a rule, laboriously acquired scientific knowledge. At present it may be said that this expensive and laborious mode of preparation has become very rare in America, so that its description seems unnecessary here. (2) Preparation through apprenticeship. — A second method is the preparation in work¬ shops, which is still popular in England and America. It is astonishing to notice that English engineers, and here and there American imitators, began their course of preparation as apprentices in factories, never enjoyed regular scientific instruc¬ tion, and yet have become well reputed men in their professions. They still adhere to this system, although they ail admit that they had to spend much time and trouble to gain the essential scientific basis by means of self-instruction from books. They further admit that the scientific knowledge they did gain became the absolutely nec¬ essary basis of their work. A course of preparation beginning with apprenticeship in a factory leads to a one-sided practical perfection, very imperfect professional knowledge, and to this only if the conditions of self-instruction mentioned are ful¬ filled. In America this system was only temporarily followed in the New England States, and has almost disappeared. AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 659 ( 3 ) Instruction through experienced engineers. — As lato as two decades ago tlie tech¬ nical preparation of students through distinguished civil engineers was a course fre¬ quently followed in England, and is to this day in the New England States; here and there iu other countries it is also followed not infrequently. The preparation of architects in America is almost exclusively obtained in this way. This instruction in private lessons usually lasts three years, but, as a matter of course, is never well regulated. The student must keep his eyes and ears open, ask questions, and arrange his scientific knowledge according to the answers he receives. That which is learned in this manner is of course, quantitatively, very little, hut qualitatively more val¬ uable than that which is obtained in schools, because the students obtained it only through thorough study, their own efforts, and hard thinking. That this mode of preparation is so successful in many instances is certainly also owing to the fact that they chose renowned engineers as teachers. ( 4 ) Military schools. — Before 1840 real instruction in engineering was offered almost exclusively in the Military Academy at West Point. Up to 1840, even up to 1850, nearly all the civil engineers had received their preparation in this military school. From its establishment in 1802 up to 1862 it prepared about 2,000 students ; of these 200 became civil engineers and about 230 entered the military Engineer Corps. Among the former number are the most renowned civil engineers of the country. The interesting history of this military school has been written by Gen. G. W. Cullum in the Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the United States Military Academy. Charles B. Stuart, in his Lives and Works of the Civil and Military Engineers of America, gives information concerning American engineers of the old times. The following table, taken from Cullunrs Register, proves the great influence this school has had, and gives the professions which its former students selected. The students who, from 1802 till 1890, entered civil service are grouped as follows : Diplomatic service and Congress . 48 Civil service . 170 State officers, including 14 governors . 190 City officers, including 19 mayors . 63 Teachers, including 41 college presidents . 217 Lawyers and judges . 198 Agriculturists and planters . 228 Merchants and manufacturers . 193 Editors, artists, architects, physicians, etc . 115 Railroad officials, including 77 directors . 157 Civil engineers . 228 Chief engineers of railroads . 61 State chief engineers . 14 Total . 1, 882 During the first few years of its existence the Academy at West Point was of no importance, but after its reorganization through Colonel Thayer it rose to great prominence. The requirements for admission were and are still very low ; they con¬ sist in an examination in reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, geography, and history of the United States; but the examination for admission and the whole course of four years are conducted in reality with great rigor. Between the years 1880 and 1888 only 2 per cent of the students were admitted to the Engineer Corps of the United States. Service in this Corps requires an additional study of two years and a half in the United States School for Engineers at Willets Point, Long Island, organized in 1885. The technical instruction in this school com¬ prises twenty-two weeks in civil engineering, ten weeks in military engineering, nineteen weeks in chemistry and photography, and forty weeks in science of explo¬ sives and torpedoes. 660 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Since the beginning of the sixties the Military Academy at West Point has lost some of its importance with reference to education of practical civil engineers. The number and importance of engineering schools pure and proper have become very great, and the enormous development of this branch has necessitated a division of labor. The Military Academy at West Point has, in fact, educated for service in civil life only civil engineers. For the education of mechanical engineers this Academy has not contributed much ; but, on the other hand, a number of the mechan¬ ical engineers have come from the Naval Academy at Annapolis. This Academy was founded in 1845; it had at first a three-years course of study and three years of actual service on board ship. This service was distributed throughout the course, thus making the course last six years. In 1851 the school was newly organized, with a four-years uninterrupted course, followed by actual service aboard ship. In 1861, at the outbreak of the civil war, the Academy was transferred to the city of Newport; but in 1865 it went back to its old quarters and was subjected to the supervision of the Bureau of Navigation, Navy Department. According to its present organization the school admits one naval cadet for every Eepresentative in Congress; the cadet must be in age between 15 and 20. The requirements for admission are, like those of the Military Academy, rather low (read¬ ing, writing, arithmetic, algebra, grammar, geography, and history of the United States), but the examination is a very severe one. One of the requirements is that the candidate is obliged to serve eight years in the Navy (including the years of study). The course is one of four years at present, and it is well adapted for the education of mechanical engineers; so that it happens quite frequently that the students devote themselves to service in civil life after they have completed their required service in the Navy. For the completion of the study in machine building the mechanical engineers in this school may enter upon an additional course in New York; this course has been arranged in connection with the Naval Arsenal. A. large number of renowned American mechanical engineers are graduates of Annapolis: Francis B. Allen, vice-president of the boiler company at Hartford, Conn.; R. H. Thurston, professor at Sibley College; B. F. Isherwood, the well- known experimenter and marine engineer; B. C. Bampton, director of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; James T. Boyd, superintendent of the Blake Manufactur¬ ing Company, at East Cambridge, Mass. ; Charles E. Emery, engineer in New York; David M. Greene, engineer in Troy, formerly president of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; J. C. Kafer, superintendent of the Morgan Iron Works, New York; E. D. Leavitt, engineer at Cambridgeport, Mass. ; Charles H. Manning, superintendent of the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company, Manchester, N. II. ; Charles D. Bray, pro¬ fessor in Tufts College; A. R. Bush, engineer of the General Electric Company, Boston; M. E. Cooley, professor, University of Michigan; W. F. Durand, professor at Cornell University; I. N. Hollis, professor at Harvard University; A. M. Mattice, engineer with E. D. Leavitt; H. W. Spangler, professor, University of Pennsyl¬ vania; O. B. Shallenberger, engineer of the Westinghouse Electric Company, Pitts¬ burg, Pa.; B. H. Warren, superintendent of the Yale & Towne Manufacturing Company, Stamford, Conn. ; Edgar Penney, superintendent of the Frick Company, Waynesboro, Pa. ; G. Westinghouse, jr., the inventor of the air brake and president of the various Westinghouse companies; and a great number of other manufac¬ turers, engineers, and railroad directors. OLD ENGINEERING SCHOOLS. The oldest polytechnical school is the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, N. Y., founded by Stephen Van Rensselaer, in 1824. He erected the buildings and endowed the school with a large land grant. In its charter the term “engineering, school” is not mentioned; it only says that the school shall “offer to farmers, mechanics, physicians, lawyers, and merchants opportunity to become practically scientific.” At first the institution was confined to experimental courses in the AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 661 natural sciences. Four years after the opening the catalogue of the school mentions “engineering” as one of the branches of study. The original course of study in 1826 contained a preparatory department, with a peculiar method of instruction called the “Rensselaer method,” which became typ¬ ical for America. The instruction was given in the morniug in the form of lectures, and in the afternoon it was continued by instructive conversation. The requirements for admission were age (13 to 14 years) and an examination in reading, writing, arithmetic, and English grammar. The preparatory department had four divisions : (1) Botany and entomology. Occu¬ pation : Collections of minerals, plants, and insects. (2) Geography and history. Occupation : In summer, physiology of plants, microscopic investigations ; in winter, the making of a globe of plaster of paris. (3) Elements of practical mathematics and moral philosophy. Occupation: In summer, surveying and hydraulic experi¬ ments; in winter, the making and using of mechanical tools, measurements. (4) Logic and rhetoric. Occupation : In summer, experiments with gases ; in winter, the manufacture and application of electric batteries, galvanometers, magnets, etc. (5) Principles of government and parliamentary usage. Occupation : The manu¬ facture of sundials, thermometers, hygrometers, determining meridians, specific weight, the use of the soldering iron and blowpipe, of cameras, the making of optical pictures by means of lenses, explanation of the microscope and telescope, the application of the laws of reflection and refraction of light by common mirrors and water vessels, and, lastly, the separation of the colored beams of light by means of ice prisms. In all these exercises and occupations the students were allowed to use only tools and apparatus which they had made themselves. In the school itself the students of engineering were at first taught the natural sciences, to wit, botany (three weeks), zoology (four weeks), geology (three and one-half weeks), chemistry (ten weeks). The real technical instruction embraced knowledge of instruments for survey and physics (eight weeks) ; geometry, bridge building, railroad and canal construction (eight weeks) ; hydraulics (four weeks) ; the application of steam, wind, and electro-magnetism, construction and geology (four weeks). Up to 1845 only 2 professors and 2 assistants for the science of engineering were employed ; in 1849 a professor of chemistry was added ; in 1849 the school was thor¬ oughly remodeled and received a foundation which has remained the same till to-day. The Rensselaer Institute has since become one of the best schools for civil engineering. The greatest number of the renowned hydraulic and railroad engineers of America are graduates of this school. Up to 1850 the Rensselaer Institute and the Military Academy at West Point were the only engineering schools of impor¬ tance. Hence we see that well-arranged instruction in the technical sciences is much younger in America than in Europe, where, at the beginning of our century, techno¬ logical instruction was offered in France and Germany by means of industrial and trade schools; in Austria by means of polytechnical institutes at Prague and Vienna. During the forties the importance of the engineering arts increased in the United States, and with it the necessity of founding polytechnical schools. The fol¬ lowing were founded in quick succession : In 1845 the school-of engineering of Union College in Schenectady, N. Y., and the Polytechnical Institute in Brooklyn; in 1846 the Lawrence Scientific School, a department of Harvard University; in 1847 the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, founded by Mr. Sheffield, with an endowment of $1,000,000, at first only nominally an engineering school, but since 1860 remarkably successful; in 1852 the engineering department of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. The large sums which Harvard and Yale universities received for educational pur¬ poses are noteworthy ; in the foundation of numerous other schools such benefactions were repeated, and they all are significant of American public spirit. In this con¬ nection I may mention the fact that the foundation of the University of Michigan 662 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. took place at a time (1817) when the State was still a Territory with scarcely 7,000 inhabitants, all simple backwoodsmen. The charter determined the establishment of nine divisions : “ General sciences, literature, mathematics, natural sciences, medi¬ cine, ethical, historical, intellectual, and military science.” The school for mechan¬ ical engineering, added in the year 1859, and belonging to the department of science, lay too remote from the centers of industrial activity in the country, and hence never flourished. In 1851 the Chandler School of Science of Dartmouth College was founded. In 1867 General Thayer added to it the Thayer School of Engineering. With Dart¬ mouth College the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts had also been connected. These schools may he considered the forerunners of the poly- technical schools established later, though they themselves did not gain importance till 1860. Harvard and Yale universities had the most abundant means, professors for many sciences, libraries, etc., hut they did not understand the importance of technological education ; they never reached the perfection which the Eensselaer Institute in Troy or the military schools attained, and they were soon left in the rear after the establish¬ ment of new polytechnical schools. The abundant income of these old universities was used for other branches of study. It is instructive to note the establishment of the Lawrence Scientific School. It may serve as a significant example. The old Harvard University, which was founded in 1636, in Cambridge, near Bos¬ ton, was enriched in 1846 by the establishment of the Lawrence Scientific School. It was done by Abbott Lawrence, with a donation of $100,000 in land. Mr. Lawrence was interested in the hydraulic works in Lawrence, which city had been named after him. The letter proposing the gift is remarkable in many respects, for it determined clearly and distinctly Mr. Lawrence’s aim and purpose. It must be remembered that it was done nearly fifty years ago. “ Where can we send those who intend to devote themselves to the practical applications of science? How educate our engi¬ neers, our miners, machinists, and mechanics?” Now, with regard to these classes of persons he said: “ Inventive men laboriously reinvent what has been produced before. Ignorant men fight against the laws of nature with a vain energy, and pur¬ chase their experience at great cost. Why should not all these start where their predecessors ended, and not where they began ? Education can enable them to do so. The application of science to the useful arts has changed, in the last half century, the condition and relations of the world.” The letter suggested that instruction should be given in (1) engineering; (2) mining engineering, including metallurgy; (3) inventing and constructing machinery. All three departments should have a basis of uniform, general study, and only in the latter years of the course should the trifurcation take place. The document contains the explicit recommendation “that the whole income of this school be devoted to the acquisition, illustration, and dissemination of the practical sciences forever.” These principles are indeed the essential purposes of our present polytechnical schools, but at the time Mr. Lawrence uttered them they were new and unheard of, and give evidence of his discrimination and forethought. Further proof of this is: “In addition to these [i. e., the regular professors], it would be necessary to obtain the services, at stated periods, of eminent men from the practical walks of life. The law school is taught by distinguished lawyers of the highest reputation. The medical school by distinguished physicians. In like manner, this school of science should number among its teachers men who have practiced and are practicing the arts they are called to teach.” These are remarkable words, not only for the time they were uttered, but for all time to come. Mr. Lawrence was active as a public man from 1847 till 1855, went in 1849 to England as ambassador, and died in 1855. It appears that Harvard University did not appreciate Lawrence’s gift, and used it for other purposes. It is true that at the beginning a professorship of the engi¬ neering sciences was established, but in 1855 it was abandoned. In 1842 Louis Agassiz AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 663 had come to Cambridge as professor of zoology. There was great enthusiasm about him, and it was determined to secure his services permanently; for this reason the income of the Lawrence School was used for the promotion of zoology and the estab¬ lishment of a museum of comparative zoology. In consequence of this engineering and other scientific branches were neglected, an experience which other universities, with renowned but one-sided iirofessors, have made also. Harvard University, which, by following Lawrence’s advice, might have become the first and best organ¬ ized technological institution, is not counted to-day among the engineering schools. The requirements for admission in the Lawrence Scientific School were at the beginning lower than they were for Harvard University; moreover they were quite indefinite; candidates were required to have a good English education, qualified to pursue to advantage the courses prescribed, and to have good moral character. The second mistake made in carrying out Lawrence’s ideas lay in the original course of study, which prescribed exclusively abstract sciences. The decline of the Lawrence School began, therefore, soon after its foundation, and as early as the close of the fifth decade it was quite insignificant. The annual report of 1859 speaks only of purchases for the department of zoology; not a word of the engineering department. How erroneous the policy of Harvard University, and how correct the views of Lawrence were, is seen froin the enormous growth during the sixth decade of purely technological institutions founded in the immediate neighborhood of the Lawrence School with much more modest means. They assumed the leadership, and have remained at the head of the column to this day with great success. THE LAND-GRANT BILL. The foregoing offers a glance into the origin of American engineering schools up to the beginning of the sixties, though many interesting details have been omitted. In 1862 an entirely changed condition was created by the passage of the famous “ land-grant bill.” The number of technological institutions increased enormously in consequence of this law, and their present condition is probably only the begin¬ ning of a future development of technological instruction in America. The land-grant bill was brought in by Senator Morrill, of Vermont, during the saddest part of the civil war; it was passed by both Houses of Congress and signed by President Lincoln July 2, 1862. This law prescribed that every State should receive 30,000 acres of land for educational purposes for every Representative in Con¬ gress, the land to have no known mineral veins. The land granted to a State should, if possible, lie within its boundaries if sufficient land valued at $1.25 per acre was still at the disposal of the Government ; if not, then the State should receive land in some other State which it was obliged to sell. Possession of land by a State in any other State was expressly forbidden in order to avoid complications of interests. This latter passage was interpreted by many States as an order for immediate sale and the land thus granted in other States was squandered at low prices in the midst of the civil war. Some States considered it admissible to deed the land over to certain schools for subsequent sale, and only these States have derived the intended benefit from the law. The senseless squandering referred to can only be explained by the excitement prevailing during the war when the future of the Union was questioned. The law also determined that the income from the sale of this land should be used in every State for the establishment and maintenance of at least one school. Concern¬ ing the kind of schools, it was determined “to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life.” This provision, however, did not exclude scientific or classical studies. Each State was obliged to establish such a school within five years from the pas¬ sage of the law, and every State complied with this provision. Massachusetts founded two schools from the proceeds of the grant, the Institute of Technology 664 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. and the Agricultural College; while iu New York, Michigan, Vermont, and Connec¬ ticut the grant was transferred to existing institutions or universities. Particulars concerning the history of this grant are found in a publication by the Bureau of Education in Washington, entitled The History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States; also in a publication of Cornell Uni¬ versity, entitled History of the Agricultural College Land Grant. The following table, taken from Wellington’s report, shows the total proceeds, and the average price per acre in each State is given, together with the names of schools which profited by the proceeds : States. New England States : Maine . New Hampshire . . . Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . Total . Middle States : New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . Delaware . Maryland . Total . "Without New York. . . . Southern States : Virginia . West Virginia . North Carolina South Carolina Georgia . Florida . Mississippi . . Alabama . Louisiana . Texas . Tennessee . . Kentucky . Arkansas . Missouri . Total . Northern Central States : Ohio . Indiana . Hlinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . . Iowa . Minnesota . Kansas . Nebraska . Total . Western States: Colorado . Oregon . California . Nevada . Selling price. Acres. Total. Per acre. 210, 000 $118, 300 $0. 56 150, 000 80, 000 .53 1 150, 000 135, 000 .90 | 390, 000 219, 000 .56 120, 000 50, 000 .41 180. 000 135, 000 .75 1,200,000 737, 300 .614 ■ 989, 920^ 473, 493 6, 188, 071 .53 ; 6.20 210,000 i 116, 000 . 55 780,000 1 406, 000 . 52 90,000 i 83, 000 .92 210,000 115, 943 .55 '2,279,920 i 7, 382, 417 ! 3.23 1, 290, 000 720,943 . 559 300,000 ' 285, 000 .95 150, 000 90, 000 .60 270, 000 125, 000 .46 180, 000 191, 800 1.07 270, 000 243, 000 .90 90, 000 155, 800 1. 73 207, 920 188, 028 .90 210, 000 253, 500 1. 06 210, 000 210, 000 1. 00 180, 000 200, 000 1.16 300, 000 403, 500 1. 345 330, 000 200, 000 .60 150, 000 135, 000 .90 330, 000 170, 000 .52 3, 177, 920 2, 859, 628 .891 630, 000 342, 451 .54 390, 000 340, 000 .87 450, 000 450, 000 1. 00 240, 000 600, 000 2. 50 240, 000 363, 739 1. 51 240, 000 649,369 2. 70 120, 000 526, 838 4. 39 90, 000 501, 426 5. 57 90, 000 39, 505 .44 2, 490, 000 3, 813, 355 1.53 90, 000 | 112,500 1. 25 90, 000 93, 985 1. 03 150, 000 771, 687 5. 14 90, 000 95, 000 1. 055 420, 000 jl, 073, 172 2. 56 Institutions for which the proceeds were used. State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Do. Do. Massachusetts Agricultural College (two- thirds), and Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ nology (one-third).' Brown University. Sheffield Scientific School, Yale. •Cornell University. Rutgers College. Pennsylvania State College. Delaware College. Maryland Agricultural College. Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College (two-thirds), and Hampton Institute (one- third). West Virginia University. North Carolina College of Agriculture and Me¬ chanic Arts. University of South Carolina. University of Georgia. State Agricultural College. Agricultural and Mechanical College. Alabama Polytechnic Institute. Tulane University. Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. University of Tennessee. University of Kentucky. Arkansas Industrial University. University of Missouri. Ohio State University. Purdue University. University of Illinois. University of Michigan. University of Wisconsin. Iowa State Agricultural College. University of Minnesota. Kansas State Agricultural College. University of Nebraska. Colorado Agricultural College. Corvallis College. University of California. Nevada State University. Total AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 665 Altogether there were 9,567,840 acres, equivalent to $15,865,872, or an average of $1.60 per acre. What small prices the majority of the States obtained from the sale is seen from the foregoing table ; only 9 States secured more than the price set by the Govern¬ ment, that is, $1.25 per acre; 11 States squandered the land for less than one-half the normal price ; among these are Pennsylvania (52 cents per acre), New Hampshire (53 cents), New York (53 cents), Ohio (54 cents), Maine (56 cents), Massachusetts (56 cents). New York received altogether about 10 per cent of the entire grant, and nearly one-half of the entire proceeds. This must not he credited to the State, hut to Mr. Ezra Cornell. The State of New York had begun to sell its land at very low prices, hut then surrendered to Mr. Cornell the further administration and he pro¬ cured a better result. If other States had acted likewise, the sum of $58,000,000 might have been pro¬ cured instead of only $9,600,000, or 16 per cent. Nearly $48,000,000 were lost by want of circumspection and care in the administration of the grant, hence the pur¬ pose of this munificent provision for schools, which in the history of education is without parallel, was attained only to a limited extent. In New York a contention arose, because the money was to he divided among several schools. Through the energy of A. D. White and E. Cornell, both State senators, a division of the fund was prevented. Cornell declared that if the entire proceeds of the grant were applied to the support of the new university at Ithaca, he would place half a mil¬ lion dollars of his own at its disposal. This was accepted. Cornell held hack the assignment of land until he could procure better prices, and then made new propo¬ sitions. He guaranteed the State 60 cents per acre, if the land was sold within twenty years, and the surplus was given over to Cornell University. Mr. Cornell died in 1872; his successor, Henry W. Sage, adopted the same policy, and in conse¬ quence the university at Ithaca has become one of the richest and best endowed universities in the land — an institution which in many respects may be considered a model of the modern current of education. Its departments of engineering are considered equal in value with all its other departments, and the authorities have given them an ever-growing attention the more the engineering branches increased in importance. MODERN ENGINEERING SCHOOLS. In consequence of the land-grant bill numerous scientific institutions of learning were either established or greatly improved. The greatest number of them are tech¬ nological institutions. The number at present can uot be definitely stated, since many of them are in quite an undeveloped state. The Bureau of Education mentions, in its report of 1889, 141 scientific schools that offer an education to engineers. Of these many offer at present little or no technological education, but have the inten¬ tion of establishing that department later. On the other hand, there are real tech¬ nological institutions in existence not contained in that list of 141 institutions; hence I omit that list and resort to Wellington’s tables. The first list contains all the important institutions of outspoken technological character, giving the year of the establishment and the departments of engineering. Table I. [C. means “Civil engineering,” Ma. means “ Machine building” or “Mechanical engineering,” ML means “Mining engineering, ” and El. means “Electro-technology.”] No. Name of institution. Place. Date when founded. Departments. 1 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute ....... Troy, N. Y . 1824 C. 2 Harvard University, Lawrence Scientific School. Yale University, Sheffield Scientific School. Cambridge, Mass .... 1846 C., El. 3 New Haven, Conn . . . 1847 C., Mi., El. 4 Dartmouth College, Chandler School of Science. Hanover, N. H . 1851 C. 5 Union College, school of civil engineering.. Schenectady, N. Y . . . 1845 C. 666 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Table I — Continued. Ko. Xame of institution. 1 Place. Date when founded. Departments. 6 | University of Michigan, engineering de¬ partment. Ann Arbor, Mich. . . . 1852 C.,Ma.,Mi.,El. 7 Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn . Brooklyn, X. Y . 1854 C. 8 Chester, Pa .... 1868 C., Ma. 9 A'p.w VnrV V V 1864 1866 C.,Ma.,Mi„El. C., Mi. 10 Washington and Lee University, engineer¬ ing school. Lexington, Va . 11 Massachusetts Institute of Technology.. . Boston, Mass . 1865 C., Ma., Mi., El. 12 Lehigh University, engineering depart¬ ment. Bethlehem, Pa . 1866 C., Ma., Mi., El. 13 University of Virginia, engineering de¬ partment. Charlottesville, Va. . . 1868 C., Ma.. Mi. 14 Cornell University, college of civil engi¬ neering. Ithaca, X. V . 1868 C. 15 Tufts College, engineering department - Medford, Mass . 1868 C., Ma., El. 16 University of Georgia, school of engi¬ neering. Athens, Ga . 1867 C., Ma. 17 Lafayette College, Pardee scientific depart¬ ment. Easton, Pa . 1866 C., Mi. 18 W ashingtonUniversitv, polytechnic school St. Louis, Mo . 1870 C., Ma., Mi. 19 University of Vermont, engineering de¬ partment. Burlington, Vt . 1866 C. 20 Kansas State Agricultural College, me¬ chanical department. Manhattan, Kans. . . . 1862 Ma. 21 Worcester Polviechnic Institute . Worcester. Mass _ 1868 C., Ma., El. 22 Alabama Polytechnic Institute . Auburn, Ala . 1872 C., Mi., El. 23 Maine State 1 College of Agriculture and | Mechanic Arts. Orono, Me . 1869 C., Ma. 24 Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Ames, Iowa . ■ 1868 C., Ma., El. 25 University of Pennsylvania, Towne Scien¬ tific School. Philadelphia, Pa . 1872 C., Ma., Mi. 26 Stevens Institute of Technology . Hoboken, X. J . 1870 Ma. 27 University of Wisconsin, college of me¬ chanics and engineering. Madison, Wis . 1872 C., Ma., Mi., El. 28 Dartmouth College, Thayer School of Civil Engineering. Hanover, X. H . 1867 C. 29 Swarthmore College, engineering depart¬ ment. Swarthmore, Pa . Ithaca, X. Y . 1 1869 C. 30 Cornell University, Sibley (mechanical engineering) College. 1870 Ma. 31 University of Missouri, school of mines .. Rolla, Mo . 1871 C., Mi. 32 University of California, engineering de¬ partment. University of Kansas, engineering de¬ partment. Berkeley, Cal . 1868 C., Ma., Mi. 33 Lawrence, Kans . 1873 C., El. 34 University of Minnesota, college of me¬ chanic arts. Minneapolis, Minn. . . 1869 C., Ma., El. 35 ; Rutgers College, Scientific School.... . Xew Brunswick, X. J. 1864 C., El. 36 State University of Iowa, department of efigineering. Iowa City, Iowa . 1873 C., El. 37 Cornell College (Iowa), department of civil engineering. Mount Vernon, Iowa. 1873 I r 38 University of Illinois, college of civil engineering. Urbana, Ill . 1867 C., Ma., Mi., El. 39 University of Cincinnati, engineering course. Cincinnati, Ohio . 1874 C., El. 40 College of Hew Jersey. J. C. Green School of Science. Princeton, X. J . 1873 C., El. 41 State Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. College Station, Tex. 1871 C., Ma. 42 University of Xebraska, engineering de¬ partment. Lincoln, Xebr . 1880 C., Ma., El. 43 Colorado State School of Mines . Golden, Colo..... _ 1874 Ma., Mi. 44 Western University of Pennsylvania, en¬ gineering department. Allegheny, Pa . 1879 C., Ma. 45 Pennsylvania. State College, engineering department. j State College, Pa .... 1874 C.,Ma., El. 46 ! Purdue University, schools of engineering. Lafayette, Ind . 1874 C., Ma., Mi., El. 47 Rose Polytechnic Institute . Terre Haute, Ind. . . . 1874 C., Ma., El. 48 University of Texas, engineering depart¬ ment. Austin, Tex . 1884 C. 49 ! Michigan Minin0, School Houghton, Mich . 1885 [ Mi. 50 ’ State Agricultural College of Michigan, mechanical department. Agricultural College, Mich. 1885 1 Ma. 51 (rPnro’ia .-Irli nnl nf Vop.Tmnln°,y - Atlanta, Ga . 1888 C., Ma. 52 Montana School of Mines of College of Minnesota. Deer Lodge . 1888 1 Mi. AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 667 All the institutions mentioned in this list, with the exception of the Pennsylvania State College, have received support from the land grant mentioned. Forty-live of them give instruction in civil engineering, 31 in machine building, 23 in electro-tech¬ nology, 18 in mining engineering. Ten schools offer exclusively civil engineering, 3 exclusively machine building or mechanical engineering, 2 exclusively mining engi¬ neering. Schools for electro-technology exclusively do not £xist. Forty-one, a majority of the 52 engineering schools enumerated, are departments of universities; only 11 are independent institutions. Several of the larger engineering schools recently established, for instance the Leland Stanford Junior University, in California, have not been inserted, since their establishment is of too recent date and their technological instruction is yet too insignificant, but I suspect that these younger schools will soon surpass the older ones in the departments of mechanical engineering and electro-technology. The second list contains the other institutions of learning that have been estab¬ lished by means of the land-grant act. They give instruction of some kind in tech¬ nology, but have not developed into complete engineering schools. Table II. State. Hame. Location. Hew Hampshire. . . . Hew Hampshire Agricultural College . Hanover. Amherst. [Rhode Island . Brown University . Providence. Hew York . University of the City of Hew York (science depart¬ Hew York. ment) . Bo . 1 Svrncnse University . _ Syracuse Pennsylvania . Haverford College [science department) . Haverford College. Delaware . ! Delaware College (science department) . Hewark. District of Columbia . j Columbian University {science department, Corcoran 1 Washington, D. C. Scientific School with engineering department). Maryland . Agricultural College (mechanical engineering depart¬ j Agricultural College. ment). Do . St. John's College (science department) . : Annapolis. Virginia . I Militarv Institute . ! Lexington. Do . Agricultural and Mechanical College (science depart¬ ; Blacksburg. ment) . West Virginia . Universitv of West Virginia (science department) . ! Morgantown. Hortli Carolina . College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (mechanical j Baleigh. engineering department) . Do . . . University of Xorth Carolina (science department) . ! Chapel Hill South Carolina . University of South Carolina (science department) . : Columbia. Georgia . Gainesville College (science department) . Gainesville. [Florida . Agricultural College (mechanical engineering depart¬ j Lake City. ment). Alabama . University of Alabama (science department) . University. Mississippi . Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College . : Alcorn College. Do . | Agricultural College (mechanical department) . Agricultural College. Texas . Austin College (science department) . Sherman. Tennessee . 1 University of the South (science department) . Sewanee. Do . j University of Tennessee (science department) . Knoxville. Do . 1 V anderbilt University (science department) . Kashville. Ohio . Case School of Applied Science . Cleveland. Do . j State University (science department) . Columbus. Indiana . 1 Wabash College (science department) . j Craw fords ville. Missouri . j Missouri State University (science department) . Columbia. Kansas . Campbell University (science department) . Holton. Do . Ottawa University (science denartment) . Ottawa. Horth Dakota . j University of Hortli Dakota (science department) . Lincoln. South Dakota . ! Agricultural College of South Dakota (mechanical en- : Brookings. gineering department). i Do . Pierre Universitv (science denartment) . Pierre. Colorado . i Colorado State Agricultural College (mechanical en- ; Fort Collins. j gineering department). Oregon . j State Agricultural College (mechanical engineering Corvallis. department'. [After thus briefly giving a general and historical survey of the growth and extent of American technological schools, the author proceeds to state the purposes and organization of the leading schools, quoting from their catalogues and other publi¬ cations. Since these may be obtained on application from the several schools, this 668 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. part of Professor Riecller’s report is here omitted. He tlien proceeds to show what amount of preparation these schools require, and he does that, as the reader will see, in a very pleasingly graphic manner.] REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION IN AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTIONS. Requirements for admission in the various institutions are as different as the insti¬ tutions themselves. A general criticism is difficult, because we have to judge by the printed statements of the requirements, while the true standard of criticism would be the degree of severity or laxity in their enforcement. All institutions require an examination for admission by means of which the differ¬ ent degrees of preparation of the students are equalized. The enforcement of the requirement of examination is not everywhere alike ; it is said to be very rigorous in classical universities, but allows even there some gradation and makes possible admission into one of the lower departments of the university. Through the back¬ doors of various departments almost everyone may get admission to a university; the lower gates simply lead to the preparatory department which is most always found connected with a university. But also the requirements themselves differ greatly in different parts of the country. Schools situated in the Southern or West¬ ern States demand less, and of course accomplish less, than others; in most cases their students would not be admitted to renowned schools of engineering. There is scarcely a difference in the requirements for admission between Harvard, Yale, and Cornell. As a rule the technological schools require no knowledge of ancient languages, except the Sheffield School in Yale. The latter is the only engi¬ neering school which allows students to enter at 15 years of age; the majority of schools have fixed the lower limit of age at 16 or 17. A regular student of the Shef¬ field School can enter Cornell only as a special student (hospitant), since he is not considered able to take part in the regular instruction. The requirements grouped in the accompanying chart are collected from the catalogues of 48 engineering schools ; the chart will be more instructive than an extensive description would be (see p. 669). The chart does not contain those branches which are required exceptionally by a few schools only. For instance, higher demands in French and German are made only by 1 school (Stevens Institute); bookkeeping is required in 1 school (Colum¬ bia College); rhetoric in 5 schools. The summary shows that nearly all schools require English and algebra, plane geometry, and American history ; other branches, especially natural sciences, are required by comparatively few schools. Renowned institutions like Rensselaer and the military schools require nominally very little, and many another school of little distinction requires much. Several mining engi¬ neering schools not contained in the chart do not even require English ; one only mathematics; some agricultural schools, not inserted in the chart, require nothing but English. LENGTH OF COURSES. In almost all engineering schools of the United States the course is one of four years ; only 6 schools have one of three years, and 3 schools one of five years ; the latter are the University of Pennsylvania, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and the Polytechnic School of St. Louis. But even these schools graduate their students at the expiration of the fourth year, except that of St. Louis. The number of weeks in a school year varies between thirty- two and forty; the average is thirty-eight weeks, or a total of one hundred and fifty-two weeks in four years. Schools with shorter courses require work in vacation. Many schools consider a four-years course too short, hence arrange for post-grad¬ uate courses in railroad engineering, technology of hygiene, city waterworks, and architecture. The 6 schools that have a three-years course each may be considered exceptions. They give either no laboratory instruction, like the Sheffield School in Yale, or require a longer preparation, like the Thayer School; or try to equalize the difference by a better utilization of the time devoted to exercises. The control of Requirements of admission to technological schools in the United Stales. AMERICAN TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 669 670 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. attendance is regular and strict. Although the majority of catalogues contain this passage: “The students are treated as men, not as hoys/’ the term “boys” is gen¬ erally used for students. A comparison of the various programmes shows that one lecture or recitation hour is considered equal to three hours in the workshop, two and a half hours in the laboratory, and two hours devoted to drawing. According to this estimate, the average length of instruction is only fifteen to twenty hours per week. Five schools demand twenty to twenty-five hours, four schools more than thirty hours, and three schools thirty-five to thirty-seven hours per week. The ratio of lectures, work in laboratory, drawing, and sliopwork to the entire instruction is as follows : 55 per cent lectures, 35 per cent laboratory, 10 per cent drawing and sliopwork. The first number increases to 70 per cent in engineering schools which are not well provided with shops and laboratories. The length of the course and the division of time for lectures, laboratory, and shop work prevailing in some of the noted schools is stated in the following chart : Length of course and division of time. No. Schools. Length of course. Absolute numbers. Expressed in percents. Civil engineering. Mechanical engineering. Civil engineering . Mechanical engineering. | Years. cS CP a o a aa 8 Ds.3i 4. M c b fca HBKM11 e .47'5!.vi&a 12. Technological University in South Germany. lYear mgnyraMiM^^^ . — i... :-:v. mmmmmWM ® 63,5! vv.ia- 13.5! :-rsi-:' 2 ” b 32,7li 3 ” c 79,7i-v ”, C 14 4 ” v'/ < wXXv >.V*.’:Csea C 19,6,' [6,5] 13. Technological University in South Germany. Electrotechnology. lYear illllll IBil b 63,5! xtreill 135 ‘:'4ih 2 ... b ZMi c 62,4l:-:> :VV.-U£«:HEH 3 Jli 13 c 66.7! • X * *. ;Tt &,'8):00 4 C 64,2!';': ■ 14. Cornell University, Ithaca. 15, Institute of Technology, Boston. ! Yea r 16. Sheffield School, Yale University. ‘Year ^ : ^ b I8 XSffl 2 « wmamsmm t c !»xhoti 3 » wm b 34l2 686 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. It is plainly seen that the instruction in Continental Europe is defective, in that it does not bestow the amount of time and attention to the practical side which the American technological institutions readily give to it. In diagram 14 (Cornell University) and diagram 15 (the Massachusetts Institute of Technology) we find the proportion of time given with reference to machine-shop work. In these diagrams we also see the great proportion of time devoted to pre¬ paratory instruction, marked a (up to 70 per cent), because the secondary schools have only a short course of four to six years, and the polytechnicum has to supply the deficiency. Above all, these diagrams show a very small proportion of oral theoretical instruction (marked &), and a very extensive laboratory study and shop- work (marked / and d). The study in experimental stations, as well as exercises in practical geometry, are marked d (up to 26 per cent), while shopwork is marked / (up to 32 per cent). Cornell University (diagram 14) has the most extensive exer¬ cises of this kind. Lastly, in diagram 16, a course is sketched which we find in the classical Yale University, so far as it refers to technological instruction. Here the practical exer¬ cises have been confined to mere exercises in surveying (marked d) in the first year’s study (10.2 per cent). All the rest of the course consists of theoretic instruction, and the real professional instruction is insignificant compared with the elementary theoretic instruction. The foregoing graphic representations offer an opportunity to notice the extraordi¬ nary variety found in the proportion of preparatory and real professional instruction. CHAPTER VIII. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN RUSSIA.1 By Prince Serge TVolkonsky, Delegate from the ministry of public instruction in Russia to the Columbian Exposition. * * * Educational establishments in Russia are not all under the surveillance of the same ministry ; eleven different departments have schools, colleges, semina¬ ries, academies, and universities under their direction. This, of course, may appear to many as an impractical state of things, hut it has many advantages, the most significant of which is the production of a great variety of types of educational establishments. A brief sketch of the different types of girls’ schools, at least the most important ones, must be given before we speak of higher instruction. Three different departments have the direction of educational establishments for women. These are the department of the institutions of the Empress Marie, the ecclesiastical department, and the ministry of public instruction. I scarcely need speak of the first one here in Chicago. Anybody can get the most complete idea of it in visiting the department of liberal arts at the Columbian Exposition, where the six hundred educational and charitable establishments of the institutions of Empress Marie are magnificently represented under the surveillance of Mme. Semechkin. The most important educational establishments of this depart¬ ment are the so-called institutes or seminaries for girls, which are under very strict regulations. The hoarding pupils, or internats, are only allowed to leave in the summer months, if they desire to return to their parents. The education given is a very accomplished one in so far as preparing the girls as well for intellectual family life as for the laborious life of a governess. These establishments are under the special patronage of Her Majesty the Empress. Ladies of high rank sometimes are called to direct them, and the greatest dignitaries of the State are members of the committee of trustees, which has the higher supervision of all the institutes of the Empire. The second type of establishments belonging to that department are the gymna¬ siums and progymnasiums, or high schools for girls. They are of interest because special higher pedagogic classes are attached to some of them. The course in these classes lasts three years, and its object is to prepare the young ladies for a teachers career. There they get acquainted with different methods of teaching and of trans¬ mitting to others the knowledge which they may acquire during the seven years of their school course. The third year is entirely devoted to practical exercises, where the ladies, assisted by professors, give lessons to the pupils of the progymnasium in the following subjects: Sacred history, Russian language, arithmetic, geography, French and German languages. The courses are divided into three groups: The group of Russian language and literature, the group of foreign languages (French and German), and the group of mathematics. Lessons in religion, Russian, old Slavonic, and arithmetic are on the programme of each of the three groups. Ladies who have finished these courses receive a diploma of graduate teacher, conferring upon them the right of occupying the chairs of the above-mentioned subjects in the four lower classes (and of foreign languages in all classes) of gymnasiums and progymnasiums for girls. 1 Address delivered at tlie International Congress of Education in Chicago in July, 1893, and pub¬ lished in the Independent, August 3, 1893, pp. 6-7. 687 688 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1892-93. Among the establishments of the ecclesiastical department we must mention the diocesan schools for girls. These establishments, the number of pupils in which amounted last year to 13,000, are assigned to daughters of priests and clergy, and prepare them for the rough career of teachers in village schools. For over three years I had the opportunity of closely observing some of these girls at their work, and I must say we can not have enough respect and admiration for the really apos¬ tolic mission they fulfill. Buried in some distant village, miles away from railroads, separated from her family, such a young creature undertakes her struggle for life, depending upon a poor and illiterate community which is not always able or willing to pay her the ridiculously small salary that is supposed to recompense her for her work and for her life. For 12 rubles ($4) a month she has to provide for herself; a peasant’s hut, where she finds lodgings for 20 rubles a year, becomes her home ; the peasant’s family, her only social resource, if there is no priest in the village or no landowner’s house in the neighborhood; the rare visits of the educational inspector or of some other member of the district school committee, and the annual arrival in the spring of the examination commission, are the only events that break the monotony of her life in a milieu that is not hers, and where she has, in her way, a sort of rank to sustain; for she must not forget that she is not a peasant woman; she has to dress like a lady, she has to behave herself like a lady. I knew one of these teachers who had an invalid mother to support and a little brother whom she prepared for college. Numbers of them are scattered over the surface of our vast country. Their names are unknown. They are not represented at the Fair, and will hardly ever be represented anywhere ; but in this country, where an ordinary work¬ man in some distant ranch of your far West is lodged and boarded and gets $30 a month; in this country, where intellectual labor is recompensed as nowhere else; in this country, which has given such great examples of pioneering and of dissipating darkness ; in this country, ladies, I request your respect and your love for these your distant sisters who have no other joy in life than to watch the glimpse of light they gradually transmit to the minds of the little folks whom they aim to teach. After having paid our tribute to these two important departments we may now pass to the»establishments of the ministry of public instruction. We will not go into details regarding secondary education; we only just mention that, according to the report for 1891, the ministry of public instruction had under its direction 342 establishments (gymnasiums and progymnasiums) with 62,529 pupils in them, and we pass on to the special subject under consideration. The history of the higher educational courses for women is rather eventful, and has passed through various phases. The question first arose in 1869, when permis¬ sion was given from the ministry of public instruction to organize a series of public lectures in history, philosophy, and science at St. Petersburg and Moscow. The course had no settled plan, nor were any preliminary studies required from the pupils. In the year 1872 Mr. Guerrier, professor in the University of Moscow, opened his college of higher courses for girls, where special attention was given to the study of universal literature and Russian history. At this epoch the necessity of a regular university education for women made itself felt by the great number of girls who went abroad in search of scientific knowledge. An imperial ukase of the year 1876 authorized the foundation of higher courses on various subjects for women at different universities of Russia; and in the course of the same and the next year such colleges were established at Kazan, St. Peters¬ burg, and Kief. They were divided into two faculties, the historico-philological and physico-mathematical. The colleges at St. Petersburg and Kief and those of Pro¬ fessor Guerrier, in Moscow, have a four-years course each; that of Kazan a two-years course. Besides this, special classes of instruction for girls have been attached to the third Moscow gymnasium, with a four-years course of natural science and three years in mathematics. All these establishments were regarded as private institu¬ tions, but the board of education was obliged to exert general control over these establishments during each academic year. They had no general regulations, and HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN IN RUSSIA. 689 the whole organization has for a long time been regarded as a temporary one. Only in 1879 preliminary work in preparing a general regulation for the girls’ higher col¬ leges was begun ; but it was interrupted by the resignation, in 1880, of Count Tolstoi from his post of minister of public instruction. In the year 1881, by order of His Imperial Majesty, a committee was created, which was presided over by the under secretary of state, Prince Wolkousky. Its object was to find out the best means for the organization of superior education for girls in the Empire. But, in the meantime, the admission of new students to the courses was forbidden, and it remained so for a little over two years. In June, 1889, the results elaborated by the above-mentioned commission were put into action, and in September of the same year admission to the courses was renewed. After this historical sketch let us consider the scientific side of the institution. The course lasts four years, and is divided into two sections: The historico-pliilo- logical and the mathematical. The following are the lists of the subjects on which lectures are held: (1) In the historico-philological section: Religion, psychology, logic, history of philosophy, Russian language, old Slavonic, history of Russian literature, ancient and modern theory of literary forms, Slavonic idioms and literature, universal literature (this includes Italian, French, German, and English literatures in their connection with the development of Russian literature', Russian history, history of the peoples of Slavonic race, ancient history, history of modern times, history of arts, Latin language and literature. (2) In the mathematical section : Religion, general course of mathematics, analyt¬ ical geometry, algebraical analysis, differential and integral calculus, astronomy, physics, organic and inorganic chemistry, physical geography, and analytical mechanics. The extensiveness of these programmes does not prevent serious or conscientious study. The pupils obtain very complete knowledge in all branches of the section they select, and at the same time they have the opportunity of trying to solve any special question in its smallest details. In this sense the higher courses include in the limits of their programmes that principle which you formulate so clearly and so aptly when you say that “a man should know everything of something and some¬ thing of everything.” We have before our eyes the annual reports of the director of the St. Petersburg higher course for women for the last three years ; and I take the liberty of com¬ municating to you some details illustrating the scientific level of the young ladies’ work. In the year 1891 there were 385 pupils in the four courses, and 298 of these were in the historico-philological and 87 in the mathematical section. This prefer¬ ence for history and literature has always characterized our women, although in mathematics we find quite interesting works on most abstract subjects. Director Ivoolin quotes in his reports such themes as “An approximate calculus of definite integrals,” or “Euler's formulas of quadrations,” and others. In 1890 our celebrated compatriot, Mme. Kovalevsky,1 who was professor of mathematics at the Uni- 1 Mme. Sophie Kovalevsky, daughter of General Kronkovsky and descendant of Mattaias Corvin, was born in Moscow in 1850. After her marriage with Vladimir Kovalevsky she studied at Heidel¬ berg University, and in 1870 went to Berlin University. At a later date she received the degree of doctor in philosophy from Gottingen University for a mathematical thesis on the theory of equations. In 1883 Mme. Kovalevsky published an essay on the refraction of light, and was soon after called by Prof. Mittag-Leffler, of Stockholm University, to aid him as docent in his mathematical professor¬ ship. Her first course gave her a chair at the university, and led her hearers to place her with Lagrange and Laplace as a poet among mathematicians. In 1886 the Academy of Sciences in Paris proposed, for the Bordin prize, to he decided in 1888, the question, “ Perfectionner en un point impor¬ tant la theorie du mouvement d’un corps solide ” (On the theory of movement of a solid). The prize was awarded unanimously to Mme. Kovalevsky, whose profound study of the subject placed her iu rank with Euler and Lagrauge. This thesis, with others relating to the differentials of all determi¬ nate functions, placed her in the front rank among mathematicians, and she was feted in Paris, Hel¬ singfors, Christiania, and St. Petersburg by the most learned savants. She returned to Stockholm, where she died in February, 1891. (From llevue des Deux Mondes, May 15, 1894.) ED 93 - 44 690 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. versity of Stockholm, honored with her presence the examination of the physico- mathematical section, and Director Koolin mentions with satisfaction the good impressions she gathered during her visit. We must note here that the only three ladies who lecture in this establishment are mathematicians. These are Mme. Scliiff, who directs the practical exercises in mathematics; Mme. Serdobinsky in physics, and Mme. Bogdanovsky, graduate doctor of th,e Geneva University, in chemistry. In the historico-philological section, philosophical questions seem to have mostly interested the young women. Professor Yedensky speaks in the best terms of such works as “ On some internal sensations, according to Beannis,” “ On the constitu¬ tion of our self-consciousness, according to Taine and Stralioff,” “On the principles of knowledge in John Stuart Mill’s Logic,” “On the atomic theory of matter, accord¬ ing to Professor Stralioff,” “ Tho universe as a whole,” “ On the immortality of the soul, according to Plato,” and other abstruse subjects. National history has been much studied, and very minute investigations have been made by women on some original texts of ancient Slavonic chronicles. Such works as “ The fall of Novgorod in olden Russian chronicles” and “ The conquest of Kazan in 1552 as it appears from annals and traditions,” are considered by Professor Platonoff as essays of quite individual and independent value. Several women are well acquainted with different Slavonic idioms and have made valuable translations of Servian and Bulgarian popular songs into Russian. I do not wish to fatigue you with minute details concerning the financial status of the establishment, but I can not pass the question by, as I think it is of significant importance in showing how much public opinion is favorably disposed toward higher education for women. The St. Petersburg higher courses are supported by the Gov¬ ernment and by the municipality; this sum amounts to 6,000 rubles a year, while the whole maintenance of the establishment, according to the director’s report, costs ten times as much. From whence come these funds? Except tho students’ fees all the rest are voluntary donations of private individuals. We can hardly give an idea of their extent and variety, not only in large amounts of money (such as have been given by Mesdames Sibiriacoff, Shamiansky, Vargounin, and others), but in active help of all kinds, beginning with the architect who erected the building and refused all compensation. During the two transition years, when admission to the courses was refused, most of the professors lectured gratis; the two doctors attached to the establishment, one of whom is a lady, never wanted to accept anything for their daily attendance. Professors, writers, and scientific societies contributed to the enlargement of the library, and the papers have always published gratis all announcements concerning the courses. Another thing that characterizes the popularity of the courses is the fact that students come from such distant places as Tiflis and Baku, in the Caucasus ; or Tomsk, Emisseisk, and Irkhtsk, in Siberia. It is to be noted, too, that the most generous donors contributing to the prosperity of the establishment are two Siberian ladies. We must now say a few words in regard to the higher medical courses founded in St. Petersburg in the year 1872. Strange as it may appear here in America, these courses for women were under the direction of the ministry of war and attached to military hospitals. The students from these courses were of great help during the last Turkish war in 1877, where they showed courage and utter self-abnegation. In times of peace women doctors chiefly practice in villages, where the provincial hos¬ pitals are often under their direction; in the southeastern provinces their help is priceless among the Mohammedans, because of the strict religious laws that forbid women having any medical attendance from men. Unfortunately, these courses were closed in 1888, chiefly for pecuniary reasons; but at the same time other med¬ ical courses attached to the Nativity Hospital of St. Petersburg were reenforced in order to supply this lapse. During the sixteen years of their existence the higher medical courses sent out about 1,000 graduates; the first Russian women doctors were Mesdames Sousloff and Ivoskevaroff. CHAPTER IX. PAPERS PREPARED FOR THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CON¬ GRESS. Library Economy. The president of the American Library Association, Mr. Melvil Dewey, in the year of the Columbian Exposition conceived the happy idea of preparing a volume on library economy, assigning the several portions of the work to special experts with the purpose of having the papers thus prepared read at the International Library Congress to be held in Chicago during the summer of 1893. The following letter from Mr. Dewey explains the plan, purpose, and execution of the following papers on library economy, which together constitute a unique and valuable treatise on the general subject of the management of libraries: While secretary of the American Library Association during its first fifteen years, the need of a manual of library economy was constantly felt, and much of my time was given to correspondence and to preparation and publication of matter destined after revision to form chapters of such a manual. When elected again to the presi¬ dency for the World’s Fair meeting, I undertook with the approval of the executive hoard to utilize the unusual opportunity for making such a volume by cooperation. The following brief extracts from some of the many official circulars sent out will make clear the plan : “The proceedings of the American Library Association Columbian meeting will form a library handbook to take the place of the Centennial library volume pub¬ lished by the Bureau of Education, which has long been out of print. That did much good, but was written just before modern library activity began. Obviously a much better book can now be written by well organized cooperation among lead¬ ing members of the association. The historical and statistical parts will be made by the Bureau of Education, which has by far the best facilities for this work, but it is our province to contribute the library economy. “I hope the experiment of this systematic programme for the World’s Fair meeting will be so successful that we may another year take the historical side and make a historical handbook, and a third year take the bibliographic side, putting all our strength on chat. This will give the profession three splendid volumes. Bearing this in mind, the writers for this year should avoid going into historical details and make their papers not ordinary essays but a compact and useful judicial summing up of the principles of library economy.77 The official programme of the ten days’ meeting at Chicago made the following statement : “PLAX OF PROGRAMME. u The programme is so planned as to make the printed proceedings a handbook of library economy setting forth the points of geueral agreement attained in the seven¬ teen years since organization at the Centennial, and also the points- on which our best thinkers still differ. 691 692 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. “ Each author will revise his paper, utilizing the discussions, so that as finally- printed in the proceedings it will represent the position of the subject at the close instead of at the beginning of the 1893 meeting. “The aim is, therefore, to present a judicial digest of previous articles, papers, discussions, and specially of experience, rather than to contribute new material. The substance of perhaps 100 or more contributions scattered through library serials and proceedings, general periodical literature, reports, bulletins, etc., are put in a single short paper, in two parts; the first stating what is generally accepted by well informed librarians, not necessarily what the author thinks ; the second giving the points on that subject which are still under discussion and to the solution of which the Columbian meeting ought materially to contribute. “ While the papers will thus be ATery condensed they are not to be read at the meet¬ ings, but will be furnished in advance to members ; and the time at the meeting will be devoted to discussing unsettled points which will be presented by the author in a five minutes summary. It is thus expected to get from a single daily session as much practical good as is usually obtained from the three, and in the time thus gained to more than double the great practical value of our annual meeting by thorough study of the library exhibit.” After the meeting the following were among the instructions sent to each author concerning final revision of his chapter: “The abstract printed in advance in the Library Journal, the full paper as pre¬ pared before the meetings, the shorthand reports of discussions, with any informa¬ tion from other sources specially collected for the A. L. A. exhibit, should be used in revising or rewriting the chapter to make it as practically valuable as possible for reference. “As general editor of the volume, I shall state the plan and opportunities for dis¬ cussion and revision, but shall not claim approval of the A. L. A. for the published result, as the new constitution forbids promulgating any recommendations in library economy by the A. L. A. without previous approval by the council. Each author is therefore alone responsible for his chapter. You are not restricted to what was sub¬ mitted at the meeting, but are free to write now what you see fit, provided the rule laid down from the first is followed: that you state not your individual preferences, but the points of agreement and difference among competent librarians with the best statement you can make of different claims. A point of agreement does not mean that a bare majority of those consulted hold this opinion. In all cases where data has been collected the number of votes ought to be noted, at least in brackets or footnotes. On many points our discussions showed us to he practically unanimous, but wherever a respectable minority held different views they are entitled to fair mention in these chapters. We must all guard against assuming the position of an advocate of methods we personally prefer, rather than that of a judge of all those found to have substantial merits. Each author might be described as a World’s Fair judge to report on the subject, as other judges report on exhibits. We must not be misled by mere numbers using certain methods, for fifty librarians may be using one form and three another form unknown to the others, but which the entire fifty- three would prefer. “After a statement of what is being done and approved by competent judges we shall be glad to have each author add his personal views resulting from his study, provided he puts them clearly as such.” This is the plan on which these articles have been prepared. As editor I have had extended correspondence with some of the authors; with others hardly a single note has been exchanged. In some cases footnotes have been added to supply omis¬ sions, but the editor has not undertaken to supplement or modify the papers as revised. In preparing these chapters and in collecting the international library exhibit made by the American Library Association under the auspices of the United States Bureau of Education, many thousand circulars were sent out. The returns, contain- THE WOKLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 693 ing an amount of valuable technical information never before so fully or carefully collected, have all been preserved, classified, bound, aud indexed, and, with the library exhibit itself, are fully available to all interested in the library museum of the New York State library school at Albany. In behalf of library interests the world over, the editor wishes to thank the authors of these articles for the important service they have rendered to librarian- ship. From his entrance on his official duties the present Commissioner of Education has shown an interest in and knowledge of modern library aims and methods which has commanded the admiration and cooperation of all interested in developing to its full possibility the great educational agency known as the public library system. The publication of these chapters where they may reach the largest number and do the most good simply adds one more to the long list of official acts which have made his administration marked at home and abroad, wherever educationists keep informed ' as to the work of government departments. Melvil Dewey. State Library, Albany, N. Y., June 15, 1895. Libraries in Delation to Schools. Hannah P. James, Librarian in Osterhout Free Library, Wilkesbarre, Pa. Object to be attained.— Dr. W. T. Harris in his address at the Fa- byan house conference in 1890, on “The function of the library and the school in education,” said: “The school gives the preliminary prepara¬ tion for education, and the library gives the means by which the indi¬ vidual completes and accomplishes his education.” These few words embody the sentiments of the typical modern librarian, and his chief aim is so to impress them on the instructors of youth that the schools and the libraries shall work together for one and the same purpose — the true education of man from his earliest years to the close of bis earthly career. How to begin. — First, enlist the interest of the superintendent of schools or members of the school board in a close connection between the schools and the library. In New Jersey all libraries organized under the law of 1884 have the superintendent as an ex-officio member of the library board. In other places the superintendent or some of the principals are elected as members. Minneapolis has both the super¬ intendent of schools and the president of the university, and gains greatly thereby in a wise and intelligent administration. Without these exceptional advantages, however, much depends on enlisting the hearty cooperation of the school board $ for while the most intelligent teachers rarely need more than the opportunity to enter into the work, others have to be won over and encouraged by the impelling influence of authority. Their aid, too, is often needed in arranging the details of the work, both in school and out. To interest teachers. — Seek personal intercourse with the teachers and explain to them the value and aim of the work proposed. Visit the schools if possible and make yourself familiar with their work. Invite 694 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. the teachers by grades to the library to examine books adapted to their classes. Ask for suggestions of books to buy. Feel a real interest in the teachers and their work, and never be too busy to pass a friendly word with them. One librarian lends pictures mounted on cardboard to teachers who do not at first care for books, and so wins them. Speak at teachers’ institutes of your aims, and the great work that can be accomplished by cooperation. Do not rest till every teacher uses the library. The books are quite often of as much value to the teacher as to the pupil. Los Angeles invites teachers to join the library club and finds it most helpful. How to aid teachers. — If possible, have some one specially fitted by training and disposition to take charge of the school work which must fall on the librarian or one of his assistants. If the latter is chosen with special reference to her fitness for aiding and inspiring the teach¬ ers, just so much more good will be accomplished. Several libraries have made such appointments, and devote Saturday mornings during term time and two hours every day after school to assisting both teach¬ ers and pupils. Lists of books for school use are prepared, sometimes classified, and with notes; written lists of new books received are made, the books themselves being shown. Gall numbers are entered in Sargent’s, Caller’s, Hardy’s, Hewins’s, and other lists, and lent to the teachers G-rades allowed use of books. — From some libraries only the high school is allowed to draw books for school use. More allow high and grammar schools, leaving out the primary school. If our aim is to educate and direct the tastes and habits of thought of the people, the work can not begin too early. Train the twig into a straight and healthy growth, if you wish a straight and healthy tree. As it is estimated that nearly half the pupils leave school at or before reaching the grammar grade, it is necessary to interest them in good books before that time, making them feel that the library has something of value to them, and is as much for them, if they will but use it, as for others. Better results will be obtained in the higher grades by pupils trained in the use of books from the beginning. Number of volumes lent. — From 2 to 40 volumes each are allowed at one time by different libraries, the average number lent by 50 libraries being 7. The number varies somewhat, but not always according to the size of the library. A moderate limit may with advantage be estab¬ lished in the beginning; but later, if an earnest teacher wants and can use a large number to advantage, without detriment to the needs of other teachers, he should have them. Thirty-three libraries report no limit, leaving it to the judgment of the librarian. Milwaukee allows one volume to each pupil. Special libraries. —What are called u special libraries” of 50 volumes each, are in some cities sent to the schools instead of, or in addi¬ tion to, those lent on school cards. These are retained a specified THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. G 95 time — from four to eight weeks — and exchanged bodily at the expira¬ tion of that time with other schools. These “special libraries” often contain duplicates for simultaneous reading, the pupils being required to discuss the books and prepare papers on them. Detroit, Worcester, Milwaukee, Cleveland, Columbus, and other libraries use this method to great advantage. Detroit has 4,000 volumes circulating in this way, 2,000 of them in the high school. Few York State appropriates $25,000 a year for its public library division of the educational exten¬ sion department,1 and “traveling libraries” are a central feature in its most efficient jmactical work. In outlying districts at a distance from the main library teachers not infrequently act as agents in receiving and delivering the library books to the people of the neighborhood. While this distribution does not come under the head of “ school work,” the teacher can, if he will, exert a wise and helpful influence by aiding in the selection of the best books of all classes. Duplicates. — Duplicates ranging in number from 2 to 100 copies are purchased by different libraries. Where all members of a class are required to read the same book for seminars or essays, large dupli¬ cation is necessary. Such duplication, however, would seem to be more appropriately provided by the school boards, unless school funds are given the library directly for that purpose, as at Los Angeles, where $5,500 a year are applied to the purchase of schoolbooks. Where a limited number of books is lent, fewer duplicates and greater variety, unless in special cases, will be found advisable. All classes of the same grade do not use the same books at the same time. For 10 grammar schools 0 cot>ies of any one book are usually enough. Excep¬ tionally valuable books may require more duplicating. Variety excites interest in research and comparison. Buy carefully up to demand, rather than beyond it. Where a limited treasury will not admit of any duplication, judicious buying, with due regard to school work, and as liberal a use of books on hand as the library can afford, will be of incalculable benefit. The main point is to teach the children to use the library to the best advantage, to cultivate a real love of books and a thirst for knowledge. Fiction. — Fiction, without decidedly moral or educational tenden¬ cies, is seldom allowed. While judicious teachers might often use fiction to good advantage, were it allowed to be freely drawn on school cards, there would be danger of an excessive use of it by others not so judicious. One library reports such use, and the consequent with¬ drawal of all library privileges. Some use historical fiction freely in connection with historical studies ; some, 1 volume of fiction to 8 or 10 others; and many none at all, excepting to lowest primary grades, to incite a desire to use the books and to learn to read. In the latter xBy the new law of 1892 it also grants $55,000 a year for school libraries, to be kept in the building as a part of the school apparatus. 696 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. grades tlie old classic fairy tales are useful in awakening the interest and imagination of those coming from ignorant and degraded homes. Following these, Andrews’s Seven Little Sisters, Kirby’s Aunt Martha’s Corner Cupboard, with other similar books, will easily lead up to more serious reading. As a rule, children do not need to be taught to read fiction, but by cultivating in them a taste for history, literature, natural science, etc., we may be reasonably sure that they will choose only the better class of fiction when left to themselves. And as the schools exist at great cost to the public, purely for the education of the young, it would seem to be the obvious duty of the library in its connection with the schools to furnish them only with books of a decidedly educational nature. In the high school grades standard fiction is used with advantage in the study of literature. Limit of time allowed and care of books. — Books are usually lent for a limited period, with privilege of an indefinite number of renewals. Some issue for an unlimited period. By allowing one renewal only fewer duplicates are needed, but m consequence the children can not familiarize themselves so fully with the books. Fewer books thoroughly read are often better for the children than a greater variety with insuffi¬ cient time for careful perusal. Accounting for books every two or four weeks by the teacher encourages greater care on his part. The work can be delegated to one of the pupils, under the teacher’s supervision, or, as in some libraries, the assistant in charge of school work can visit the schools and renew the books, examining their condition at the same time. Torn books should be returned to the library immediately, and lost books reported and paid for by the loser, or by the whole school if the loser is unknown or unable. Besponsibility for the careful use of public property is a lesson which can not be learned too early, and children will value books more highly if, in case of loss or damage, they are required to contribute a few pennies apiece to make the loss good. Give them all possible privileges, but teach them to feel a sense of responsibility for those privileges. Record of school circulation. — About half the libraries heard from report no record kept of school circulation, because no special system is used. A ledger account with each teacher is valuable as showing titles of books drawn. Kept in small pass books, and alpliabeted by teachers’ names, this method is convenient and helpful. Where a charging-slip system is used, colored slips for schoolbooks show at a glance the character, date, and amount of school circulation. By this method warning can be sent teachers, if necessary, in season to pre¬ vent fines, but if fines accrue they should be paid. While the total amount of circulation can not show the full value of the work done, it serves as an indication, and on both librarian and teachers it acts as an inspiration and incentive. Special school cards are often used, either placed in book pockets or retained at the library. In the latter THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 697 case, teacher’s name and date of return are written on the book cover. Teachers are advised to write date of return or renewal on the black¬ board. Influence of library on pupils. — Some librarians ask for lists of books read by each pupil, with comments on favorites. These lists are returned to the pupils with words of encouragement and advice from the librarian. Some invite children to write notes to them expressing their appreciation and wants. A letter from the librarian commending care and good use of books is greatly valued, and creates a person al feeling of friendship for the library. Better still is the custom of some to visit the schools once a year and talk with the pupils. Classes are invited to visit the library at stated times and are shown objects of natural history or science, if such form a part of it. These methods, or any others used with a sincere desire to win the children to a love of the library, will have their reward in a great increase of interest among the young. Kindly personal influence is one of the greatest factors of success in this work. Reference use by pupils, — Extensive use for reference is reported by nearly all libraries, some situated near the schools having daily visits from whole classes. Others, according to their ability, afford every possible aid, considering it their most valuable work. As mentioned above, Saturday forenoons and two hours after school daily are in some places devoted to the special assistance of teachers and pupils. Class rooms. — Few libraries have class rooms designed specially for that use, but several report them as future possibilities when new buildings or additions are completed. For class work they are invalu¬ able, as large collections of books can be examined and discussed, a love of research instilled, and a familiarity cultivated that will often lead pupils to prosecute their studies after their school life ends. Worcester has a class room for every subject — history, fine arts, natural science, etc. Teachers’ cards. — Teachers are usually allowed to draw extra books for purposes of study, the number varying from two to any number desired, but generally for a limited time. Teachers’ cards are issued to all teachers whether residents or not. Books on pedagogy and kindred subjects should be provided and the teachers asked to suggest titles for their own use. Teachers’ influence on home circulation. — Some libraries report a decided influence on home circulation from school work, apart from the books lent to pupils from the school. Librarians find teachers the most efficient helpers possible in securing the entrance of good books into families which can in no other way be reached. They are the only ones who can do that work, and they should be encouraged to distribute registration blanks, and help in the selection of books for home read¬ ing by short lists or catalogs furnished them for the purpose. They should be impressed with the greatness of their opportunities for good. 698 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Adaptation of Libraries to Constituencies.1 By Samuel Swett Green, Public librarian, Worcester, Mass. A resident of a Massachusetts town to which the Commonwealth was about to give $100 worth of books came to secure my influence as a member of the State free public library commission to have a large part of the $100 spent for rare and expensive books on Massachusetts his¬ tory. Asa large and valuable library made up principally of books of that class was soon to be given to another small town in the same county, it would have been manifestly unwise to grant this request. It seems unwise also to place a students’ library in a small town where there are few who will use it. It would be better to give the library to a flour¬ ishing institution at a county seat, on condition that it shall be open for free consultation by all residents of the county, and that, under proper rules, books may be lent from it to inhabitants of smaller towns for use at home. In this way the library would be so placed that most persons wishing to make investigations would have the books near home, and the com¬ paratively few investigators in the smaller towns, such as the man in the town first-mentioned, would also have their interests provided for. The trustees of the Thomas Crane Public Library at Quincy, Mass., have concluded, utilizing the experience of many years, that a working library of 15,000 volumes is sufficient to supply the general wants of the 20,000 residents of the city. It is proposed not to let the library grow beyond 20,000 volumes while the wants of the city remain what they are, and when it exceeds that number of volumes to cut it down by taking out books that never have been needed in a popular library like that in Quincy or that have become useless. It having become evident that an addition would presently have to be made to the build¬ ing if the recent rate of increase should continue, it seemed best to the trustees to begin at once to reduce the size of the library. They pro¬ ceeded, under the able leadership of Mr. Charles Francis Adams, to remove from the library largo numbers of Government documents, 1 With this paper should he read those pages of the Chicago discussions in which it was pointed out by leading librarians that to weed out safely would require much costly expert service; that the mosthurtfnl criticism would be attacks after inevita¬ ble cases where some one would greatly wish a book that had been withdrawn as useless ; that the printed catalogs already circulated would be made untrustworthy by parting with any volume included ; that what one wise and learned man would throw out as trash, another equally wise and learned would consider specially val¬ uable because of differing personal equations. In short, that however excellent in theory, it was perhaps the most difficult thing in librarianship to put successfully in practice. While few favored et weeding out” simply to gain room by getting rid of books little wanted, many believe in transferring to other libraries which have a distinctly greater need of them. — M. D. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 609 unnecessary duplicates, books of an outgrown ephemeral interest, and those unsuited to the locality. Twenty-one hundred and forty-five volumes were removed immediately. The Quincy library, by adopting this course, relieves itself from very considerable prospective expenses and secures money to use in increasing its usefulness. Part of the plan is to keep the printed catalogs of the small library up to date and to scatter copies of them widely throughout the city by selling them at a nominal price. It is always expensive to prepare and print a good catalog 5 it is very expensive to issue new editions fre¬ quently. Still, if a popular library is to do its work well it must intro¬ duce its constituents to its books by means of frequent revised editions of a good, printed catalog. The Thomas Crane Library has been famous for the excellence of its annotated catalog and for lists of books on special subjects for the use of school children. It proposes in future to use more money than in the past in making, printing, and keeping up to date good cata¬ logs, and, in order to make it practicable to do so, to keep down the number of volumes in the library, thus reducing the expenses of cata¬ loging, and also to save money in housing its books. That is to say, it is acting on the well-established principle that a small library well cataloged, if at all adapted in the number of its volumes to the size of a town, is of incalculably greater advantage to its constituency than one many times larger but poorly equipped with catalogs. It is a distinctive feature of the Quincy plan not to make the library a special reference library. That city is very near Boston and Cam¬ bridge, which it is well known are richly supplied with large general and numerous special libraries. When a man appears in Quincy who wishes to make a minute inquiry on some special subject, it is proposed to refer him to the great libraries in the neighboring cities, and to confine the efforts of the trustees of the Quincy library to supplying the general wants of its constituency. Here, then, is a bold atteinjit at adapting a library to its constituency. Shall it be seconded f Many will hold it unwise to discuss such a subject publicly. Bemein- bering many ill judged efforts at economy by ignorant, uneducated, or parsimonious men in town meetings and on library boards, they will pronounce it hurtful to libraries to point out to such men that some library experts consider it well to keep down expenses for cataloging and housing books by weeding out libraries. Perhaps they are right. Whether they are so or not, however, their objection is too late. The matter now under consideration is undergoing public discussion, and it is important that men having special knowledge of library matters should contribute nowT the results of their experience. Unreasonable men in town meetings and in boards of trustees must be answered, and reasonable men and women need to understand thoroughly the subject in order that their answers may be discriminating and wise. 700 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Once, when the Librarian of Congress askecl that an addition be n ade to the library rooms, a member is said to have urged that instead of enlarging the Capitol, the library should be weeded out. Such a plan would be regarded generally as exceedingly foolish. There must be in many parts of this broad land large and growing libraries which will aim to gather very, large general and special collec¬ tions not limited to books of intrinsic merit. Such libraries will have to get many books of little value in themselves to enable students to study subjects historically. It would indeed be very silly to weed out the Congressional Library. Somewhere there should be accessible (and where better than in that library?) every book, pamphlet, and map published in the United State's. The Congressional Library should be a great national library like the Bibliotheque Rationale and the British Museum. The Quincy plan would not work well even in a place the size of Worcester, Mass., with a population of only 90,000 or 95,000, and but 44 miles from Boston, for it is a center of important educational insti¬ tutions and of inquirers, and therefore needs large reference libraries. Cambridge, though very much nearer Boston than Quincy, becomes, because of Harvard University, a center where there must be a large library. It is too great an inconvenience for Harvard professors* and students to rely, except for book rarities, on libraries even so near as those in Boston. On the other hand, consider the John Adams Library at Quincy. It was collected by President J ohn Adams in Europe and America, and undoubtedly contains many valuable books. But is it in place in Quincy? It was formerly kept in the Adams Academy, but not prov¬ ing useful there, it was transferred to the Thomas Crane Public Library, where it now is. Mr. Charles Francis Adams recently said that he only knew of this John Adams Library having been consulted once in forty years, and that then he was himself the consulter. It is more convenient for Mr. Adams to make his many researches in the great libraries in Boston and Cambridge than in Quincy, and his opinion is that this library should be given to the Boston Public Library, where it would be of great value in supplementing the collections, and would be readily accessible to the class of students who would use it. Per¬ haps, however, Quincy would be unwilling to give up this library, which marks its connection with a very distinguished man. While it is a distinctive feature of the Quincy plan not to make the public library a special reference library, its success depends on having large reference libraries near at hand. In one respect it encourages making the library a special library, namely, on local interests and history. As to the saving in expense possible under the Quincy plan, while money is saved which would ordinarily be used in housing books and in other ways, increased expenditure, it should be remembered, is con¬ templated in frequent issues of improved catalogs. As I shall soon show, the plan, if well carried out, requires other expenditures. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 701 There are many small libraries which do not need weeding. If a library needs weeding, as many undoubtedly do, will it be weeded out wisely ? Broad-minded intelligence is needful for this kind of work, as well as education and experience in library work. An expert is as much needed in this work of weeding out as in selecting books for a library at its start. Great harm might result from injudicious discarding. Another objection likely to be made to the Quincy plan is that it would often be difficult to decide how large a library is needed in a town or city, and that this difficulty would be magnified in a growing town. Still, if a thing is desirable it should be done in spite of diffi¬ culties. Foresight must be exercised and generous provision made for the probable growth of towns, and the number of volumes changed as changes in the size of population or other considerations demand. Supposing a mistake has been made, the weeding has been made with the accessibility in view of large and special libraries in towns and cities near by. Those towns and cities will still remain near to the town which has grown unexpectedly large; their libraries will still be accessible for reference. The difference between the old state of things and the new is likely to be that the books will be used more under changed circumstances than formerly. But how provide under the Quincy plan for students who can not afford time and money to frequent the large libraries even in towns or cities near by; and supposing this number of special inquirers becomes considerable, can you hope that they will receive a cordial welcome and sympathetic assistance in large neighboring libraries? Dangers here hinted at must be guarded against. Librarians and trustees should be on the lookout for inquirers and help them to get at the books needed. It is proposed to help them by preparing and issuing often improved printed catalogs. Personal assistance would also evidently be needed under the new plan. In some cases it would be necessary to buy books. In others the investigator might be introduced to the officers of the library, or by some influential person to the officers of a large neighbor¬ ing library with reference to his being allowed to borrow if he could not use books on the premises. The same thing might perhaps be better accomplished by a loan from the large to the small library. The small library might have to pay for this privilege. It might be desirable, if an investigator had leisure but not money, for the small library to pay his car fare to the town where the library to be consulted is situated. Large libraries as now constituted are very obliging, and continually extend courtesies to smaller institutions. The people of Worcester, for example, every week, and sometimes oftener, have books borrowed for their use from the Surgeon-Gen erafis library, W ashington, from Harvard, the Boston Athenaeum, Columbia, Yale, and other libraries. Many insti¬ tutions are already extending gratuitously such privileges. Supposing it were to become the custom of small libraries to send books and pamphlets which they can get, but do not need, to large 702 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. neighboring libraries where they would be useful. Such action would lead to an exchange of various civilities. Then, too, as the desirability of having large libraries help smaller ones by loans of books becomes more and more obvious, will not persons of means give money to the former to enable them to do this kind of work for small towns generally or for particular towns in which they may be specially interested? Mr. Adams’s advice to libraries is, not to accumulate books pro¬ miscuously, but to practice a systematic differentiation in collecting. Books which cumber the shelves of one library may be of the greatest value in another. The public documents only of its own town and State, and a few of the national documents relating to matters of gen¬ eral interest, are in place in the library of a small town. But all public documents have come to be of the greatest service in large libraries and in libraries connected with important educational institutions. Even those which seem driest, because exclusively of statistics, are much in demand in colleges where students of history and political economy are required to examine original sources. Mr. Charles A. Cutter said several years ago, regarding the proper disposition of pamphlets, that local pamphlets should be given to local libraries, professional or scientific pamphlets to special libraries, mis¬ cellaneous and all sorts of pamphlets to larger general libraries. This is excellent advice. Even large general libraries practice differentiation, many of them excluding professional books and leaving special libraries in their neighborhood to accumulate them. A State library may properly make a specialty of public documents, and perhaps law books, and pay little attention to accumulating other books. A general subscription library with a constituency mainly of people of leisure may find it more useful to collect books in belles-lettres, biography, history, travel, etc., than to buy many dealing with industrial subjects. But a public library in a great manufacturing town, or a special library for architects and engineers, must specialize on technical books. It is not proposed to destroy books taken out of libraries where they are not needed, but to place them within reach of those most needing them, either through other libraries or auction rooms or secondhand bookstores. Xo countenance would be given to such a proceeding as that of the administrators of the estate of the well-known collector of old books, Mr. T. O. P. H. Burnham, who are said to have sent a ton or more of material from his stock to the paper mill.1 The people of Worcester act more wisely. They empty their attics into the rooms of the American Antiquarian Society or those of the !It is conceivable that after a lifetime of buying whole attics of rejected books and preserving those which no one would buy at any price, out of an immense stock there might be a ton of duplicate schoolbooks, incomplete volumes, and other books and pamphlets which could not even be given away to any library ; since the large libraries would have copies and the smaller ones would not esteem them worth shelf room. — M. D. 'HE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 703 local Society of Antiquity. Housekeepers there, too, dispose similarly of sucli books as turn up in spring cleaning and are found to be in the way. An extensive system of exchange is in operation under the auspices of the former society, and books and pamphlets sent to the rooms of either society, find their way to persons and libraries where they are needed, and the two antiquarian societies enrich their collec¬ tions by the exchanges made. Col. Thomas Wentworth Higginson recently stated that a trustee of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, told him that he spent a considerable part of his time in refusing gifts offered to the museum. This trustee is probably wise in declining gifts. There are many books and pam¬ phlets offered to libraries which they would not find useful. These should be accepted only on condition that they may be placed wherever they will be most valuable. Differentiation is specially desirable in the smallest libraries. When but little money is available for buying books the small amount should be spent with closest regard to actual needs of the constituency. Hot infrequently intelligent entertainment and elementary instruction will be the principles that should guide in selecting books for small libraries. With intelligent cooperation several small neighboring towns might adopt to advantage the suggestion that each of them spend a few dollars a year on a specialty, such as botany, geology, zoology; every town taking a different specialty and all lending to one another. This paper favors in the main the selection of books with special ref¬ erence to the actual existing needs of the users of the library. Such an institution as the flourishing public library of Providence, B. I., might properly, if allowable for any library in cities of moderate size, add to its general work some specialty of limited interest. Mr. Foster, its librarian, has recently stated, however, that he thinks that notwith¬ standing the reputation which the famous Harris collection of poetry gives to the library throughout the country, it is the best for that library to devote itself almost exclusively to supplying the general needs of Providence. In conclusion, it may be stated that Mr. Adams does not claim that the plan of weeding out libraries adopted at Quincy has never been thought of before. He was not indebted to any book for the idea, but it had occurred to other persons before. Action upon it had always been recommended. Mr. Adams has taken the bull by the horns. He has put the plan in execution and to a considerable extent has sys¬ tematized it. He has also called attention to it and made it a living subject for discussion. 704 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. Aids to Library Progress by the Government of the United States. By A. R. Spofford, LL. D., Librarian of Congress. Whatever may be the opinion of librarians or of the public as to the adequacy of the service rendered to libraries by our Government, it is at least certain that it has been enough to call for worthy recognition at our hands. While it can by no means be affirmed that the Government has been consistently liberal, it would be equally untrue to assert that it has been consistently niggardly. The Congress of Senators and Rep¬ resentatives, which is alone responsible for the opening and shutting of the national purse strings, is a continually changing body, of brief offi¬ cial tenure. It results that a certain caprice or uncertainty attends the making of appropriations for scientific, educational, and specially for literary objects. The enlightened and large-minded men whose zeal for the widest dif¬ fusion of knowledge through libraries may lead to generous legislation in one Congress may not be reelected to the next. I will venture to lay it down as a postulate that this Government of the people owes to the libraries of the country all the aids which a due regard for constitutional limitation will allow. Such aids should by no means be confined to libraries at the seat of Government, which may seem to be more peculiarly within its cares. The most obvious and practically useful means of extending such aids is a wider and more complete distribution of all books printed at the expense of the Gov¬ ernment. This method, being but a simple extension in the interest of public intelligence of legislation for more than half a century on the statute books, ought also to be more free from cavil and objection than any other. A thoroughly digested system of such enlarged distribution has been often put before the committees of Congress through the aid of this association, and just as often has been rejected, or has failed of passage in one or the other House of Congress. The reasons of these repeated failures, complex as they are, have been fully treated by the members of successive committees of our members in charge of this subject. In this summary of what has hitherto been done in aid of libraries, complete details can not be given. But I may properly mention some of the more remarkable contributions which have been made to public libraries through the agency of Congress, in the form of publications not emanating from any Department or Bureau of the Government, and hence not constituting documents entering into the ordinary channels of distribution. By far the most costly and extensive publication ever undertaken by the Government was the narrative and the scientific results of the United States Exploring Expedition round the world, in 1838-1842, under the command of Capt. Charles Wilkes. This vast undertaking, though strictly limited to an edition of 100 copies, and THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 705 never completed, cost this Government from first to last $242,400.55. This enormous sum was of course exclusive of any expenses of the expedition itself, and covered — (1) The labor of many scientific experts in various fields; (2) The finest engravings which the art of that day could supply; (3) The choicest paper, of heavy satin finish ; (4) The hand press work of the best printers, and (5) Binding in the heaviest and most durable of Turkey morocco, full gilt. Eighteen volumes of text in quarto, and 11 folio atlases of maps and plates were finished up to 1861, when Congress, already more than impatient at the renewed and heavy demands for money to carry on a work of which none could inedict the ultimate cost, brought it to a close by refusing further appropriation. The 100 sets printed were by law distributed thus : 34 copies to for¬ eign Governments; 1 copy to each State in the Union; 6 copies to specially designated institutions or individuals; the remainder to be reserved for future States when admitted to the Union. Repeated fires in printing offices consumed 30 copies of certain volumes before distri¬ bution could be made, so that even the meager diffusion of the work to libraries was never fully carried out. Still, it is to the credit of the liberality of Congress to have engaged, in those days of small things and of strict construction, in putting into permanent literary form the scientific results of an exploration which had awakened world- wide interest. The original sin of the undertaking lay in limiting the edition to 100 copies, and sending all the American distribution to libraries at State capitals, and nowhere else. Thus, Albany has a set of this great exploring expedition, while New York City has none. Columbus, Ohio, is endowed with the costly volumes, but Cincinnati scholars can not see them without traveling 100 miles. Jefferson City has a set, laid to sleep under dust year by year, while St. Louis has none. Springfield, Ill., in its State library, has these rare and precious volumes, perhaps never consulted with serious purpose by one visitor in a year, while the great metropolis of studious research, Chicago, can not show a copy of one of the most notable of purely American books. This remark¬ able history of a Government’s doing a very liberal thing in a very nig¬ gardly way, adds point to the suggestion that if only 100 more copies had been printed, their distribution would have supplied every library in the United States at that day having 5,000 volumes. This added number would have cost merely the price of paper and presswork — a mere trifle in comparison with the vast sum squandered in diffusing much less than half the benefit. Besides, the Government might have printed for a much wider dis¬ tribution the five-volume Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, a popular and interesting work, published only by private enterprise. In short, this mismanaged and truncated publication is to ED 93 - 45 706 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. be instanced as a model to be avoided in future undertakings of a similar nature. Among other notable Government contributions of special value to libraries have been Force’s American Archives ; or, Documentary His¬ tory of the American Revolution, the publication of which extended to 9 volumes in folio (1837-1853) ; the American State Papers, 38 volumes folio (1832-1861); a republication of important Government and Con¬ gressional reports and documents, from 1789 to about 1837 ; Commodore Perry’s Narrative of the United States Expedition to Japan, 3 volumes quarto (1856); the Writings of Thomas Jefferson, 9 volumes (1853), 300 sets of which went to libraries and institutions of learning; the Madi¬ son Papers, 3 volumes (1810), and his writings in 1 volumes (1865); the Charters and Constitutions of the United States, 2 volumes (1878) ; and the collection of French documents, entitled “Deeouvertes et fitablisse- mens des Frangais dans 1’Ouest et dans le Sud de PAmerique Septen- trionale,” 1681-1754, edited by P. Margry and printed at Paris in 6 volumes (1876-1886); and the Annals of Congress; or, Debates and Proceedings of that Body from 1789 to 1821, 12 volumes, octavo, (1831- 1836), of which 300 sets were distributed to libraries and other public institutions. Worthy of our highest recognition is the circulation at Government expense of the extensive work on the Public Libraries of the United States; their History, Condition, and Management, published by the Bureau of Education in 1876. This was followed by a distribution of the second part of the work, Buies for a Dictionary Catalogue, by C. A. Cutter. The Statistics of Public Libraries in the United States, printed by the Bureau of Education in 1886, and about being issued in a new edition to 1893, adds another signally useful publication, widely given to libraries all over the world. The action of Congress in making books imported for libraries free of duty is another service, which, though long delayed, merits our hearty commendation. There should be added to this regulation something which our asso¬ ciation has long sought but has not seen realized — a greatly reduced rate of postage on library books sent through the mails. Another service to libraries, both at home and abroad, rendered by our Government, and not so widely known as it should be, is the annual defraying of the cost of foreigu exchanges through the Smithsonian Institution. Though the principal credit for this widely useful system by which American libraries may send abroad, and foreign libraries to the United States, books to institutions of learning, is of course due to the Smithsonian Institution and the admirable system established by it, yet Congress has latterly devoted thousands of dollars toward the expenses of the exchange, where before it devoted hundreds. It is to be added that the library of the Government receives the custody and use of the publications annually received as the fruit of exchanges by the Institution of its own publications. 707 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. The Government has further benefited the libraries of the country by printing, at its own expense, for years past — (1) The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, founded in 1863 ; (2) Annual Reports of the American Historical Association (since 1889) j and (3) Annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution, full of valuable scientific papers. All these enjoy such distribution to public libraries as is provided for regular Congressional documents under existing laws. Another and more direct aid to libraries by Congress is to be found in the foundation and increase of the various Department and Bureau libraries at the seat of government. The most extensive of these special collections is the library of the Surgeon-General’s Bureau at the Army Medical Museum, numbering 101,300 volumes. The elaborate catalog of this collection, the largest assemblage of 'publications on medicine, surgery, and hygiene in the world, has been printed wholly at Government expense, costing, up to date, for printing and binding about $171,000, aside from the cost of its preparation. Beside the national collection in the Library of Congress, the Gov¬ ernment has also founded and extended the following Department libraries : Library of— Patent Office.. . . Department of State . War Department . Navy Department . Treasury Department . Department of Justice . Department of Agriculture Interior Department . Post-Office Department . Geological Survey . Coast Survey . Bureau of Education . Bureau of Statistics . Number of j volumes, j Library of — i Number of volumes. 50,000 1 United States Naval Observatorv... . 13, 000 50.000 i Li^it-House Board . 3, 600 30,000 j Signal Office "United States Army ... 10, 540 24,518 iluseum of Hygiene, Navy Depart¬ 21,000 ! ment . . . . . . 9, 938 21, 500 Solicitor of tbe Treasury . 7,000 20, 000 Nautical Almanac Office . L 600 11, 500 United States Hydrographic Office. . . 3,166 10.000 United States Fish Commission . 2, 655 30, 414 Mariue Hospital Bureau . 1, 800 12, 000 Executive Mansion - - - . j 2, 000 45, 000 4, 200 Total (23 libraries) . . j 385, 431 There are also many minor collections of books in various bureaus. All of these have been built up by Congressional appropriations. But the most extensive outlay for library purposes by our National Government has been the establishment and constant increase of the Library of Congress, more appropriately designated by Jefferson “the Library of the United States.77 This name was bestowed on it in his catalog of 1815, when his library, bought by Congress, constituted the entire collection. A more limited designation appears to have been preferred by Congress in that day of small things, before any idea of a national library had dawned on the legislative mind, and has natur¬ ally been perpetuated in the statutes. Beginning with the modest appropriation of $5,000 in 1800 “for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress at the city of Washington,77 etc., 708 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. the library grew very slowly for half a century, till, in 1851, a fire in the Capitol consumed all but 20,000 volumes of the collection. Congress, with praiseworthy liberality, at once appropriated $75,000 in one sum for buying books and $72,500 for rebuilding the interior in solid iron. Up to 1893 the appropriations for books and periodicals have aggregated nearly $800,000, about $150,000 of which represents the replacement of books destroyed by two fires. Another provision of law by which our national library is steadily enriched is the system of international exchanges. Fifty sets of all Congressional and executive documents and other publications of the Government are annually set apart to be furnished to foreign govern¬ ments in Europe and America. The returns, though fragmentary and incomplete, have brought to the Library of Congress many thousand invaluable accessions, not only of parliamentary and legal publications, but of scientific and literary works. One principal source of the rapid growth of the library of the United States has been, and will continue to be, the copyright publications, which are deposited therein in pursuance of the law conferring exclusive rights of publication, coupled with the requirement of two copies of each work protected by copyright for permanent deposit at Washington. This law, though very imperfectly complied with prior to 1870 (when the business of keeping all copyright records was transferred to Wash¬ ington, and has since formed an integral and laborious part of the duties devolved upon the Librarian of Congress), since then has become a most important means of enriching the library. The wisdom of the legislation which established the system is amply attested by the valu¬ able accessions annually accruing; and in view of the fact that the great government libraries of Europe owe so large a proportion of their invaluable stores to the copyright privilege, it is manifest that the law of growth of our own national library is coextensive with the literary and scientific development of the country which it represents. The service rendered to the world of letters by the preservation in a fireproof repository at the seat of government of an approximately complete series of the nation’s literature can be best appreciated by librarians, who know by experience how rapidly books tend to disap¬ pear from the market, till it is literally true that many works owe to public libraries their sole chance of preservation. The wise and liberal provision, after years of delay, for a separate library building of the most ample dimensions, of absolutely fireproof materials, and on a plan combining utility and beauty in a high degree, is most creditable to the ultimate judgment and liberality of Congress. The extent of accommodation for books will be 4,500,000 volumes, and the limitation of cost $6,000,000, to which is to be added the sum paid for the site, $585,000. Three more years will witness the completion of a library edifice which, for capacity, for convenience, and for architec¬ tural beauty, promises to be worthy of the nation and of the age. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 709 Branches and Deliveries. By George Watson Cole, Public librarian, Jersey City, N. J. The success of any library, be it reference or circulating, may be prop¬ erly measured by the extent of its use. Anything which will help to increase its use, therefore, must tend toward its success. Beference libraries, no less than circulating, may do this by enlarging the num¬ ber of volumes and making them specially strong in certain lines, thus attracting to their use those interested in them; in other words, by specializing in selection. As the success of a reference library depends on increasing its readers, this can only be brought about by extending as widely as possible information as to its resources. The public or circulating library must use all these means to secure readers, but is not restricted, as is the reference library, to drawing readers within its portals. Experience has shown that many people who will not go far out of their way to secure books for home reading will use a library if its books can be brought conveniently near to them. The reader needs stimulating, and in order to reach him in towns covering large areas, or having distinct centers of population, several enterprising libraries have established branches or delivery stations, at points sufficiently accessible to overcome this natural inertia inherent in the general reader. As yet little attention has been paid to this phase of library manage¬ ment either by the American Library Association or in the Library Journal. It has therefore been necessary, in order to secure data for an intelligent treatment, to communicate directly with all such libraries as from their size, character, location, or surroundings were judged most likely to have adopted either or both these means of increasing their usefulness. The list of libraries from which information was asked was carefully selected from the United States Bureau of Education’s List of Libraries, 1886 ; the third report of the Eree Public Library Commission of Mas¬ sachusetts, 1893, and Greenwood’s Public Libraries (3d edition, 1890), which named a number of English libraries that had adopted branches. 710 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Certain classes of libraries were omitted, for obvious reasons, such as college and State libraries, and sucli others as were known to be purely reference libraries. The following questions were sent: 1. Does your library make use of branches? 2. How many? 3. Number of assistants employed in the respective branches and cost of mainte¬ nance? 4. Location and distance of each from main library? 5. Number of volumes in each? 6. Number of volumes added annually to each, and their cost ? 7. Are volumes in branches duplicates of those in the main library? 8. Are there reading rooms in the branches ? 9. How extensively are they supplied with newspapers and periodicals? 10. What facilities are provided in the line of works of reference, cyclopedias, dic¬ tionaries, atlases, etc. ? 11. Can patrons of branches draw books from the main library ? 12. Is this done directly from the main library, or only through the branches? 13. If in the latter way, how are books transported from main library to the branches ? 14. Does your library make use of delivery stations ? 15. If so, how many? 16. Location and distance of each from the main library? 17. In what manner and how often are collections and deliveries made? 18. What compensation is made for transportation? 19. What for services of station keepers ? 20. Total circulation for the fiscal year ending - 189 — ? 21. Average cost of circulating each volume? 22. What proportion of your entire circulation for home reading is made through the stations? 23. Are there reading rooms in connection with them? 24. If so, expense of maintenance for services and supplies respectively? 25. Do yon make use of a combination of branch libraries and delivery stations ? If so, please explain their working. 26. From your experience, what changes would you make in your system were you to begin again? THE WORLD’S LIBRARY COXGRESS. 711 Librarians were also requested to send all information as to their methods, and also add any remarks more fully explaining tlieir differ¬ ent systems. From about 175 letters sent out, affirmative replies were recei ved from . 47. Either from want of statistics or a want of appreciation of the information desired, many replies furnished little of value as to meth¬ ods pursued and results attained. Outside of Massachusetts and Yew York, there is hardly a State of the 14 reporting where more than one library employs either of these aids to circulation. Of libraries reporting branches, eight report 1 branch, five 2 branches, three 3 branches, two 4 branches, two 5 branches, one 9 branches, one 13 branches, or a total of 67 branches. Of libraries reporting delivery stations, five report 1 station, three 2 stations, four 3 stations, two 4 stations, two 6 stations, three 10 stations, one 11 stations, one 30 stations, making a total of 114 deliveries. Of those reporting both branches and delivery stations, one reports 1 branch and 2 delivery stations, one 1 branch and 6 delivery stations, one 4 branches and 4 delivery stations, one 8 branches and 14 delivery stations, giving a total of 14 branches and 26 delivery stations. Taken by location the reports stand as follows: Libraries. Branches. Deliver¬ ies. California . . . 1 0 I Illinois . 2 0 33 Indiana . - . 1 0 10 Maryland . . 1 5 0 Massachusetts. . . ■ . 25 25 60 Michigan 1 2 0 Minnesota . . . 1 4 4 Missouri . 1 1 0 ^Nebraska . 1 0 4 New Hampshire . . . . 1 0 1 kew J ersey . 1 0 11 Hew York". . 3 10 Ohio . 1 1 0 Wisconsin . 1 1 6 England . G 35 0 Total . 47 81 ; 1 140 712 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. A list giving fuller details is herewith appended: States, etc. Names, etc. Branches.1 ^liver- ! ies. California: San Francisco . Illinois : Chicago . Monmouth - Ii. (liana : Indianapolis . . Maryland : Baltimore . . Massachusetts : Abington . . Agawam . Arlington . . Beverly . Boston . Brockton . . Cambridge - Dedham . Framingham . . . Haverhill ... - Laneshoro . Leicester . Leverett . . Lexington . Newton . Northampton. . . Norton . Quincy . Revere . Somerville . Templeton . Weymouth . Windsor . Woburn . Wrentham . Michigan : West Bay City. Minnesota : Minneapolis Missouri : St. Louis . Nebraska : Omaha . New Hampshire : Concord . New Jersey: Jersey City . New York: Brooklyn . New York City. Do . . Ohio : Cleveland . Dayton . Wisconsin : Milwaukee . Mercantile Library Association. Public library . . Warren County Library Public library . Enoch Pratt Free Library. Public library . Free public library . Robbins Library . Public library. . - do . - do . - do . - do . Town library . Public library . Town library . Public library . Free public library . Cary Library . Free library . Public library . - do . Thomas Crane Library . . Public library . _ do . . . Boynton Public Library Tufts Library . Public library . _ do . _ do . Sage Public Library Public library . - do . - do . - dp . Free public library . . . Brooklyn Library . Free circulating library. Mercantile Library . Public library. - do . .do. English libraries. Birmingham. Liverpool . . . Newport .... Nottingham . Sheffield . Swansea Free libraries. . Free public library. . do . . . . . do . Public library . . do . . . y fire, and in 1697, the Royal Library of Stockholm. In the next century, 1731, the libraries that formed the basis of the British Museum, the King’s Library, and the Cottonian, were partially burned, when 97 manuscripts were totally destroyed, and many more charred or scorched. The archducal library of Brussels was burned the same year. The great fire at Moscow in 1812 involved the destruction of its great library. The Library of Congress was fired by the British in 1814, and in 1851 was reduced to 20,000 volumes by fire. There have been a number of fires in the last two decades. In 1873, the Manches¬ ter (England) Anthenoeum Library, containing 19,000 volumes, was burned. The most disastrous fire of this period was the burning of the Birmingham Free Library, January 11, 1879. The loss was about $300,000. The library had in its reference department 50,000 volumes, and contained the great Shakespeare Memorial Library, besides other special collections. The Welsh University library, the most valuable collection of books in Wales, was totally burned in 1885. The free library of Kewcastle- on-Tyne suffered to the extent of $5,000 from fire in 1884, from over¬ heating the ventilators with gas lights. The Brussels University library lost 65,000 volumes in a fire in July, 1886. In 1890 the great library of the royal family of Belgium, at Lacken, was burned, and in the same year the University of Toronto was cremated, the loss being 24,000 volumes. Fires in libraries in this country have been significant in numbers, rather than in disastrous results in the last twenty years. In 1873 the Indiana University library, containing 15,000 volumes, was destroyed 728 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. by fire caused by lightning striking a telephone wire. The Mercantile Library of Philadelphia suffered serious damage in 1877 from water used to extinguish a fire in an adjoining building. Eifty-five thousand volumes were injured, for which $42,000 was recovered. The books were not an entire loss, as they could still be read, though stained. A kerosene lamp was the cause of a fire in Hobart College, Geneva, H. Y., in 1885, by which u many valuable books that can not be dupli¬ cated” were destroyed. The public library of Fall Kiver, Mass., lost 6,000 volumes in 1886. The insurance was carried by the city. In the same year the law library of Minneapolis was burned, also the public library of Princeton, Ind., and a part of the high school library of Yonkers, FT. Y. The public library of Peoria, Ill., on March 25, 1888, had 30,000 volumes damaged by water and improper handling. The insurance was only $8,700. The building of the Young Men’s Chris¬ tian Association at Twenty- third street and Fourth avenue, Yew York, was seriously burned July 28, 1889, while the library was not injured ; the fire ran up the elevator within 15 or 20 feet of it. The library at Colchester, Conn., valued at $5,000, was burned in 1890. The same year, in Maine, the library at Lewiston (11,000 volumes, insured for $6, 000). was destroyed, and the Eockland public library and the Skow- hegan library. This brief resume of fires, past and present, while far from complete, is sufficient to prove the imminent danger to which libraries are exposed from fire, and that the principles of protection should be thoroughly studied and applied in library architecture. In accordance with the general plan of the papers for this manual, this topic should treat: (1) Of the points on which as librarians we are agreed, and (2) of those which occupy debatable ground. While it may not be practicable to set forth this subject on these precise lines, still the theory or the practice of leading librarians may in a measure be formulated. Statistics for this purpose have been gathered from 56 libraries, 50 of which contain upward of 25,000 vol¬ umes each. The 56 libraries reporting have in the aggregate 6,225,721 volumes. Thirty of these libraries, containing 2,473,074 volumes, give a valuation of $4,651,875. The 26 not reporting value embrace some of our richest collections, and number 3,729,624 volumes. The entire value would doubtless reach $11,000,000. Official figures (1893) show that there are in the United States 3,804 libraries containiug over 1,000 volumes, and that these libraries have a total of 31,171,354 volumes; the libraries reporting will therefore represent about one-fifth of this total, but undoubtedly a much larger fraction of value. POINTS OF AGREEMENT. 1. Libraries generally regard it wise to insure. Of 56 reporting, 35 insure their books, 11 ( generally State and national libraries ) do not, while 10 make no report on the subject. Thirty-three insure their THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 727 books separate from their building, insuring 3,018,370 volumes for $2,090,754. The amount covered by insurance in different libraries will vary from about 33 to 75 per cent of the total valuation, falling probably below 50 pier cent on tlie average, a low figure. Premiums on libraries vary about 300 per cent. In discussing at Chicago the policy of insuring, it was thought by some that a library financially able should carry its own insurance, particularly if it was supported by the city or State.1 Of the 56 libraries noted, all except 5 own their buildings, and 39 give valuation as $8,755,617. Insurance figures on these buildings are not very complete or satisfactory. Official records show that there are 986 libraries in the United States owning buildings. 2. Librarians believe their books should be stored in fireproof struc¬ tures, and are building, so far as means will allow, on fireproof prin¬ ciples. Absolutely fireproof buildings are costly, and a substitute for them is often the only alternative. As an indication of the practice on this point, 22 libraries report fireproof buildings, while 5 buildings are so called, 11 are partly fireproof, and 18 are not. These buildings are generally constructed of brick, or more commonly of brick and stone. Interior construction in these buildings is not so decidedly fire resisting. The floors in most cases are made of fireproof materials, as fire brick, wood laid in cement tiling, iron girders and brick, etc. Wood enters largely into the construction of the cases (37 so reporting), a construction not as objectionable as it might seem, provided floors and partitions are properly protected. Iron is used more in balconies and stairs. Special attention lias been given by this association to architecture. At the Cincinnati conference in 1882 the first report on this topic was made. Five years later Mr. Larned reports that 18 libraries had been completed in the two previous years, and that 23 were in progress, many being fireproof. Two years later Mr. Yan Name, at the St. Louis conference, reported 55 buildings completed, or under construc¬ tion. Some allowance should be made for overlapping. He notes that the buildings for our best treasures are to be fireproof, there being 13 such. Many were the gifts of private individuals. To illustrate the advance made since 1876 in the erection of fireproof buildings we quote comments made respecting the Birmingham disaster in 1877 : ^The loss by the Birmingham fire,” said the Hew York Trib- ^lie insurance companies charge the whole amount of the risk plus running expenses plus their profits. Therefore the premium is greater than the risk, and wealthy cities and towns, like wealthy merchants, may insure themselves at a profit, and in the long run greater care is taken of uninsured property. Usually the same appropriation can he had for the library whether it uses part of it for insurance or not, and in the rare cases of fire the city or town makes a special appropriation to replace. Those who urge most strongly the greater economy of this method also admit that it would be unwise for any librarian or trustees to omit insurance unless they first secured the formal approval of the authorities, thus forestalling the violent criti¬ cism sure to be made in case of a heavy loss. — M. D. 728 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. une, “is a lesson to us on this side of the ocean of the necessity of pro¬ viding absolutely safe structures for our own precious collections, many of which are undoubtedly in constant danger of conflagration, and are not contained in structures worthy of being called fireproof at all.” Justin Winsor, referring to the preservation of books and to the same fire, said: “Too large a proportion of such edifices of to-day ignore utterly this consideration.” Many so-called fireproof buildings of 1876 would not pass inspection as such to-day. Bad construction has been the rule rather than the exception in our public buildings till recent years, and to-day we are far from emancipated from its influence. F. C. Moore, president of the Continental Insurance Company, Hew York, and an authoritative underwriter, in a brochure on “Economical fire-resisting construction,” says: “It may safely be assumed that fully 40 per cent of the losses of this single company, and therefore of every other, are due to incorrect construction of build¬ ings. This means that nearly $50,000,000 worth of property is destroyed annually in this country which might be saved if our methods of con¬ structing buildings were more nearly correct.” Edward Atkinson, the economist, in an article in the Century, Feb¬ ruary, 1889, entitled “ Slow-burning construction,” says: “The worst examples of combustible architecture are to be found among our pris¬ ons, hospitals, asylums, and almshouses; next among college buildings, libraries, and schoolhouses.” Quoting from the Insurance Chronicle, he says that in 1887 126 colleges and libraries were burned. The libraries referred to were undoubtedly not of great value and poorly protected. Risks on the better protected libraries are good. Speaking of libraries the AEtna Insurance Company, of Hartford, says: “We consider the most desirable risks those that are kept on iron racks, or in iron cases, in fireproof buildings; libraries in buildings of ordinary construction are not considered very desirable risks.” The Liverpool, London and Globe respond, “We find libraries, as a rule, profitable risks.” There were some reasons, and cogent ones, too, why library build¬ ings, as well as other structures, in the few decades past were so ill constructed. Architecture as an art was almost unknown then in this country; technical schools had not been established in which archi¬ tecture was taught, and the country was not prepared to adorn its cities and towns with edifices that combined, with beauty and solidity, qualities of construction that would make them absolutely fireproof. In place of the old fire traps, which were a menace not only to the books but to the librarian and his readers, fireproof buildings are rising all over the land, ornaments to city and town, and safe depositories of the collections they are gathering from year to year. The question was asked, “Is your building and are your books bet¬ ter secured from fire than in 1876?” Twenty-six replied, yes. Eight of the remainder were established since. 3. The importance of keeping records or inventories of libraries, which can be used to prove value, is appreciated as shown by returns. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 729 Only six report no records usable for such a purpose. Methods for protecting these records are considered below. 4. Nearly all libraries report appliances for extinguishing tires, as hose, water pails, tire extinguishers, fire axes, etc. The British Museum has a fire brigade composed of members of its staff, with a code of rules for their government. (See Lib. Jour., 4: 52.) UNSETTLED QUESTIONS. While libraries are being constructed more aud more on tested fire¬ proof principle^, it is also true that these principles are of recent adoption in many particulars, aud as yet not fully comprehended nor put in practice by all. These may be briefly set forth, substantiated by authorities. 1. Two prime principles enter into the construction of a fireproof building: (1) It should be fireproof without and (2) nonfire communi¬ cating within. Material formerly supposed to be fireproof has failed under the test. To have said a few years ago that iron and granite were not fireproof would have made one a laughing stock, but granite in the Boston fire of November, 1889, crumbled into sand; and iron is no longer considered safe unless covered with fireproof material. It has been said that there was not a fireproof building in the track of the great Chicago fire. The Boston fire of 1889 was checked when it reached “the brick wall and iron shutters of a building of superior construction.” Brick stands first among building materials in fire-resisting qualities. Prof. G. P. Merrill, curator of geology in the United States Museum, in his work on Stones for Building,1 page 356, says: Data are not at hand for estimating accurately the comparative enduring powers of various stones under these trying circumstances. It seems, however, to be well proven that of all stones granite is the least fireproof, while the fact that certain of the fine-grained siliceous sandstones are used for furnace hackings, would seem to show that if not absolutely fireproof, they are very nearly so. Professor Winchell places fire-resisting stones in this order: (1) Mar¬ ble, (2) limestone, (3) sandstone, (4) granite, (5) conglomerate. Since the days of elevators the roof has proved to be one of the most exposed parts of buildings, because of the draft through the shaft. A fire beginning in the basement is drawn at once to the roof, which, if hollow and combustible, is in a few moments a mass of flame. The roof should be constructed to prevent drafts of air within it, and should be of fireproof material, as metal, porous terra cotta metal, and covered fire brick. 2. A building of fine, solid, fireproof exterior may yet be a fire trap. “ The first principle to be observed,” says Mr. Moore, the underwriter, u with a view to resisting fire, is to exclude air drafts from those por- ]New York State Museum Bulletins No. 3 (out of print) and No. 10, on Building Stone in New York, are also of value in this connection. — M. D. 730 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tions of the building which are vital to its endurance, viz, floors, roof, partitions, etc. Into all these wood may safely enter if drafts be pre¬ vented by incombustible material, such as mortar or cement.” A fire¬ proof building will be so constructed inside as to consist of distinct compartments, separated by partitions of brick, terra cotta, etc., while its floors will be laid in cement, or be composed of incombustible mate¬ rial, and its ceilings laid on metallic lathing, or otherwise protected from fire and vermin. Incombustible cases, stairs, and balconies will increase the security. A basis of rating insurance indorsed by the Hew York Board of Fire Underwriters, Xational Board of Fire Underwriters, and other boards has been prepared and is embodied in the “Universal mercantile schedule.” The basis of rating is a standard building in a standard city, and is 25 cents per 8100. On this basis rates vary according to construction and environment of each separate edifice. From the schedule of January, 1893, we quote the requirements of a standard building : A standard building is one having avails of brick or stone (brick preferred), not less than 12 inches thick at top story (16 inches if stone), extending through and 36 inches above roof in parapet and coped, and increasing 4 inches in thickness for each story below to the ground, the increased thickness of each story to be utilized for beam ledges. Ground floor area not over 2,500 square feet (say, 25 by 100) ; height not over four stories, or 50 feet; floors of 2-inch plank (3 inches better) covered by seven-eighths or 1 inch flooring, crossing diagonally, with waterproof paper or approved fire-resisting material between (if tin or sheet iron between, see deduc¬ tions); wooden beams, girders, and wooden story posts or pillars 12 inches thick, or protected iron columns; elevators, stairways, etc., cut off by brick walls or plaster on metallic studs and lathing, communications at each floor protected with approved tin-covered doors and fireproof sills; windows and doors on exposed sides protected by approved tin-covered doors and shutters; walls of flues not less than 8 inches in thickness, to be lined with fire brick, well-burned clay or cast iron, and throat capacity not less than 64 square inches if steam boilers are used; all floor timbers to be trimmed at least 4 inches from outside of flue; heated by steam; lighted by gas; cornices of incombustible material; roof of metal or tile; if partitions are hollow or walls are furred off there must be fire stops at each floor. It may seem strange tliat wooden girders and posts are recommended. Mr. Moore, before quoted, wliose work has tlie commendation of the American Architect, says that unless iron girders are protected by terra cotta or burnt-clay brick, they are not as safe as wood, provided wooden pillars or girders are 2 inches thicker than required to bear the superimposed weight. The charred wood acts as a shield to retard combustion. Iron is treacherous, and under a heat of 1,000° F. or more will expand, if not fuse, and if proper allowance is not made for this expansion, will throw the walls. Two inches should be allowed at each end for a 50-foot girder. The practice now seems to be very general to cover iron with hollow brick or other fireproof material, to prevent this expansion. Further, the building referred to above should have its doors and shutters covered with tin. It has been demonstrated that a door of THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 731 soft wood covered with tin is better than one entirely of iron. Iron will curl. Thirty-five libraries report no fireproof doors and shutters, and iron is generally used for the purpose. Gas lighting is here recommended, but tlie New York branch of the Liverpool, London and Globe Insurance Company, in a letter to the writer, approves of electric light. Improved installation is doubtless recommending its use. The importance of fire stops can not be too strongly emphasized. Not all libraries can erect thoroughly fireproof buildings, but the alter¬ native is not a fire trap for human sacrifice. Elevators, hollow parti¬ tions, hollow roofs and floors, and defective flues have in the last few years been the means of destroying millions of property and many lives. The object of fire stops is to close up all air passages in floors, par¬ titions, etc., with plaster or cement, and thus prevent fires from spread¬ ing from one compartment to another, turning a fire trap into a kind of slow-burning building, and possibly holding the fire till the fire engines arrive and the inmates escape. The fire stops can be used at little expense, and there can be no excuse for omitting them from any except thoroughly fireproof buildings. A slow-burning building (technically factory construction) is one in which the wooden material is consolidated in such a way that the fire can be held in check. There are no concealed spaces by which the fire can pass from one room to another. Every part is open, so that water can reach the fire. Wood and iron are exposed to two enemies, dry rot in the one case and rust in the other. The precautions against fire by exclusion of air drafts and the pro¬ tection of the iron may tend to develop both of these weaknesses. As a preventive, beams should be bored, and iron coated with a material that is not an active absorbent of moisture, such as plaster of paris and cement. Lime mortar is a preventive of rust, as well as of dry rot. Wrought iron is more susceptible to rust than cast iron. The latter oxydizes only on the surface ; wrought iron is consumed by rust. The action of rust on steel is not well known, and yet this material is com¬ ing into extensive use in constructing steel- skeleton buildings, like the Masonic Temple, the Woman’s Christian Temperance Building in Chi¬ cago, the World Building, the Plaza Hotel, etc., in New York. I know of no library adopting this style. The advantages are that steel costs less than wrought iron, that the curtain walls of masonry, 12 to 20 inches thick, not being supporting walls, need not be much thicker at the base than at the top, thus leaving very much more room on the lower floors, a great economic gain.1 Care of inventories. — Inventories of a library should be kept in safes outside the building. This point is emphasized by such companies as the Liverpool, London and Globe. “ Catalogues,” say they, “ should always be kept outside the library building for reference in case a loss 1 See Skeleton Construction in Buildings, by William H. Birkmire (Wiley). 732 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. should occur, showing original cost of books, and as full a description as possible.” The Home says: “It is of the utmost importance that a complete catalogue of the library should be kept in some safe place away from the library itself.” The practice of libraries in this matter is not in accord with these recommendations, only 9 keeping their rec¬ ords in safes or vaults outside, while 17 do not protect in the building and 10 make no response. Libraries should be managed on business principles, and the cost of the books should be recorded and an approx¬ imate valuation of gifts kept, and these records preserved outside, so that they can be produced in case of fire. A duplicate accession cata¬ logue of the library of the Young Men’s Christian Association of Hew York is kept outside in safe-deposit vaults. The last catalog is occa¬ sionally taken from the vaults and written up and the copying certified by affidavit. The iEtna Insurance Company recommends, also, that the record of loans in circulating libraries be kept in a safe place. 3. Fireproof buildings and fire-protected compartments are costly equipments, but a closed door or shutter, a pail of water in a con¬ venient place, a watchman’s presence at the moment of peril, may avail more than all; and yet these are often considered of minor importance till some day it is found that a cup of water, if it had been accessible, or a fireproof door, if it had been closed, would have prevented the sacrifice of a valuable library. Of 56 libraries reporting, 31 have a watchman, 8 others have a jani¬ tor on the premises, while 17 have no such guardian. 4. With respect to iron shutters, only 16 have them, 8 do not require them, while 32 others are without them; 36 have no fireproof doors, 11 have them, while 7 report them partially fireproof. Light should not be shut out from a library for the purpose of lessen¬ ing the hazard of fire from windows, though this was done in the case of a prominent library. Insurance companies do not, as a rule, make special arrangements with libraries as to settlement in case of loss. Seven only report such agreements, as follows : a We have, in accord with underwriters’ rules, placed a valuation of $100,000 on the collection and insured to 75 per cent of that in order to escape the liability of being coinsurers. 1). Our inventory is to be accepted as issued in our printed reports. c. Files of accession hooks, etc., are to he proof of value. d. Policy requires, in case of loss, itemized list of destroyed articles, sworn to by librarian. e. Shall maintain insurance upon above-described property to its full cost value. /. It is stipulated that we can not recover more than the cost price of books pur¬ chased. g, A fixed valuation is agreed to as of date of policy. Two libraries file a list of rare books or MSS. with the insurers. Eleven libraries of the 56 have had fires, 9 of which were insured. 733 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. Fifteen libraries insure imported books in transit, 8 others some¬ times. One library effects a floating insurance on books lent to its branches for lecture purposes. In the conference discussion of this paper it was ascertained that one library insured its card catalogs. It was said that bookbinders were not responsible for loss by fire while books were in their hands. One librarian reported that he insured books at the bindeiy. A floating insurance could be effected on books at the bindery by making the amount sufficient to coyer the value that would be repre¬ sented there at any time during a certain period. Fourteen libraries are in more or less jeopardy from water overhead, and 11 have suffered in consequence, or from overflows and leaks. “If any building,” says Dr. W. F. Poole, “should be practically fire¬ proof, it is a library building,” and “a wooden library building without any of the modern fireproof devices is a fire trap and its .construction a crime.” It may not be possible to erect in all cases a perfectly fire¬ proof building, tor that means a liberally- supplied exchequer, but no library should be deposited in a building that has not the inexpensive safeguards that have been named and are within reach of all. Lower rates of insurance will result from added securities, valuable collec¬ tions of books will not be exposed to so great risks, and public confi¬ dence and support may be expected. The library that looks for valu¬ able gifts should have them so well housed and cared for that books will be drawn in as well as drawn out. REFERENCES. American Architect, Oct. 11, 1890, p. 26 Fire protection of public buildings. - Jan. 17, 1891, p. 32. Fire-resisting doors. - Jan. 31, 1791, p. 79. Fire stops. American Architect and Building News, Aug. 8, 1891, p. 89. Slow-burning construc¬ tion. Atkinson, Edward. Slow-burning construction. (See Century, Feb., 1889.) Birkmire, W. H. Skeleton construction in buildings. N. Y., 1893. Moore, F. C. Economical tire-resisting construction. N. Y., 1892. pm. Universal mercantile schedule. N. Y., 1893, pm. Fixtures, Furniture, and Fittings. By Henry J. Carr, Public Librarian, Scranton, Pa. The topics covered by the foregoing alliterative and comprehensive heading might, in one sense, be held to include almost everything per¬ taining to a library, except its building or quarters and its stock of literature. Under certain other heads, likewise assigned for similar treatment at this time, however, there is likely to be due consideration of the 734 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. necessary appliances connected with each of such particular topics. It is proper, therefore, that this paper shall, so far as may be, refrain from trenching on those special fields. As to any conclusions regarding best methods or the most approved forms of a library accessory which may be drawn from current prac¬ tice of the users thereof, it must also be kept in mind that the older libraries are more often unable to change, and so of necessity continue devices which later libraries free to act at pleasure as carefully avoid. Therefore answers to queries, or statistical circulars bearing on many library furnishings, are not always the best basis for opinions, nor likely to show fully the real progress made in such matters. One of the earliest and most effective agencies toward a betterment and reasonable uniformity in library supplies grew immediately out of the formation of the A. L. A. in 1876, through the acts of its coopera¬ tion committee. The reports of that committee as given in the Library Journal for several successive years are yet valuable reading for their full discussions of the several matters under study. From the work of that committee grew a cooperative supply department (aided largely by the personal enthusiasm and persevering support of one person), afterwards fostered through various vicissitudes to later and present survival as the Library Bureau. With no intent to advertise, but rather for convenient reference and brevity in the present paper, as well as for aid to seekers, no hesitation is felt in citing the ample and comprehensive illustrated catalog of the Library Bureau as being both an available and very desirable guide in fitting up a library. Little comment will follow herein, therefore, as regards the major part of the articles described in that publication, since its chief library specialties represent the tested and elaborated ideas of ample cooperative experience, and the purchasers thereof may reap full benefit with a minimum of trouble to themselves. As to the innumerable stationers’ articles used by librarians, the personal preference and experience of the particular user must be the guide, so that consideration of those items is outside the scope of this paper. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. Good principles to observe in procuring or planning the furnishing of a library are: (1) Usefulness and adaptation to the circumstances of each particular case, and (2) true economy may often be practiced in obtaining the better, though more expensive, article at the outset. The limitations of the human form and convenience are no less fac¬ tors in the case, and necessarily have much to do with establishing certain sizes and shapes, e. g., a library counter, of a height to match certain other decorative finish and woodwork may, in the long run, prove an unmitigated nuisance because just too low for convenient service standing and too high to use sitting. Undesirable tables with massive and elaborate legs and fancy corners, and chairs having THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 735 extraordinary seats and terrific backs, are not an unknown tiling in some libraries where so-called artistic features have been allowed to prevail. Libraries must almost inevitably be maintained at an extreme of economy, therefore every superfluous carving or molding which serves as a dust catcher means so much more janitor’s work and consequent burden. So in the use of dark woodwork and wall decoration is entailed years of penalty in added cost of lighting over that needed for the same interior in light colors. BOOK STORAGE AND SHELVING. Since the chief feature of a library is apt to be its books, one would naturally expect first consideration given to shelving and like conven¬ iences for holding them. Mr. Gladstone, in his notable papier on “ Books and the housing of them” (Nineteenth Century, 27, 384-396, March, 1890; also issued sep¬ arately as a piamphlet), has most pertinently said that “The objects to be contemplated in the bestowal of our books are three : economy, good arrangement, and accessibility with the smallest possible expenditure of time.” His remarks were especially about private collections, but the statements apply equally to public libraries. None too much has been printed on this important and fundamental matter of providing suitable accommodations for the books. Some of the most salient and instructive statements, from the modern American standpoint, are by Dr. William E. Poole, his earlier one being on the “Organization and management of pmblic libraries” (United States special report on public libraries, 1876), with illustrations. A subse¬ quent paper is on “ The construction of library buildings,” read before the A. L. A. at its Washington conference of 1881 (L.j. 6: 69-77; Am. Architect, 10, 131; and separately by the United States Bureau of Education as Circular of Information No. 1, 1881, etc.) ; and a later one, on “Small library buildings,” was read before the A. L. A. at the Lake George meeting of 1885 (L.J. 10: 250-256). His other writings elab¬ orate his well- sustained and progressive views regarding book storage and large libraries. A careful and comprehensive study of “Library shelving,” by Melvil Dewey, with illustrative diagrams, appeared in Library Notes (No. 6) 2 : 95-122, Sep>t ember, 1887, and as such is worthy of note, though others may not adopt all his conclusions. Height. — Without going into many details, it may now be said that the weight of experience and best practice favors shelving all books within reach of an average person standing on the floor, or at an extreme height of 7 feet 6 inches to 8 feet. This is true whether for stack construction, wall cases, or open ranges in high rooms. In the latter case the part of the room above the shelving, and not otherwise used, gives access to light and air, which is more essential than utilizing the same space for books. 736 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. As instanced in recent construction, however, some librarians deem it wise to carry the shelving up to 8 feet 6 inches, or even 9 feet, with a view to having one or two more rows of shelves all over the library for future needs. While the extra high shelves need not be used at the outset, they can, by means of bracket steps and handles on the up¬ rights be readily reached and utilized when pressure for space makes it necessary. Others having equal or more experience in the use of such accessories do not favor them nor find them as convenient in practice as in theory. Especially is this true where women or boy assistants are concerned, some physicians strongly deprecating the use of such steps by women. Form. — Using wall surface only is wasteful; on the contrary, book¬ cases of double face approached by aisles on either side give a maximum capacity for a given floor area. Center partitions are unnecessary and better omitted in such cases, while the shelves can be made movable at little, if any, more cost than if all are fixed. If, for special reasons of local construction or to provide for future carrying strength, some shelves must be fixed, let it be merely those at top and bottom and one other at a height of say 3 feet from the floor with all intermediate shelves adjustable. Dimensions. — Little difficulty need be had in deciding on some uni¬ form multiple of shelf length for use in a given instance, thus having a standard shelf all through the library. Such length when not less than 2 feet G inches nor more than 3 feet is found to be best both as regards convenient handling and interchangeability and for an economical cut¬ ting of material. Preferably a medium length of 2 feet and 8 or 9 inches will divide up space with good elfect. The advantages to be derived from the adoption of such a standard length are many. For most books which circulate, 7 to 7^ inches gives ample width of shelf; and if the shelves are placed at due intervals of height, say 9 to 10J inches, provision is made for fully 90 to 95 per cent of the books in modern public libraries, together with ample space for air and light and moderate freedom from dust.1 A limited amount of adjustable wall shelving 12 inches wide will accommodate the exceptional sized works which circulate. For reference works, cases having a fixed ledge at say 3 feet from the floor are desirable, and may be of either wall or double-faced construe- 1 Exhaustive study in the library school for several years has led to the wide adoption of 75 centimeters, or 30 inches, as the best standard length for ordinary shelves, and 93 centimeters or 36f inches for shelves likely to be used for standard- size files and pigeon-hole cases. The A. L. A. fifteen years ago adopted a standard- size scale by which 25 centimeters is the largest hook marked 8° or O. The result is of course the adoption of 10 inches as the standard minimum distance between shelves. The ledge suits the average reader best when placed above the three lower 10-inch shelves, and if there are five more shelves above the ledge, the total height of the case is 7 feet 8 inches. Protracted experiments by the library school have failed to find better standards than the above. — M. D. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 737 tion. If wall cases are adopted, make tlie upper shelves each about 10 inches and those below the ledge 15 to 18 inches wide; and the latter, at least, will prove more convenient if made adjustable. If the refer¬ ence cases are double-faced and approachable from either side, the shelves may serve full as well if respectively 2 or 3 inches narrower than those against the wall — i. e., 8 inches for those above and 12 to 15 inches for those below the ledge. Heed for special cabinets and lockers for rarities and works beyond common size will vary. Rollers, sliding shelves, and revolving tables should be used for art and other large books specially exposed to injury. Avoid doors, if possible; or, otherwise, if absolutely required, use wire screens or grating rather than glass. Hard woods give best results in shelf and case construction, but the shelves may be of pine for sake of lightness. The edges of all shelves should be rounded; and finally an oil-rubbed finish used instead of paint, shellac, or mere varnish alone. Storage. — As regards storage in stacks having superimposed cases with floors over each tier, or, on the contrary, shelving in ranges of cases but one tier high in open rooms having ample light and air-space above, much has been said and plausible arguments can be given on either side. The seeming weight of opinion, all things considered, is against the stack-room system, despite its compact warehouse facilities for large collections of books.1 If the most recent views regarding open shelves for all are correct and prove to be in the true line of library progress, (as the writer and many others fully believe), a combination of the double-facing open ranges on one floor with the old-time alcove form seems quite likely to prevail in the immediate future; but, as frequently happens in all matters of library economy, local circumstances exert a determining influence on individual practice. Therefore much depends on who goes to the shelves as well as on the ground space at command; while economy and convenience in service, and in heating and lighting, must be pro¬ vided for as well as book capacity. As a general principle galleries are to be avoided as a device of the evil one, equally ruinous and destructive both to human life and that of the books. In exceptional cases, however, an essential purpose can be attained only by the use of a gallery; but experience does not favor such use except under cogent necessity. If in original construction open-room storage is provided, with high ceilings and cases extending but part way (say 7 to 8 feet), and future necessities absolutely require use of the upper space, then let the cases be floored over, and the semistories thus made used as independent floors. In stack-room construction opinions as to solid or perforated floors do not agree; but latest experience seems to concur in favor of solid ‘Many leading librarians are equally confident that the great growth in the use of stacks in recent years is based on satisfactory reasons. — M. D. ED 93- - 47 738 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. ones, with ventilation at the ends of cases and possibly along the front edges also. Windows at the ends of cross aisles are the most practical daylight reliance and are sufficient for a reasonable width of building having adequate space in the aisles. Skylights are of little value, and prove both troublesome and injurious. For stacks, as for other library shelving, wood seems really the pref¬ erable material, all things considered. A possible exception may be made for floors, which may be stronger, tighter, and more fireproof, if of iron. As to first cost, iron is usually though not always more expen¬ sive. Wooden uprights and shelves are generally cheaper than iron; and, in turn, admit of better construction and finish, besides looking better and wearing the bindings less. There are a number of special shelving devices on the market, mostly patented, and amply urged by those interested; but time has yet to prove their real efficiency, and the item of first cost still stands largely in the way of very general trial of most of them. COUNTERS AND DELIVERY DESKS. These are usually made to correspond to the features of the particu¬ lar building, and personal preference may be allowed sway in the style and interior arrangement of such articles. Conforming to average humanity and kindred uses, as in banks, rail- road and other public offices, counters where customers are to be served standing are most convenient when 42 inches high ; this height, too, is easy for writing. The same result may be attained by a counter 3 feet high having a desk of G inches more superimposed. If to be used sit¬ ting, then 2 feet 6 inches is an average most convenient height, as for tables and office desks. A counter top should be of fair width, say 2 feet or more, and project considerably on each side beyond the support, thus serving to protect the front from being marred by feet, and also making it feasible for clerks inside to sit down. Good light at counters and delivery desks, both daylight and artifi¬ cial, is an essential often overlooked. TABLES AND READING DESKS. For library service the less that architects and furniture designers of the ahigh art” order have to do with tables, desks, and chairs the hap¬ pier is apt to be the result to the steady users of such furnishings. Tables. — A substantial construction, plain rather than ornate, and not too large or heavy should be the rule. From 29 to 30 inches1 is a standard height, and casters are not desirable. With a top of 2 feet 10 xTall people can not sit with comfort at a 29-inch table, and the length from knee to floor can not be reduced; but it is easily increased by a hassock for short readers who use a higher chair. Some libraries which study comfort most adopt 31 inches as standard height and then have adjustable chairs and hassocks so that short and tall readers are both suited. — M. D. THE \VORLD?S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 739 inches by 5 feet, six persons, two on each side and one at each end, may be seated without crowding. If G feet long it will admit of putting three at each side, while for proportion’s sake the width may be 3 feet. Slides (or movable shelves), under the top, jdaced at suitable intervals, are often of great service. For smaller tables, those 2 feet G inches by 3 feet 6 inches, and also others 3 feet square on top, prove convenient. In rooms for juveniles it may be desirable to make some tables of less than standard height, but usually a variation in the chairs accomplishes the same object.1 Heading desks. — Reading desks, as distinguished, from tables, are more generally made for special instances and are presumably fixed rather than movable. Like counters, therefore, they should harmonize with the finish of the building and fit the space at command. Dimen¬ sions and heights should be proportioned to the probable users, as before suggested. Office and cataloger’s desks. — These may be made to order, but at present a perfection of style and convenience, at moderate cost, is found in many regularly on the market, so that a suitable supply is most simple and readily attained.2 * * iFoot rests or hassocks ought to he provided, as it is cruel and injurious for a child to sit for hours with feet dangling above the floor. — M. H. 2 Much of the cooperative work which has accomplished so much in the past sev¬ enteen years is due to adoption of certain standard sizes for cards, sheets, blanks, and for cases, trays, drawers, and pigeonholes in which they are used or filed. It is a period of unprecedented growth in libraries and as a result there has been a change of rooms, methods, and fittings to meet the new and larger requirements. Convenience and economy make it as important to work by standard sizes as it is in a factory. It adds nothing to first cost, but saves time and money at every readjust¬ ment, because the parts often interchange in ways entirely unforeseen at the outset. Those who have tested the principle urge its adoption most earnestly. Much is accomplished by adopting a series of standard sizes for an individual library, but much more is gained without added cost if the standards most widely used by other libraries are taken without change, omitting any not needed and sup¬ plying in the very rare cases where some not in the list are really required. Nine times out of ten, one who can free himself from prejudice will find that the standard size nearest what he has in mind is really just as satisfactory as the odd one to which he inclines simply because he has become accustomed to it for that use. The cooperation committee studied this question at its first appointment in 1876 and its work has been kept up by the library school. For many years certain standard sizes have been widely used without change and are much the safest series to adopt, both because ©f their wide adoption by others and more for their merit as represent¬ ing so much experiment and experience. These are, for slips, cards, and blanks, V (visiting-card size), 5 by 75 cm. ; P (postal-card size), T° by 125 cm. ; N (note), 125 by 20 cm. ; L (letter), 20 by 25 cm. The standards most used are P and L. V is used for call slips and compact indexes where little goes on the card. C (check size, 25 by 5 cm., or just one-third V) is used for coat checks, tags, labels, etc. R (receipt, 75 by 20 cm.), four V’s together, is used for receipts, bank checks, drafts, and fits pockets, envelopes, etc., that hold bank bills. Half this length, or two V’s (75 by 10 cm.), is used for cata¬ log or index cards for commercial and other work in which, instead of book titles, 740 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Chairs. — Much the same is true regarding chairs as of office desks. Yet for fairly good appearance, durability, and average comfort, prob¬ ably the well-known bent- wood chairs are preferable. The foreign chair is stronger and of better finish, but the American make is good and its rattan seats often prove more satisfactory than those imported. Some patterns of simple dining-room chairs have also been found quite satis¬ factory and serviceable. Wire hat racks placed beneath the chairs at small cost serve a good purpose. For consulting printed catalogs and lists in the delivery room, a counter top or ledge of table height, provided with round- top store stools, fastened to the floor at needed intervals, is a convenience. Umbrella stands and hat racks. — For the former no really satis¬ factory article is regularly “in the trade” of either furniture or hard¬ ware dealers ; nor are the usual combined hat and umbrella stands for hallways in residences satisfactory for libraries. For limited use the foreign made “bent- wood” stands or trees, with drip pan on the floor, are convenient and ornamental, without being very expensive. Such, with hat holders beneath the chairs, provide moderate accommodation without annoying frequenters of the library or being much in their way. short entries are made, for which 10 cm. give ample length. In the same way I (index) size (5 by 125 cm.) was largely used for book titles, though of late years very few libraries adopt it, as all cooperative cataloging is based on P size, which experience has shown to be much better in most cases. L size is the largest that goes on the standard shelf, of which it represents a sec¬ tion 2 cm. high and 20 wide. For blank books, letter heads, office forms, manu¬ script for printer, and nearly all uses, this size or something very near it seems to have been indeimndently evolved in all sections as most convenient. For printed books it is modified to M (magazine size, IT5 by 25 cm.), so largely adopted by maga¬ zines. This is the largest book that goes on standard shelves. Trimming by binder equals squares of boards, so that the bound copy is the same height as the paper. This is also a favorite size for library catalog and bulletins. The sizes have from the first been given in the international or metric measures, which should be followed instead of the rough equivalents in inches, as the differ¬ ence between a card 75 cm. high and 3 inches is A of an inch or just enough to prevent proper handling of the card catalog. On this account it is unsafe to use catalog cards made by ordinary stationers or paper dealers. Their method of cutting usually results in variations of 1 mm., or one twenty-fifth of an inch. If a card 1 mm. lower comes between two of proper height, the finger in turning will bridge from No. 1 to No. 3 and No. 2 will be skipped. Novices not understanding this sometimes make costly mistakes by failing to get accurately cut cards, which cost much more. For pigeonholes and small cases that stand on shelves, 25 cm., or the same as the shelf, is the standard height. For taller cases the height of two or three shelves is taken, when the thickness of the shelf removed may be added. As to length of shelves to hold cases, the 75-centimeter shelf, which is best for mere storage of books, is much less convenient as a common multiple of the boxes most used for standard size than is 93 cm., or 36f inches. It is wise, therefore, to use the 93-centimeter shelf instead of the 75-centimeter in the librarian’s room, near the loan desk, and in corners and other places where desks are apt to be placed, or for other reasons where these conveniences may be in demand. — M. D. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 741 For extreme cases and large constituencies, articles of tlie kind must be specially designed.1 CARPETS. Best quality tile or inlaid linoleum (a sort of semicork article firmly pressed together), in which the figure of the pattern is carried through the entire thickness of the fabric, is probably the one most durable floor covering to be had at moderate cost. It is tolerably noiseless and when properly laid stands long wear and continual cleaning with¬ out becoming unduly shabby. “Corticine” and other names describe a kindred article ; but under either name, figured patterns show dust less than solid colors. The lighter the tint, also, the more pleasing is its effect and the less it shows dirt, dumber 1 (or UA??), printed linoleum is a cheaper grade, in which the pattern is on the surface only, and will answer where there is not too much wear. Brussels carpet can be had at no more, or perhaps less, first cost, but wears out sooner, and all carpets are so troublesome as regards dust, moths, etc., besides needing to be frequently taken up and beaten, that it is well to avoid them. Mattings of all kinds are very objectionable except for express use as dirt catchers in passageways and aisles, where they can be frequently removed and cleaned. READING ROOM FITTINGS. Tables and chairs for readers have been already touched on. Some provision must be made for reading current periodicals. Happily the day has gone by for secluding all such behind counters, to be handed out only on individual call, one by one. An exception, however, may possibly be necessary in some larger cities owing to mixed population and the influx of a floating and tramp element. Otherwise the several monthlies and weeklies kept on file may be put in suitable binders, or temporary covers, and disjdayed either in racks or on tables having partitioned intervals or compartment tops; or else in bins or pigeon¬ holes in numbered or labeled cases. Such methods work well and must be determined by the room at command and the constituency to be served. For newspapers, if such are supplied for reading, still different treat¬ ment may be needed. For display on wall racks, to be read in place only, there is demanded a disproportionately large standing or sitting 1 After much unsatisfactory experimenting we found a cheap device called the “Midget” "best. It consists of two rings 3.5 cm. in diameter attached to a metal base, screwed on the baseboard or any piece of furniture. It could be attached to a chair leg. A little drip cup 4 by 5 cm. and 4 cm. deep hooks on this so that this tiny attach¬ ment, which is hardly noticed when not in use, holds two umbrellas out from the wall or furniture, the ring 11 cm. above the cup holding the umbrella in position. It may also be used for canes. Its chief merit is that it takes no room. 742 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. area. If in hand files they soon grow inconvenient and unsightly; and if in pigeon holes or on call only, they require much care and attention or else disappear too early. There is doubt whether the function of a public library is more than to obtain and carefully file away for perma¬ nent binding all local papers, without maintaining the average public newspaper reading room in this age of overwhelming numbers of cheap publications of that hind and the lack of much, if any, benefit to their readers. SPECIAL APPLIANCES. Bulletin boards. — Almost every library finds desirable a bulletin board or place for notices. Many make quite a feature of posting lists of new books, query lists, and special reading notes, etc. Considerable ingenuity may be exercised in such matters from the simple slate or blackboard, or tack-sheets of paper, up to an equipment of clips and grooved slats in which slips or cards can be placed and removed as desired. Pamphlet boxes. — Preservation of and ready access to pamphlets has likewise made demand for special accommodations akin to those given books. Y arious styles of boxes and wrappers have been tried, and satisfaction with any one kind, if attained, has depended much on the disposition of the individual user. Where expense and lack of space do not stand in the way it is probable that most pleasing results are had by means of file boxes or drawers, each fitted with a “ follower ” or “compressor,” as in the well-known Woodruff and other document files, but made of larger sizes for library purposes. For dictionaries, atlases, and like bulky works, liberal provision of special holders and revolving cases prove both an economy to the library and an aid to users. Indicators. — Our English and Canadian conferees find more or less use for the indicator, and deem it a praiseworthy adjunct to an active circulation. Though occasionally tried in the United States our people do not usually take kindly to the indicator on either side the delivery counter. To most libraries, therefore, the term conveys but a vague idea of a machine about which few know and which fewer care to use. The space necessarily occupied by an indicator is probably one of the greatest drawbacks to its use, if its first cost and expense of operation might otherwise be afforded. Book trucks. — Some form of book truck is one of the most indis¬ pensable equipments of a modern library, and much true economy will result from an ample supply, even if the first cost seems large. Made to meet a limited demand and not in quantities, the usual price is not unreasonable, and represents more actual cost and less profit than more widely used goods. Catalogue cases. — As to catalogue cases and kindred fittings, wherein we now have a tolerable uniformity, the rule that “ the best is THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 743 the cheapest” holds true in nearly all particulars. To find the best of those now made is fortunately not difficult, and in procuring such the buyer also obtains the result of an aggregate amount of contributed library experience not measured by dollars and cents. Much more might doubtless be said on all the foregoing topics and on many which have been unnamed. Such treatment, however, is more in the province of an exhaustive library manual, and needs to be accompanied by numerous illustrations, which speak better than words. Government, Constitution, By-Laws, and Trustees. By H. M. Utley, Public Librarian, Detroit. [Facts in the four footnotes of this article are from comparative library exhibit statistics collected by New York State library.] Character and mode of maintenance modify details of library govern¬ ment. Those commonly known as public libraries are usually governed by trustees. BOARDS OP TRUSTEES. How constituted. — The number of trustees usually varies from 3 to 9.1 In a few instances there are more, but this increase is usually because other interests are to be represented, such as an individual founder or some consolidated corporation. In executive management a small board is most efficient. An odd number of trustees is advisable to avoid x>ossibility of deadlock on any question. The municipal cor¬ poration is usually represented on the board by the mayor or president of the board of education, and sometimes by the superintendent of schools also, in order to bring the library into closer touch with the schools. Women are sometimes chosen and prove well fitted for the work. How chosen. — In most cases election is by the city council. Some¬ times this is on nomination of the mayor and sometimes without such nomination. Election is often by popular vote at annual school or municipal elections. In a few cases the matter is in the hands of the board of education, who select trustees outside their own body. This hafipens where school libraries have become public libraries. The common practice of choice by city council or by people accords with the idea of local self-government and is satisfactory.2 Term of office. — The trustees are usually divided into groups, one group retiring each year. The most common term is three years. A JOf 63 representative libraries reporting, 18 liave 9 trustees; 11 have 6; 9 have 5. Small boards are generally the best vrorking bodies. 2Of 61 libraries reporting, trustees of 37 are appointed by mayor, by common council, or by mayor and council; trustees of 16 are elected by the people. One library reports a self-perpetuating board. Tlie tendency in Western States is for common council to appoint directly or on mayor’s nomination. 744 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. board of G or 9 elected members, 2 or 3 respectively, retiring' annually, is most popular. In practice there is more diversity in length of term than in other respects. There are some advantages in a long term if the incumbent is a desirable one. Experience and familiarity with the working and needs of the institution are useful here as elsewhere. But if the term is short, a valuable member may be reelected and kept in the board, while a listless or too officious member may be succeeded by some better person.1 Officers. — Treasurer: If the city treasurer is ex officio treasurer of the library fund, the tax for supporting the library is protected by his official bond, and is conveniently drawn on from time to time as needed. This is considered the better practice, though sometimes the board elects its own treasurer and he draws from the city in a lump sum whatever appropriation has been made for the purpose. Secretary : The duties of the secretary are usually signing warrants on the treasurer, keeping an account of the finances, and recording the proceedings of the board. The annual financial statement is made by him rather than the city treasurer. He is also the buying agent. In a large library this work must necessarily consume much time. Whether a person shall be specially employed or whether the duties shall be performed by a trustee or by the librarian must, therefore, depend on circumstances. Librarian : The librarian should not be a member of the board. He is sometimes secretary, though opinion is divided as to whether this is best. He should attend regular board meetings for consultation regarding the affairs of the library and to give his advice on any con¬ templated action. The term of office varies from one to three years. In some instances the term of all appointees is indeterminate, and the argument in favor is that by producing a feeling of security in tenure of office among employees more earnest and enthusiastic work is secured, while the board may drop an unsatisfactory employee at any time. If the librarian is simply custodian of the books, no bond should be required of him. But if he is superintendent, executive officer of the board, lias the management of its business affairs and handles much money, he should be treated like other persons employed in a similar capacity. In fact, instances are rare in which the librarian gives a bond. He is usually intrusted with at least a small sum of money to pay certain petty bills, such as expressage, postage, etc., and renders an account monthly of his payments, of money collected in the library from sale of catalogs, fines, etc. The treasurer’s receipt of the sum accounted for should be attached to the report. 1 Thirty-three out of 61 libraries report a three-year term ; 7 a two-year, 6 a four- year, 6 a five-year, 2 a six-year, 3 a seven-year, and 1 a life term. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 745 BY-LAWS. Library boards are bodies corporate, bold tbe property and funds of the library in their own name, and have exclusive control of them. They make to the municipality an annual report, which must show the amount of money received from all sources and the purposes for which it has been expended, the number of books bought during the year, the number in the library, the extent of their use, and other facts of general interest tending to exhibit the proper discharge of the trust. These reports are published for public information. Trustees annually choose the usual list of officers from their own members. Standing committees are those on books, on administration, on reading room, on buildings and grounds, and on finance. Regular meetings are usually held once a month, but sometimes oftener and sometimes bimonthly. These meetings are open to the public, and the newspapers may publish proceedings of general interest. Accounts against the board are first passed on by the proper committee, who indorse their approval to the board, which orders a warrant on the treasurer in payment. The committee on books has general supervision of buying books, but the librarian must look after details. The committee outlines the policy of the library, fixes the sum to be spent, and considers special purchases, but is not supposed to give attention to ordinary current literature. The committee on administration recommends appointments, promo¬ tions, and discharges, and salaries of the library staff — presumably on consultation with the librarian — and final action on all these matters rests with the board. Civil-service rules are as important here as in any branch of the public service, if not more so. A system of compet¬ itive examination of applicants for library employment is prescribed in some libraries and is coming into vogue, to the manifest improvement in quality of library assistants. PUBLIC SCHOOL LIBRARIES. These are under control of the board of education. In some cases, usually in smaller towns, though originally established for the schools, they have become practically public libraries and are still managed by the board of education, which has a committee of three or five charged with their special oversight. The committee has no authority to take final action, but appointments of librarian and other employees and expenditures of money are made by the board itself. As the library grows and its management becomes more complicated, this method of government is found cumbersome and lacking in practical efficiency. In such cases the organization of a library commission with full powers of control is the usual practice. 746 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. COLLEGE AND PROPRIETARY LIBRARIES. College libraries are controlled by the trustees of the college, gener¬ ally with a library committee in special charge. Proprietary libraries are managed by trustees selected by the proprietors. Special libraries, such as law and medical, are similar in their management to proprie¬ tary libraries. Trusts established by private benefaction are governed by the peculiar provisions in each, and no general rules are applicable. STATE LIBRARIES. In a few instances State libraries are managed by trustees $ in most cases the governor appoints the librarian. There is a library committee in each house of the legislature which considers matters of proposed legislation relating to the library and specially with regard to appro¬ priations for it, but has no power or authority in intervals between sessions. The librarian is in control in all departments, appoints his own subordinates, makes his own purchases, subject only to the law governing each case. The criticism on the gubernatorial appointment system is that the tenure of office is too uncertain. Such appointments may be controlled to a greater or less extent by political considerations, and a governor seldom continues in office longer than two or three years. An inexperienced librarian and a new staff could not be expected to accomplish very much in a short term, and even if good work were done it might be quickly undone by a successor with differ¬ ent ideas. Where the method of governing by trustees, organized somewhat as are those of public libraries, has been tried it has been found to work satisfactorily. Other plans tried or suggested contem¬ plate the appointment of the librarian by the legislature or by the supreme court of the State. Whatever tends to remove the library in all its management and operations as far as possible from partisan politics is to its advantage. This is true of all classes of libraries, not alone of those owned by States. Instances are rare in which this disturbing element has shown itself in city libraries. The remedy in such cases lies in electing as trustees men entirely above petty considerations.1 Entangling alli¬ ances with religious denominations are to be avoided no less than with political parties. Bigotry and intolerance may be shown quite as offen¬ sively in one as in the other. In another respect also care should be exercised in selecting men for library boards. It is not every u good fellow77 who would make a good trustee. Other qualifications being assumed, he should be a person of good sound sense, good temper, a capacity and a willingness to work. The trustee who gives no attention to the business of his board is 1 Of 58 libraries reporting, 44 say positively that politics has no influence whatever, 7 say that it has, and 7 say that it has to some extent. All agree that the bane of public library management is partisan politics. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 747 second only in unfitness to the one who wants to manage the whole thing himself and in his own way. Library Service. By Frank P. Hill, Librarian Free Public Library, Newark, N. J. This paper is based on answers to the following questions from 118 out of 210 libraries written to. From other sources partial information was obtained concerning 111 other libraries. These libraries represent all kinds and conditions; from the village library of 1,000 volumes with a yearly circulation of a few thousand to that of the Chicago public library with its yearly circulation of 2,091,091, and embrace free public, subscription, college, State, historical, refer¬ ence, and special libraries. The letter contained the following inquiries : Name. Address. Number of volumes in library. Circulation. Librarian : How appointed. Term of office. Salary. Select books. Apiioinfc assistants. Fix staff salaries. Purchase supplies. Make regulations. Decide methods of classification, cataloging, and distribution. General supervision. Specific duties. Honrs of daily service. Vacation. Holidays. First year attended American Library Association meeting. Sent to American Library Association meeting at expense of library, or is time allowed, or both, or neither. Staff : How appointed. Examinations. Total number employed. List of titles, with number employed in each department and average salary. (If confidential, please so state it and the facts will not be made public.) Changes in titles recommended. Extra help paid by the hour or by the day. Staff divided into departments, i. e., cataloging, registration, delivery, reference, bureau of information, slip-rack, reading room, bindery. Meetings for consultation and improvement. Learn work in all departments or only in one. Graduated scale of pay, i. e., so much first three mouths, and so on. Vacation. 748 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Staff — Continued. Holidays. Allowed any time on account of illness without loss of pay. Allowed to make up time lost in other ways. Hours of labor. Catalogers work shorter time than other members of the staff. Delivery clerks have time to do work other than at the delivery desk. Employ hoys or girls for runners. Send library messenger for lost hooks, or is such work done by the police department. Separate room for catalogers. If cataloging is done in the delivery room, please state if the noise and confusion disturb the catalogers. Any printed rules for the staff. How many are members of the American Library Association. Many interesting facts are gleaned from the reports received. All important details will be found in the table. CHIEF LIBRARIAN. It is not within the province of this article to name the qualifications necessary to a good librarian , but rather touching all points, to show the present condition of library service. Selection. — Success or failure of a library, as of a business, depends on the ability of the man or woman at its head. Only trained men and women should be in charge. The days of local feeling in the selection of librarian and assistants are fast passing away, and cities or towns that compel trustees to engage local talent, regardless of merit, are the exception rather than the rule. In fact, to-day the demand for good librarians is beyond the supply. The librarian should be a gentleman, a scholar, and a good executive. “The true librarian,” as Mr. Orunden says, “ keeps always in advance of his community and constantly educates it to make greater demands upon him.” Politics should not be permitted to affect the appointment of trus¬ tees, librarians, or assistants 5 and, except most State libraries and a few city libraries controlled by common councils, there is little to com¬ plain of on this score. Women. — Women have taken a high rank in the profession, not only as catalogers and assistants, but as chief librarians. Of the 508 indi¬ vidual members of the American Library Association 237 are women, and of this number 93 are at the head of libraries. Only 125 libraries represented in the American Library Association have men as chief librarians. Term of office. — This is usually during good behavior, though 52 librarians report yearly elections. It is manifestly in the interests of the institution that no definite time be mentioned, as it leaves the incum- 749 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. bent free to go on with his good work without interference — provided always that he retain the esteem and confidence of his superiors. Long term contracts are irksome alike to trustees and librarian. If a definite term is fixed pressure is brought to bear by those ready to take the place at its expiration. Good behavior and good work should form the only basis for continuance in office. Duties. — The librarian as the responsible head of the institution should be consulted in all matters relating to its management and effi¬ ciency and as to plans for new buildings. The most satisfactory results are obtained in those libraries where the chief librarian is permitted to appoint assistants, select books, buy supplies, make regulations, decide methods of cataloging, classifying, and lending, subject of course to the approval of the trustees. In 68 libraries such responsibility is placed virtually on the librarian ; while only 16 report that the whole matter is in charge of committees, the librarian being merely their mouthpiece. To do this work calls for a man of parts. He must have a wide acquaintance with books and literature, and show good judgment in selecting his staff. In a word, he must be capable of managing the business as well as the literary side of the library. The question of making the librarian secretary of the board of trustees is perhaps a delicate one. Against the proposal it is urged: (1) That such duties entail additional labor on the librarian ; (2) that trustees feel freer to discuss the librarian and his management when he is absent. In answer it may be said : 1. That the additional labor is very slight, for in many libraries where the secretary is a trustee the records are written up by some one con¬ nected with the library. 2. That whenever necessary to discuss the methods of the librarian and his staff, he could be requested to withdraw. All concede that the librarian should be present at board meetings for consultation and advice, and that no important action should be taken without first consulting him. The tendency certainly is toward making him secretary of the board. All libraries in New Jersey estab¬ lished under the law of 1884 are obliged to do this. The plan is a good one, for as secretary the librarian keeps the minutes, audits bills, and attends to everything pertaining to the office. He is thus brought into closer relations with the trustees, and it gives both an opportunity to study the library’s needs more carefully than in any other way. Such is the verdict of those who have tried both methods. Hours of service. — The average daily service appears to be about eight hours. This average is obtained by including a few librarians who report only five hours’ service and quite a number whose time extends to ten hours per day. 750 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. No account is taken of library work done outside office liours. Should this be considered, it would be found that every librarian having the interests of his institution at heart puts nearly all his waking hours into the work. One of the most important duties is to attend the annual gathering of the American Library Association. Many a young librarian has here first imbibed that enthusiasm which has enabled him to battle with doubt and come out victor. Some 34 libraries regularly send representatives at the expense and on the time of the library ; 12 libraries report that time but not money is allowed. It may truthfully be said that the money spent by a library in paying its librarian’s expenses for attending these conferences is an invest¬ ment giving the greatest possible interest. Its value can not be com¬ puted in dollars and cents. Vacation. — This is as welcome and as necessary to the librarian as to the school principal. Some librarians are obliged to take their vaca¬ tion at the time of the American Library Association meeting. This is not recommended. Anyone who has attended an American Library Association conference knows that means simply a repetition of library work wonderfully intensified. There is little or no rest for the enthusi¬ astic individual at these gatherings, because he is bound to get all new ideas and all possible information from his brethren. The only satis¬ factory vacation is to drop all thought of the library and hie away to some quiet spot offering rest and change of scene. A few days of such exemption from library cares and worry benefit alike trustees, public, staff, and librarian. To the librarian is usually given a little more time than to the as¬ sistants. In public libraries four weeks is a fair allowance; in college libraries vacations correspond with the regular college vacations — about three months. Where libraries are open Sundays and holidays the librarian is not usually in attendance, but the assistant in charge receives double pay for such services. STAFF. Requisites. — At the Round Island American Library Association meeting in 1887 Mr. James Yates, of Leeds, England, laid great stress on the necessity of giving the chief librarian full control oyer his staff, illustrating his point by taking an ordinary workshop where “the employer is bound in his own interests to see that his employees are provided with true and good work tools, and that when they flinch they must be replaced.” Peter Cowell, chief librarian of the Liverpool public libraries, in his pamphlet on public library staffs, says : It is an absolute necessity that the staff should he characterized by ability, energy, and appreciation of their duties, for otherwise a lack of vitality would soon be appar- THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 751 ent in tlie library, and a corresponding deficiency in its usefulness and popularity. When the staff of a library is imbued with a common spirit, and that spirit is iden¬ tified with the true aims and purposes of a public library, it follows that such a library will soon be engaged in a great and important educational work, and in exercising a wide and beneficial influence. Harmony, then, as well as fitness, plays an important part in the success of a library. It is unfortunately true that where many women are gathered together — for pleasure or business — there you will find cliques and jealousies. Particularly is this true in a library where wages are paid according to the duties performed. The catalogers and reference librarians are paid better than the delivery clerks and copyists. What might be called “class friend¬ ships” are formed, wherein those of a higher grade look down on those of a lower, and, as sometimes occurs, do not want to associate with or do the work of the other. If allowed to remain such a spirit breeds continual dissension. Pluck it out at once, even at the cost of hard feeling. When self is east aside and all are working for the com¬ mon good the result is pleasing alike to the public, the trustees, and the staff. The members of the staff should keep in touch with each other as well as with all departments of the library. Good feelings produce good results. It is an excellent idea to bring the staff together (outside of library hours) to discuss library matters ; and better still to meet socially on an occasional winter evening. Mr. Whitney says u a library may be compared to a watch, each part in which depends on the proper action of the other, and where poor work in the least member affects the whole.” Great care then is necessary in the selec¬ tion of the individual members. Appointment. — Of 229 libraries reporting, only 17 state that ap¬ pointments are made on the result of written examinations, but the consensus of opinion at the Chicago meeting decidedly favored such examinations. A preliminary examination serves two purposes : 1. It enables the committee to ascertain the acquirements of tlie candidate. 2. It does away with all political influence. A candidate and his friends, finding that an examination is neces¬ sary before appointment will be made, hunt for some more congenial employment. It certainly eliminates undesirable aspirants and leaves trustees free from outside influence. Such examination need not be severe. Grammar, history, and liter¬ ature should be included, special attention being paid to writing and spelling. It does not follow that because one has obtained the required percentage he will make a good assistant; on the other hand, in my own library, for instance, it sometimes happens that an individual who has barely passed proves the best adapted to the particular work re¬ quired. The written examination should be followed by “trial work” in the practical details of the library, after which a selection can be wisely made. 752 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. It is much easier to get a person on than to get one off the staff. At the Buffalo conference, in 1883, the following resolutions were adopted : Resolved, That efficiency in library administration can best be obtained through the applications of the cardinal principles of an enlightened civil s rvice, viz, the absolute exclusion of all political and personal influence; appointment for definitely ascertained fitness; promotion for merit, and retention during good behavior; and Resolved, That, in the opinion of this association, in large public libraries, subor¬ dinate employees should, so far as possible, be selected by competitive examination, followed by a probationary term. When competent service can be secured for subordinate positions, preference should be given to local applicants. As between local influence and competent service no bar should hinder the selection of the person best qualified for the work. The establishment of the library school at Albany and of training classes1 at Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, and Drexel Institute, Philadel¬ phia, makes it possible to procure the best material at a fair price. There is no longer excuse for securing incompetent service. Titles. — Beyond that of u first assistant” it is not safe to recom¬ mend titles for the various heads of departments. No list that could be prepared would suit the different kinds of librarians or even the dif¬ ferent sections of the country; therefore, each library must regulate the matter to suit local demands.2 Departments. — To a limited extent all libraries are divided into departments, but it does not* follow that each department has a sepa¬ rate head. In small libraries the force should learn work in all departments; and even in many large libraries it is better for members of the staff to change work occasionally, i. e., the catalogers work certain hours in the day at cataloging and then change to delivery work, etc. Six¬ teen libraries report that it is customary for the staff to learn the work of only one department, except in cases of promotion. It is better that assistants should understand all departments of the library, in order that satisfactory promotions may be made. It was the general opinion at the Chicago conference that better work would be accomplished by catalogers if a separate room were pro¬ vided. The library proper is no place for such a department, for the noise and confusion at the delivery desk distract the mind. For the best cataloging, quiet and seclusion are prime requisites. 1 October 1, 1893, at the Armour Institute, Chicago, a third class was opened, in charge, like both the others, of a graduate of the library school. — M. D. Americans are beginning to use the better form, common in England, of “ public librarian” instead of “ librarian of the public library of,” and “of sublibrarian,” “subcataloger,” “ classifier,” etc., instead of the longer “ assistant librarian,” “assis¬ tant cataloger.” etc. “ Clerk in charge of the shelf-list department,” and similar infelicitous titles, are giving way to short descriptive titles like “ shelf-lister,” “accession clerk,” “loan clerk,” “indexer,” “reference librarian.” Also “page” is better than “messenger,” “director” than “superintendent.” — M. D. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 753 Girls 14 to 10 years of age do better work as runners than boys, and are more easily managed. When possible the police department should be utilized in recover¬ ing books from persistent delinquents. Only a few of the larger libraries employ a special messenger for this purpose. Daily service. — Returns show a reduction within a few years in the average library day from 8£ to 7£ hours. It would be interesting to know if the reduction has resulted in better work. With others I am inclined to believe so, but the claim can not be proved. In two libra¬ ries, catalogers work longer than employees in other departments. There seems to be no good reason why this should be so; as a matter of fact, cataloging is not only more trying and more worrisome, but it requires better mental caliber than does the delivery desk. By a vote of 4 to 1 the association decided that owing to the nature of their work catalogers ought to have shorter rather than longer hours. Generally speaking, the- smaller the library the longer the hours of service.1 Vacation. — A fair average for vacation is about three weeks, and to this is added (by a very few libraries) an extra ten days during the winter — a boon appreciated by the favored ones. Some large libraries also allow absence not exceeding twenty days during the year for illness. Most boards of trustees, however, do not deduct from pay for absence on account of illness.2 Tims record. — In large libraries some check is necessary to prevent tardiness. As at school some pupils are pretty certain to be late unless punishment is meted out, so among library employees the same fault occurs unless means are taken to prevent it. A simple and effective method is to provide a book of loosely-bound sheets, each sheet headed with the name of an employee, who records 1 This is because the small library usually starts with false notions of the work. The larger libraries have gained experience which teaches that better results can be attained by adopting, not a mechanical system, but hours suitable to individual work. This average of seven and a half is found by including many libraries that still exact unreasonable hours. It will doubtless grow still smaller as the lessons of experience are more carefully studied. — M. D. 2 A theory justifying this payment for services not rendered is that, rather than have lost time deducted, some employees will come to the library when their health and future best work require them to be at home or in bed. But, on the other hand, it is well known that, oftener, if as much salary will be drawn by staying at home, many will skip days when they might better be on duty. Absolute fairness requires that those who do not exhaust their allowance for illness during the year may add the time to the annual vacation, and this resolves itself into the direct businesslike method of giving a liberal allowance, say six weeks (or half the teacher’s usual vacation) for vacation and illness, and deducting for any absence for whatever cause beyond this. However much the librarian may sympathize with a deserving assistant in poor health, he has no right to dispense the taxpayers’ money in charity, however worthily bestowed. — M. D. ED 93 - 48 754 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. in ink the time of arrival and departure ; and at tlie end of the year the book holds a truthful record of attendance. I say truthful, because I believe that if each member of the staff is placed on honor and allowed to make his own entry, rather than report to some superior, there will be no intentional errors.1 Salaries.2—' u The laborer is worthy of his hire.” The following reso¬ lution, adopted by the American Library Association at its meeting in Chicago, represents the ideal rather than the real condition of libra¬ rians and assistants : Besolved, That in tlie opinion of the American Library Association the qualifica¬ tions and salaries of library assistants in important positions should be on a par with high school teachers; that applicants for positions in libraries should have at least a high school education ; and that the heads of large libraries should have sal¬ aries not less than those of public school superintendents in the same cities. Usually, salaries are much lower than those of teachers and school principals, and with no apparent reason for the difference, unless it be the successful efforts of some librarians to- conceal their salary lists. In a table such as that appended to this report it is impossible to include a complete list of employees; therefore the amounts received by the librarian and first assistant only are given. The effect of such publicity ought to be beneficial to the profession, encouraging those on low salaries to ask their trustees for increase, and enabling trustees, without fear of criticism, to make such a fair increase as will place their institutions on a level with others in more favored localities. There need be no fear that a board, on finding that it is paying higher salaries than those in another city of corresponding size and wealth, will attempt to cut down salaries, for it is easier to have salaries increased than decreased. As each community has its own local con¬ ditions it is not possible to lay down a hard and fast rule for salaries* From 170 reports we find the average yearly salary $1,364 for chief librarians; $642 for first assistants, and $375 for general assistants. These averages are low, but the tendency is upward. Payment by the hour is resorted to by a few libraries, but the prac¬ tice is not recommended, as it has proved impossible to arrange a satis¬ factory schedule; though substitutes are engaged by the hour. For Sunday and holiday work it is customary to allow double pay. iThe best method of recording time, now coming into Wide use is by an attachment to a clock by which the exact minute of coming and going is recorded mechanically. It is much quicker and cheaper, but its great advantage is in eliminating all ques¬ tion of personal accuracy in the record made by an assistant or a recording clerk. 2 See full discussion in A. L. A. proceedings, 1893, pp. 34.-37, 41-42. 755 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. SUMMARY. (1) Politics should not enter into the appointment of trustees, libra¬ rians, or assistants. (2) Only trained men and women should be placed at the head of libraries. (3) The better the material selected, the more satisfactory will be the administration of the institution. (4) In cities and towns where he is held responsible for the conduct of the library, the librarian should have the appointment of all assist¬ ants and other employees. (5) Term of office should be during good behavior. (G) Every library should be a member of the American Library Asso¬ ciation, and should be represented at all its meeting's. (7) Catalogers should have shorter hours than other library workers, and should have a separate room. (8) Applicants for library positions should have at least a high school education. (9) Applicants should be required to pass written examinations before being appointed. (10) Assistants should learn to do work in all departments. (11) Seven to eight hours constitute a good day’s work. (12) Library assistants should have four weeks’ vacation during the year. (13) Qualifications and salaries of library assistants in important positions should be on a par with high school teachers. (14) Heads of large libraries should have salaries not less than those of public school superintendents in the same cities. (15) Library salaries ought to be published. 756 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Place. Hame of library. Free or sub¬ scription. Class. Humber of volumes. Population. S 1 Gnl 6, 524 11, 200 157, 114 22, 232 59, 000 48, 763 77, 705 27, 702 27, 702 94, 640 104, 907 4, 512 6, 129 9,509 11, 825 5, 629 25, 887 10, 521 3, 266 2, 148 433, 547 433, 547 433, 547 433, 547 19, 090 7, 200 27, 836 5, 101 10, 795 22, 242 446, 507 446, 507 1 446,507 3, 330 Do’. . Public . F [ (tPTI Albany, H. Y . Allegheny, Pa . . Hew York State . .“. _ F ... Gen F .. i Gen Amherst, Mass . F Col Theol. . .'. Col . Ann Arbor, Mich . F . . . F . Col . 12, 638 12, 183 11, 285 40, 000 3, 070 F Gen s Gen F State .... Col . F ... Public . F .. Gen .... 5, 511 F Gen . 23, 641 122, 773 40, 000 112, 000 33, 487 10, 000 13, 918 Do... ' . F . Gen . . Do . S . Mer .... Do . F Gen . F.&S. F . (Inn Batavia, H.Y . Sch . Public . F ... Gen _ F Col . 48, 287 13, 347 Public.... . F Gen .... s Col . . 14. 684 s 1 Gen 177,000 | 22,788 | 576, 237 Do . F Sci Do . Public . F . > Gen . Boulder, Colo . Buckingham . 1 F . Col . 7,900 Braddock, Pa . Carnegie free . F .. i Gen . 8,561 48, 856 5, 478 27, 278 12,1)76 Bridgeport, Conn . Public . 1 F . Gen . 22, 785 Bristol, R.I . Rogers free . i F . | Gen . 11, 046 Brockton, Mass . Public . If . Gen . 17, 861 39, 007 Brookline, Mass . . do . 1 F . Gen . ! Brooklyn, H. Y . Brooklyn . S . Gen . 117, 669 804, 377 Do . i Pratt Institute . F . Gen . 40.000 804, 377 Do . Y.M. C. A . ; s . Y. M.C.A 12,600 : 804, 377 Brunswick. Me . Bowdoin College . Bryn Mawr College . F . Col . 50,000 ! 6, 012 Bryn Mawr, Pa . i F . Col . 9,760 ! 70,483 j Buffalo, H. Y . Buffalo . 1 F . Gen . 254, 457 Do . Grosvenor public . F . Gen . 35,000 i 254, 457 Burlington, Yt . Eletcher free . F . Gen . | 25,000 14, 566 Do . . University of Yermont . S . Col . 43,374 14, 566 Butte Citv, Mont . Butte free public . i F . Gen . ! 16, 000 10, 701 Cambridge, Mass . Harvard University . F . Col . 1 292,000 69, 837 Do . ! Public . j F . i Gen . 36, 643 69, 837 Charlottesville, Ya . University of Virginia . F . ; j Col . 1 45, 000 5, 591 Chelsea, Mass . Fitz public . F . Gen . 13, 619 27, 850 Chicago, Ill . : Hewberry . | F . i Gen . 79, 000 1, 098, 576 Do . . Public . . . F . 1 Gen . 189, 350 1, 098, 576 Do . University of Chicago . 1 F Col 380, 000 156, 673 1, 098, 576 296, 309 Cincinnati, Ohio . Public . 1 F . ; Gen . Do . . I Young Men’s Mercantile . S . Mer . 60, 000 296, 309 Cleveland, Ohio . Case . S . Gen . 30, 000 72, 078 18, 463 35, 000 14, 064 261, 546 Do . | Public . F . Gen . 261, 546 10, 379 1, 750 Clinton, Mass _ Bigelow free nublic . . . F . Gen . Clinton H.Y . . _ Hamilton College . F ... Col . Columbus, Ohio . i Public . F . Gen . 90, 398 16,948 9, 073 Concord, H. H . _ do . F . 1 Gen . 18. 500 Danville, Pa . ! Thomas Beaver free . . . 1 F . 1 Gen . 8. 523 Dayton, Ohio . Public . F . Gen . 32, 288 58, 868 Dedham, Mass _ _ do . F . Gen _ 11, 384 7, 116 Donver Colo City . . . . F .... Mer .... 23, 351 14, 000 115, 661 106, 670 106, 670 205, 669 Do P ublic . F . Gen Detroit, Mich . . do . F . Gen . Dover, H. IT _ do . F . Gen . 17, 000 12, 779 30, 147 Dubuque, Iowa . Young Men’s Library Association . S . Gen . 14, 618 Duluth Minn Pnhlift _ _ _ _ F . Gen . 10, 253 9, 305 32, 725 4,395 Easthampton, Mass . 1 Public Library Association . F . Gen . iOf Bucli tel College. 2 Ho regular time. 3 During efficiency and good behavior. 4 Good behavior. 6 In definite. 6 Pleasure of board. 7 Average. 8Ho books circulated. 9Ho home circulation. 10 High school graduates preferred. 11 All assistants $9 per -week. 12 Salary as instructor. 13 Hot fixed; -without pay. 14 Hot given. 15 Prom $600 a year to $2.50 a week. 16 $7 to $15 per week. 17 18 cents an hour. 18 Pleasure of trustees. 19 Besides salary as professor. 757 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 1 Total income. ! Circulation. Librarian’s salary. | z, gjj Hours of daily service. O c3 v t> a ©i £ 3 'c 5 "5 £ Hours of daily service. Vacation. Salary of first assistant. Salaries of other assistants. Examination of applicants. Yrs. ! ! $10, 000 545 $300 1 (2) Col.. 2 6 ' Col. . $240 $120. 00 No. 3,300 44, 429 720 1 ' 8 1 m.. 1 1- 8 lm.. 540 No. 37. 900 7. 186 5.000 (3) 7 30 d . . 27 7 30 d . 315. 00-2, 000. 00 Yes. 15, 000 108, 679 2, 500 2 7-8 2 w. . 8 8 2 w . . 720 480. 00 No. 8, 000 2. 500 (4) 1 m . . 1 7 lm.. 800 No. 3' 900 1, 800 (5) 3 Sem . COO Paid by hour. 3,100 2, 700 (4) 7 2 m.. 9 i 7 1 2m.. 1. 200 125. 00-900. 00 3, 601 1 1 4,841 33, 893 500 1 7 3§ lm.. | 3 None (2C> (20) No. 1,800 16, 156 800 (6) 9 No. 5, 0C0 1, 000 3 8 ...:: 3 8 660 350. 00-480. 00 No. No. 9, 516 159 (6) 71i 1 3 1-i None 50 No. 7, 800 (8) 1.500 2 6 2 w.. 2 6° 2 w.. 900 720. 00 No. 50, 000 452, 733 Conf. (4) 8 lm.. 54 8 2w.. (21) (21) No. 76. 000 720 (4) 9 1 3 ! 2m.. 180 No. (9) 3, 000 (4) 8 9 8 I 2 w No. 6, 400 41.576 500 1 8i 3 w. . 3 8i 3 w. . (2!) (21) No.10 27. 241 490 (5) 61 1 6| None 400 No. 3,000 39. 914 720 (6) 5 3 w. . 2 5 3 w . . 300 | 96. 00 No. 11, 360 (9) 2, 400 (6) 8 3 w. . 2 8 3 w. . 1,200 ! 1, 000. 00 No.. 2, 300 28, 743 670 1 5 1 m. . 3 5 | lm.. 150 (22) No. 2,000 7, 825 1,000 1 7 Col.. 7 i Col.. 6C0 250. 00 No. 32, 822 55, 000 3, 500 1 7-8 lm.. 22 7-8 2 w. . C23) (23) No. Not fixed ? 13, 000 (12) (5) 7 C3) 2 7 (!3) 1 4, 5605 96, 200 -900 1 1 8-10 ; 20 d . 5 I 8 20 d . 900 ! 500. 00-180. 00 No. 21, 200 500 1 6 2 w. . 1 6 2 AV . 200 No. 8, 760 100, 819 2, 000 1 10 | 30 d . 3 9 30 d. 480 360. 00 No. 10, 000 144, 009 1,200 (5) 8i lm.. 6 9 lm.. (36) (55) No. 45,000 438, 851 2, 500 (5) 8 j 4 w.. 25 8 4 w. . 1, 166 460. 00-140. 00 Yes 3, 200 53, 000 750 (18) 6 j 2 w.. 2 5 2 w. . 350 225. 00 No. 3, 180 25, 023 500 1 6| 1 None 13, 900 37 73, 634 1,000 (S) 8 | 2 w. . 3 8 2 w. . 660 j 660. 00-540. 00 No. 500 13, 050 By day 1 7 2£ 1 No. 20 Average $107.10—25 cents and 20 cents an hour. 21 Confidential. 22 $12£ to 20 cents per hour. 23 Salaries paid by hour; average about $500. 24 $100 each. 25 Six months. 26 By contract. 27 Not fixed. 28 20 cents per hour to $1,500. 29 Vacant. 30 No first assistant. 31 Total number employed. 32 From $1,700 down. 33 20 cents per hour. 34 $450 down to 12J cents per hour. ^Paid by librarian. 36 $60 per month. 37 1893; 94,011. 758 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892*93. Place. Name of library. Free or sub¬ scription. Class. Humber of volumes. Population. Elgin, Ill . F (r^Tl 13, 240 17 429 Elyria F.&S. O-en 10 000 5, 611 l’ SCO Eitchbnrg,2 ^ a 0 a a. 2 § « £ Hours of daily service. Vacation. Salary of first assistant. Salaries of other assistants. Examination of applicants. $6, 85G 84, 522 $900 Yrs. (') 10 2 w.. 2 10 2 w. . (2) Yes. 1, 200 17, 000 500 (3) 8 2w„ 100 2, 000 150 1 3 . No. 4, 000 48; 918 1,000 1 10 2 w. . 5 10 2 w. . $540 (4) No. 11, 267 312 (5) 7 (6) 3, 307 40j 143 800 (s) 8 2 w. . 1 8 200 . No. 1, 000 9 7 1 7 None No. (7) 15, 068 (8) 1 i . No. 50,’ 895 1,100 1 (3) 4 w. . 2 8 2 w. . ! (s> j (9) No. 5, 189 147, 552 1,200 1 (10) 4 w.. 1 7 8 4 w. . (a> (u) No. 900 20, 000 360 (6) 3-6 52 1 4 (5) 1 No. Reference. 2, 200 (6) Col.. 5 2 Col.. iw) (12) No. 2, 500 4 10 2 8-10 (8) 1 . No. 7, GOO 2, 000 8 3 8 lm.. 480 (13) $480. 00 No. 15, 000 14 118, 184 l! 500 (5) 8 2 w.. 7 84 2 w. . (“) (I5) No. Reference. (16) 1 7 2 w. . 1 8 2 W-. C6) (16) No. 5, 000 68, 416 1,800 (17) 9 4 w. . 3 9 4 w.. 500 I8404. 00 No. 1, 090 2 8 1 1 No. 7, 802 85, 480 1, 500 0) 10 2 w. . 4 Tor 8 2 w. . 420. 00-520. 00 No. 3,000 40, 263 '650 1 7 2 w.. 5 7 2 w. . I (19) 100. 00-250. 00 No. 22, 000 265, 746 1, 800 1 8 to 16 lm.. 19 8 2 w.. ! 1,000 400. 00-650. 00 No. 5, 720 Reference. 1,500 2 6 Op.. 3 6 Op .. 1 1,100 720. 00-900. 00 No. 2, COO 9,363 1,200 0) 8* 3m.. 1 S| 3 m.. 500 No. (20) 11, 000 (15) (!) 7 0 No. ,18) (1) 8 2m 13 8 None 1 No. 2,777 64, 210 800 1 7 or 8 iNone 1 7 or 8 None 400 No. 5,000 45, 360 1,500 1 9 None 4 9 None 420 420. 00 No. 28,500 345,096 2, 500 (') 7 | 4w.. 24 8 2 w.. 900 180. 00-500. 00 Ye3. (21) 23,263 1, 500 (') 9 2 w. . 10 9 2 w.. 900 225. 00-600. 00 Yes. 3, 31G 10, 700 900 1 c| None 1 64 None 360 No. 2, 500 39, 019 980 1 6 1 2w.. 2 6' 2 w. . P) (•22) No. 3, 200 37, 939 600 1 11 j None 1 11 None 420 No. 1, 86G 12, 336 350 1 23 21 N one 2 23 21 None 25. 00 No. 9, 500 88, 843 1,400 (5) 6 or 7 3 w.. 7 6or7 3 w.. 600 (24) No. 6, 127 83 1 23 64 None 3 23 64 12. 00 No. 11, 270 Reference. 1,100 (5) 74 | (6) 3 71 (si i 900 18 GOO*. 00 No! 5, 200 Reference. (“) 4 9 None 3 9 None 1,700 18 900. 00 No. Reference. (26) 19, 000 233, 363 1,800 (») 8 3 w. . 20 8 2 w.. i 1,200 180. 00-900. 00 Yes. 15, 000 114, 915 1,500 (!7) 7 2 w.. 11 8i 2 w.. 626 187. 00-469. 00 No. 600 5, 944 650 (1?) 23 38 3 w. . 0 I ' No. 5 7, 000> 1 9, 0005 113,168 1,500 1 7 lm.. 5 7 lm.. 800 200. G0-450. CO No. 1,200 8,212 (1S) (5) 8 lm.. 2 8 None (16) (16) No. 2, 000 Reference. 1, 600 3 7 25 d. 5 7 25 d. ! 1,200 18 550. 00 No. 7, 500 1 72,677 1, coo 1 9 2 w.. 4 9 2 w. . 500 18433. 75 No. 1,377 55, 874 800 (5) 8 (6) 2 8 I None 375 300. 00 No. 4, 382 41, 670 ROOO (5) 6 3 w. . 3 6 3 w. J 400 240. 00 No. 2, 000 31,425 475 (5) 44 2 w.. 1 44; 2w.. 175 No. 7, 500 2, 500 (5) 7"! 3m.. 1 7~ 3 m.. 27400 1 No. 31,000 151, 597 2, 500 5 8 ; 24 d. 18 8 | 24 d. 800 240.00-800.00 ! Yes. 52, 346 357, 172 3, 000 (5) . „(6) 50 8 2 w.. 960 (28) No. 17, 000 450 1 10 N one 0 5, 5G0 37, 587 (16) 1 74 1 1 m. . 6 74 1 2 w-. I . 40, 0G0 274, 015 3, 000 (5) 7“ 1 20 d. 25 7s j 20 d. 900 (29) Yes. 3. 800 22, 749 750 1 84 lm.. 1 84 Lm.. 216 No. 8, 300 8,869 5 575£ \ 900( (17) 84 3 w. . 1 8| 3 W-. 1, GOO 63, 648 1,200' 1 19 ' 2 w. . 2 10 2w.. 40. 00 No. 2, 328 33, 914 1, 000 0) | 2 w. . 3 2 W-. 300 (3°) No. 5 15,000? 1 10,0005 131, 348 1,500 (5) 74. Sw¬ 8 3 w.. 700 (31) Yes. (16) Vary. im. . 1 Varv. 1 m 5, 000 36, 851 900 1 7 1 m. . 9 j 1 m.. 400 900. 00 Referen ce . 2, 000 f“> 8 5 w. . 34 8 1 i 5 w . . (16) (16) No. 15, 000 11, 282 (1C) 1 8 2 w. . 1“ 8 2 w. . (16) (16) No. 12, 375 127,788 1,200 1 8 3 w. . 6 7 3 w. . 650 450. 00-500. 00 No. 25 15, 000 250, 000 (6) 11 2 w. . 12 11 2 w . . 1,300 Yes. Reference. (32‘) (5) 8 lm.. 12 8 In)..' 192. 00-900. 00 Yes. 10 Income of $50,CC0. 21 Not specified. 22Paid by librarian. 23Hours'a week. 24 leg cents an hour to $420 a year. 25 See answer. 26 Secretary of State is librarian. 27 And room rent. 28 $40 and $45 a month to begin, with an increase of $5 each year, 29 From $900 a year down to 34 cents a day. 30 From $1 a day to $375 a year. 31 10 cents an hour to $480 a year. 32 Superintendent, $4,000; 4 librarians. $1,200 to $1,800 each- 760 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. £ O g O & ® 1 ^ a 43 ci Free scri xn a 8 S-3 p > h 3 ft o Pm F . Col . 135, 000 58, 000 241, 017 68, 633 40, 800 18, 005 12, 100 24, COO F . 1 * Gen . S . ! Gen . F ... Theol _ Y.M.C.A. (rCTl . F .... . i F . ! F . Gen 16, 067 14, 961 ! F . | Gen . ! F . ! Gen 13, 466 19, 000 F . Gen . 16, 192 F _ Sell . 7, 824 16,192 F . Gen . 26, 205 5, 750 F . 1 Sch . 4, 771 4, 376 F. & S. ! coi . 26, 700 F ... 1 Col 19, 304 38, 471 F . ! Gen . 139, 526 F . Col . 6, 934 10,-800 3,440 2, 790 F . I Col F . Gen . 13, 027 F . Gen . 17, 932 78. 358 F . Gen . 11,000 27, 502 F . Gen . 6, 011 10, 026 F . Gen . 40, 000 40, 758 F . Gen . 33, 175 1, 046, 252 F .... 1 Soc .... 14, 500 35, 000 s 1 Kno, F . | Sri . 37, 183 168, 700 7, 500 20, 838 S .... Mer ..... F . Sci . F . Gen . 17, 252 F . Gen . 10, 537 11, 250 F . Gen . 10, 000 7, 292 1 F . Gen . 17, 355 22, 836 F Col . 18,000 161, 000 80, 000 22, 836 3,422 122, 042 F .. Col .... S . ! Col . 1 F . Gen . 17, 000 16, 845 1 F . Gen . 4, 683 138, 327 ! F . Col . 26, 200 Gen 22. 744 4, 000 138, 327 11,759 F . Gen . F . Gen . 21, 000 26, 272 F . State .... 89, 000 26, 272 F . Gen . 12, 534 6, 567 ' s Mer 83, 071 85. 000 460, 357 460 357 F.&S. Gen F . i Hist . 20, 970 133 156 F . Gen . 30, 274 133, 156 S . . Sci . 60, 000 25, 505 30, 735 30, 735 F . Geu . F . Gen . 9, 149 16. 153 S . Gen . 57, 934 297, 990 F . 1 Col . 37, 300 16, 000 18, 392 83, 450 F . 1 Gen . S . Gen ...... 3, 000 43, 914 F . Gen . 4, 000 37, 862 S . Gen . 7, 491 1, 559 F . Gen . 21, 018 40,117 F . Gen . 14, 307 7, 744 F . Gen . 22, 375 24, 852 F . Gen . 83, 049 44,164 F . Gen . 15. 598 14, 376 F Col . 9, 924 F . Gen . 36. 087 25, 389 F . Gen . 8, 875 30, 287 . 9 Good behavior. Place. Name of library. New York, N. Y . Columbia College . . Do . Free circulating... Do . . . Mercantile . Do . ' Union Theological. Do . Y. M. C. A . Do . Y. TV. C. A . North Easton, Mass . Ames free . Norwich, Conn . Otis . Do . Eeck . Oakland, Cal . Public . Oak Park, 111 . Scoville Institute. Oberlin, Ohio . ! Oberlin College - - . Olivet, Mich . . | Olivet College - Omaha, Nebr . . . : . ! Public . Orono, Me . ; State College . Oxford, Ohio . Miami UniversEy. Passaic, N. J . Public . Paterson, N. J . Free public . Pawtucket, E. I . do . Peekskill, N. Y . Public . Peoria, Ill . do . Philadelphia, Pa . Do ------ . Do . Do . Do . Do............... DO . . . Pittsfield, Mass . Plainfield, N. J . Plymouth, Mass . Poughkeepsie, N. Y. . Do. Princeton, N. J - Providence, E. I. . . Eichmond, Ind . Eiverside, Cal . Eochester, N. Y - Do . Eutland, Yt . Sacramento, Cal . . . Do . St. Johnsbury, Yt. St. Louis, Mo . Do.... . St. Paul, Minn . Do . Salem, Mass ....... Do . San Diego, Cal . San Francisco, Cal . Schenectady, N. Y. Scranton, Pa.. . Seattle, Mash . Sioux City, Iowa . . Skaneateles, N. Y. . Somerville, Mass . . Southbridge, Mass. Springfield, Ill . Springfield, Mass . . Stockton, Cal . Swarthmore, Pa. . . . Taunton, Mass Terre Haute, Ind . . Academy of Natural Sciences Apprentice’s . Athenaeum of Philadelphia . Drexel Institute . i - Franklin Institute . Mercantile . Magner Free Institute . Berkshire Athenaeum . Public . _ do . City . Yassar College . . College of New Jersey . Brown University . Morrison-Eeeves" . Public . University of Eochester . Eeynolds . . . Free . Free public . . Cal fornia State . St. Johnsbury Athenaeum . Mercantile . Public . Minnesota Historical Society . Public . Essex Institute . Public . Free public . Mechanic’s Institute . Union College . Public . City . . . _ do . Skaneateles Library Association. . Public . - do . . do . City Library Association . Fre"e public . . . Swarthmore College . Public . - do . . . 1 See answer. 2 Not given. 3 Indefinite. 4 From 10 cents an hour to $1,000 a year. 6 Confidential. 6 20 to 25 cents an hour. 7 10 cents an hour to $456 a year. 8 From $5 to $6.50 a week. 10 Students. 11 Assistants paid by hour. 12 Pleasure of board. 13 Conference. 14 Not fixed. 15 No salary. 16 $5 a week to $50 a month. 761 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. Total income . Circulation. Librarian’s salary . CT cS d Fh S Hours of daily service. Vacation. Number of as¬ sistants. Hours of daily service. Vacation. Salary of first assistant. Salaries of other assistants. Examination of applicants. 1 Varies. ^$34. 000 ( l 28,000s 28, 102 26, 632 391, 570 169, 627 No record. Reference. 44, 577 63, 756 52, 476 15. 162 75. 000 1,506 134,411 26, 031 17, 000 Reference. 189, 007 1,307 1, 143 3,400 85, 860 46, 673 22, 200 80, 294 Reference. 62 699 2,500 (-) $1, 500 (£) (2) (5) 900 624 442 700 1,500 (5> Yrs. (3) (3) (3)n O (*> 0 (3) 1 (3) 1 (3) 74 8 0^ 94 7 6 5 8 i 2 1 m. . 1 m. . 0 4*m. lm.. lm.. 2 w. . None 1 m. . 2 w.. lm.. 2 w. . None 2m.. 12 w. P) 16 w. Coll. 4 W-. 4 w.. 2 w. . 2 w.. *2-4 w (3) 1 m. . 30 37 12 2 2 4 2 3 0 3 f 2 2 5 (10) 7 0 0 1 8 ; 4 0 2 5 0 1 7* 2 w. . No. Yes. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No No. No. No. No. No. No. Yes. No. No. Yes. Yes. No. No. 8 9| 2| 9tol0* 7 6 lm.. 2 w. . None 2-3 w lm.. 2 w.. None $S00 0 (4) (5) (6) (5) (T) $312. 00 (8) 4, 500 4, 600 2, 400 5, 530 , 750 18. 127 2, 500 4, 600 1,700 24, 000 l14) 1,000 1,300 10, 235 6, 700 691 < 15. 000> l 12, 2005 (5) 780 468 338 8 n 2w.. 2 m.. | 2w.. None ! 6 w. . 12 w. | 2 w.. (5) 100 65 720 600 P) 900 (') 50.00 300. 00 250. 00-600. 00 P) 300. 00-600. 00 1.500 (2) 1,800 800 P) 550 1, 800 800 260 2, 000 ! 1.500 900 ! 1,000 1 C) <9) (12) (3) (9) (3) (12) (9) (W1 <9) 1 1 (3) 9| 6 5 8 8 3 0 8 7 6 9 5 9 7 7o 9 8 2 8 - 0 8 7 . i 2 w.. | 3 w.. 2 w" 208 600 520 60. 00-500. 00 104. 00-400. 00 9* 8 6 2 w.. I 0 14 d . (16) (!6) 17 540. 00 250. 00 2 m.. 0) I 2, 127 1,000 (9) n“ P) 1 9 ! P) 130 17, 350 87, 000 1,600 0 2 w . . 10 81 2 w.. 729 180. 00-450. 00 No. 0 Reference. 600 1 7 2 w. . 2 7 2 w.. 480 240. 00 No. 4,000 Reference. (5) i (9) 8 None 1 8 None 0 (£) Yes. 3,200 19. 544 600 1 (9) 7 3 w. . 1 4 None P) P) No. 24, 000 (2) (3) 8 2 w. . 1 8 j 2 w No. 3, 500 35, 428 1,650 1 8 3 w.. 2 8 3 w.. 409 360. 00 No. [Reference 10, 000 30, 000 (5) O 6 Coll. 8 8 Coll. 0 (5) No. 2, 774 10,437 2, 800 (3) 7 lm.. 1 7 lm.. 900 No. 54, 500 P) (3) 8 (M) 5 8 2 w.. 0 O No. 32, 224 600 (3) Xone 1 7 to 8 None 264 No. (21) (12) * 2 6± 2*w . . 1 6* ! 2 w. . 800 No. 20, 925 19, 821 1,200 1 ^•2 9 ! None 0 u2 No. 2, 550 46, 265 800 (9) 8 lm.. 2 8 lm.. 400 22 150. 00 No. 41,402 1,080 1 8 lm. . 2 8 lm.. 810 420. 00 No. 26, 255 Reference. 3,000 4 6 (14) 6 6 2w.. 0 (E) No. 3,000 17, 068 750 (3) 7 lm.. 2 4 None (23) (23, No. 20, 000 219, 346 3,000 P) P) | (I4) 13 8 : 2-4 w 900 240. 00-1, 500. 00 No. 54, 000 121, 000 3, 600 3 P) 2 m.. 12 8* 1-5 w 0 (“) Yes. 0, 000 Reference. 800 j 3 2 w.. 1 9* 2 w. . 900 No. 13, 000 116, 618 O (9) 9 9" 2 w.. ( ? ) (2) No. C, 400 Reference. 1 7 2 w. . 3 8 2—3 w 17 300 No. 12, 900 106, 142 1,500 (9) 2 w. . 4 8 2 w. - (24) No. 40, 000 56, 137 960 j 2 7 2 w. . 3 7 2w.J 600 300. 00-480. 00 No. 139, 090 3,000 (9) 9 2 W-. 8 j 9 2 w. . 1,800 300. 00-1, 080. 00 No. (*) Reference. 750 I (9) 4 Coll. 1 1 Coll . 50 No. 10, 200 P) 1,800 | 1 p> 2-4 w 6 8 2-3 w' 180. 00-600. 00 No. 12, 000 100, 000 1.200 1 (3) 8 20 d. 5 I 8 20 d. 840 600. 00-660. 00 No. 10, 250 12, 775 720 1 8 None 2 i 71 None 900 420. 00 No. 7,103 500 1 Hi 2 w . . 1 1 111 2 w . . 84 Jfo. (') 96, 311 800 1 10" 3 w. . 8 10~ 3 w.. P) j (26) No. 16, 760 900 1 8 None 4 1 None P) (27, No. 3, 500 71, 210 900 (9) 8 None 1 8 lm.. 480 j No. 25, 000 133, 301 1,600 (9) (14) P) 9 71 3 w 17 600. 00 No. 6, 000 82,696 1,200 (9) 10 2 w. . 4 10 2 w. . 720 420. 00-480. 00 No. 800 (2) (9) 8 Coll . . ! No. 6, 745 55,103 1. 300 1 10 3 w . . 2 9 3 w. . 17 450. 00 No. 3,900 25,740 1 550 1 1 1 10 None] ll 10 None 525 | No. 17 Average. 18 1 day a week in summer. 19 $1 a day. 20 Small. 21 Professor. 22 Sundays. 23 12* cents an hour, others 10 to 15 cents an hour. 21 Regulars, $420 a year : others 12 cents an hour. 25 Began June 1, 1893. 26 10 cents an hour to $100 a year. 27 Paid by librarian. 762 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Place. Name of library. Eree or sub¬ scription. Class. Number of volumes. Population. F . Gen . 33, 469 82, 652 E . Gen . 12, 000 31, 809 F . State - 40, 141 58,488 S . Gen . 6, 000 58, 488 F . Gen . 30,201 60, 699 E . Gen . 2, 800 E . Gen . 20, 386 18, 522 F . Gen . 2, 712 565 ' E . Gov - 45, 000 229, 296 F . Gov . 12, 000 E . Gov . 660, 000 E . Gov . F . Gov . 63, 082 . l E . Gov . F . Gen . 48,218 28, 591 E . Gen . 21,600 7, 058 s Col . 27, 735 7, 091 E . Col . . 43, 000 3, 600 S . Gen . 6, 468 4, 846 E . Gen . 13, 805 10, 843 E . Gen . 17, 073 37, 651 E . Gen . 6, 435 1,846 F . Gen . 31, 036 13, 491 E . Gen . 7, 389 2, 545 E . Sch . 12, 341 20, 759 F . Hist . 93, 000 84, 536 F . Gen . 89, 268 84, 536 Toledo, Ohio . Topeka, Nans . Trenton, 1ST. J . Do . Troy, N. Y . Yergennes, Vt . Waltham, Mass.... Warwick, Mass . - . Washington, D. C. Do . Do . Do . Public . . . Tree public - - - New J ersey State . Union (W.'C. T. U.) . Troy Young Men’s Association . . . Yergennes . . . Public . _ do . . U. S. Bureau of Education . . U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.. Library of Congress . U. S. Naval Academy . Do . U. S. Patent Office Do . Waterbury, Conn . Watertown, Mass . Waterville, Me . . Wellesley, Mass . West Winsted, Conn. . Weymouth, Mass . . Wilkesbarre, Pa . . Windsor, Yt . W oburn , Mass . . Woodstock, Yt . Woonsocket, It. I . . W orcester, Mass . Do . . U. S. W eatker Bureau . . Silas Bronson . Eree public . . Colby University . Wellesley College . . . . Beardsley . . Tufts College . Osterkout free . . Library Association . Public . - . . Norman Williams public . Harris Institute . American Antiquarian Society. . Eree public . . . 1 Pleasure of hoard. 2 Eor all. 3 Good behavior. 4 Not given. 5 Total cost, $7,300. 6 Confidential. 7 Indefinite. 8 2 days a week. 763 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. Total income. Circulation. Librarian’s salary. Librarian’s term. Hours of daily service. Vacation. 02 o ci a-s § ® £ Hours of daily service. Vacation. Salary of first assistant. Salaries of other assistants. Examination j of applicants. Yrs. i $15, 000 101,723 (') 6 3 w. . 6 6 3 w.. $600 2 $3, 888. 00 No. 5, 000 45, 760 $720 (*) n 3 7 2 w. . 340. 00 No. (J) 2 None (5) (5) No. 15, 148 600 1 it 2 w.. 2 11 2 w. . (4> <4) No. 4, 700 47. 012 1,020 0) 8 16 d. 2 8 2§ w. (6) (6) No. 200 (7) (8) None 0 1 . . 43, 451 650 1 8 4 w.. 2 8 4 w. . 500 | 120. 00 No. 2, 553 30 1 (9) None 0 2, 000 Reference 1 m. . 6 None - Ves. (.0) 1 Reference. 1,800 (7) k 30 d. 2 6| ! None 1, 400 720. 00 Yes. (i°) Limited. 4,000 (n) 8 30 d. 27 8 (None 2, 500 600. 00-1, 800. 00 No. . 1,800 (3) 7 None 2 7 None 1, 400 700. 00 No. i Reference. | 2,000 (!2) 6 (4) 18 6 !None (4) (4) No. i 1, 600 (8) 6 1 30 d. 3 6| 30 d. 1, 000 450. 00-100. 00 Yes. 12, 500 65, 350 1, 800 (7) 8^' ! 4 w.. 4 7 to 8^ 4 w. . 700 250. 00-500. 00 No. 4, 000 36, 000 (4) (7) 6 2 w. . 4 6" 2 w. . 250. 00-500. 00 Yes. V°) 7, 500 1, 800 (7) 7 Coll. 1 7 Coll. 200 No. Reference. (13) 1 G 3 m. . 2 6 2 m. . 14 800. 00 No. . 8, 347 (4) (7) 7 2 w. . 0 7 2 w. . No. 58. 246 500 1 7 3 w.. 2 7 3 w. . (IS) (15) No. 16, 000 54, 885 2. 000 (*f 8^ 4 w.. 6 7 to 8 4 AV. . 800 480. 00-600. 00 No. 600 8, 114 (4) (3) n None 1 None 78 No. 6, 000 62, 926 1, 200 1 9 1 2 w. . 2 8 2 w-. 600 300.00 No. 2, 580 12. 762 360 1 7 None 0 1 8, GOO 21, 297 600 7 .1 TO 1 7 1 m. . 250 No. 7, 500 Reference'. 1, 800 (') 7 3 w. . 2 7 3 w. . (6) . <6) No. 28, 360 199, 108 3,500 1 6 30 d. 20 7i 30 d . 1, 000 ,,, No. D 10 hours a -week. J0 See answer. 11 Pleasure of President. 12 Not fixed. 13 $900 and house. 14 Average. 15 15 cents an hour. 16 12£ cents an hour to $750 a year. 764 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. The Los Angeles Public Library Training Class. By Tessa L. Kelso, Public Librarian, Los Angeles, Cal, Iii October, 1891, the following rules were adopted by the board : That previous to being given paid employment all applicants be required to take a course of training in the library, not to exceed six months. That once every three months an examination shall be held of such candidates as may have presented themselves for admission to the classes. That these examinations be general in character, aiming only to determine whether by previous education and natural adaptability the qualifications of the applicant are sufficient to warrant the undertak¬ ing of library work. That, having given satisfactory evidence of such qualification, the candidate be accepted as a pupil in the training class, subject to the following conditions: Entrance examination. — Open to young women of not less than 17 years of age. Candidates to file written applications on following blank provided for this purpose, agreeing to give three hours’ daily service for a period of six months. APPLICATION FOR POSITION AS LIBRARY PUPIL. To the Board of Directors of the Los Angeles Public Library: I hereby make application to bo placed on the list for appointment as a pupil in the public library, subject to existing rules and any rules to be hereafter made by the board of directors, and I herewith furnish answers to the questions below in my own handwriting. Questions. Answers. 1. Give fall name . 2. Residence (street and number) . 3. How long have you resided in Los Angeles? -.1 . 4. Place of birth . 5. Ago . 6. Are you engaged in any occupation ? Give particulars . 7. What school training and business experience, if any, have you had ? - 8. Have you a father 'living? If so, state where and in what business . 9. Have you a mother living ? . 10. Do you reside with your parents ? . 11. What is the condition of your general health ? 12. Have you read the printed rules and regulations of the library ? . 13. Have you any knowledge of languages ? Give particulars . 14. Give names and address ofjat least two persons to whom you refer . [Signature of applicant.] Name - Address Dated - — , 189—. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 765 Los Angeles Public Library Training Class. REQUIREMENTS. The library, in its training class, does not profess to give general information, or to make up deficiencies in early education, and therefore requires of all candidates for admission to the class attainments equivalent at least to those of a completed high school course. Before submitting themselves for examination, candidates must have informed themselves of the contents both of the preface and appendix to the finding list, and of the rules and regulations of the library. Candidates will be examined in literature, history, current topics, and business forms. No promise of permanent employment in this library is held out to any can¬ didate; but all regular appointments to the library staff are made from the ranks of the library training class graduates. -Applicants must bo young women not under 17 years of age, and they must agree to give three hours’ daily service for a period of not less than six months, at the end of which time, upon passing an examination in a manner satisfactory to the board, they will bo placed on the substitute list for paid employment as opportunity offers. SUGGESTED PREPARATION FOR ENTRANCE EXAMINATION. Make a copy of the 900 (history) classification adopted by this library. Fill in with the names of the most important authors and titles of books on the different periods and countries. See Dewey — Decimal Classification. See Adams’s Historical Literature. See Freeman’s Outlines. See Allen’s History Topics. Make a copy of the 800 (literature) classification adopted by this library. Fill in with the titles of the most important books of the authors there repre¬ sented. See Stedman — Encyclopedia of American Literature. See Underwood — Handbook of English Literature. See Allibone — Dictionary of Authors. See Scherer — History of German Literature. See Van Laun — History of French Literature. See Ticknor — History of Spanish Literature. See Quack enbos — Ancient and Classical Literature. See Dewey — Decimal Classification. Group the 800 (literature) classification into centuries, thereby making a contem¬ poraneous classification of the literature of all countries. See Dewey — Decimal Classification. Make a copy of the 320 and 330 (political economy and social science) classifica¬ tion. Fill in with authors and titles of books best representing subheads of these classes. See Dewey — Decimal Classification. Bo able to name at least one authority on each one of the subclasses of 500 (natural science). See Dewejr — Decimal Classification. Be familiar with the names and dates given in the 180-190 (history of philosophy) classification. See Dewey — Decimal Classification. 766 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. The examination is largely oral, and is conducted by a committee of three of the directors. The following specimen questions from the last examination show its nature : 1. Do yon take books from the library? 2. Have you read the preface and appendix to the finding list ? 3. What is Poole’s Index? 4. What system of classification is used in this library? 5. Have you read the rules and regulations of this library, and questions bearing thereon ? 6. What periodicals do you read? 7. Name the three largest towns in Los Angeles County in order. 8. What are the population, area, and manufactures of Los Angeles? 9. Write the names of five leading American novelists. 10. Write the titles of five leading American periodicals. Five leading British periodicals. 11. When was the first Atlantic cable laid? 12. What is the oldest record of a public library? 13. Who invented printing and when was it introduced? 14. Write the names of five leading American daily newspapers. 15. Mention one writer and one book on each of the following subjects: Philoso¬ phy, religion, education, astronomy, geology, fine arts, travels. 16. Write the title of one work of the following authors, giving author’s nation¬ ality : Ruskin, Prescott, Darwin, Schiller, Hugh Miller. 17. Write the names of authors of the following works: Sartor Resartus, Don Quixote, Jerusalem Delivered, Robinson Crusoe, Gates Ajar, Pentateuch, Mother Goose, Locksley Hall, Eve of St. Agnes, Wealth of Nations, Water Babies. 18. Who made the first English dictionary, and when? 19. Name the standard English dictionaries of to-day, and describe their respective merits. 20. Who was the founder of the school of American fiction? 21. Write the names of five leading American poets. Five leading English poets. 22. Locate by century and briefly characterize: Bacon, Moliere, Garrick, Michael Angelo, Newton, Copernicus, Tasso, Pope, Milton, Spanish Armada, Nelson, Cervantes, Shakespeare, etc. Enough candidates, i. e., not less than six, having satisfactorily passed the entrance examination they immediately report for duty, and from this time are governed by the rules and regulations of the regular staff. Hours of arrival are assigned to each pupil, and their names are entered on the time register for regular employees. All absence and tardiness from whatever cause is noted and reported to the examining committee on the day of the final examination. Very little theoretic instruction is given, the work of the pupil being abso¬ lutely practical; not part of, but all the actual daily routine of the library is supplemented by lectures on library economy and compara¬ tive literature. Pupils are encouraged to attend the meetings of the Southern California Library Club, where topics of a technical and gen¬ eral nature are discussed by teachers and. librarians of Los Angeles and surrounding towns. Pupils are not only shown how a thing is done; they are required to do it themselves. Under direction of the assistant librarian, each puplil in turn serves as an understudy to the heads of the various departments. The library has a collection of 767 THE WORLDrS LIBRARY CONGRESS. blanks from 40 or 50 American and English libraries which are used for comparative study in the different departments. No fees for either the first or second course are exacted, and no conditions requiring educational diplomas are made. Apprenticeship is divided into two courses of six months of three hours7 daily service each, and the work of each student is apportioned as follows : FIRST COURSE, THREE TERMS, TWO MONTHS EACH. First term, eight weeks, three hours daily. Accession, first to sixth wcek.-^ First week: Theory of selecting and buying hooks, prices, editions, duty, transportation. Second week: Examination of trade cata¬ logs, publishers' lists, and second-hand catalogs. Third and fourth weeks : Cor¬ respondence, including library handwriting, care of letter, order, and gift books, letter files, presses, etc. Fifth and sixth weeks : Reception of books, checking bills, preparation of books for the shelves. Binding and mailing, seventh and eighth ivee A's.-— Student prepares books for bindery, keeps bindery book, inspects bindery, receives, checks, records and files the period¬ icals and newspapers, care of periodical subscription lists, use of postal notes and money orders, local and foreign rates for first, second, third, and fourth class matter explained. Second term, eight weeks, three hours daily. Classification, first to fourth week. — Dewey and Cutter systems taught, others explained. Last week in this work given to study of typographic form of cata¬ logs. Three hours each month given to reading proof of library bulletin and special lists. A rotatory schedule is arranged to cover three months, assigning to each pupil the weekly care of one of the 10 classes in the circulating department- During this time pupils have the entire care of the different classes, keeping the shelves in order, the books neatly labeled, the shelf sheets up to date, reporting missing volumes, etc. Beference, fourth to eighth week. — First week: Study of catalogs and bibliographies. Second week : Examination of reference books, compilation of five lists of reference books, viz, one of $500, one of $1,000, one of $2,000, one of $2,500, and one of $5,000, respectively. Third week : Study of authorities on history, political economy, relig¬ ion, and art. Fourth week: Compilation of a special list. Subjects of lists prepared by previous classes are as follows : Arthurian legends, American history by periods, American history by geographical divisions, a study of California State documents with reports made to the governor, a study of works on ancient art, a study of the St. Am and series, United States publications. * * * These studies embrace the mechanical form of the volumes, the standing and personality of the author, and the source and comparative merit of the text. Third term, eight weeks, three hours daily. Loan and shelf. First Week: Library use. Pupil makes a collection of all blanks used in this library, and examines the collections of blanks of other libraries, which are mounted and indexed for this nse. Second week : Home use. Pupil completes her collection and examination of blanks, and studies various methods of charging, recording, lost and overdue books, school loans, branch libraries, etc. Third week: Registration. Pupil is stationed at registry desk to do actual service under direction of the clerk in charge. Fourth week: Pupil studies arrangement of shelves, nota- 768 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tion, value of fixed and relative locations,, care of documents, pamphlets, maps, music, periodicals, shelf sheets, etc. Fifth to eighth week, inclusive: Pupils are assigned to practical work at the receiving, delivery, and registry desks. Examination. — Having completed the six- months course, a written examination, covering the work done, is required. Time, 10 hours ; total number of credits, 500, divided as follows : Accession (12 questions) . 120 Classification and reference (16 questions) . 160 Loan and shelf (12 questions ) . : . 120 Thesis . 100 Thesis to he on some subject of library economy selected by the pupil and approved by the committee, and submitted on the day of examination. Pupils passing with an average of 70 per cent receive certificates, an average of 85 per cent entitling them to employment in the library for six months, four hours a day, at $10 per month, provided the pupil takes the second course. Los Angeles Public Library, pupil’s certificate. Los Angeles, Cal., — - , 189 — . This is to certify that - has completed the first course of six months’ study in this library for the purpose of qualifying in the duties of an attendant, and has passed the prescribed examination with credit. Maximum credits, - . Percentage obtained, - . Attest : President. Clerk and Librarian. Following is the final first course examination, given to the last class, with sub¬ jects of theses. Ten credits are assigned to each question. 1. What is the main financial support of this library ; how is it derived, and under what conditions? 2. Describe concisely everything that is done with a book, or in relation to it, from the time it is ordered to the time it gets on the library shelves. 3. Name at least five great book markets of the world. 4. What is the average discount to a public library on American books bought in New York? 5. Name at least six authentic sources, not necessarily American, of value to the librarian in the selection of books. 6. Name at least five large American publishing houses, giving their location. 7. What American publishing firm makes a specialty of maps, atlases, guides, etc., and where is it located? 8. How would you trace the price and publisher of an American book published within the last six months? 9. What determines the value of an edition for public library use? 10. Describe concisely the purpose and form of the accession book. 11. Note briefly the records necessary in the accession department. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 769 12. Abbreviate — 1. Biography. 15. Including. 29. Series. 2. Illustrated. 16. American. 30. Supplement. 3. Society. 17. Large octavo. 31. Introduction. 4. Translated-or. 18. Compilcd-er. 32. Copy-copyrighted. 5. Chronologic. 19. Born. 33. Fiction. 6. Died. 20. French. 34. German. 7. From. 21. Greek. 35. Italian. 8. Christian. 22. Roman. 36. Russian. 9. Latin. 23. Danish. 37. English. 10. Swedish. 24. Number-s. 38. Part. 11. Manuscript. 25. Engraver-ed. 39. Pseudonym. 12. Published-er. 26. Edition-or. 40. Volumes. 13. Anonymous. , 27. Catalogue. 14. Report. 28. Journal. 13. What are the principal systems of classification adopted by American libra¬ ries, and what are their chief points of variance? 14. What are some of the characteristic features of the Dewey system? 15. Detine the classification or arrangement adopted in a classed catalog, an author catalog, a dictionary catalog, and cite an instance of each. 16. What are the chief enemies of a library book and the causes of its injury and destruction? 17. Explain notation, classification, and cataloging, and define their relative connection. 18. Name the principal dictionaries of the English language in use to-day, and give your estimate of their comparative merits and advantages. 19. Name five important books issued during the last six months, with description and critical note. 20. Give a list of 5 daily, 10 weekly, and 20 monthly periodicals you would sug¬ gest for a public library newsroom. 21. Describe briefly the bibliographic periodicals of this country, 22. Describe Poole’s Index. 23. In looking up the subject of the Reformation, of what assistance would the D. C. be to you? 24. Define 923, 143, 68, bh 25. What catalogs of United States public documents have been and are being issued? 26. What connection have the following-named persons with American literature? Justin Wiusor, R. R. Bowker, F. Leypoldt, Paul Leicester Ford, Wm. I. Fletcher, Wm. Dwight Whitney. 27. Make as complete a list as you can of the magazines and reviews on file in the reference room of this library. 28. Of what special fiction lists have you knowledge? 29. AVho is eligible to membership in this library, and under what conditions? 30. What is the responsibility of the guarantor ? 31. Describe the school- deli very system of this library. 32. Outline briefly the delivery- station system and the branch-library system. 33. Specify briefly the rules of this library for the time limitations of book loans; for fines imposed for delinquencies; for the security to be given in case of loss of book or card. 34. What is the function of the shelf sheet? 35. Give a form of monthly report on the work of a public library. 36. Give the points to be covered by the index to the membership of a public library. ED 93 - 49 770 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 37. State, as nearly as you can, the relative circulation of the different classes of this library. 38. Describe the “slip case''* and its uses. 39. Make an imaginary receipted invoice for any twelve books, showing various discounts of 25, 33£, and 40 x>er cent. 40. Describe the qualifications necessary for success in an attendant who waits • on the public at the counter. Subjects of theses: “Library benefactions,” 1,293 words; “Two aspects of the library question, education — recreation,” 1,328 words; “Importance of proper read¬ ing for the young,” 1,160 words; “American bibliographies,” 1,399 words ; “Charg¬ ing systems,” 1,650 words; “'Service at the desk in a public library,” 1,008 words. SECOND COURSE, SIX MONTHS. Two terms , three months each, three hours daily. First term. Practical cataloging, Cutter system taught; others explained. Second term. Theoretic work based on deductions made by careful study of Ameri¬ can and foreign library reports and statistics and professional periodicals. Thor¬ ough study of California State law governing libraries, and of its application in municipal administration. Examination. — Technical, written; ten hours; percentages same as for first course; no thesis. Pupils receive the following certificate : Los Angeles Public Library. * pupil’s certificate. Los Angeles, Cal., - , 189 — . This is to certify that - - - has completed the second course of six months’ study in this library for the purpose of qualifying in the duties of a cataloger, and has passed the prescribed examination with credit. Maximum credits, - . Percentage obtained, - . - , President. Attest: Clerk and Librarian. Pupils after tlie first month’s service become eligible to Sunday and holiday duty at 20 cents an hour, and to employment by the clipping bureau of this library at the regular rates. No pupil may be employed as substitute till she has at least passed the first-course examination with an average of 70 per cent. No promise of permanent employment in this library is held out to any applicant; neither are regular appointments to the library staff made except from the ranks of training- class graduates. The library staff is divided into nine classes, with salaries ranging from $10 to $50 per month, and hours of ‘service from four to eight hours per day. The number of attendants in the higher classes is limited, and to these no promotions are possible, except in case of vacancies. The regular staff is divided into three groups, the salaries of $10 to $25, first class; $25 to $35, second class; and $35 to $50, third class. The certificated pupils are divided into corresponding groups, the percentages of each being graded as follows: 70 to 80 in the first class, 80 to 90 in the second class, and 90 to 100 in the third class, and from these the sub¬ stitutes are employed. THE WORLD'S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 771 Tliis plan lias been in successful operation in the Los Angeles Public Library for three years, GO applications for admission to the classes having been received, meantime, from this and Eastern cities. Of 37 applicants who have served as apprentices, 19 have passed the exami¬ nations and 15 have been absorbed by the library in which they have received their training. Our library has found that its liberal condi¬ tions enable young women to take the training course who otherwise would have been debarred from the apprenticeship, yet who at the end of the six months’ service will develop unexx^ected and desirable library qualities. These persons the library encourages to continue their studies by offering them the slight remuneration of $10 per month, provided the second course is taken, at the conclusion of which it is estimated that the student will have acquired such executive or cataloging ability as will make her a valuable assistant in either capacity. In several cases young women who ax>peared specially bright and capable, apparently X>ossessing that quick perception and tact so desirable in public library service, proved on trial utterly incax>able of x>erforming that most trying of all the library duties, namely, desk service. To be able to cope suc¬ cessfully with a restless throng at the delivery desk, or to make cour¬ teous and ax>propriate suggestions or directions to readers is a faculty not learned in any school but that of exx>erienee. Such eases as above cited drop from the ranks of the apprentices in a perfectly natural manner. That sifting rmocess is constantly going on, so that those who remain have won confidence by proved efficiency. For small libraries specially hampered by a chronic necessity for retrenchment, the x>lan of a training class or apprentice system is rec¬ ommended as a direct saving of money. There is always enough local material within reach which, though undesirable in its inexxierienced state, will nevertheless, trained and fitted for service, be a considerable factor in securing for the library the general esteem. As this is the library’s source of support, it is a double-edged stroke of policy to train local employees, thereby not only fastening its hold on its constituents but at the same time receiving an amount of service which, if paid for in coin, would add considerably to the annual salary account. Sunday^ Opening of Libraries. By Mary Salome Cutler, Vice-Director New York State Library School. This theme has the advantage of being unhackneyed, at least in the ordinary channels of library discussion. Except for a single casual mention at the Thousand Islands, it first came before the American Library Association in St. Louis, 1889. This report is simply a revision of that paper, bringing it up to date. The Government report, our text-book of library science, makes only incidental mention of it. The index to the Library Journal gives us 63 references to the subject, but 772 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. only 3 to an article covering more than a single page. It has but one mention in the 12 numbers of Library Notes. In 1877, while entertain¬ ing their American cousins, the British librarians had a little informal talk on this subject. In 1879 a Sunday opening motion was withdrawn by Mr. Axon in deference to the feelings of the opposition, and in the three following years similar motions were tabled without discussion. (SeeX.j. 2: 274-5; 4: 420; 5: 285-6(3; 6: 258; 7:231.) However this may be accounted for, we Tvould claim for it an important place among the practical problems that must be solved by the modern librarian in raising his library to the highest usefulness. The present discussion is limited to public libraries, though the statis¬ tics gathered include other classes. Much that will be said applies to libraries in general; moreover, the various kinds shade into each other, e. g., the proprietary often does the same work as the free public. The strongest advocates of the plan will try to convince us, with at least some show of reason, that even libraries for scholars should be run on the u town-pump n principle, and will point us to the fact that the Bos¬ ton Athenseum has been open on Sunday since 1807, and that Harvard College library, an acknowledged leader, has opened its doors from 1 to 5 on Sunday since October 3, 1880, with a growing use from that day to this. They will also remind us that this action was approved by Phillips Brooks as chairman of the board of overseers. At the same time there is a clear distinction between libraries for scholars and libraries for the people; between working libraries (mental laboratories) and those designed for recreation and general culture. Arguments which obtain for opening the one do not hold good for the other. We therefore choose not to complicate the matter by a minor issue, but to ask ourselves in all seriousness the practical question, Should free libraries be open on Sunday ? We are met at the outset by the statement that the plan proposed is a dangerous step because of its inevitable tendency to secularize the Sabbath. It is looked on as the opening wedge which would lead grad¬ ually to breaking down the day of rest. From libraries and art galleries to museums is a single step, and by and by the lowering of public con¬ science will call for Sunday concerts, and a little later Sunday theater¬ going will be looked on with complacence. Meanwhile, if men must work that others maybe amused, the passion for gain will soon demand increase of labor in other directions. They picture to us the French Sunday, a Sabbath only in name and in reality a seventh day of labor, and with this in mind we feel that those who have these matters in hand should think twice before running any risk of such a consum¬ mation. In Cardiff, Wales, where there is a free library and museum, an offer was made of a valuable gift of pictures, on condition that the picture gallery be kept open on Sunday. The reply of the committee (after refusing to call for the opinion of the taxpayers) expresses the senti- THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 773 ment of that large class of earnest and conscientious citizens who oppose such movements: Resolved, Tliat in tlie opinion of this committee, seeing the logical issue of open¬ ing museums on Sunday must involve an enormous increase in Sunday labor, and so lead to the virtual enslavement of workingmen and to the prejudice of national interests, it is undesirable to accept the offer of Colonel Hill on the condition named. This is the position taken by Bishop Potter in an admirable article (see New Princeton Eeview for 1SS6, 2 : 37-47), one of the best presenta¬ tions of this side of the Sunday question.1 It shows an entire absence of the Pharisaic spirit and a thoughtful consideration of the best inter¬ ests of the laboring class. He makes a strong point of the claim that the workingmen themselves do not desire Sunday opening. This feel¬ ing is expressed by a vote taken in England in 1882, where, he says, 62 trades unions, representing 45,482 members, voted in favor of Sunday opening, while 2,412 societies and 501,705 members voted against such opening; and further by the opinion of such men as Broadhurst and Mun della, who were originally workingmen, and stand in the House of Commons as representatives of that class. Both these men opposed the motion before Parliament to open national museums and libraries on the day of rest, the stand taken by them largely influencing the vote (208 to 84) which defeated the measure. Summing up the objections, we would say that Sunday opening is opposed by many of our best citizens because — 1. It compels additional Sunday labor. 2. It tends surely to secularize the Sabbath. 3. The workingman does not want it. These various objections will appear to us weak or weighty, accord¬ ing to our idea of Sunday itself, and in fact this discussion involves the whole Sunday question. If, therefore, we would come to an honest and reasonable conclusion, we must not shrink from facing this much- vexed and perplexing subject of dispute. Are there not two well-defined and distinct conceptions of Sunday observance, and also two equally well-defined and distinct conceptions of libraries? Best from bodily labor in the strictest sense, and a day devoted to purely religious exercises, is the ideal Sunday of the Jew, the Puritan, and of a large body of Protestant Christians of our time. An investi¬ gation of our early State laws shows legislation on the subject very nearly uniform in its purpose, in its prohibitions and penalties. Ordi¬ nary work, business, travel, recreation, fishing, hunting, visiting, riding, driving cattle, walking in the fields, loitering, selling liquor, and using tobacco were restricted; church going was commanded, and punish¬ ments like fines, whipping, putting in the stocks, cutting off ears, and imprisonment were rigidly inflicted. During the early days of Yir- 'In a later article Bisliop Potter favors Sunday opening of libraries. (See Forum, 1892, 14 : 194-200. 774 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. ginia, before tile organization of tlie General Assembly, absence from cburcli was visited with a night’s imprisonment and a week’s slavery ; for the second offense, a month’s slavery, and for the third, a year and a day. (See Cooke, John Esten. Virginia, 1883, p, 112.) Passing by the severity of those early days and coming down to the New England Sunday two or three generations ago, we find the same idea in a milder and more attractive form. Perhaps some of us have spent a Sabbath in one of those old New England towns where the modern spirit of inquiry and doubt has not yet penetrated. An air of peace and calm pervades the place. The churchgoing and the hymnsinging and the quiet hours for thought were a perfect heaven to a devout and aspiring soul. But this world is not made up of saints, and “ the Sabbath was made for man.” Strangely enough, something in this notion of Sunday reminds one of the library of the olden time. A Sabbath stillness at all times per¬ vaded this temple of wisdom. The object of its existence was to inspire due reverence for itself. The priest of the temple was never so happy as in the summer vacation, when every book was in its proper place on the shelves and himself the only occupant. We must not, however, make the mistake of undervaluing the influence of the old-school library. It has preserved for us the treasures of antiquity, without which our modern scholarship would have been meager; it has opened its doors to the scholar and to the man of leisure; it has, moreover, encouraged in him independence of thought during the frequent inter¬ vals in which its gates were barred. Like the old-time Sabbath, its work has been limited, because, like the Sabbath, it has existed for its own sake and not first of all for man. The other conception of Sunday has for its primary thought the good of man, and that not of the favored few, but of all. Like its predeces¬ sor, it involves physical rest and spiritual opportunity, but is not con¬ fined to these. It provides for the growth and development of the entire man — physical, mental, social, aesthetic, moral, and spiritual. With this view, no iron code of laws can be laid down for its observ¬ ance. Such a code would be subversive of its purpose; it must change as man changes, adapt itself to new surroundings, supply his fresh and varying needs, and, without arbitrary decree or provision of statute or exhortation from the pulpit, perpetuate itself and work out its glad and beneficent mission. I like Beecher’s characterization of Sunday as a “parlor day,1 ” from which, of our own free will, we keep the common utensils of the kitchen, the barn, and the workshop. Frederick Denison Maurice, whose clear spiritual eye often sees a truth obscured to more earthly visions, tells us in his Life and Letters — It is certain that we and the Romanists have each taken half the idea of Sunday, and spoiled that half; they believing it to bo a day of joy, and therefore working their bodies and giving way to bodily license upon it, and we supposing it to be spiritual, and therefore making it sad. (See Life, Vol. I, p. 303.) THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 775 Surely this need not be. We can not be content to settle down to the conviction expressed in these words ascribed to Horace Greeley: u You must choose between the Puritan Sabbath and the Parisian Sun¬ day; there is no middle- ground.” Already leaders of religious thought point to something better. The Bampton lecture for 1880, entitled u Sunday, its origin, history, and obligation,” breathes this broad and generous spirit; and the concluding chapter, “The Lord’s day viewed practically,” is well worth reading in this connection. The following is from an article in the Atlantic Monthly for 18S1 (47 : 537), called “The new Sunday:” The trend of tlie new Sunday is in the direction of a healthier and more persuasive Christianity, not wholly nor immediately what all could wish, hut enough to give one hope of better things in store. The escape from the narrow requirements of an earlier day may for the moment, even, be the taking of some steps backward. To see social and religious changes correctly one must not look at them from a loeal point of view alone. The present influence of Sunday is to broaden the Christian conception of the possibilities of ethical life and to uplift mankind on the physical, social, and intellectual, as truly as upon the moral and spiritual side. Such a Sabbath would be, as Emersou called it, u the jubilee of the whole world.” (See Hature, addresses and lectures, p. 147.) We will let Mr. Dewey tell what is meant by the modern library idea: With the founding of New England it was recognized that the church alone could not do all that was necessary for tlie safety and uplifting of the people, so side by side they built the meetinghouse and schoolhouse. Thoughtful men are to-day pointing out that a great something is wanting, and that church and state together have not succeeded in doing all that was hoped or all that is necessary for the com¬ mon safety and for the common good. The school starts the education in childhood : we have come to a point where in some way we must carry it on. The simplest figure can not bo bounded by less than three lines ; no more can the triangle of great edu¬ cational work, now well begun, be complete without the church as a basis, the school as one side and the library as the other. (See Lib. Notes, 3 : 339.) With, this motive fresh in our minds, shall we not agree that the library aims to do for the community by the aid of books and personal contact what the Sabbath supplies by a wider circle of influences, both taking the mass of people as they are and working to build them up in all that tends to noble life? If this be true, it is most natural and practical that they should use each other and work hand in hand toward the same end. To put it more definitely, there is a large class of people who will not go to church and who will not read the Bible who could be reached by the means of grace afforded by a library. There is, especially in cities, a multitude of men without homes to whom Sunday is rather a day of temptation than of rest. As the Christian Union expresses it — What can a Christian community do for this great class (on Sunday) better than to provide a kind of communistic substitute for home, in a room furnished with pic¬ tures and with books, warmed and lighted and made comfortable staying places? 776 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. The Rev. Plato Johnson, a pseudonymous writer in the New York Independent of February 23, 1882, gives us this idea in terse and expressive language: Dere ain’t no use in openin a libry fer de pore, wen noboddy can cnm to it, an’ shettin it tite, wen ebberybody wants ter go in. Ef you opens dat libery on de Sun¬ day and invites'all de pore to cum in and git a book so interestin dat dey wunt want ter go out an git a drink, de fuss pusson dat will make a row ’bout it an say ’taint rite, will be de ole gen’leman bisself wot lives below. Nor does this imply giving people culture in place of religion. Bap¬ tists are not open to the charge of preaching the religion of culture, but one of their ministers makes an earnest appeal for Sunday opening. He says : Anything that kelps the mind to better thoughts and keeps the eyes from vile and gross objects is not a hindrance but a help to the religious life, and will lead there if persisted in. Besides those who need to be enticed to a library on Sunday, there are many intelligent workingmen, who have already begun the work of self-improvement, who find Sunday the only time for reading or study; do not deny them a Sunday afternoon in a quiet place relieved from the distractions of the home. Perhaps you have no right to deny them on their only day of leisure that which they are taxed for as a common good. True, a certain number can utilize their evenings for this pwrpose, but a hard day of manual labor more often leaves a man quite unfitted for mental effort. We hear a great deal now about semi¬ nar^- work; it is the latest phase of the library movement. When will you do such work for the unprivileged classes except on Sunday, and what could be a more hopeful way of reaching the masses, the vexed problem of the church of to-day? Speaking of a similar work in the museums, Heber Newton says: How beautiful a ministry of brotherhood to be accepted, nay, even solicited, in the holy name of religion! Alas ! that it is religion itself, the very religion of Jesus of Nazareth, which, with an earnestness worthy of a more intelligent discipleship, is barring this step forward in the intellectual progress of hosts of our fellow-citizens. (See his sermon, “Superstition of the Sabbath,” Day Star, Feb. 4, 1886.) In the light of what has been said, we may perhaps return to the three objections against Sunday opening. We must admit the first; it does increase Sunday labor; though, as we shall show later, the increase is very small, probably less in propor¬ tion to the number served than is necessitated by church services. But our new view of the purpose of Sunday throws new light on this fact. The question to be asked is, Will the step proposed conduce to the real elevation of the community? Since, then, by the labor of a few the majority can be helped to the right and legitimate use of Sun¬ day, the first objection falls to the ground. The second argument, that it tends to secularize the Sabbath, is unanswerable. Such an objection is always unanswerable. Doubtless THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 777 the first man in New England wlio asserted that lie had a moral, and ought to have a legal right to take a quiet walk in the fields of a Sun¬ day afternoon had this same objection flung in his face. Unquestion¬ ably it does have that tendency, but what shall we do about it? We are not willing to go back to the Puritan Sabbath, we do not want the Parisian Sunday; for fear of the one, must we cling to such relics of the superstitions of the other as are left to us? Must we not rather judge each case on its merits, ask each new innovation if it can bring us enough good to balance the risk, ask if its spirit is that of the ideal Sabbath for man ? Judged by that standard, Sunday opening has come to stay. / The third objection was that the workingman does not want Sunday opening. The Nineteenth Century for 1884 (15: 416-34) goes at length into this matter. It claims that the statistics referred to in Bishop Potter’s article are of no value, since they were worked up by “ The Lord’s Day Eest Association,” which put the question, “Do you approve the amendment for opposing the increase of Sunday labor?” thus plac¬ ing a totally false issue before the workingmen; and against these is pitted another set of figures obtained by a vote taken previous to the other vote, in which there was a powerful majority in favor of Sunday opening. It is difficult for us to weigh the merits of these votes. Probably we would best disregard them both. We may notice, how¬ ever, that those who voted against Sunday opening appear to have done so, not because it seemed undesirable in itself, but from fear that it might lead to enforced Sunday labor, a point which we have tried to answer above. Should we wait the demand of the laboring man in providing means for his growth and uplifting? Surely it is more reasonable to expect that those who, through no merit of their own, have been endowed with richer gifts and opportunities, should make it their constant study and find it their highest joy to anticipate his aspirations. Thus far we have been viewing this subject theoretically. From a more practical standpoint, what has been already done toward solving the problem ? The appended statistics are a part of those collected by the library school as the A. L. A. committee for the World’s Columbian Exposi¬ tion, 1S93. Though prepared with considerable care, great caution should be used in deducing conclusions. In spite of the proverbial veracity of figures, they do not always prove what they seem to do — e. g., N - is put down as a library not open on Sunday. It is a well-known and well-managed library, and the inference is that its example counts against opening. But if we find later that it is a town made up almost entirely of beautiful homes, whose owners have libraries of their own, we put it down on a list of libraries not needing Sunday opening, and therefore not affecting the argument. In a few cases Sunday opening has been tried and failed, because introduced by outside pressure and 778 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1892-93. Licking the librarian’s cooperation; sometimes a progressive minority have brought it about prematurely and very unwisely. A fair presen¬ tation of the exact status of Sunday opening in American- libraries would involve a great outlay of time. The investigator should know each library, its work, and the spirit of its work, the town and the people who make up its constituency. Still, the figures and facts pre¬ sented, though unsatisfactory, indicate the trend of opinion, and at least serve as a basis for further study. For purposes of comparison the list has been divided into three classes : (1) Free libraries, including those supported by the city, like the Boston public, and also those maintained by private philanthropy, of which the As tor and the Providence Public are examples. Libraries partly free and partly subscription have been counted free. (2) Subscription libraries, both the mercantile and the athemeum types, and all variations of the two. (3) College libraries. Libraries reporting. Xumber. Xot open. Open. Success- ; TJnsuc- ful. cess till. Doubtful. Tried and given up. Free 121 68 53 Subscription _ 15 | 9 6 College . . . . 36 26 10 1 Total. . . 172 103 69 | 55 1 1 6 11 Free and subscription - 136 77 5-0 1 1 Hours range mostly from 2 to G or 9 p. m. Of the 69 reading rooms or libraries reported open, 12 have morning hours. So many have failed to state extra expense that the average has not been taken. Eeference to the statistics will show that, so far as given, the cost compared to running is surprisingly small. The answers to the questions, Why is your library not open ? What are your objections? are substantially three. Expense; no call for it; religious objections. It is significant that of the 69 libraries open, 55 call it a success. Of these 15 are not content with a simple affirmative, but express the fact in such words as perfectly, decidedly, entirely. As an indication of favorable sentiment, I cite a few sentences taken from printed reports and from private letter's of librarians : [W: F: Poole.] I fully agree with the position you have taken in regard to Sunday opening. I have for twenty years been theoretically and practically in favor of Sunday opening. [S: S. Green, L. J.. 9: 85-86.] It is my opinion that it does no harm, hut, on the contrary, much good, to have the reading rooms open on Sunday. I am confident that the cause of good morals has been largely promoted by having them open on this day of the week. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 779 [J. N. Larned, L. J., 12: 230: 13: 135.] The results [of Sunday opening] have more than vindicated the 'wisdom of those who advocated this measure, and have removed, I think, whatever slight hesitancies there may have been in conservative minds. The opening of the reading room on Sunday has been continued through the year with increasing satisfactoriness. Generally speaking, the use of the rooms is only limited by the number of seats in them. [E. M. Coe, 1ST. Y. Free Circulating Library.] The report of the Sunday work seems to answer every objection which can be made to Sunday opening. [F: M. Crunden, St. Louis Public Library.] The Sunday opening here is an unquestionable success. [A. W. Whelpley, Cincinnati Public Library.] The Sunday library is a blessing in this community. It will only require a look through the establishment on Sunday to convince even an extreme fanatic that the good work done here supplements well the good work done from the pulpit. [Bridgeport Public Librarian, L. J., 10: 405.] We consider the Sunday opening of the library as our most active missionary work. [Mellen Chamberlain, librarian Boston Public Library.] Sunday opening I regard as a success. [Melvil Dewey, director 1ST. Y. State Library.] I began my study of this question with strong prejudice against it, but have been forced to believe in Sunday opening. In some cases it may not be wiser but nearly every experiment has proved a marked success, and its best friends are those who have tried it. Hot a few librarians, thoroughly convinced of the wisdom of Sunday opening, are held back from motives of expediency. Miss Hager, of Burlington, Vt., librarian of the Fletcher Free Library, told me at the last conference : We need Sunday opening : it would give us a chance to reach a class that I want the library to get hold of,, but it wTould not be safe to suggest it; tlie people who support the library would bo shocked beyond measure at such a proposal. It would only cripple our present work to attempt such an extreme measure. The case is farther complicated by the question of cost. In the larger libraries this is of minor importance; but in little libraries, where every penny counts, and where it involves at least one extra assistant, the case is different. One thing is certain, if one librarian does all the work and devotes her entire energy to the library, it is quite out of the question to expect or even to allow her to do Sunday work. It has been suggested that voluntary assistance may solve this difficulty. It seems to me probable that in some towns a woman of culture and leisure might be found glad to take this up as missionary work, and surely no one need desire a more satisfactory outlet for humanitarian zeal, but it is doubtful if this method could be depended on as a practical way out of the difficulty. 780 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. These two obstacles, prejudice and lack of means, prevent Sunday- opening in a large number of the smaller libraries, and it would no doubt be folly to attempt a forcing process. It must be brought about through gradual change of public sentiment, and may be hastened by anything that tends to broaden and liberalize that sentiment, and, when the time is ripe, by taking advantage of any propitious occasion for introducing it. I conclude that public libraries, for use of books in the building, ought to be open on Sunday. I can see no reason for circulating books on that day. The objections urged against such opening are of little weight, compared with the urgent claims of the unprivileged classes for such a work as the highest conception of Sunday and the ideal library spirit call on us to do. It has been in successful operation for years in many x>rominent American and in several English libraries. Just the people needing to be reached by Sunday opening respond to the opportunity and prove the demand by a constant and growing use of such privileges. It is approved by most of our leading librarians, and always gets a good word from the Library Journal. The obstacles of prejudice and limited means in the smaller libraries may be over¬ come by time. The conclusive word on this subject was, I think, said by Mr. Winsor at the L. A. U. K. in 1877 (see L.j. 2: 274* L. A. U. K. proceedings, 1877, p. 171): I think the hours that a library is open must correspond to the hours in which any considerable number of people will come to it. All night, if they will come all night; in the evening certainly, and on Sundays by all means. We have fought and are fighting the 11 Sunday question” as to libraries in America. People who were once tortured with the idea now accept it. I appreciate the merits of conservatism; I do not believe in forcing, hut I do believe in ripening. In any community the time for benefactions and philanthropy on Sunday will ripen in the end. I hope to continue the study of this subject, and will gratefully wel¬ come any bit of experience throwing new light on it, whether it con¬ firms or contradicts present conclusions. Address M. S. Cutler, Hew York State Library, Albany, H. Y. [* Libraries not reporting, 1889 statistics are given.] THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 781 III 5«§ Hi - X. § * = 5 x P £ .11 III 2 Library. Statistics— Continued. 782 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. THE WORLDS LIBRARY CONGRESS. 783 3 . o © O m r- O ft ft ft a © KP O y ft Cj-g £ j?j j j ; j • * a m * • • i * i i • • i • i • • * i j ~s ^ • ■ ■ • • 1 -* — < QY ^ • • 1 1 • 1 1 ■ t I • • 08 • ' • 1 * ' 1 e • ► • ' 1 ft a ' 1 ' ' ‘ ' •«. 1 • P-H • • 1 » » • ' • 1 1 • §>J'S « • • • OG « • ■ ■ m » • . o • • o o 2 1 to © "> 0 ' . ■ • © ri • rJ'jj & _n i • « i i i c O i i rn • S c o ftft .3 © ©O oo o ci m J2 00 © © J 03 "*1 <©• cS W) fcc.2 S«I ©P w Cl . • 3 fca bc.5 ft ft ft O a a o o ftft c o o o o ftftftftft O OQO O © 'OO ft ftftft ftft :ftft o a ftft o © ftft O © CO ftft ftft coco© ftftftftft ©coco ftftftftft © OO© O© ©OO ft ftftft ftft ftftft cc © II .2 P oo o q o”oaa ftft a a C5 12- q o o o o o o o o go o a oooooco© ftftftftftftftft o o o ftftft o o © ftftft © ooo o© ©o© ft ftftft ftft ftftft . mm ©ooooooo ftftftftftftftft o o © ftftft o o ftft o o © ftftft CO© ftftft ® a « s ©<2 © p P-r § § pft © .2 ® © o W ' 2 ft ||jSg © q © £ S fe q o ^ PP(^p3 q «ft P ft _j.2 o .2 S £ 'o «S 2 § a -3 S > £ £ £ © © © ftftft o >» go i-a o o pft * £ © © ftft j ® 3 cS c3 2ft ® a' ;a°a - — © ft a * ga . „ _ b/J 2 -a .2 S £ £ |tt 2 ^©©©lTooS oftftftftftfto JSS oo © 2 Hi Sri Pftp : o : • to • ■ • J : a : : : ! ! ; .2 L5 C Ci « 1 • I • '>-2 p © oop p-a •. -p 0 PL y as ci ci PP quo p © .3 oo © o pp M^ots ^ p< £?|&8 © a ©:2 g o a © P pp^S ©-, ©>* rq "S o »> q =2 2 © ft s > © S 43 pqpR £ £ £ © © © ftftft a* 12 a 2 o o Pft £ b © © ftft ftft g Is* w*S £ £ £ 05 tjj.2 W ^■p CO.f >> Cl 4 cS n © £■ ©'P © © Pp Hi* £§ rP'P P fl S'3 Q fcC,. p M ft © ^ ‘-5 P to xn a •si P ft ft cj oo o o 43> 43> P ■ • 0>1 1 1 • ii 111 • 1 • ’ i nado ^uara: -:j.jt?d9p Sai^'BpiojiQ o © o o o o o o o o © o o o o © oo © © © © o N r* ^ ^ ^ £TT9dO ^U9ni -q.j;i3dyp oouajeejo^j o o o o © o • • ■ ® 33 ■ ® o o o © © © © 1*1* © © o o o © © l nodo toooj S aypua^j o © © © o © O O O V V © H hHfchfc&H l o^up nodo JI 3* PC’© h 03 ^ |©'H3 ^ '« 25 M- {* fcg © p p © © P rP © 'P ©3 OP^P 4; .5 p Ef© > 4q 43 i? © 2 2 P^ftPHPqfLH -t> cj - Oho 1 O H £ o P 3 Stead'S.- -2 3 ^ © p « |SS9|-§o P? © ^ -2 S 1-3 Hi g > t* T* © . . 3 A JS Cw 4J 4J GO l| 43 Cj co :0> OO ; C3 © j- ■ P S § | pdM^ .S "3 'S -^©3^3 P K ^ ."S ft 2 © =p cc ^o t ppa t+ " cs w > j2 n (ft ce Pn H g ft p po^So'S ce cs p.p o o ft CO CO O CO CO CO CO o I K « '5 rt £ ft-© ft . .4? .•» ft 2 .2 -g* 3 ! © p ceM;£P3.P ©.^ SoVZ^Z fHJP * q® p p © 5 Sp‘5<1 cj « y.S o o ft^ CO CO CO CO CO CO CO O «3 © 2" 33 cj • THE WORLDS LIBRARY CONGRESS. 785 ■f ?| m ^ 1-1 t a = 5-g xn © i? 1 1 2 is 1^ >jO © ci S §?? * 1. 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Ill cftp,Sft 3©& 1 I 111 ft ^r- 02 © 3 a a. © ©-a t-"d c3jr-^ E.a© SSoposhIsS ■M a: as as © l|g|'~--2d1 I ill ll-IS OOOS^S W 3 I as a .1 15 SJj Hb [^Libraries not reporting, 1889 statistics are given.] 790 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. gg | g'aO ||S © 2 ®-J os® p- ©£ m ^ 2^ ^ o G) 03 i-s-3 !o 9 -®.7i ® o sp!: rS a a cZ ® - s s §1 ® .® o P3 © ■ © 8J X r-< o =3 ©> fi ^ dn 41 noAiS pun pota’l nol 9AT3p[ ew P © a S3 © 5 W>g ,° s ei © . p< ® o a j uop-sonb po joprsn'oo a o a g; £ 2 mv>? I g~§3 pq3^>Hr ff £ £ £ 1 © © © © > o g,d ©si 0,5 s o © © 55 >-<>■< S* > © § %£ : ^ £ .2 : ei ^ ^73 £ 5 ei ^ fl £ ©“§ © ei © ^12 jl-s s c^5? : © ; : : : ; : : ; 2 j ■ -S • - • • ■ 1.2! ! ! • 6 : || :| a ft S ££ 6 | A §*^5* g s P>er©©'7;'*-|^'-cc £ ei 5 c © ©^ u « p;WA^t^5>H £ %% ©©©©©©©©© ^ 03 S ^ p C”P:73 ||2 ©co ft© iS — © a ® i 55 GOO P* PH THE WORLD'S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 791 illilM** ■ ■ 'S 0 fcc a a a o lg s I rji % u ll >5? l| C/2 c c c © u £2 82 P s g P *3.S gg PP So* : § k^.n : H ggd d •’ ft : H : : te’3 : ^QM 0" t> : M §i^~ > *^T c 0 If CCCQ m 5s§ 1 1 1 S ll •r * > © is o x 6P £§ 1 © O O £H g d£ -Ap ^ 1**1 * .8 © © >5© g?-==ft' 2 ’3 - © © 3 ^ „ £•2 *s'3'e3 c-a 33 - £ ’u £ .2 5 m ■s > •ajSSS^g £g 33 ll- S§* £P 5 = F .ii lla *J| of| x c^O X If ill Kr>:-^ IxX os’ HHH i. 2* is &s >5 L is gill I 1— I Pi r-( P-i Pi r- 1 ~a — btl «|S|^ w^rbs-fl l|o|| ■sg.&lal ps ci © o o S s : a c/2 ccHH hrH HP 792 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93, i I § I l dn h9atS pm? pat A iuA o.vBxi G *- A '** .2 cc c£ C§ B.S £* l noijsanb paaaptsaoo a a a g; 1:1s |CI ||I! g o §! aS Sft - !§• i c 2 o ■st 5^ o § d § & N Ph ; 3 *5 -r* 5 5 £ I* I* ^ CJ3 G P c o c c §s t 13 II o'3 GrG l! -+■= p t4 O P • ^ SI1 w « „ mi THE world’s library congress. 793 |l it g-S ;§ C J1 s-l *£ m ' '8 s r3 O A 2 P x era *5 o c +3 H A d S © § § P £ <2 £ H cfl 3 II R P ^=2 g rO P3 o ^3 rP P ft 81 p;p3 3 R % a ® 2 a « §’£ £h Libraries not reporting,* 1880 statistics are given.] 794 EDUCATION EEPOST, 1892-93. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 795 Executive Department. GENERAL SUPERVISION, INCLUDING BUILDING, FINANCES. ETC. By F. M. Crunden, St. Louis Public Library. After providing for a treatise, “De omnibus rebus,” President Dewey Las asked me to write a supplement, “De quibusdam aliis.” After dis¬ tributing the various departments of library management for special treatment, be bas assigned to me tbe “Executive department,” wbicli necessarily touches on all tbe special assignments, for there is no ques¬ tion in which the executive head of a library is not interested, none on which he ought not to have an influential, if not, indeed, a deciding, voice. The subheading “ General supervision, including buildings, finances, etc.,” does little or nothing to restrict or define, but rather confirms the interpretation I am compelled to give to my assignment. I begin with this preface in order to forestall possible criticism for trenching on the territory of other contributors. I shall try to deal with the special topics assigned to others in a tangential manner, avoiding the details that come within the scope of their papers. But it is mani¬ festly impossible to treat of the executive department as an abstraction. It must be dealt with concretely, with application to and exemplification from the various departments of library administration. Again, writers are instructed to “aim not so much to contribute new material as to present a judicial digest of previous articles, papers, discussions, and specially of experience.” NTow, in the 17 volumes of the Library Journal, the United States Deport on Libraries, Library Chronicle, Library Notes, and other repositories of bibliotheca! informa¬ tion there is more to be found on any one of its particular applications than on the general subject assigned to me; and on broad principles there is a fairly unanimous agreement among well-informed librarians. It is when we come to particulars that differences arise. Therefore I can not well follow the instruction to divide this paper into two parts — the first stating what is generally accepted, the second the points that are still under discussion. I shall endeavor to cull from the literature of library economy the utterances of other librarians regarding the powers, duties, and responsibilities of the executive, and to illustrate and enforce these from my own experience, calling attention as I go along to questions still under debate and presenting my own views separately from the digest of other opinions. The whole subject may be summed up in Mr. Perkins’s receipt for1 making town libraries successful: Businesslike management is tlie wliole story. A public library for public use sboulcl be managed not only as a literary institu¬ tion, but also as a business concern. The business department of educational and literary institutions is too often overlooked or undervalued. Yet it is vain to expect JF. B. Perkins: “How to make town libraries successful.” (U. S. Rept. on Pub lie Libraries, p. 419). 796 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. the solid and permanent success of such institutions without good business manage¬ ment. Perhaps this truth may not he so fully recognized in the case of libraries aa in that of other institutions for mental improvement ; but those who are familiar with the inside history of great charities and missionary and educational enter¬ prises — Bible and tract societies, for instance — know very well that neither faith nor works (in the religious sense of the words) would keep them going very long without accurate bookkeeping, regular hours, and efficient business supervision. The success of any industrial enterprise depends on its executive head. A business man who doesn’t know an acid from an alkali or a can from a cogwheel will run a factory successfully, while a mechanic, who can construct and control the machinery, or who invented the details of the manufacturing processes, will soon become bankrupt. Of this the times give frequent proof. What, then, is “ businesslike management?” It is that conduct of affairs that most thoroughly accomplishes the purpose of those engaged in business, viz, the making of money. This final object is achieved through the intermediate aim of pleasing and serving the public, which is the final purpose of a library. How does the business man proceed? He first considers the wants of the community in which he intends to establish his business; he would not start the same kind of factory or store in Leadville or Deadwood as in Hew York City. He then selects a location. This must be adapted to the kind of business. If it is to depend for success on the general public (and such must be taken for my analogy), the store must be central and easy of access; and, of course, it will be handsomely fitted and supplied with the best fixtures for the display of goods and the latest appliances to facilitate work and render prompt service to patrons. He stocks his store with goods that people want, not those he thinks they ought to want; but having once established himself, it will be his pleasure, and he can make it his profit, to elevate the tastes of his customers and create a demand for higher grades of goods. It seems unnecessary to add that he will buy his goods in the cheapest market, always, however, giving preference to local dealers on even terms. This not so much on sentimental grounds as for valid business reasons. He must, of course, hire clerks and salesmen, increasing the number as his business enlarges. At first he will necessarily attend to every detail, and may have to do much routine work himself. He will, how¬ ever, do as little bookkeeping and office work as possible, and seek to know and be known by his customers. While they are few he may know and, at times, serve them all, making each feel that his wishes are a special concern, and that anything wanted will be obtained if not in stock. This will make the store very popular, and it will soon be so thronged with customers that the head of the house can do no more than see that they are waited on by polite and efficient clerks. He will find more and more of his time occupied with the larger affairs of the grow¬ ing business, and he will be compelled to leave more and more of the details to his assistants. By this time he will have trained someone THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 797 who can act as liis lieutenant to tlie satisfaction of the public and his other employees, but he will never be so occupied in devising schemes for the expansion of the business that he will not be entirely approach¬ able to customers and ready to assist all who wish to consult him as an expert, even though it may be regarding a trivial matter which a junior clerk is quite competent to attend to. He will organize his force, giv¬ ing to competent persons the supervision of departments, and himself supervising all. He will learn sooner or later that cheap labor is not profitable, and will pay adequate salaries to trained and trustworthy employees. It goes without saying that he will not hire incompetent people to oblige a friend or to help his political party. He will see that transactions in every department are accurately recorded and posted up to date, so that a statement can be had at any time on short notice. He will adopt the plan of keeping accounts that is at once, in his opinion, the simplest and surest, and that will give the greatest amount of information regarding goods and customers. He will, of course, have methods for ascertaining the wants of his custom¬ ers, and will place before them and the public the latest articles in his line; and, as I have said before, he will endeavor to create a demand for the higher grades of goods. To complete the comparison, we must suppose that the business is to be established by a board of directors representing a large number of stockholders. We must further suppose that the directors are all so absorbed in their private affairs that they can give very little time to the business of the corporation. What would they do? They would first secure the services of an expert who was also a good executive and business manager; and this manager, being intrusted with full power, would proceed as I have indicated. It is unnecessary to carry the analogy further; and it could hardly be made exact on all points because of the different end in view. What then is the purpose of a public library? aTo serve the pub¬ lic,” 1 i. e., to supply it with wholesome and instructive literature; or, as our motto puts it, “ The best reading for the largest number at the least cost.” What are the means necessary to secure this desired end? First and foremost is the appointment of a good librarian, who should be chosen for executive rather than scholarly qualities.2 This is essen¬ tial to obtaining the other elements of success, which are — 1. A convenient location, accessible from all parts of the city. The JSec address of President S: S. Green, San Fran. Conf., Lib. J., 16: c. 1. 2The ideal executive bead of a large public library should have the qualifications of both librarian and superintendent. (S : S. Green’s paper on “ Trustees and Libra¬ rians,” at Fabyan House Conference, L. J., 15: c. 24.) The same energy, industry, and tact, to say nothing of experience, which insure success in other vocations are quite as requisite in a librarian as book knowledge. A mere bookworm in charge of a public library is an incubus and a nuisance. (W : F: Poole, “Organization and Arrangement of Public Libraries.” U. S. Spec. Repts. on Public Libraries, p. 476.) 798 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. general opinion is that it should not be on a thoroughfare; but this would hardly apply to libraries in the top stories of tall buildings. For a city of any size, branches or delivery stations are essential. Which should be chosen depends on circumstances. (See G-. W. Cole’s article on u Branches and deliveries,” p. 709.) 2. The building should be fireproof, commodious, and so arranged as to offer the greatest accommodations to the public at the least cost for administration. 3. The rooms should be kept clean and orderly, so as to be inviting to ladies and young girls, and to the most fastidious. 4. Such an air of courtesy and cordiality should pervade the place, accompanied by so little formality, that the most diffident laboring man will feel that he is welcome and that the resources of the library are at his command. 5. The revenues of the institution should be so managed as to go as far as possible. {a) Books, -periodicals, binding, furniture, and supplies of every kind should be bought on the most favorable terms. (Here the executive in a large library may easily save or waste a sum equal to his salary.) (b) The staff should be so organized as to give the greatest service at the least outlay. (c) There should be an accurate but simple system of accounts with proper checks on receipts and expenditures. 6. Books should be selected judiciously, with reference to the client¬ age and aims of the library; readers should be encouraged to make known their wants, and these should be promptly supplied. It is gen¬ erally agreed that in a public library purchases should include the literature of entertainment as well as information. This is still to some degree a mooted question.1 It will, I think, be generally con¬ ceded that a public library should supply the best new books in all lines. 7. What seems the oest system of Classification and shelf arrange¬ ment in view of the peculiar conditions of the library should be adopted; and catalogs, card and printed, class lists, reference lists, and other aids and guides should be supplied according to the library’s means. The particular scope and purpose of the library and its finan¬ cial limitations being determined by the directors, the decision of all these details should rest largely with the executive. 8. A charging system 2 should be chosen that is best adapted to the conditions. In a library of large circulation the system chosen should be that which combines highest speed with greatest accuracy while giving the most important statistics. (a) A minute when a crowd is waiting is more to be considered than five minutes at another time; therefore, choose a plan that involves 1 For full discussion see Miss Coe’s article. See Miss Plummer’s article. 799 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. the shortest entries while the borrower is waiting, though these may afterwards have to be supplemented by additional records. (b) Don’t let your choice be influenced by the fact that a system furnishes statistics which you don’t want. Ordinarily one doesn’t care to pay extra for a watch that strikes the quarter hours. ]Sext to accuracy and speed, the chief desideratum is a minimum of require¬ ments from the borrower. There should be as little formality as is consistent with the greatest good of the greatest number. This should be the test and touchstone on all questions. 9. The greatest freedom of access to shelves consistent with good order and safety to books. All will agree to this, though there may be wide difference in the interpretation of the qualifying phrase. The trend of opinion is undoubtedly in the direction of greater freedom even at risk of some loss and confusion. 10. Every facility of obtaining information and every inducement to study. 11. Close connection should be formed with schools, public and pri¬ vate, and with study clubs and classes; and the library should, when practicable, take the initiative in establishing university extension courses and promoting other agencies for encouraging intellectual activity. 12. Finally, and to sum up, every effort should be made to keep the institution before the public, to enlist all elements in its support, to induce all classes to use it. Its facilities for furnishing information should be so abundant that the student will come from far to seek its aid ; its rooms should be so attractive and its supply of books so ample that the rich can not do better than use it; and its cordial welcome and freedom from oppressive forms should be such as to dispel the poor man’s doubt, distrust, and mingled pride and diffidence, and make him feel that the library is his and his children’s and their heirs’ forever. To what degree these requirements are fulfilled must depend chiefly on the executive head of the institution. President Melvil Dewey (Library Fotes, vol. 1. p. 45), after enumerating the various factors of successful administration, says : But tlie great element of success is the earnest moving spirit which supplies to the institution its life. This should he the librarian, though often the person who hears that name is little more than a clerk, and the real librarian is an active trustee or committee. Such librarian will shape the other factors very largely. There is, in short, as 1 stated in the beginning, nothing so small or so trivial as not to require attention from the executive; and there is nothing in the highest concerns of the institution, its finances, and its general policy beyond his proper consideration and influence. It gen¬ erally devolves on the executive to be the motive power as well as the guiding hand, the engine as well as the pilot. Certainly all will agree that a good executive will accomplish more with a poor building in a bad location and other drawbacks than an inefficient executive with all conditions in his favor. 800 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. I quote tills significant sentence from the last report of the trustees of the Los Angeles Public Library: “The management of the library, which has been intrusted entirely to the librarian, has given great sat¬ isfaction to the board and, we believe, also to the public.” The foregoing views as to the importance of the executive embody a general consensus of opinion on the subject. The powers and duties of the librarian as executive being correlated with those of trustees, to particularize further would encroach on the territory of another con¬ tributor. I give a summary of the replies of 37 librarians to the ques¬ tions: “Do the board and its committees always consult you before deciding on (a) questions of general policy ; (&) methods of administra¬ tion V7 Twenty-two reply “ yes ” to both questions ; of the remainder the great majority answer “usually” or “nearly always” to both questions; while a few say “no” or “generally” to the first and “yes” to the second. The general tenor of the remarks on the questions is indicated by the following quotations: Can not imagine any sane board doing otherwise. Librarian should be given greatest possible latitude as to conduct of library m all its affairs. In my opinion no administration can be a success unless the librarian or chief officer is consulted in all matters pertaining to the management. Such an understanding would seem to be indispensable to a satisfactory adminis¬ tration of the library. I should be sorry to be the executive officer of any board which did not have con¬ fidence enough in me to ascertain my opinion before taking action. In a majority of cases the initiative is naturally taken by the librarian. Of the requirements of a successful administration above enumerated, a number are the special subjects of chapters in this manual; and some others call for no elaboration or argument. Buildings. — From views heretofore expressed and generally con¬ curred in, I cull these bits of advice to communities contemplating a public library building: Appoint your librarian before you do anything about a building, and having obtained a competent officer leave the planning and furnishing of the library largely to him. Don’t be in a hurry to build. As a rule it is better to start in tem¬ porary quarters and let your building fund accumulate, while directors and librarian gain experience, and the needs of the library become more definite. It will also give the people the benefit of the library sooner. When you do build make a liberal allowance for growth. There should be provided in libraries that do not allow free access to shelves a space near the issue counter where new books or collections of best books may be displayed and freely handled by visitors, a sort of “browsing corner.” In planning a library a cheerful spot should be set aside as a lunch room, with arrangements for boiling water. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 801 Tlie supervision of tlie building, of course, devolves on the librarian as executive. He may properly depute this to an assistant ; and in a large library there should be an intelligent and responsible head janitor to obviate the necessity of anything more than the most general over¬ sight. The head of the library should, however, test all supervision. Finances. — In this department there is, and may well be, a wide divergence in the organization of libraries. In a great majority the librarian is not burdened with financial responsibilities. Out of 37 prominent libraries, 27 report that the finances and financial records are in charge of some one who is not an employee of the library. In 3 the books are kept by the librarian, in 6 by an assistant. This kind of bookkeeping is not profitable employment for a librarian. As a rule, he is a poor business man who has time to keep his own books. In 12 libraries the librarian acts as cashier, in 24 he does not. Four¬ teen libraries have definite appropriations, ranging from $20 to $500, to a contingent fund; 14 use desk receipts as a contingent fund; 9 have no contingent fund. In 0 there is a limit to bills payable from the contingent fund; in 24 it is left to the librarian’s discretion; 7 do not pay any bills. A librarian should have a contingent fund. It seems to make little difference, however, whether the fund consists of the petty cash receipts or a special appropriation. I should favor the latter, and whether there is a limit for bills payable from this fund or not, the librarian should, as a majority report they do, use it sparingly and strictly for the purpose indicated by its name. Keceipts or expenditures from this fund should, of course, be examined by the auditing committee. The finance department might well be made the subject of a separate paper. It is impracticable here to go into details, and it seems unnec¬ essary to dwell on the necessity of regular monthly audits and the indorsement of vouchers by the proper officers. In the St. Louis Pub¬ lic Library each voucher bears three signatures, that of the chairman of the committee authorizing the expenditure, the chairman of the finance committee, and the librarian’s certification to the correctness of the bill. Each check is signed by president, treasurer, and librarian. Similar rules are, I believe, observed in most libraries. In the great majority there seems to be a reasonable check against dishonesty on the part of the librarian, though several librarians confess that too much confidence is jjlaced in their probity. The ultimate safeguard is the librarian’s honesty; but for the protection of both trustees and librarian I venture to offer these suggestions: 1. The librarian who has financial responsibility should be under bond. The best bond is that of a trust company, and the library should pay for it. 2. The chief opportunity for dishonesty is in the duplication of book bills. This can be prevented, or, at least, made more difficult, by plac¬ ing the accession number opposite each entry in the invoice. Whether ed 93— — 51 802 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. the additional safeguard thus secured is worth the cost in time is for each board to determine. 3. The time of the librarian is saved for more valuable work and an additional check is secured by having everything relating to the accounts, including the making out of vouchers, done by assistants, the work being, of course, supervised by the librarian. Fines.1 — This subject is well summed up by Mr. Utley as follows: The main thing is to see that fines are impartially collected and faithfully reported. To this end the matter is,. so far as practicable, jfiaced in the bands of one assistant. No system can ho devised which will not, in the last analysis, depend on the honesty of the individual charged with its enforcement. At least, any system of perfect check is too cumbrous and costs more than it is worth. As Mr. Brett puts it, u the thing essential to the collection of fines without friction is absolute fairness.77 My early experience gives strong confirmation of this. By observing the rule of impartiality (at the same time giving attention to the cor¬ rectness of returns) the receipts in the St. Louis Public Library were doubled in a short time, while the friction was reduced to about one- twentieth part. We now take in $1,000 a year with much less dissatis¬ faction than was formerly manifested over the collection of $300. The librarian should never cease striving to impress members with a sense of the impartiality of his administration in every respect ; and he should never rest till he feels that every cent collected is honestly reported. While looking after the revenues and the financial records, if they are intrusted to him, the librarian should keep a sharp eye on expend¬ itures and on waste. His judgment and business ability and watchful¬ ness may easily save his salary. In the largest libraries the difference between good and bad organization of the staff will amount to thousands of dollars ) and with the meager funds that most libraries have, it is nec¬ essary for the librarian to see that every dollar is expended to the great¬ est advantage. He must first consider the direction in which money can be spent with greatest benefit to the institution, and then expend it in accordance with business methods. It depends on his tact and judgment whether the library obtains articles above or below market rates. It is notorious that public institutions pay higher prices for goods than private buyers. Whenever possible, competitive bids should be secured from reputable houses ; and more than ordinary care should be taken to see that contracts are fulfilled and no overcharge made. It is commonly assumed that bills to a public institution will not be as sharply scanned as they would be by a business house. When object¬ ing to an overcharge I have had the question put bluntly: “What difference does it make to you'? 77 It is quite feasible for the librarian to utilize his acquaintance and influence among the best class of busi- xOn collection and accounting for fines, see symposium in Library Journal, 16: 103-105, 137-173. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 803 ness houses to obtain special discounts for the library. Here he will find the aid of his trustees extremely valuable; and both trustees and librarian should avail themselves of expert advice, which can easily be obtained. They will find everyone ready to give counsel and assistance to an institution which, more than any other, serves the whole public. Selecting and buying books. — In most libraries the selection of books is left practically to the librarian,1 and constitutes a very impor¬ tant duty. While it is primarily a literary function, it has a direct bearing on the management of the finances, for a dollar spent for one book is unavailable for another that may be more useful; and of two books equally desirable one may be bought for half the cost of the other. The following quotations represent the consensus of opinion among librarians as to where the power and responsibility of securing books should be lodged. In his inaugural address as president of the L. A. U. K., before referred to, Mr. J. Winter Jones says: The safest, aiul therefore the host, course is to he very careful in the choice of a librarian, and then leave the selection of hooks to him, subject, of course, to the control of the committee of management wherever the exercise of that control may be deemed advisable. In an article on “Selection and selectors of books” (L. j. 2: 152), James M. Anderson, assistant librarian, University of St. Andrews, sums up with these two conclusions : 1. That books should be selected with strict reference to the xrrovince and needs of the library and to the character of its readers, and — 2. That books should be selected by the librarian, or by a standing committee in conjunction with the librarian. His reasons for the second statement are that only the librarian can know the present contents of the library and the demands on it, and that committees change from year to year and the library would not grow symmetrically if the selection of books were left to them. In amplification of number 1 — it is better to have 10 copies of a book that is in demand than 1 copy of that and 9 other books that no one wants. Duplicate the best books liberally. “Better 10 copies of Tennyson than 1 of Tennyson and 1 each of nine rhymesters.” The fundamental rule never to be lost sight of is, find out what books your patrons want and buy these first. In determining what books should be added to special departments valuable aid may be obtained from experts. Whether a library’s book fund is large or small, it is important that it be judiciously exf3ended. Knowledge and watchfulness will make $4,000 go as far as $5,000 in less skillful hands. Bor fuller treatment of the subject by experts, I refer again to Dr. Poole’s article in the United States Report, and to Mr. G. A. Kelson’s “Selection and jrar- chase of books” {L,j. 12: 155), also to the symposium on the selecting So reported by 29 librarians out of 37. 804 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. and buying books (L. j. 14 : 33G, 372). From these sources, chiefly from the first two, is condensed the following summary of directions, repre¬ senting a general, though not unanimous, consensus of opinion: 1. Buy both books and periodicals from a local dealer unless there is a decided difference in prices. 2. Don’t be tempted by a larger discount to give orders to irrespon¬ sible persons. 3. Buy as much as possible from one house, so as to make your orders of consequence and thus secure better terms. 4. Utilize competition. A library should secure from 25 to 35 per cent discount. 5. Keep informed. Examine secondhand lists and auction cata¬ logs and look out constantly for bargains. 6. Do not buy ordinary subscription books or books on the instal¬ ment plan. 7. Don’t anticipate revenues, and don’t spend all your money at once. If you do you will miss many a bargain and have to go without books that are needed more than those you have bought. 8. Buy good but not expensive editions. Avoid flimsy paper and fine or blurred print. Most large libraries buy chiefly through agents.1 This practice is almost universal for foreign books. Mr. J. Winter Jones says: The employment of agents for the jmrchase of hooks is not always the most eco¬ nomical mode of procedure, excepting in the case of purchases at auctions, or in foreign countries where the transactions are large and extend over several countries. The division on tbe minor question whether it is better to buy books in cloth or paper covers is probably fairly represented by returns from 37 libraries, 27 of which prefer cloth and 10 paper or sheets. The points in favor of cloth are that the books are ready for immediate use, and that a cloth binding marks the volume as a new book. The last argu¬ ment, of course, has no weight with libraries that cover their books; but in others it is well worth consideration. Mr. Greenwood2 says : There is absolutely no economy in buying 2s. novels in sheets for Is. 4d. and having them bound in leather for, say, Is. 4d. extra, making the first cost of the books 2s. 8d. It is much cheaper in the end and more judicious to take the wear out of the original binding even though it be only paper boards, as there is always a risk of books being in demand, and the cost of binding them is thrown away, to say nothing of the dis¬ proportionate charge for binding thrown on the early years of the library. I would emphasize the u Don’t” regarding the purchase of subscrip¬ tion books from agents, especially in parts. Exception, of course, may be made in favor of works like the Century and Murray’s dictionaries. There are few subscription books that can not be obtained through xOut of 37 librarians reporting, 24, iucluding all the larger institutions, favor employing agents. 2Thomas Greenwood. Public libraries, p. 379. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 805 regular trade channels, and very few indeed that can not be bought far below the subscription price by waiting a little while. Bargains maybe obtained from secondhand dealers; but as a rule they know the value of books and put prices but little below a good library discount. The best field for bargains is the auction room, where the secondhand dealers replenish their stocks. A good rule is not to buy any old books (unless immediately needed) except at a bargain. Remember always that any one of 100 or 1,000 or perhaps 10,000 books is needed by you as much as any other. Buy the one or the ten, that you can obtain at one-half to one- tenth price. Yet here a word of caution should be given to the zealous and con¬ scientious librarian. In his anxiety to make the most of his book fund he may save $10 in money at the expense of $20 worth of time. Judg¬ ment must decide what is true and what false economy. Books sent to newspapers for review may often be obtained at a very liberal discount. Libraries in the same city should avoid duplicating expensive works. Libraries with small means should not spend on a single costly work of interest to few— and seldom used by them — a sum that would buy 20, or perhaps 100, volumes that would be in constant and profitable use by many. All the judgment and care that can be given to the finances of a library with a view to securing as large a sum as possible for books can not prevent the proportionate increase of other expenditures. Insur¬ ance, for example, may be doubled or trebled in a few years; it costs more to keep a large building clean than a small one; and with the growth and expansion of the library and its work there is necessarily a constant increase in the salary roll. Therefore, the ratio of expenditure for books has no significance unless all the circumstances are known.1 2 Economics. — Besides the larger savings that judgment and care may effect in the chief items of expenditure, there are numberless little economies which in the course of a year may reach a considerable aggregate. There is no economy in poor tools and appliances. In busi¬ ness it is often the latest machinery that makes the margin of profit; but rough notes may be made and figuring done on a scratch block or waste paper as well as on fine note paper. Even such intelligent and conscientious persons as librarians are sometimes wasteful. It is the executive’s duty to look after the pence as well as the pounds, remem¬ bering that every dollar saved means another book. Great corporations do not scorn the income from office waste baskets. Binding3 offers an excellent field for exercise of judgment and oversight in the interest of economy. ■Reports from about 30 libraries give 3^ to 80 per cent for books. The last is from a library recently established. Omitting that, the average is a little above 25 per cent. 2 For technical points see D. V. R. Johnston's article on binding. 806 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. In every detail it depends on the executive’s judgment whether money and time (which is money) shall be wasted on unnecessary things or things of minor importance. The collating and covering of all books are illustrations. Both are unnecessary and wasteful. The latter is especially unwise as well as wasteful, and is, I am glad to say, adhered to by but few libraries. In many other details the decision must depend on circumstances, of which the librarian should be the best judge. Here, as elsewhere, the librarian should look sharply about him at all times and cultivate that sixth sense that is developed in the schoolmaster of seeing anything that is wrong. In a large library he can not give constant supervision to all details; but he should learn the art of quick and effective sampling. Executive and staff. — There is no more important function of the executive than that involved in his relation to his staff. It is, indeed, the very sum and center of the executive department, for all orders of the board, as well as all action lying within the librarian’s initiative, must be executed through assistants; and the effective organization and oversight of his staff is, therefore, the prime duty of the librarian as executive officer. But little has been heretofore published on the subject. The one x>oint on which librarians are unanimous and on which all disinterested trustees must agree is that the choice of assist¬ ants should be left practically in the hands of the librarian, and that appointments and promotions should be on the basis of civil-service reform. As the resolution adopted at the Buffalo conference puts it: Efficiency in library administration can best be obtained through the application of the cardinal principles of an enlightened civil service, viz, the absolute exclusion of all political and personal influence, appointment for definitely ascertained fitness, promotion for merit, and retention during good behavior. In 7 libraries out of 37 reporting, the appointment of assistants is left entirely to the librarian ; in 8 they are practically appointed by the librarian; in 18 the librarian suggests and the board appoints; in 2 the board appoints without consulting the librarian. To this num¬ ber, I presume, may be added 2 that do not answer the question, and I do not wonder at unwillingness to confess so humiliating a fact. Appoint¬ ments should be left, not absolutely, but practically, to the librarian. The absolute power maybe a burdensome and dangerous responsibility for a librarian even when backed by civil-service rules. For what I regard as the best plan for securing efficient assistants I refer to Miss Kelso’s explanation of her apprentice system. Much of the success of a library, as of a business house, depends on the effective organization of the staff. But this, with the distribution of duties and the mooted questions of specialization versus all-round knowledge and training, and division of labor by kinds of work versus division by departments, and all other details come within the scope of Mr. Hill’s article (p. 747). In passing I recommend careful reading of Miss Edith Clarke’s article on u Departmental libraries” (L* j. 16: 264), which, I am inclined to think, will form the next stage in the THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 807 evolution of library organization. Thus far the process has been divi¬ sion along* lines of work, a process of analysis which may be succeeded by a new synthesis as set forth by Miss Clarke. I venture a few general observations from my own experience and thought. In a library, as in a school system, everything depends on effective supervision. Whatever plan of organization is adopted, it should pro¬ vide for thorough supervision through different grades up to the execu¬ tive head. This is one of the principal elements of success in “ running a hotel,” which is, not unadvisedly, taken as the sign and synonym of executive ability. The librarian should allow his assistants to work in their own way unless he can show that it is a decidedly inferior way. Give general directions to a messenger and see whether he has ingenuity enough to work out the details ; consult with the assistant who is to have immedi¬ ate charge of a piece of work, or let him devise a plan and submit it to you for approval or amendment. Everyone can work best in his own way, and will take more interest in the execution of a plan he has originated or assisted in preparing. The librarian should take a personal interest in his assistants down to the youngest page. He should encourage them in self-improvement; he should fairly and favorably represent them to the trustees, securing, so far as possible, their due in hours, opportunities, and salaries. It also goes without saying that he should stand between hi's assistants and unfounded complaints or unreasonable criticism from the public. He should constantly consult with heads of departments and more or less frequently have general meetings for instruction and discussion. Librarian as secretary of the board.1 — Service as its secretary brings the librarian into closer relations with the governing board and I think strengthens his authority as executive. Returns from 37 libra¬ ries show 15 in which the librarian acts as secretary and 22 in which he does not; 17 think the librarian should; 13 think not; 3 are doubtful, and 4 give no answer. One librarian who is not secretary thinks such an arrangement u most desirable,” adding that the relations of boards and librarians are not sufficiently cordial and confidential. In a large library it is easy for the librarian to allow his whole time and energy to be absorbed by the details of his duties as executive to the neglect of the literary or librarian’s side of his work. He should strive against this. He should not wholly sink the librarian in the director. He should not permit his executive duties to deprive him of all opportunity to act as literary and educational adviser to the public. He should spare some time and strength for reading and study for his own mental growth. This caution may be unnecessary. Up to recent years the great danger has been of the opposite extreme. The proper adjustment depends on circumstances and calls for the 1 See also F. P. Hill’s article, p. 747. 808 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. exercise of judgment. In the same library the ratio will vary at differ¬ ent periods. The business man who keeps his books himself is likely to lose thereby three times the salary of a bookkeeper. Colonel Higginson says: “The librarian should not have too much to do. If he does he can not look over the whole ground.” Having so organized his staff as to make his work chiefly that of supervision he will have time to attend to the larger interests of the library, includ¬ ing the comparative study of methods. In making choice of methods and machinery he must keep in view the end and aim of the library, which is always and everywhere to serve the public — its public. He should seek methods that have been tried and proved efficient under similar circumstances, remembering that “an ounce of Vineland is bet¬ ter than a pound of cosmography.” He should never lose sight of fundamental principles, which as President W. I. Fletcher said in his address at Lakewood (L.j. 14: 155), will be found “very largely along the lines of simplicity and tried effectiveness rather than along those of elaborateness and theoretically exact arrangement of details.” He should be on his guard “against the twin irrationalities of an undue reverence for the ancient and an overweening ardor for novelties.” Mr. J. TV inter Jones says: The points to he aimed at in both lending and reference libraries are rapidity and accuracy of service and record. To effect this everything * * * should be as simple as possible. It does not necessarily follow that a method or system which is adapted to one library is best for all. There are no qualities which will supplement even a little technical knowledge so efficiently as good judgment and practical common sense.1 These last six words form an excellent summary of what is required in the executive department. The scope aud meaning of “common sense” as applied to library management is fully and admirably shown in the address of President 0. A. Cutter at the St. Louis conference. I began marking passages for quotation, but found the markings so numerous that I must content myself with an urgent recommendation of the address as a summary of sound doctrine. Like a certain cook¬ book that a housekeeper of forty years* experience pronounces the best she has ever seen, it deals not with particular recipes but with the fun¬ damental principles that must underlie all library management. It is not novices alone that may profit by occasionally rereading it. This paper has had the public library in view 5 but general princi¬ ples are the same, and modifications will be obvious. The funds of the library may be so inadequate that a competent librarian can not be employed. The library must then depend on the volunteer work of trustees, one of whom, or a committee of whom, becomes the real executive. But to realize its highest possibilities a library should have a competent librarian as its executive head, and with the largest powers and responsibilities, able to say in his province, “Aut Gsesar aut nullus.” W : F : Poole, in United States Report, 1876. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 809 It should be the aim of tlie executive to make his library approxi¬ mate as nearly as possible to Mr. Ford’s test of the perfect library (L.j. 18: 179), where “a verbal ‘I want - ,’ is followed by an instant delivery of the book’’; and, as the writer said in a former paper,1 2 “Success will depend less on choice of methods than on vigor and thoroughness of execution. 1 For forms of government let fools contest ; Wliate’er is best administered is best.’” REFERENCES. The best compendium of directions for the organization and management of public libraries is the article by Dr. Poole in the United States Special Report on Public Libraries. See also — Clarke, Edith E. “ Departmental libraries.” X.j. 16: 264. Crandall, Mary J. “Duties of a library to its staff.” L.j. 16: 105. Crunden, F: M. “Business methods in library management.” L.j. 12: 335. Cutter, C. A. President’s address at St. Louis conference. L.j. 14: 147. Fletcher, W : I. President’s address at Lakewood conference. L.j. 17 : c. 1. - “ Some library superstitions.” St. Louis conference. L.j. 14: 155. Ford, P. L. “ Library from reader’s point of view.” L.j. 18: 179. Green, S: S. “ Personal relations between librarians and readers.” L.j. 1: 74. - “ Trustees and librarians.” L.j. 15: c. 24. - “Relation of librarian to book committee.” L.j. 15: c. 116, 117. Fabyan conference. Greenwood, Thomas. “ Public libraries.” Higginson, Colonel. “ The Free Public Library,” L.j. 13: 87 and “'Women and Men.” - “Access to the shelves.” L.j. 16: 268. Hosmer, J. K. “Browsing.” Fabyan conference. L.j. 15: c. 33. Jones, J. Winter. Address as President of L. A. U. K. L.j. 1: 379. Nelson, C : A. “ Choosing and buying of books.” L.j. 12: 155. Pendleton, A. M. “Howto start libraries.” L.j. 1: 161. Perkins, F. B. “How to make town libraries successful.” U. S. report. “Fines.” Symposium. L.j. 16: 103-5,137,170-73. “How we choose and buy books.” Symposium. L.j. 14: 336,372. Accession Department. By Gardner Maynard Jones, Librarian, Salem Public Library, Salem, Mass. [The writer has not thought it necessary to give the authority for each statement. The annexed bibliography gives fuller information. '-] Scope.— -The accession department includes selection, buying, and accessioning of books — that is, the business side of the formation of the library. Who shall select books? — Final authority should rest with the full board of trustees, which generally acts through a book committee. This should be composed of the members most familiar with literature but of catholic tastes, so as not to run to hobbies. But as the average 1 Report on aids and guides at Milwaukee conference, 1886, L.j. 11: 309-30. 2 One of the fullest discussions at Chicago was on this paper, and the proceedings should be read with it as supplemental. 810 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1892-93. committee can not give tlie proper time and thought to this work, the choice should be left practically to the librarian, who best knows the demands and needs of readers. The committee should work in har¬ mony with him, check any tendency to whims, determine the general policy 5 and all purchases, unusual either in character or cost, should be referred to them. If promptness in adding new books is desired, the librarian should have authority to buy, within certain limits, between board meetings. In large libraries the best selection is secured by cooperation of per¬ sons in charge of special departments; in college libraries, by professors. Lists of books may often be submitted to specialists for criticism and suggestion. Leaders should be requested to suggest books, either in a book or on slips provided for the purpose, and such books should be bought so far as practicable. If one reader cares enough for a book to ask for it, others may read it. By this method, the library is kept well in touch with readers. Selection of books. — The Library of Congress, the British Museum, and the other great national libraries collect, rather than select, books. They aim to be complete in all departments. Special libraries, such as that of the Surgeon-General’s Office at Washington, endeavor to obtain every publication in their special line. Hearly all libraries, however, are limited in various ways, and are obliged to select carefully from the vast field of literature. The character of the library largely determines the character of pur¬ chases. A college library buys a different class of books from a free public library, and an agricultural library differs in its needs from a theological seminary. College libraries and libraries of historical and scientific societies may be considered as special libraries (often, how¬ ever, having several specialties), and they must buy with this in view. What follows applies particularly to general libraries, both public and subscription, though much will also be useful to special libraries. Fiction buying is not considered, as this belongs to another paper. The principal factors in selecting books are the character of readers, the greatest good of the greatest number, and the amount of available funds. The smaller the funds the more difficult is the selection. The kind of readers should first be considered. A manufacturing town needs books on its special industries; a seaport, those on the ocean, ships, fisheries ; a commercial city, those oil commerce, banking, finance, political economy; a farming village, those on agriculture and domestic animals. A literary community requires a larger proportion of books on literary, historical, and art subjects. If the place contains readers of foreign languages, books should be bought for them, remem¬ bering, however, that in our country all should learn English. Pop¬ ular amusements should be catered to by buying books on hunting, fishing, the theater, baseball, card games, etc. It is also necessary to THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 811 supplement the courses of instruction in the public schools and higher institutions of learning, not forgetting' public museums, picture gal¬ leries, etc. If there are literary or scientific clubs, books should be bought to meet their needs. Children should be encouraged to read good books by buying interesting, well written, and accurate books of history, science, and literature, as well as good fiction. Local interest should be fostered by buying freely books on local history and science, and those by local authors. In short, the library should be the intel¬ lectual center of the place, ever striving to keep in advance of its read¬ ers, and, so far as it properly can, buying what the people demand. This principle leads to avoiding works not wanted, such as those in unused foreign languages. The librarian should keep track of coming events, and see that the library is provided with the books for which there is sure to be a future demand. He should avoid personal hobbies and be impartial on all controversial questions. Manifestly the proportion of subjects must vary greatly in different libraries. The following is the scale adopted for the A. L. A. model library of 5,000 volumes at Chicago, according to the Dewey classifica¬ tion: General works . 100 Philosophy . ICO Religion . 300 Sociology . 300 Philology.' . 50 Science . 400 Useful arts . 300 Fine arts . 200 Literature . . . 600 Biography . 500 History . 650 Travels . 500 Fiction . . . . . 1, 000 Total . . . 5. 000 In libraries of 10,000, 20,000, or 50,000 volumes, respectively, the proportions would differ. If means are small, expensive works should not be bought when there are good cheaper ones covering the same field. A library with an income of only $100 a year for books can not afford to spend $75 upon the Century Dictionary; neither would it buy Mcolay and Hay’s Life of Lincoln. The greatest good of the greatest number demands that the money be spent for an assortment of books of more moderate cost and upon a variety of subjects. This rule holds good for all libraries, for none are so situated that they can buy everything. It is doubtful if the taxpayers’ money should be expended on such little- used luxuries as first editions of Shakspere or of the Columbus letter. Popular circulating libraries should prefer good editions in one vol¬ ume to those in two or more volumes. Many readers never get beyond the first volume. 812 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. It is economy to buy good editions, not necessarily the most expen¬ sive, but those well edited, well printed on good paper, in good-sized type, are as desirable for public as for private libraries. The form of the book is an education in itself, and experience shows that good books, well bound, are better cared for than poor ones, even by the uneducated reader. Reference books and those on science and useful arts should always be in the latest editions. Earlier editions have their historical value, but should be left to the special libraries. Books on zoology, geology, and botany should be by American in preference to foreign authors, unless the subject is treated from a general standpoint or the author is a leader in thought. It is often a question how far the moderate-sized public library should buy special books. In general it may be said, “Do not buy the tools for trades.” Draw the line between the science of law and law as a trade. It must also be remembered that the professions are more independ¬ ent of the public library than the trades. Buy books for the mechanic rather than for the capitalist. The following specialties should gen¬ erally be avoided : School text-books, sectarian books, partisan politi¬ cal books, works in foreign and classical languages (this depends on local conditions, however), early English literature of only limited inter¬ est, technical treatises on law, medicine, and theology, genealogies (except of local families), and antiquated books, such as old histories, chemistries, etc. Col. T. W. Higginson’s “Plan for the selection of books,” a report prepared for the trustees of the Cambridge public library, is a careful study of the principles which should guide a library in choosing books* In connection with this should be read Mr. Griswold’s criticism and Colonel Higginson’s reply. (L.j. 15: 110-111.) Miss Coe’s paper, “ Should American literature be specially favored in our libraries'?” ( L . j. 15: 101-104) is a strong idea for a full represen¬ tation of American books. After the general policy of the library has. been determined, what is the best method of compiling the purchase lists ? Catalogs of other libraries of the same general character and of good standing are among the best guides, remembering, however, that every library accumulates more or less undesirable books through errors in purchases or indiscriminate acceptance of gifts. Also, that all catalogs soon become antiquated, as good books are continually being replaced by later and better ones. Several lists of best books have been published, the most prominent of which is Sonnenschein’s, though the extent of this list (50,000 vol¬ umes) makes it hardly a “select” list, and it is deficient in American books and editions. The “Catalog of the A. L. A. library at the World’s Columbian Exposition” will form a good basis for buying, as it is endorsed by leading American librarians. Special bibliographies are 813 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. always useful, particularly such as are annotated. For such bibliogra¬ phies consult the List of Bibliographical Works in the Beading Boom of the British Museum, Handbook for Beaders in the Boston Public Library, and Indexes to Becent Beference Lists issued by the Harvard College Library 3 also, GrowolPs Bookseller’s Library. These catalogs and bibliographies are only available in buying the books of the past. For current literature other sources must be con¬ sulted. The Publisher’s Weekly (FT. Y.) contains the fullest lists of books published in the United States or imported in editions, and the notes are often useful, though not critical. Lists of English books may be found in the Bookseller (London). In many Sunday-school libraries all books are carefully read by the committee before buying, but for public libraries this is impracticable. Beviews in the leading periodicals, such as the Nation, Critic, Literary World, and Bookbuyer, supplemented for English books by the Atlie- nseum, Academy, and Saturday Beview, are useful in making selec¬ tions. Special publications are best for many classes of books, such as Science and Nature for scientific publications 5 engineering periodi¬ cals for books on mechanical subjects; the Electrical Beview and Electrical World for books on electricity, etc. But various reasons prevent placing full confidence in reviews. This has been pointed out by Mr. George lies in his pai>er, “The evaluation of literature” (L.j. 17: c 18), and he proposes a system of cooperative reviewing, in which the reviews shall be impartial and written with due regard to public library needs. The difficulty of selecting fiction, mainly because novels are so often judged from the literary rather than the moral standpoint, has lead to several suggestions for publishing annotated lists of new books speci¬ ally for library use. Such lists were given in earlier volumes of the Library Journal, but were discontinued. The Massachusetts Library Club has recently considered the subject, but has been obliged to defer the plan for the present. Buying duplicates. — A question asked by the A. L. A. committee is, How much do you duplicate popular books ? The answer can not be satisfactorily tabulated, but the following appears to be a fair state¬ ment of American practice. Beference libraries seldom duplicate unless divided into separate departments, in which case extra copies of certain books may be necessary. College libraries often require several copies of books used by classes. The subscription libraries, such as the New York Mercantile, buy freely of new books in demand (L. j. 14: 371). The best managed public libraries, if funds allow, buy many extra copies of the best books, but avoid much duplicating of ephemeral books. Demand for the latter soon dies out and leaves the extra copies unused. It is better to buy 10 extra copies of a wholesome book wanted by the public than one copy of 10 other books which will not be read. 814 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Specialisation. — Lack of funds and the principle of adaptation to constituency lias led librarians to consider specializing. While it is a great waste to duplicate expensive works or long sets in different libraries in the same city, it is yet a great convenience to students to find all the resources of a city on a given subject in one library. An arrangement between different libraries by which each shall mark out its special field is very desirable. Every place should have one com¬ plete local collection. This should be in. the public library, unless there is a historical society which covers the same field. This specialization should not prevent each library having as many of the more popular books as it needs, as they must be brought close to the readers who will not go elsewhere for them. A list of the special collections in American libraries, prepared by Messrs. Lane and Bolton, has been pub¬ lished by Harvard University library (Bib. contrib. 1ST o. 45). Out of 181 answers to the A. L. A. committee’s question, 54 libraries reported no special collections ; 49, local collections; 7, general American history, while the others each reported one or more special collections. Buying. — Buying should be in the hands of one person, preferably the librarian. Methods depend on the character of the books, whether new and standard works regularly in the market or those that are old and scarce. Hew books should generally be bought of one house, unless the library is a large buyer, when it may be better to divide the trade between sev¬ eral dealers, if they carry different lines in stock. If one bookseller has all the trade he will take special interest in seeing that the library gets what it wants, though the knowledge that the trade is divided sometimes acts as a spur to promptness in filling orders. A large part of the new English books are at once reprinted in the United States, or else are imported in editions by branch houses or agents. These can be bought on the same terms as American books. Other English books are generally imported by libraries on duty-free certificates at a saving of about 25 per cent. Instead of employing foreign agents, it is now generally considered better to order through the regular American agent, or else through a firm that makes a spe¬ cialty of importing. The cost, after adding consul’s fees, insurance, etc., is about the same, while the librarian is saved annoyance of custom¬ house entries, and it is in every way easier to deal with an American agent. Booksellers are generally glad to send new books on approval, but as freight both ways must be paid by the customer this is expensive to libraries at a distance. Because of the expense of carriage, also, small country libraries are obliged to buy less frequently. If practicable, the book committee should meet at least twice a month, unless the librarian has authority to buy between meetings. Hew books should be bought as soon as published, for two reasons: 1. To keep the library up to date and satisfy reasonable expectations of readers; and THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 815 2. Because many books are soon out of the market and can only be procured at extra price, or with extra delay, specially if published abroad. English books can often be had cheaper a few months after publica¬ tion, either as u remainders ” or from the great circulating libraries. The saving on the latter, however, is often more apparent than real, as they soon need rebinding. Many expensive English books are soon republished in cheaper editions. Only experience will guide when to buy at once and when to wait for cheaper editions or secondhand copies. It is seldom wise to attempt to deal directly with publishers, even if they make slightly better terms, as extra express on small parcels soon eats up extra discounts. Only part of the books bought being published by the larger houses, it will always be necessary to buy a large propor¬ tion of the retail bookseller, and it is not well to deprive him of the advantage of buying in large quantities and compel him to supply only books on which there is small x>rofit. He will be almost sure to recoup himself in someway. The same principle holds good with regard to the exceptionally large discounts offered by some dealers. These can only apply to what the trade calls 4 i regular books,” and if extra dis¬ counts are made on these, extra prices are generally charged for the u special books.” In buying books, as well as other merchandise, it is best to select such firms as have a reputation for honest dealing and pay them a price that will give a living profit. Of course a library distant from book centers must expect to pay local dealers somewhat higher prices, but so far as possible the local book¬ seller — under this term is not included those dealers who usurp the name of bookseller while their stock is mainly stationery, wall paper, and fancy goods — should be encouraged, as the bookstore and the library help each other. A well-stocked bookstore, kept by an intel¬ ligent bookseller, is an intellectual gain to any community, and in a different way it does the same kind of work as the public library. It is a great pity that the present condition of the trade has driven out many of the more intelligent dealers. Certain books, including most so-called “ subscription books,” are seldom found in bookstores till some time after publication. While most' “ subscription books ” are unworthy a place in the library, yet many desirable and indispensable works have been so published. Some librarians refuse to buy of traveling agents, but if a book is wanted immediately it is often best to get it through the channel chosen by its publisher. Publishers seem to have learned that it is for their advan¬ tage to employ a better class of canvassers, for the blusterer, determined to force his book on the buyer by any means, fair or foul, is mostly one of the past, or at least seldom enters the library. Many of the smaller libraries buy only new books, but the larger libraries, and those buying in special lines, need many books that are out of print, even if not scarce. These generally can not be bought as 816 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. wanted, but must be patiently sought. The principal sources are secondhand bookstores and auction rooms, personal search in second¬ hand stores being most effective. The books can then be examined, and the secondhand bookseller is generally as ready as the dealer in new books to send his goods on approval. Make the bookseller your confidant if wanting out-of-the-way books, specially if on a given subject. You may in some cases have to pay more, but you will secure books otherwise overlooked. The following extract from Mr. Growoll’s Book¬ seller’s Library is as true for book buyers as for booksellers : Then there is the well-read customer [or bookseller], who on occasions may be induced to give a hint or information concerning old or new books not easily got in any other way. * * * Take such men into your confidence; their assistance will often save you hours of study. Many secondhand dealers issue partial catalogs. These should be carefully examined for books that are on the “short” list or that may be wanted. It is hardly necessary to warn buyers to see that the books are perfect and of the best edition. Titles are often twisted in order to present them in the most attractive way. A leading Hew York secondhand bookseller used to say that the secret of cataloging is to enter the same book in half a dozen different places in the same catalog in such a manner that the reader shall never discover it. The same caution holds in auction buying, and in no case should books be bought at auction except after personal inspection before sale. If the librarian can not be present, a secondhand bookseller will act as agent for a moderate commission. Whether buying in person or through an agent, a limit should be fixed for each item before the sale. Otherwise one may be carried away by his enthusiasm when the bid¬ ding is lively. If an honest, well-informed agent is employed much may be left to his discretion. Scarce books may often be secured by advertising in book trade and literary periodicals. Some libraries publish lists of wants with their annual reports, specially of volumes needed to complete sets of periodi¬ cals and transactions of societies. This often secures a gift of the missing x>arts. If making special collections, acquaintance with other collectors in the same line may often ]ead to advantageous exchanges of duplicates. Every librarian is recommended to study carefully Growoll’s Book¬ seller’s Library. Familiarity with its contents will enable the librarian to meet the bookseller on more equal terms to their mutual advantage. It would also be well for librarians to have some i>ractical exx>erience in retail bookstores and for booksellers to be informed as to library methods and systematic bibliography. The following facts were brought out by the inquiries made by the library school for the A. L. A. comparative exhibit. Of 155 libraries answering the question, “What x>er cent do you buy at auction?” 106 rex>ly “ none,” 27 “ few,” 15 buy from 1 to 5 x>er cent, and 7 from 6 to 30 x)er 817 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. cent. The question, “What per cent from secondhand catalogs ?” was answered by 149; 57 say “none,” 37 “few,” 40 not over 10 per cent, and 14 from 10 to 50 per cent; 1 says “large.” As might be expected, the smaller public libraries buy few or no books by either of these methods. On the other hand, the larger and more specialized libraries must secure much of their accessions either through auction or secondhand catalogs. Order system. — When purchases are small no special order system is required, except to keep a copy of orders sent and check off items when received so as to make sure that all orders are filled and none duplicated. The larger libraries, however, find it necessary to adopt some well-planned system of keeping track of orders. That of the Harvard University library may serve as a sample and is here described. The basis of this system is the order slip, which starts with the pro¬ fessor or other person recommending, and whose final destination is the official card catalog : Book number Ordered . Received .... Fund . Harvard College LIBRARY ORDER SLIP. *** Do not -write in the corner above. Remarks may be made on the back of this card. Author or editor Title . Edition . Place Sign your name and the date . Publisher . Price . If there is urgent need, write haste here. Date . V ols . Size The following is the history of such a slip: When received it is dated and an assistant verifies and completes details of title, edition, publisher, etc., and sees if the book is already in the library or ordered. This assistant checks the slip, which then goes to the librarian for approval. If approved it is stamped; if not, the person recommending^ is notified, if he is a person entitled (except by courtesy) to hand in titles for buying. The slip then passes to an assistant who orders the book on a regular form containing printed instructions to the agent. The library has agents in London, Paris, Leipzig, Florence, Copenha¬ gen, Madrid, and several in this country. The slip is then stamped with date and name of agent, and the number of the order is written on it. A press copy of the order is then taken, after which it is signed by the librarian. A memorandum of estimated cost is then entered under the allotment from the book fund from which it is to be paid. As experience shows that a large proportion of the orders can not be immediately filled, it is generally safe to exceed by 25 per cent the appropriation for any given year. The order slip is then filed. When a shipment is unpacked the books are laid on a counter in order of invoice, which is checked. Order slips are then picked out by invoice, invoices being arranged by the agent according to order ED 93 - 52 818 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. numbers. Dale of reception is stamped on slip, also in copy book against the order. Tbe slip is placed in the book and the librarian looks over the books and assigns each to its book fund, which is written on the invoice against each item. The books are then collated and the person recommending notified. If he wishes the book at once, a pink slip of paper is placed in the book and it is pushed through in a hurry, otherwise it takes the usual course. Name of library and date of recep¬ tion are stamped on back of title-page and fund written below, book¬ plate, date slip for charging, and back label are pasted, and the book is. entered on shelf list1 and then goes to cataloger. The order slip is left in the book and as cards are written, it is corrected and fund and shelf mark are filled in. After cards are revised the order slip is filed in the official catalog. To keep track of books in the hands of the catalogers and prevent ordering books already received, a temporary slip for each book received is written (much abbreviated) and kept in a box till books have gone to shelf and cards into catalogs. Each slip has a number stamped at the top and a smaller slip with the same number on it is placed in the book with the author’s last name or first word of title written on it. When book goes to shelf this slip is taken out. When a number of such slips have accumulated they are used to pick out the corresponding slips from the box. An inspection of the number shows how many books have been received for cataloging in any given time. During the checking of the invoice, reports on books not sent are indorsed on the order slip, also particulars as to partially filled orders, after which the- slip is returned to the order drawer. A u continuation catalog,’7 partly on cards and partly in a book, is used for keeping track of serials. In a small library all the processes of the above order system are not necessary, but it forms a good outline for adoption whenever the num¬ ber of orders is larger. Disposal of duplicates. — Nearly every library accumulates dupli¬ cates, mostly through gifts. While many of these have little apparent value, yet it must be remembered that every book has its proper place awaiting it. An old edition of a schoolbook is useless in the circulat¬ ing department of a public library, but may be indispensable to the American Antiquarian Society or the Essex Institute. The odd report of a society may be just what is needed by another library to complete its file. The question is how to bring a return to the library by placing these duplicates where they will do most good. Some libraries use the auc- JThe Harvard College library is almost alone in keeping no regular accession book, though it does keep a book recording daily the volumes and pamphlets received from each source. It enters on the shelf list instead of the accession book many of the particulars of imprint, source, etc. This routine could readily be adapted to the usual accession book. (See later under Accession book the reasons against omitting its use.) THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 819 tion room, but tlie attendant expense renders this undesirable unless for books of considerable value. The same holds true with regard to selling through a bookseller on commission. A central clearing house for duplicates has been suggested, but here also the expense of handling must be considered. It is doubtful if there would bo sufficient business to reduce the pro rata cost to con¬ tributing libraries to a moderate figure, and the State or National Government has hardly reached the point of undertaking this work at the expense of taxpayers.1 Dr. Ames’s exchange of public documents might bo cited against this view, but in this case the work is confined to the publications of the National Government which are published for free distribution. For these reasons, libraries will generally have to depend, in the near future as in the past, on private arrangements, either for cash sales or for exchanges with other libraries or collectors. A few years since, the Columbia College library inaugurated a system of briefly cataloging duplicates on slips which were arranged by sub¬ jects. If another library desired books on a given subject, the slips for this subject were mailed. The order could be given by simply sepa¬ rating the slips of books desired. The list of special collections in American libraries will be useful in finding possible customers for many odd books. Gifts. — Diligent advertising and begging will generally secure many gifts, ranging from whole libraries to the refuse of the garret. Even the latter may contain long-desired books or missing periodicals. It is not necessary that all gifts be added to the library, and they should be received with the understanding that they may be sold or exchanged if duplicates cr unsuitable. It costs money to catalog and store books, and those outside the library’s field should be rigidly excluded. Indi¬ viduals interested in particular subjects may often be induced to con¬ tribute either books or money to build up some special department. It is undesirable that gifts of miscellaneous books should be shelved by themselves. They should be distributed through the library with their respective subjects. All gifts should be acknowledged at the time, as well as in the annual report. Collation.-— Librarians differ widely as to this. Some collate every¬ thing, others only the more expensive works and those containing plates, while still other experienced librarians collate nothing. The argument urged against collation is that it costs more than the occa¬ sional loss of an imperfect book. It is true that most publishers are 1 Since writing the above wo learn that the New York Stato library will soon open its clearing house for dnplicates. Books when received are appraised and the library is entitled to draw out an equal amount from the stock on hand at prices at which they were received. This is freo for New York libraries only, and the cost of han¬ dling is borne by the Stato because of the great practical value to all its libraries. It is proposed to allow libraries outside New York to share the advantages on pay¬ ment of the actual cost of the State’s service, no allowance being made for profit. 820 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. willing to replace imperfect books years later if possible, but experi¬ ence shows that imperfections, even if noticed by the reader, are often not reported till after many years, when the book may be out of print. The safer rule is to collate all purchases, but a show of hands at the Chicago conference indicated the general opinion that it is desirable to collate only expensive works. Accession book.— The accession book is the business record of the library and is the first place where books should be entered. It should be accurately kept, so that it may be sworn to in court as a true state¬ ment of the contents of the library at any given time. The form of this book was one of the first subjects considered by the A. L. A. coopera^ tion committee, and their deliberations, resulted in the “A. L. A. stand¬ ard accession book,” now made by the Library Bureau. The facts given in this book are as follows : Date of accession. Accession number [consecutive] . Class number. ) ^ form caU number. Book number. ) Volume. Author. Title. Place and publisher. Date. Pages. Size. Binding. Source. [Fund, and of whom bought, or giver.] Cost. Remarks. [Condition, rebinding, withdrawal.] An introduction contains rules for entering and a list of library abbre¬ viations. Each volume has a separate line and bears its own accession number. If it is worn out or lost it is marked u withdrawn,” which ends its history. The copy replacing is given a new number. Many libraries, considering the size of the “Standard” (35 by 30 cm.) too cumbrous and costly, adopt the u Condensed accession book” (25 by 20 cm.), which contains the same items but allows less space for entry. In the Library Journal, v. 3 (see bibliography), will be found a discus¬ sion on the accession book, Mr. Winsor claiming that it. is unnecessary and that the business entries might better be included in the shelf list. No other librarian came forward in support of his arguments, and it may be considered that the question has been definitely settled, and in favor of the A. L. A. standard. 821 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. As the Harvard College shelf list, including accession entries, has never been shown in print, it is given below, not for commendation, but simply as a matter of record : HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY SHELF LIST. H. C. L. Class Book no. No. vols. Author. Title. Place. Date. ' Branch - . Section Size. Date of accession. Source. Remarks. - Runs across two pages, 32 lines on a page. Title, not volume, to a line. Cost and accession number not given. Withdrawal book. — This is a useful supplement to the accession book. It was invented by J. C. Houghton, of the Lynn public library, and is not yet in general use. A slightly modified form used by the Salem public library is as follows: [Left-hand page.] Date. Acc. no. j Call no. Author. Title. Mar. 30 Apr. 3 3 cm. 3985 13593 2.5 cm. 917. 2-B1. P-1227E. 4 cm. Biart, L . Adv. of Young Naturalist. True Stories. 11.5 cm. Hawthorne, N” . 5 cm. [Right-hand page.] Cause. Remarks. Date replaced. j Acc.no. Call no. j Remarks. Damaged . . AVorn out . Pd. for by M. C. Smith . Mar. 16 26845 ! 917. 2-B1. 4 copies left. 7 cm. 2 cm. 7.5 cm. 2.5 cm. 2.5 cm. 4.5 cm. The width of each column is given in centimeters. The size of the condensed accession book is well adapted for this. The principal use of the withdrawal book is to give a fuller record than can be made in the accession book of the circumstances attending the withdrawal of a book. When this book is kept the only entry in the accession book is the date of withdrawal. Another use is for sta¬ tistics. The year’s additions in each class can be ascertained from the accession book, the withdrawals from the withdrawal book, the differ- 822 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. ence is tlie net growth in each class. This appears to be the simplest and most accurate method of keeping these statistics. Marks of ownership. — As a mark of ownership the name of the library should always be stamped on title-pages and all maps and plates not containing letterpress. Also, as the title-page is often lost,, some other fixed page should be stamped. An embossing stamp is best for this purpose, as, if it is properly made, it is impossible to remove completely the impression. A rubber stamp is sometimes used, but this may offset if the book is closed before dry, and it may be easily erased by scratcher or emery paper. A bookplate should be pasted inside the front cover. Besides the name and address of the library, this should state the source from which the book was received, if a gift or bought from a special fund 5 also the shelf mark. Many libraries give date of recent, but this is superfluous if the accession number is written or stamped iii the book. The plate should not be too large, should be legible, with clear spaces in which to write the numbers, so that these may not be confused with the printing or engraving, and should always give the name of the State as well as of the city or town. Bor convenience, the pocket or date slip described under loan systems should be pasted in at the same time. We have now considered the various processes involved in adding a book to the library from its recommendation to its entry in the acces¬ sion book. Its future history, including its shelf location, cataloging, and use by readers, belong to other chapters. BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following bibliography is subdivided in the same manner as the body of the paper, and under each heading the references are arranged chronologically : SELECTION OF BOOKS. Poole, W : F : Selection of books (In Organization anclmanagement of public libraries.”) United States Bureau of Education. Public libraries. (1876) p. 479-481. Harrison, R. Selection and acquisition of books for a library. L. j. (1877). 2: 145-150. National libraries should contain everything. Smaller libraries to be guided by “utility” and “appropriateness.” Best selector is librarian working in harmony with a competent book committee. Gifts often unsatisfactory. Anderson, J. M. Selection and selectors of books. L. j. (1877) 2 : 150-52. Covers same ground as Mr. Harrison. Homes, H: A. Selection of books for popular libraries. L.j. (1878) 3: 50-51. Recommends publication of approved lists of new books in L.j. James, H. P. Selection of books for the Newton free library. L.j. (1884) 9: 209-10. A reply to criticism for buying too little fiction. Editorial on same subject, L.j. 9 : 207-8. Little, G: T. What should be done for an old library with a limited income. L.j. (1885) 10: 245-46. If your library is behind the times in its books, buy back volumes of leading periodicals. 823 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. Nelson, C : A. Choosing and btiying hooks. L.j. (1887) 12: 155-56. Buy reference books freely. How we choose and buy new books: [a symposium.] L.j. (1889) 14: 336-39, 372. A valuable statement of methods of ten leading libraries contributed by llieir librarians. Coe, E. M. Should American literature be specially favored in our libraries? L.j. (1890) 15: 101-04. Answers. “Tes.” Cites experience of N. T. free circulating library. The most popular works are usually those of American authorship, specially among readers of foreign deseent. Dis¬ cussion, p. 116-117. Higgixson, T: IV. Cambridge public library. Plan for the selectiou of books. (1890.) A careful study of the principles which should guide the book committee. Griswold, W: M. Choice of books in public libraries, especially at Cambridge. L.j. (1890) 15: 110, Higgixson, T: W. The Cambridge public library and its critic. L. j. (1890) 15: 110-11. Foster, W : E. Industrial additions to the Providence public library. L. j. (1890) 15 : 144. Lists of proposed additions sent to specialists for criticism. Nelsox, C : A. How the hooks were bought for our library. L. j. (1890) 15 : C 38-39. Greex, S: S. Relation of the librarian to the book committee. L. j. (1890) 15: C 116-17. Iles, G: Book reviewing systematized. L.j. (1891) 16 : 208. A cooperative system outlined. Selection and buying of books. [Mass. Lib. Club discussion,] L. j. (1892) 17: 172. Report of committee on preparation of lists for purchase. [Mass. Lib. Club.] L.j. (1892) 17: 429. The plan proposes a committee similar to the ladies’ commission on Sunday school boohs. Books to be supplied by Library Bureau in connection with their plan of printed catalog cards. Iles, G: Evaluation of literature. L.j. (1892) 17 : C 18-22. An enlargement of his paper cited above. Discussion at pp. 63-65, 80, 81 . Report on lists of books. [Mass. Lib. Club.] L.j. [1893) 18: 85-86. Supplemental to previous Teport. Adams, C: F. Sifting as a library policy. L. j. (1893) 18: 118-19. Also editorial at p. 107. See also Nation, 56: 210-11. Mr. Adams proposes that the Quinry public library be kept permanently at 15,000 volumes by periodical weeding of the older books. Tbe two reviews point out the impossibility of doing this without injury to the usefulness of the institution. (See discussion at Chicago conference, 1893, of S. S. Greene paper. Also in this report. ) Providence Public Library. Reports. Needs of a public library, methods of selec¬ tion, specialization. BUYING DUPLICATES. What we do abont duplicates : [symposium.] L. j. (1889) 14 : 369-71. Giving the practice of the following libraries: Cleveland, Apprentices’ 5 © a- X © ©ad © ^5 |zi h O £ d 0 . . o ® ® o 66 6 66 6 £ j>5 5 o o t* 6 o o 66 . © ! ° ; © © © o © © o 6S*6 o o o © 6 6 6 6 'n ’=0 P a 0'S ■3 a CO P* O'©. © x ^© ® *6 © += © © © ® © © © 6^65 III ; ! 2 o co c ® ^ O 3 'go ” © © G .ra !« © © © ^ p< a ® ® x S w «5 © © fS'd © © 0 06 >•! ® '©-e © ©§ .§ s-s-e© Z 5 © S x © © Cr2 © 5 © 3 33 O k2 COCO PP P-l ^ f-l © to © B S £ © 3 3 -?R P O It “ © ^'•'d ‘0S s?© « ^ -irj ~C © -+J © pl°sS®h © ® <=> ^ j © CO 00 <1 CO os o m eo at a a _© .2 11 a 5 ,g to Pt« W£® r© © © Pro "2 += £ 2 P P p. a o © £ a p °a © bO® 5,© ll S'd a 2 ! ,® Pt +s So 0© r© O - bo s|| 1A5 CO P,Cr^ > £ © 'O pj £ sS a C3 © W .|1J S T* © ^ © K £ r^rv*ra Q IH-ps-tf £•- - ® £ s I © x l|| a £ ^ 3oS* "p © >— ; © a f-t © p © > a 6,© a © ° fz* 8 © 4?a .13 a .©a la '© O g a - r a ©pi > a d a © £ °-a . a a o o fr? >5 a( ©^2 & a; a 2' r© PtO' si°: II & © © a. a a©; ■ oo3 to • rs a[x a <•3 p^Ph ° - IS a£ c a -^3 « a^ o ^ 53 O'S a' 2 -g g i|s| P. d<1 O • S s a| o vs ,=5 0 'o PP^iPi o 2 a>n^ Z 0 a ’ © ^ fH © © nS| 111 I 0.0 -^2 m3 P?.13ra © 8|1© PPR0^i o © Ph .CO *s -o.s .^"ScS §£^*> m w c Tl © g ® S ® a Ph = ^ 5 P P 0 a^H a . ■§* =S^ ©I^i 1 g co a © w §H O o in o S^§ 0000 0000 0000 00 cc co ko CM HHi •adesi THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 865 i i A £ E'B hAAA c O d C ir> o £ £ P £ « Jzi £2 a> a> S3 ED 93- -55 t Synopsis of returns from 127 libraries of 25,000 volumes and upward, 1893 — Continued. 866 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. o G O G a s! G rt ft ft c o ftft ft ft ftrH ft ft ft o o o o ft ftft ft © ® ftft o © ftft o ftft ft H ftft ft ftft ft p< O 05 O ftPft u ? © _© +3 c3 ftft ftft © © ftft o © ftft fill §«S G *2 a2 P ui G 2 O a fc. >> c2 G © © © 9 g G G S© ei S 5 t=i 02CGJ/2 0 t>a ■ s So §2 Pi cc © 3 © I 1 H J/2 -P> Cw © r~ © .3 O o £ 3 ©- Sc 2 9 ,M . 1 _© _© 3 ^ S) 5© © P , 1 .PHfc ' HflS § ! H0 0C0 ; *1u§\8g Infill iss^-gp i P I- 1 P cS G So fH £ . w| ^1: © © P;£ ■§8 |g e2 P 6 jp ° - 7 GO® \-3 >; ||S aSa 05 rj $ 1 ©a ^ © p ’5 9" . a *ft © « 2 n © y cj 25 r© __ O © -g © !i l!‘sl .. . c*o wo ; o . "5 G i CO rl j_i *50 G G O o o 3 **£ §.2 © ©.G— I G § 3| -y © L-g 3 : s © 'K’So © ©'3 ft ft S C© r“J cn *“» 'Sflo i/2 a o -r'3^ ^ „ © ^•1 © >» « J^PP © ^ 33 m o, 3 © ^ 2 § 3 ' 3-^3 jK3a ci«2 gp ^ o '2 ©go © © 2 HHrM = w t3 ^ P © &i ki mo LO lO O t* CO 00 THE WORLDS LIBRARY CONGRESS. 8G7 o d S £ .2 d® £3 do ^ * o o 2 *3 S 3 1 I 1 e B o 8 o t* £ fill i mu i § | § ii i sgiii ii|ii| !■ tS SgSSSS S §f.g. S' S'S 3 3‘SS^gS -SS^g-SS'l' g! S 8 ‘Begun. 6 A few years. 9 Anri 25,000 pamphlets. 13 Unknown. 2 And 23,005 pamphlets. G And 10.000 pamphlets. 10 And 5,328 pamphlets. 14 Including law and medicine. 3 Including pamphlets. 7 All legal. 11 Two-thirds law, one third miscellaneous. ,RLargely law. 4 Applying it. 8 And 22,000 pamphlets. 12 All law. Synopsis of returns from 127 libraries of 25,000 volumes and upward , 1898 — Continued. 868 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 1 ? Ill Hi OC 3 I * 2~ H £3 o 3 I M'® £ £ £ fc* .-S coo H 53 g g d c ^ g g h >8 5s H -g £ ® -g q ‘M? c >. - S £j 5 ® . „ - •— O = £ *-B 5 pTS 2 ’S I 1 s ,P OB '§§ 8 O O II § § ! - .2 I 1. £g: £ p ■ . p r? £ ■g'S o 2 if §1 5* I 1 & Si .2 ©3 a g£ Ig p 3 <1- I Jlsl 511 is hi 3 a o H : HU I^ii ill rn&i 1 IS I I 3 s SS S ® 8 8 I 8 II I II si 5 S' S' S' S'g S' S3 oS 1 Not including pamphlets. 3 Applying it. 5 And 18,000 pamphlets. 7 Public documents only. 2 And 14,000 pamphlets. 4 And 43,271 pamphlets. 6 Theological only. 869 THE WOEr D’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. jSo replies were received from the following libraries: Bancroft Pacific. Baptist Union Theological Seminary. Boston Society of Natural History. Brookline Public. Connecticut Historical So¬ ciety. Congregational (Boston). Cooper Union. Fall River Public. Georgia State. German Society of Penn¬ sylvania (Philadelphia). Grosvenor (Buffalo). Hobart College. Johns Hopkins University. Kentucky State. Lenox. Long Island Historical So¬ ciety. Louisiana State. Maimonides (New York). Maryland State. Massachusetts State. Michigan State. Mississippi State. New Jersey State. New York Academy of Medicine. New York Historical So¬ ciety. New York Law Institute. New York Society. Pennsylvania Historical Society. People’s (Newport). Philadelphia College of Physicians. Philadelphia Mutual Li¬ brary Company. Polytechnic Society of Kentucky. Providence Athenaeum. Rutgers College. St. Mary’s Theological Seminary. St. Paul Public. San Francisco Mechanics’ Institute. San Francisco Odd Fellows’. Silas Bronson (Waterbary). South Carolina College. Springfield City. Tennessee State. Tulane University. LTnited States House of Rep¬ resentatives. United States Patent Office. United States State Depart¬ ment. University of Notre Dame. Virginia State. Wabash College. Watkinson Reference (Hartford). Western Theological Semi¬ nary. Williams College. ABSTRACTS OF REPORTS. Library of Congress. — Adjustable or.eclectic system; e. g.: Political economy is numbered 25, Government is 25.7, and the label of a book on government might read the denominator being the shell mark. Under each subject books are arranged alphabetically by authors’ names, as far as possible, individual biography in six great classes, alphabeted by subjects; collective biography, fiction, poetry, polyg- raphy, etc., by authors. Would prefer a more thorough subdivision of the great classes of subjects, and an extension of alphabetic arrange¬ ment by authors. (Ainsworth R. Spofford, Litfn.) Boston Public. — Books arranged on two sides and ends of a large hall, three floors. Space on each side of hall divided into 10 alcoves of 10 ranges each. Movable shelves, numbered from bottom, 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., up to 9 (or 9 a if room for supplementary shelf). Alcoves numbered 21, 22, etc., along one side of room and then back along the other to 40; then 41 is the alcove above 21 and so round on the second floor, while the third floor begins with 61 above 41, and so on. Hence, regu¬ lar sequence of alcoves, both perpendicularly and horizontally. To designate the shelf four figures are used, thus : in 2675 the figures 26 stand for alcove, 7 for range, and 5 for shelf. To this shelf number is affixed the number of the book (work, not volume) on the shelf, 3852.17 being the seventeenth book on second shelf of fifth range of alcove 38. A volume in a set is indicated by adding its number (date, if a serial) to book number, thus 7537.10.2 or *3115.1 (1877). Books marked * can 870 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93 only be taken out of building by permission of officer in charge: ** can not circulate; -*** permission of trustees required. System devised by the late Nathaniel B. Shurtleff [see Reference list at end of this chapter], and details carried out by the late Prof. C : C. Jewett. One or more alcoves are assigned to each of eighteen grand divisions of subjects, and in each alcove ranges are assigned to certain subdivisions. Public denied access to shelves. Dictionary catalog has no relation to shelf classification. The idea of reclassifying has never been enter¬ tained for a moment, so no examination of other systems has ever been made. (Theodore F. Dwight, Litfn.) Harvard University. — About one-third of the books are classified, filling the present stack; when new stack is finished the rest will be classified. Many subjects are taken out of the general classification, when well rounded as collections, and form independent groups, e. lain, or from 16 to 24 cents a square foot when grained to imitate morocco, seal, or other leathers. This is about 3 to 6 cents for each 8° book for plain, and 4 to 8 cents for the fancy kind. Buffing, or split American russia, costs from 5 to 10 cents a square foot, or from 1J to 2J cents per 8°. The durability of this leather depends very much on its thickness. When thick it can be used on maps, newspapers, etc., with good results, though better results can be had for less money from duck. For a cheap leather binding American russia is prefera¬ ble to roan or sheep, and indeed will wear better than any other leather except morocco. For law books, public documents, etc., American russia of almost the exact shade of law sheep can be had which will THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 911 wear far better than sheep and cost not more than 2 cents a volume more than half sheep. Pigskin now in the market costs from $7.25 to $11.75, according to size, quality, and finish. It has a handsome finish, and a grain quite as good looking as morocco. As a pigskin is from two to three times larger than a genuine morocco, the price per square foot is about the same. It is an intractable leather and requires careful handling to make it look well in a book. It tends to harden and become brittle if not handled often, and is suspected of mildewing, so it seems unwise to bind in it for general use. However, it seems a very good if not the best material for table books, such as dictionaries, catalogs, etc., as it stands rough usage without scratching or becoming shabby. The use of buckram in this country has never been large, and many librarians who have experimented with it have given it up. It is not at all cheap, as it costs 35 to 50 cents a yard. It is hard to work, as it takes glue and gold badly. On exposure it becomes brittle and is liable to fade like any book cloth. Linen buckram, the highest priced and best, has been practically unknown to the American market from the first, though, as it is hard to tell it from the cotton cloth, the fact is not generally known. Wherever buckram is used duck will answer most of the purposes at less cost, as it is worth only from 10 to 20 cents per yard. Buck is easily worked and possesses all the requirements for a strong, cheap binding suitable for circulating libraries, oversize books in little use, maps, and newspapers. On the other hand, duck is rough, ill looking, and will not take gold lettering well j and as it is not wise to letter on labels, one is limited to shades light enough to show ink lettering and dark enough not to show soil. Since the friction of duck is great, it is always a good plan to bind very large volumes in half duck with paper sides. The use of half duck on smaller books is growing in favor. Books having infrequent use, if not oversize, will last quite as well in cloth as in leather. Book cloth, costing from 12 to 20 cents per yard, will answer even better than expensive morocco, since heat and gas have no effect on its vegetable fiber. Remember, though, that cloth work is generally case work and will not stand much wear. The use of vellum in this country has so far disappeared that no data regarding it can be obtained. Some of the English binders claim to use it with satisfaction. When binding in leather avoid both very light shades, which are most expensive and will not keep clean, and very dark, specially black and very dark green, which may be tender. Skins which are failures in lighter shades are often re-dyed black, and this tends to rot the leather. The best colors are the lighter browns, red, light greens, olive, blue, and maroon. Bindings should be pleasing to the eye and sufficiently diversified not to rob the books of their individuality. But as it is annoying to choose 912 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. a color for each book and to have innumerable styles which must be matched, different color schemes have been devised and used by differ¬ ent librarians, some assigning colors to subjects, some to languages, etc. None of these schemes are without objections, and none are in common use. Beports of societies, institutions, etc., should be bound by regular periods, such as decades or semidecades, as they are more useful in such condition. Pamphlets when bound should be flush at the top so as not to gather dust. Some larger libraries bind covers of periodicals, pamphlets, and books issued in parts, some placing them at the end of the volume and others binding them in their original order. The cus¬ tom, too, is gaining favor of binding half titles, advertising leaves, etc., with the covers. This custom is not indorsed for any but very large reference libraries, as it materially adds to the expense; but for them it is strongly recommended. The public have the right to expect that a library maintained in part for collecting and preserving records of human thought and action will not neglect to preserve in original form the issue of the contemporary press; and a proper regard for the future demands the preservation of all the printed matter possible. Sewing. — To secure the best results in sewing — to gain strength and flexibility — the book must not be deeply sewed, and every fold of more than four leaves should be sewn u all along ” whenever possible. If, how¬ ever, a smaller thread must be used in sewing all along to produce the correct swell to the back, it is better to sew atwo on” or alternately with a stronger thread. Hayes’s Irish linen thread, costing from 90 cents to $1.10 per pound, will give best results. Every volume above a 16mo should be sewn on at least three bands, and this number should be increased according to size and thickness of volume. The thread in all cases should always completely encircle each band, not simply pass over or under it in a loop. The first and last signatures should be overcast or whip-stitched, or sewed with a sewing machine. All maps and folding plates in books which have much use should be backed with muslin, but as this costs 6 cents apiece, for less used books a muslin joint at the fold can be used, costing only about a third as much. All plates, however, in large volumes should be mounted at least on a cloth guard, or they are apt to be crumpled or torn. Books which are sewn on tapes, parchment strips, or other raised bands, last better and open more freely than others, with the added advantage of not being deeply sewed. Some suppose that they are' not sewed at all, but as a rule a shallow cut is made on each side of the band to guide the sewer. Kaised-band sewing not being generally practiced, and sewers being unskilled in doing the work, it is apt to be expensive, sometimes three or four times the price of ordinary sewing. But if raised-band sewing were more common there seems to be no reason why the cost should THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 913 be more than 5 or 10 cents a volume higher than good band sewing. Outside the large cities almost the only place where tape sewing is practiced is in certain blank-book binderies, and such places, as a rule, do not do good library binding. In spite of the added cost, books having the most frequent use should be sewed without sawing or on raised bands. On books of music, vol¬ umes of maps, plates, manuscripts, and other works which should open with the greatest freedom, tapes should be used. Tapes are not generally laced into boards, but are glued on the inside of the covers, so in this respect band sewing has the advantage as the bands can be laced completely through the board, thus giving the book greater strength. Every book, if bound for use, should have vellum corners, which, if properly put on, is a great protection in case the book is carelessly dropped, as it will dent the wood of the floor rather than break. These corners should be carefully skived down so as not to make a projection against which the siding will wear itself out, and should be not less than 3 cm. long on a book larger than a 12mo as, in case of a fall, a small corner will help break off the board inclosed by it. There should be no added charge for vellum over leather corners, as scrap vellum is large enough for this use. Whether tight or loose backs are the better is hard to determine. The latter are used by most American libraries, presumably for good reasons, while the former are recommended by nearly all binding experts. In a tight back, the leather being fastened to the back forms part of the book itself, binding it close at every point and acting as a hinge joint at each place where the book is opened. In a loose back, the leather is hardly more than a connection between the boards, the first linings being all the support to the back; hence, at the joint at the edge of the board there is a constant strain which must result in breaking the cord if the book is in frequent use. Unless a tight back is well made it will not wear smoothly nor open freely; but when the work is well done it will outlast a loose back and will open very nearly as well. A loose back looks better, especially when finished with false raised bands, but as these bands add nothing to the strength of a book, and may even weaken the leather, their use is inadvisable. The cost of finishing the tops and edges should be reduced as much as possible, as all that is needed is to protect the top from dust. Bur¬ nishing with agate at a cost not exceeding cents a volume will do this almost as well as gilding, which costs from 10 to 20 cents a top, or marbling at from 3 to 5 cents, or coloring at about 10 cents per volume. In finishing the back all tooling and ornamentation should be eschewed, except perhaps plain gilt cross lines and blind tooling to divide the back into panels, and perhaps a plain gilt fillet where the leather and sidings join. The lettering should be in plain Roman capitals and ed 93 - 58 914 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Arabic numerals, large enough to be easily read, and should be stamped on the binding and never on labels, which are liable to come off. Use of old English, German, or other fancy types, punctuation marks, and Roman notation, is confusing to the eye and should not be allowed. It is a great convenience to have the lettering always in the same relative position, and the following arrangement is recommended: Name of author in top panel, with initials if needed; a brief comprehensive title condensed from title-page if possible, in the second; editor, translator, or commentator, if necessary, in the third ; and the year, whole number of the volume, the series and series volume, in the order mentioned, without prefixing v., vol., band, etc., in the fourth. Barely, as in news¬ papers, it is well also to add the months. When books are bound together put the author of the leading book in the top panel and its title in the second, and the author and title of the second book in the third panel. When books have permanent class and book numbers they should be gilded on the bottom panel in 8° and smaller volumes, and in the top of the first panel of larger volumes. Lettering costs only from 3 to 5 cents per line, and the saving in time and trouble spent in constantly replacing paper numbers will warrant the outlay. Paper sidings are ordinarily most satisfactory, cost 2 or 3 cents less than cloth and wear almost as long. They give little friction on the shelves, do not curl at the edges, fray at the ends, nor blister with moisture, as will cloth. Moreover, paper when worn out can be more easily replaced. Full leather work, except in rare cases, is very.costly, and having no advantage has no place in a library. Cost of binding varies so much in different places and with the style and quality of work, that it is hard to give reliable figures.' Accord¬ ing to the answers given to the binding circular sent out by the com¬ parative library exhibit, an 8° binding costs in — Boards . $0. 08 to $0. 25 Muslin . . . . 25 to .85 Duck . 25 to .90 Buckram . 40 to .05 Half skiver . 50 to .55 Half sheep . 30 to 1.00 Half roan. . ... . . 25 to .90 Half buffing . 28 to .90 Half American russia . 40 to 1. 00 Half russia . ... $0. 95 to $1. 00 Half vellum . 2. 00 to 3. 00 Half pigskin . 50 to 1. 50 Half calf . 60 to 1. 20 Half bock . 50 to 1. 00 Half Persian goat . 37 to 1. 25 Half Turkey morocco . 40 to 1. 50 Half grosgrain morocco . . .95 to 1. 50 Half Levant morocco . 75 to 2. 50 For other sizes there is quite as much difference and clearly no prac¬ tical use can be made of these figures. Judging from the actual cost of work in the Yew York State library bindery and from the prices for which work can be done by contract in Yew York State, it would seem that work, according to our specifications, in which all grades of work THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 915 are as thoroughly sewed and carefully forwarded as in tlie best morocco (except that muslin binding is case work), is worth as follows: Size. Half morocco. Half duck. Cloth. Half law sheep or American russia. Symbol. In centi¬ meters. F 30-35 $1.50 $1.25 $1.00 $1.35 Q 25-30 1.20 . 95 .70 1.00 O 20-25 .95 .70 .60 .75 D 15-20 . 75 .60 . 50 . 65 S 15-17. 5 .66' .45 .35 .50 While in parts of the country, owing to competition and other causes, binding prices have gone down within the last few years, yet, as in most European countries the cost has risen in spite of competi¬ tion, we have no reason to expect that work will ever be much cheaper here than at present. Of foreign work the French is cheapest and most satisfactory. English binding, when in morocco, is excellent, specially in the for¬ warding 5 and German work, while sometimes not so good as either of the others, is now generally good, and is certainly an advance on that of a few years ago. The cost of binding an 8° in half morocco is, in London, 3s. 6d. [84 cents] j in Leipzig, 2m. 25pf. [56 cents] ; in Paris, 2f. [40 cents], so money can still be saved by having books bound abroad. The temptation to start a bindery in a library is often very great to anyone familiar with the cost and character of good work. Good binderies and fair prices are not common even in large cities, and in places remote from these centers bookbinding is either crudely done or is charged for at fancy rates. A library wishing first-class work of all kinds will almost certainly lose money by doing its own work, if its binding account is not more than 82,500 per year, and if it expends from $2,500 to $3,000 it will still be on the doubtful list, but on larger sums it should make money. Success depends entirely on a proper subdivision of labor, and no bindery can hope to make a profit if it has not work for at least three hands. The experiment has been thoroughly tried, and enough data have been collected to show that none but large and rapidly growing libraries can expect to run a bindery at a profit, and that even these can hope for only small financial gain. One great exception to this rule should be noted. Some of the rapidly circulating libraries in large cities, where books are bound for constant use, and with the expectation that many will wear out in service, have found that they can save money by doing their own work when their binding bill is no more than $1,000 or $1,500 a year. Ebt requiring good workmanship, cost of labor is low, sometimes less than $900 ; and by binding in duck, buffing, and other cheap materials, often using the old covers, the cost of stock is kept down, sometimes below 916 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 5 cents a volume. They find that in binding 3,500 volumes or more they can save money. This kind of binding is suitable for this pur¬ pose, but has no place in a library which binds for preservation. In that the case is different. Suppose you have your plant, which will cost from $650 to $800, all paid for, and are willing to leave out of calculation the interest on both plant and stock, cost of light, heat, bookkeeping, insurance, etc., and you expect to do $2,500 worth of work a year. You will require a finisher at $20 a week, a forwarder at $12, and a sewer at $6, so in round numbers the labor will cost $1,975 a year. But the stock used in doing this work, if conditions are the same as now exist in the Hew York State library, will cost from $575 to $625, so that total cost will be from $2,550 to $2,600. If, however, you do $3,000 worth of work, you may require another hand, an appren¬ tice at $4 a week, which will make your labor cost in round numbers $2,185, and the stock will cost from $690 to $750, so that the total cost will be from $2,875 to $2,935. These approximations, deduced from practical experience, are meant to represent in all cases the highest cost and most disadvantageous circumstances. The indirect advantages, however, are many and val¬ uable: Safety, convenience, saving of time, certainty of having work done as wanted, and the ability to have work done outside at figures much lower than binders would give if they did not have to compete with your own. These advantages are not to be disregarded or under¬ estimated, but if direct money gain alone is to be considered it can not be looked for in a library bindery. School and College Libraries. By George T. Little, Librarian of Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. The object of school and college libraries is to aid in the education of a limited number of persons. This aim separates them in a measure from public libraries and alone justifies the attempt to treat in a single chapter of the administration of collections varying in size from 300 to 300,000 volumes.1 Ho institution of learning can live without books. Ho group of students, whether young or old, can grow in knowledge without access to a library. This library becomes for the time being an agent in their education. Like any piece of school apparatus it may bring injury by misuse, lose its value by neglect, or, well managed, produce results beneficial beyond anticipation. In any case its purpose remains the ]The plan assigned to this paper excludes alike a statistical account of the present condition of school and college libraries, and an historical statement of their remarkable growth during the last eighteen years and of the striking changes in methods. Any occasion for the former is largely met by Miss Lodilla Ambrose’s comprehensive paper entitled “A study of college libraries,” published in Library Journal, 18: 113. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 917 same. It is there to supplement and make real the instruction given by text-book and teacher. So different, however, are its methods of working in schools of different grades and among students of different attainments, that at the outset a rough distinction must be drawn between the school, the college, and the university library.1 School libraries. — The school or academy library should be operated by the teachers without a professional librarian.2 It should be limited in size. It should require no catalog besides a simple shelf list. Each teacher should know its contents. Its volumes should be selected with the utmost care.3 The best and only the best should be the motto. It should contain every reference book that the ingenuity of the instructor can get his pupils to consult with profit. Duplicates, and even tripli- 1 Recent thought refuses to treat “ colleg’e ” and “university” as synonyms, and differentiates as sharply between college and university as between high school and college. The college course proper begins where the high school leaves off and com¬ pletes the gymnasial training which should precede the purely elective study and research of the university, or the direct preparation for duty given by professional and technical schools. The word university, instead of being loosely used as a synonym for college, or as referring to a group of professional and technical schools, properly refers to an institution which in faculty, libraries, laboratories, material equipment and endowment offers facilities for exhaustive scholarly research of that type for which a complete college education with its thorough gymnasial training is assumed as the necessary preliminary. Thus the eight years’ gymnasium train¬ ing is divided into the four-year high school course followed by the four-year col¬ lege course. In fact, however sound this theory, few American colleges fit these proper definitions. Of the 450 alleged colleges and universities, perhaps a majority are doing more or less high-school work, not really requiring the four years of prep¬ aration. Of the better institutions, a large number, instead of beginning as they should where the high school leaves off, require a year or more of further prepara¬ tion for admission. Not a few, however, carry the college work over by a year or more into the proper university field. Then the word has in the past been so indefi¬ nitely used that many colleges are of much higher grade than many other institu¬ tions which have taken the name university. In reading this paper, therefore, the academy and university library may be clearly 'understood, but the theory of the college library will depend on what the college means. If by strict definition it is the last four years of a gymnasial course, it will resemble the academy library more closely. If, however, as most laymen assume, it is really an undersized university, then the ideals for the university library should be the guide and be modified and reduced to fit this conception. Ail will doubtless concede however that a sharp distinction exists between academy and college library; that the former is for the older school children, while the col¬ lege library treats its readers as adults. Between high school and college seems to run the line that separates the boy from the man in education, though he attains his legal majority some three years later, or about senior year. — M. D. -The words school and academy are here used to denote an institution occupying a single building for educational x^urposes, in which pupils spend several hours of the day in study and recitation. It is obvious that the libraries of certain normal schools and of old and well-endowed academies with advanced courses of study are not to be limited either in the way or to the degree essential to the success of libra¬ ries in city schools and country academies, where with difficulty a single room is secured for them. 3 The use to which such books can be put is well set forth in Library Journal, 8 : 24. 918 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. cates in some cases, of tlie most popular and useful of these must be supplied. Waiting one’s turn after school to consult Webster’s diction¬ ary will destroy the efficiency of the library for the ordinary academy scholar almost as much as the absence of that work. It should contain an abundant supply of what maybe termed collateral reading: i. e., popular and instructive books relating to every part of the curriculum. These books should be bought only on satisfactory evidence of their being adapted for the work in question. They should be alluded to and quoted by the teachers in their recitations ; they should be personally recommended to different individuals, and, in general, circulated as widely as possible among the pupils. When a volume is found to be both instructive and specially interesting let there be no hesitation in procuring duplicates. More is accomplished by five copies of a good book that finds its own readers than by ten good books that must be helped to an audience. The school library should be classified by some simple system. The appreciation of the distinction between general books of reference, books on history, on science, of general literature, is the first step to their correct use. The growth of the collection, moreover, must not be allowed to interfere with those material conveniences which make the use of books easy and afford the charm that so often characterizes the private library — spacious tables, a broad window seat, comfortable chairs. Better an extra easy chair than an extra case of government documents. But it must grow. Nothing will injure its efficiency more than lack of new books. New editions of standard works of reference must be secured. Bees’s Cyclopedia was a most valuable work in its day. Its presence now in a school library of 2,000 volumes will rightly cast suspicion on the entire collection. New books for collateral read¬ ing should be constantly added. Whenever the book of the day about which everyone is talking happens to be fitted for this purpose let it be secured without delay. The addition of one such book may give the library an importance and influence in some quarters that it has hitherto failed to gain. One characteristic of the school library sharply separates it from the majority of public libraries. Its growth is limited by physical consid¬ erations which can be overcome only at great expense and with doubtful profit. Constant accessions must not convert the reading room into a book stack. In a word, the duty of withdrawing books when the col¬ lection is in danger of becoming unwieldy is as great as that of care in selection at the outset. The task is difficult, but quite feasible.1 Take care that some large library in the neighborhood has a copy of each vol¬ ume to be discarded. Then withdraw promptly old editions of reference books and duplicates no longer used, and cautiously that large class of 1 The advantages are greater and the difficulty less in high school than in public libraries, but even here the greatest caution must be exercised, the only safe rule being that in all doubtful cases the books shall not be withdrawn. — M. D. THE WORLDS LIBRARY CONGRESS. 919 books, excellent in tlieir day, but less popular than their younger rivals; e. g., remove Mrs. Mann’s Flower People to give place for Miss Harris’s Wild Flowers and Where they Grow.1 These few sentences, though relating to concrete matters, perhaps explain sufficiently the special field of the school or academy library. It should enable the teacher to round out the instruction of the recita¬ tion hour by referring the pupil to standard sources of information for answers to the questions that naturally arise; and, what is alike more important and more difficult, it should enable him to rouse and main¬ tain an interest in the subject studied by attractive and entertaining collateral reading. Its efficiency, however, depends largely not only on the hearty cooperation of the teachers, but also on the time and thought which they can devote to it. With the simplest possible organization much care and labor is needed to keep the collection in order. This often makes it wiser not to form a special library and to depend on the public library of the place, specially when this is conducted according to advanced and liberal views. Each room will still require certain books of reference, but in place of a collection from which shall be drawn the reading matter for the entire school, each teacher should be encouraged to call on the public library for the books required to illus¬ trate his teaching. The various methods of bringing about this helpful relation between the two great educational forces in the community are fully set forth by Miss H. P. James in the article on u Libraries and schools” (see p. 693). College libraries. — While the college library accomplishes much that has been allotted to the school library, its aim is distinctly broader and higher. Its instruction is confined to no curriculum. It answers all questions. It should teach alike the wideness of human knowledge and the interdependence of its various departments. While the school library does its work well with 2,000 volumes the college library may require 50,000. These are to be selected carefully and systematically, though not with that painstaking exclusion of all save the best which characterized the building of the former. A sprinkling of second and third rate books will help rather than hurt. For having in school learned to put his trust in books as the source of truth, the pupil is to discover In college how untrustworthy and contradictory a source some of them are. The varying factors of the purpose and the prejudices of their authors must be brought to his attention and he must discrimi¬ nate. In other words, he must learn to think, the best lesson a college course can teach. The ability to comprehend different statements of fact, to weigh the value of differing opinions and to form an impartial judgment as to the truth, means success in after life. The college library is the workshop where this trait can be developed and trained. ^For discussion of this weeding-out process for town libraries see S. S. Green’s chapter on ‘Adaptation of libraries to constituencies,” p. 698, and the note as to the serious objections to the plan. — M. D. 920 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. It sliould, therefore, be encyclopedic in its range and impartial in its selection. It is as unwise to exclude the Bridgewater treatises as out of date as to reject Haeckel as atheistic. There must be constant effort both to secure as soon as possible an authoritative statement of each recent advance in knowledge, and to keep on the shelves the best com- pends and popular presentations of each department of religious, natu¬ ral, and social science. Too often this completeness is sacrificed either to the inordinate demands of a few instructors or to a striving for mere numbers. It is pitiable for a college library to say as loudly as books can speak, a We care for nothing here save philology and political econ¬ omy;” or to find another that has existed half a century, numbers as many thousand volumes, and yet can not supply material for a course of reading in the national literature. University libraries. — If the college library teaches scholars, the uni¬ versity library teaches teachers. While it is able to do the work of the two classes just mentioned, the function that separates it from them is the aid it renders to original research. It is an engine by which new truth is discovered. All knowledge is its sphere, whether that knowl¬ edge has been digested in books or not. Hence the university library is often called on to expend as many thousands on periodicals alone as the college library devotes to books and periodicals. The investigator must both stand on the past and be abreast with the present. The university library is not only warranted in storing away every bit of the printed thought of bygone days it can obtain, but is also forced to be constantly seeking the latest tidings from workers in widely sepa¬ rated fields. It must be catholic; it refuses no gift; it counts nothing trash. The college library may, the university library must, have de¬ partmental libraries. It must not only duplicate many of its books, but be so well organized as to place at short notice all of its resources on any topic in a departmental library or a laboratory for the use of the investigator and as readily withdraw to the central storehouse what is no longer of service.1 The general public, too, has its claims. As the ideal university professor stands for the advance of truth in his depart¬ ment, and answers honest inquiries from the outside world as readily as those from his lecture room, so the university library should place its treasures at the disposal of any intelligent seeker after knowledge whose questions can not elsewhere be answered. COLLEGE LIBRARY ECONOMY. Despite these differences, it is often difficult to assign the library of a particular college to any one of these classes. It may be gradually growing out of one class into another, or by reason of special circum¬ stances may have assumed additional functions. With an enterprising xOn the method of accomplishing this, consult Willard Austin’s paper on refer¬ ence, seminary, and department libraries at Cornell University, in Library Journal, 18:181. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 921 principal the library of a country academy may well supply the place of a village circulating library of high grade. A college library is sometimes called on to do the work of a State historical society. The existence close at hand of endowed libraries devoted to special branches of knowledge justifies a university library in neglecting its development along those lines. In every case, however, these three classes of libraries are collections of books which must be obtained, recorded, arranged, consulted, and circulated. The methods employed in accomplishing this will not in most details differ materially from those pursued in the ordinary public library of similar size. It is pro¬ posed, therefore, to mention only those points of library economy which either in themselves or in the degree of attention to be given them demand the special consideration of the college librarian.1 Unless otherwise specified, the following statements refer in general to institu¬ tions having from 30,000 to 60,000 volumes and purchasing from 1,000 to 2,000 annually. Selection of books. — This task, the more important the more lim¬ ited the means, is divided between teachers and librarian. Through a library committee, of which the librarian is the working member, a rough division is made among the departments of the amount avail¬ able for buying books and periodicals, a considerable part being reserved for special purchases and possible contingencies. Books are then form¬ ally recommended from time to time by the various professors and bought to the extent of the appropriation. The librarian should assume the duty of selecting books in departments not claimed, or, as occasionally happens, neglected by the faculty. He feels most keenly any deficiency of the library in standard works, either of reference or in general literature, and is, therefore, the one who should endeavor gradually to supply this lack.2 It sometimes becomes his duty to check an otherwise exemplary teacher who persists in ordering only what is of service to himself, ignoring the needs of the student body. The bane of a small college library is an ambitious specialist allowed to have his own way. 1 The writer has had the privilege of examining the replies to an extended series of inquiries, prepared by Charles E. Lowrey, librarian of the University of Colorado, and relating to every detail of college library administration. His regret that the space at his disposal will not allow the insertion of even a digest is lessened by the hope that a full statement of them may be printed later. Many valuable suggestions can be obtained from the annual reports of Melvil Dewey, librarian of Columbia College, 1884-88. -The principles governing selection of books are outlined by James M. Anderson in Library Journal, 2 : 150. A full and logical statement of the class of books a col¬ lege library should contain is given by Otis H. Robinson in Library Journal, 6: 96. See also the latter part of Justin Winsor's article in United States Bureau of Edu¬ cation, Circular of Information No. 1, 1880, “ College libraries as aids to instruction.” This pamphlet, invaluable to every college librarian, touches on many of the points considered in this chapter, and is here cited once for all. 922 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892 93. It may seem superfluous to add tliat eacli college library should pos¬ sess all publications of the institution itself and works of its alumni. Unfortunately, tlie experience of the older colleges shows the danger of delay or neglect in this direction. Great pains must be taken and patience exercised to give to this department the special value that comes from completeness. Hardly less important than the selection of books is that of periodi¬ cals. 1 Generally the demand of the progressive members of the faculty for serials in their departments is far in excess of the means to supply them. Each department should have some of the material needed in keeping abreast with discovery and research in that line. At the same time it is incumbent on the librarian to guard against such an expendi¬ ture on publications giving tentative results and preliminary sketches as will prevent the library from procuring the monographs digested from this mass. These latter will continue serviceable long after the journals themselves have become useful only in studying the history of the science. The college library, being debarred by its income from attempting to cover the entire field, should take, first of all, represent¬ ative periodicals in English sufficient to enable the student body to keep in touch with the subjects of the day, adding, if possible, one gen¬ eral or literary periodical of France and of Germany ; then it should endeavor to supply the wants of its professors, having regard more to the use likely to be made by the various departments than to an impar¬ tial division among them. It is rarely the case that cooperation can not double this material with but slight increase of expenditure. Most teachers will be willing to take fiersonally some periodical that the library can not afford, and frequently will put this, with the exception of current numbers, at the disposal of the librarian. Many graduates will be willing to supply the publications of some society in which their membership is more a matter of general than of personal interest. Neighboring public libraries can be depended on for the loan of less used serials, while consultation at the time of making up the periodical list will often lessen the individual and increase the joint list. As a rule it is a mistake to discontinue a periodical taken for several years, excejit on account of a marked change in its character or standing. The value of the early volumes becoming more and more historical, this is increased in proportion to the length of time covered. Classification of books. — When the books suited to the purposes of the library have been thus selected by instructors who may be con¬ sidered experts in their several departments, and by a librarian who has access to the best bibliographic aids and has been trained in their use, there still remains the problem of bringing the books and the students together. This involves at least three things, classification of books by subjects, access to shelves by students, and instruction in bibliology Thirteenth report [1890] of Justin Winsor, librarian of Harvard University. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 923 by professors or librarian. All admit tliat an arrangement of books by subjects is essential to tlie proper administration of a college library. There is fast coming to be a practical agreement that under ordinary conditions this arrangement can be successfully maintained only by combination with what is known as the “movable location 5” i. e., a sys¬ tem of marking which indicates the place of each book by its subject- matter rather than the place assigned it on a certain shelf. As to the system of classification to be adopted, there is a wide dif¬ ference of opinion. In our oldest university library, “the idea has been to make such an arrangement as would best accommodate the officers of the university who may have occasion to work at the shelves.” 1 In another young and prosperous university this object has been attained by a large number of departmental libraries, built up, it would almost seem, at the expense of the central library, which recently did not noticeably exceed some of them in size and attractiveness. At Cor¬ nell University, also, “practical convenience rather than any strictly logical method” has been followed in the classification adopted.2 At Columbia College the decimal classification was introduced by its author in 1883, and the phenomenally rapid growth of the collection of books there has not as yet led to any essential modification of the system of arrangement. Eot following the example set them by many well- endowed universi¬ ties, most of the colleges that have been led to reclassify their libraries during the last fifteen years have adopted some one of the fully elabo¬ rated and published schemes of classification, too well known to require mention here, and have not attempted to construct a new scheme that should avoid the defects of the former and better answer local require¬ ments. It is in place to mention briefly the advantages of this course. Experience has proved these not perfect, but practicable. College or large reference libraries have used them with satisfaction. They have had the advantage of the best thought and criticism of the library pro¬ fession of the day, and the changes that the future will make necessary are not likely to be so great as in a scheme devised from the standpoint of a single library and necessarily molded in a great degree by its present condition. Again, the fact that their various subdivisions are clearly stated in print gives them a definiteness that is of great practical value. The librarian, his assistants, and all interested in the matter can understand from the outset the arrangement that is attempted. Reclassification may go on in different subjects without danger of interference. As a rule a new scheme is put in operation before all the details are decided. The almost inevitable result is that frequent changes are made out of deference to some influential teacher, whose views were not known at 1 Second and third reports of Justin Winsor, librarian of Harvard University. 2 ‘Classification of Cornell University library/’ by George William Harris, in Li¬ brary Journal, 16: 138. 924 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1892-93. the start and may prove exactly opposite to those of his successor. It is agreed, for instance, that a chronologic arrangement of English literature is helpful for purposes of study ; but it is not likely that three successive occupants of the chair of English will hold the same opinion as to how far this principle should be followed in arranging the books, or the number of periods to be recognized. The slighting allusions occasionally made by prominent librarians to these schemes seem often to apply to the notation recommended by their authors, or the minute classification which they will allow, rather than to the arrangement of books they aim to accomplish. The material accessories in the way of indexes, explanatory matter, and printed shelf labels, which are offered in connection with at least one of these systems, are of considerable importance and could not be secured for a new scheme save at a cost almost prohibitive to the ordinary college library. Access to shelves. — A scheme of classification halving been carried out and made obvious by shelf labels and placards, access to the shelves becomes necessary, not merely to reap the benefits of the labor thus expended but also to accomplish the aim of the library itself. To have the literature of a subject together where it can be surveyed at a glance is as needful for thorough as for speedy investigation. Every time a student removes from the shelves four or five books on the same topic, glances at their contents and selects the one that in his opinion will best serve his purpose, he not only takes the most important step toward attainment of the desired information, but also employs his faculties in the manner best adapted to strengthen his power of judg¬ ment and to quicken his perception of truth. This tasting before one eats can not be done by proxy. The hand of the attendant and the moments of time intervening between the seeker and his shelf full of books is in practice destructive of this use of the library. A certain familiarity with the titles and appearance of books, only to be gained by repeatedly seeing them on the shelves, is often of value to the college graduate in after life. In some communities he is still supposed to have studied everything. His influence in his specialty is impaired if he shows ignorance of other matters. A mere knowledge of the physical difference between Stalker’s Life of Paul and Young’s Concordance may convince all the teachers in the Sunday school that the village physician should be consulted in selecting the village library. Furthermore, the idle curiosity that leads many a student to roam through the alcoves of the college library, generally far the largest collection of books he has ever seen, is frequently the germ of that bookishness characteristic of literary workers. Forbid the gratifica¬ tion of this curiosity and you may stifle a taste that would otherwise bring culture to its possessor. The difficulties in the way of granting free access to the shelves are so obvious as to be generally overestimated in the case of smaller libraries. In large libraries where these objections seem imperative, THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 925 freedom of shelves is granted to advanced students and to those specially recommended by their instructors, while undergraduate needs are met by class room libraries and large reference collections in the main reading room. Often the practice of temporarily reserving books for a particular class, a practice primarily intended to secure equal rights to each member of the class, is carried to such an extent as to bring forth the entire resources of the library on a certain subject, and thus in part to afford the advantages of free access to the shelves.1 Departmental libraries. — The popularity of the student society libraries which were a marked feature of college life during the first half of this century, was unquestionably due to the prominence they gave to general literature and to the freedom of access to books they granted as compared with the college library. When the literary ac¬ tivity of these societies languished or ceased, it became necessary to protect their libraries, often more used than the college collection, by combining it with the latter. This union has been carried out very generally since the issue of the United States report on libraries in 1876. The change, however, in the methods of college instruction has in the last ten years developed the need and existence of departmental and class room libraries. The wave of combination is fast followed by one of division. “The tendency is to make the university library to an increasing extent a collection of department libraries round a center consisting of those books to the making of which different depart¬ ments have contributed in common and which they will use in common, and the method of study requires free access to the books in these department libraries.”2 This movement would make even the ordinary college library “a collection of department libraries containing books selected by the professor and instructor in that department rather than one library having a systematic and unifying principle of growth and administration.” (W. I. Fletcher, L. j. 10: 268.) This necessarily leads to the housing in different laboratories and seminary rooms of a very considerable portion of the books belonging to the institution. The advantages thus gained may be briefly summarized as relief to the main library room, which rarely has the facilities both for a large num¬ ber of books and a large number of workers, greater freedom with diminished danger from misplacement of books, and assurance of the personal aid and instruction of professors in their use. (Edith E. Clarke, L. j. 14: 340 ; L.j. 14: 464 ; 15: c 143.) The movement is so general that its dangers, specially.in case of unen¬ dowed libraries, demand a fuller statement. They appear twofold; on the practical side, the cost and difficulty in successfully maintaining 1 For access to shelves in college libraries, see Library Journal, 2 : 55, 69, 70 ; 10 : 221 ; 13: 35; 17: c70, c86; 18: 113, and fourteenth report [1891] of Justin Winsor. 2 Edwin H. Woodruff, librarian of Leland Stanford Junior University/ in a paper entitled u Some present tendencies in university libraries,” read before the Inter¬ national Congress of Librarians at Chicago, July 11, 1893. 926 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. separately housed and rapidly growing collections of books, selected by as many different persons; on the theoretic side, the lessening of the importance and influence of the central library as a humanizing factor in college life and as a unifying force in the different fields of intellectual pursuit.1 In case volunteer assistance equal to that of trained library attendants is forthcoming from the various departments served, the first objection is met in great measure. There still remains the difficulty of securing a symmetrical growth of the different collections without impairing the efficiency of the central library by unduly stinting its purchases. With the increased use of the department libraries it is inevitable that the demand for duplicates will be more and more based on convenience rather than necessity, while the fields of knowledge not at any one period the subject of study will be temporarily neglected, unless the librarian shows unusual foresight and persistence. While many believe there is no time in college for what is known as a desultory use of books, all agree that it is the time to learn how to read and what to read. (E. E. Bowker, L.j. 2: 60.) Now, the central library must possess a preeminence, not alone in size, but in attractive¬ ness, if this object is to be accomplished. The student must find in it not only that scanty “literature of power 77 which will elude many a departmental division of books, but also a first-class selection from the boundless “literature of knowledge.77 Otherwise his mind, however sharpened and trained by his special studies, will unconsciously learn to forego the pleasure of investigating the miscellaneous toffies that have momentarily aroused its curiosity, since this involves the use, it may be, of a dozen different departmental libraries, all more or less unfamiliar to him. If, as has been recently said, our universities are dominated by the scientific spirit, it is the more needful that the cen¬ tral university library by its inclusiveness, symmetry, and influence should represent the spirit of liberal culture, not as the antagonist, but as the end and aim of specializing study.2 1 That there is great danger of thus neglecting a central library may appear from the following extract from the sixteenth annnal report of the president of Johns Hopkins University. “ * * * The sum of $2,000 given to the university by 'William A. Slater, esq.; of Norwich, Conn., has been expended in the purchase of costly books, not absolutely essential to our daily work, but of great attraction to students. The most of the purchases were iu English literature, and among them were the best library editions of Shakespeare, Beaumont, and Fletcher, and other dramatists, Ascham, Milton, Evelyn, Johnson, Dry den, Pope, Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Goldsmith, Lamh, Browning, Tennyson, Lowell, Longfellow, Whittier, and other writers. * * *v The average college, specially if located in a country town, can not afford to wait for a special gift to place on its shelves the best library editions of leading authors iu English literature. 2 There are two ways of combining the obvious advantages of both plans. One, too expensive to be practical unless in very rare cases, is to incur the heavy cost of having both central and department libraries complete by the free buying of dupli¬ cates. The other is to make the library the center of the university grounds, aud put the cluster of department libraries, with their seminars, in rooms adjoining the 927 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. Instruction in bibliology. — Since Mr. .Emerson made his famous demand on the colleges for a professorship of books and reading, and specially since the publications of the Bureau of Education have shown what has been done in this direction and how it may best be done, few college libraries have failed to make some attempt, either through the librarian or interested members of the faculty, to give instruction in the use of books. These attempts have necessarily been informal and largely spasmodic. Hardly a dozen institutions provide to-day system¬ atic courses of instruction in bibliology.* 1 This is due partly to pressure of other work on the librarian, partly to the inability of the college to find or pay a proper salary to a “good encyclopedic adviser in the flesh, ever ready, alluring in manner, and with an enthusiasm for his work,” (Justin Winsor, L. j. 3 : 120.) All professional librarians, however, fully realize the need both of formal lectures and of that hand to hand, face to face instruction in the library itself, by which methods of investiga¬ tion are taught, experience gained, and enthusiasm communicated. Quiet but effective work of this character is done in many colleges.2 Subject catalogs. — As a rule, college librarians feel it incumbent on them to supply a subject as well as an author catalog. So laborious and expensive is this task, when carried out with the elaborateness practiced in larger libraries, that many have envied rather than imitated catalogs such as the College of New Jersey issued in 1884 and the Uni¬ versity of California in 1890. Of late a prominent librarian lias repeat¬ edly expressed his conviction that this costly key to the resources of a growing library must be given up.3 The argument against its use in the college or university library is, briefly, this : It is harmful to the ordinary student, who, using it without discrimination, often selects from the numerous titles cited obsolete or misleading books. To the specialist it fails to present the entire resources of the library on any subject, since it does not analyze and include many serial publications. In particular, it fails to mention the existence of important works not in the library. For the former a printed finding list of a picked eollec- general library and surrounding it as a center. This would enable the students in each seminar room to use the general books and the readers of the general library to reach anything in a department library by merely passing to an adjoining room. This plan requires that the space next the main library shall not be used for admin¬ istration, museum, general recitation, or any other purposes not requiring immediate contact with the library, since the space on every side will be none too much to pro¬ vide for seminar rooms and jmofessors’ studies in the great field of study of which the library is the laboratory where both professors and students must constantly work. — M. D. 1 The University of Michigan seems to have been the first in this country to incor¬ porate and maintain in its curriculum a regular course of lectures upon bibliography. This course is fully described by the lecturer, R. C. Davis, in Library Journal, 11 : 289. 2A short course of instruction in Bowdoin College, in which some xn’ominence was given to this feature, is described in Library Journal, 17 : c87. 3W. I. Fletcher in Library Journal, 17 : c4; and in address on Library catalogs in the twentieth century, at World’s Congress of Librarians July 13, 1893. 928 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. tion of 5,000 or 10,000 books of recognized merit will be more useful. The latter will find more complete and accurate guidance in printed bibliographies.1 The subject catalog, in its development and almost universal use, is peculiarly American, and the views just expressed have yet to win general adoption on this side the Atlantic. (Justin Winsor, L.j, 8: 33; 16: 214.) They serve, however, to emphasize the need of careful anno¬ tation of the subject catalogs in our college libraries by or under direction of the various professors, and the frequent reference to such separate bibliographies and bibliographic guides as the library has. Many earnest advocates of a subject catalog would doubtless advise a college library mainly composed of recent books to check up an inter¬ leaved copy of Sonnenschein’s u Best books v with its location marks, rather than attempt to make a subject catalog, whenever the latter course would unquestionably restrict the amount available for future purchases. The extent to which the printed dictionary catalogs of other libraries may be made to serve as a substitute for a subject catalog is seldom fully appreciated in smaller libraries. The recently completed catalog of the Peabody Institute, Baltimore, is well adapted for this use. The task of entering on the margins the location marks of the volumes possessed by a small college library is largely mechanical and can be intrusted to any careful student helper. Entering on the inter¬ leaved pages subject references to specially important new books will not unduly burden the librarian himself, specially if he secures the coop¬ eration of interested members of the faculty. Such a subject catalog being mainly in print can be used even more conveniently than a card catalog when the number of those who consult it is limited. Library privileges. — Xearly all college libraries during the last twenty years have extended the privileges granted undergraduates. The spirit that restricted a freshman to one book and a sophomore to two books each half term has practically disappeared. In 1877 it would appear that 1 in 7 of the college libraries were not open daily; the pro¬ portion now is only 1 in 40, while over one-half are open upward of thirty hours a week. Then, as a rule, the professors only could make the col¬ lection a direct aid in their studies ; now, by means of reserved books and long library hours, the privilege is extended to all students. The very few university libraries that do not lend books to undergraduates provide every facility for their consultation in the building. Many libraries- still fail to allow an undergraduate to borrow for a limited time all the books he needs on a definite subject. Why this privilege, granted as a matter of course to teachers, should be refused to learners, is not entirely clear. The usual argument, liability to abuse, may be met by the obvious reply that it is in the power of the adminis¬ tration to prevent such abuse. A charging system that maintains an 1 This argument is fully and ably stated by C: H : Bull in Subject catalogs in col¬ lege libraries: in Library Journal, 15: 167. 929 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. account with both book and borrower, and registers requests for books not found on the shelves, enables the librarian to ascertain just when liberal loans to one individual affect the efficiency of the library for others. (Justin Winsor, L.j. 3: 338.) In several libraries any under¬ graduate is allowed, on written application approved by the librarian, to borrow for a short period a number of specified books on a definite subject in addition to the usual number allowed him. In a small col¬ lege, or wherever the rules provide for recall of books specially needed, this plan works successfully. The period of usefulness of each book added to the library is in a certain sense limited. The time necessary for an individual to make the proper use of that book is also limited. Rules about circulation should have regard to these limitations. The rule or practice so often met of allowing professors to keep books without a time limit antago¬ nizes this principle, and almost invariably leads to abuse. (Melvil Dewey, X. J. 4: 448.) It has arisen from the fact that certain books are of more use to the professor than to anyone else. These books, how¬ ever, are so few in number that their withdrawal should be an excep¬ tion to the rules, rather than that the rules should be framed to cover the exception. The gradual abandonment of the practice of attaching the librarian- ship to some college chair has given the undergraduate another privi¬ lege, that of having a librarian. With some very marked exceptions, the librarian under the old regime was for the teachers rather than the students. With so much of his thought and energies engrossed with other duties, he was necessarily a custodian rather than a dispenser of books. The opportunity of consulting and enjoying the personal aid and direction of a librarian of mature judgment, wide experience, and full acquaintance with the collection under his charge, is a boon each college should strive to afford its students. The need and the difficulty of securing this in every case are too obvious to require further state¬ ment. (T. K. Davis, L. j. 10 : 100.) Uot least among the new privileges afforded college students is that resulting from the growth of the belief that library buildings must be constructed for readers as well as for books. Another article1 discusses problems of library architecture, and the college librarian should be acquainted with the facilities offered by the new buildings at Cornell University, and at Hartford Theological Seminary, as well as with the plans of the proposed additions to Gore Hall at Harvard. (L.j. 14: 121, 264.) Devices for popularizing the library. — Of various devices for popu¬ larizing a library several are specially helpful in a college library. One, 1 Illness of the author caused the omission of this important article. Reference is made to his paper on “ Points of agreement in library architecture” (L.j. 16: C17-19), and to the two special works on library buildings, which the editor of this volume has now in preparation ; one a compact summary of the lessons of experi¬ ence, the other a full treatment of the subject. — M. D. ED 93 - 59 930 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-03. first used at Harvard, is tlius described: u Slips of paper, beaded Notes and queries, followed by a few words of direction, were prepared, and a row of books was arranged in a conspicuous place to bold tbem. A slip having been filled out with a question and bung up, anybody who possesses the information wanted answers the question on the same slip, or refers the inquirer to sources of information.”1 In many libra¬ ries a blank book properly labeled and placed in a conspicuous position is found to serve nearly as well, while requiring less space. A book of complaints may also prove of service. The peculiar ideas of honor prevailing among undergraduates prevent some of tbem from reporting in person to the librarian annoyances arising from purposely misplaced books, loud talking in study rooms, abstraction of current periodicals, and repeated failure to secure a popular book, though allow¬ ing the expression of grievances through this channel. Even when a library is compelled to buy frugally, it is well to solicit suggestions from all who use it as to books to be bought. This can be done by use of a blank book exposed in a prominent place like the book of complaints. The advantage lies not merely in occasional discovery of a notable deficiency, but in the opportunity to become acquainted with wants and tastes of individuals making requests. Such request often leads to an interview in which the present resources of the library in that direction, its financial restrictions and the comparative merits of the book are so discussed as to excite rather than diminish the general interest of the applicant, even though his request is refused. The practice of regularly placing on prominent shelves the new books added to the library — new books seem always to find themselves read¬ ers — should be supplemented by display from time to time of a selec¬ tion of the resources of the library on some topic of the day, or on some subject toward which the librarian desires to attract attention. This indirect method of guiding the reading of undergraduates costs little in time and is often as effective as more formal efforts. Cooperation. — Glancing at the condition of the college libraries throughout the entire country, one can hardly fail to be impressed with the restrictions that poverty places on the work many of them might otherwise accomplish. Of 450 institutions of higher learning in the United States only 200 have collections of books large enough to be ranked as college libraries. Of these 200 only a third have profes¬ sional librarians. Of this third a smaller fraction are well endowed and organized. Till this burden of poverty is lifted it seems evident that the only way for a general increase in efficiency lies in wise cooper¬ ation, both with other libraries of their class and with public libraries in their vicinity. The obligation to help, which always comes with the ability, is generally acknowledged by the large and well -endowed uni¬ versity libraries. This assistance, to cite a single instance, can be ren- 1 First report [1878] of Justin Winsor, librarian of Harvard University, and Library Journal, 3: 126, 159. 931 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. derecl without expense in the matter of cataloging’. Nowliere is good cataloging more essential than in a college library. Nowhere is there so often a compulsory choice between buying books and properly cata¬ loging them. Yet of the new books obtained by the average library of this class all have just been fully and accurately cataloged by some university library close at baud, if one speaks from the standpoint of the mail service. If several smaller libraries share the expense, printed or typewritten copies of these catalog cards can be secured each month at a fraction of the original cost. For the older books bought and the miscellaneous volumes given them let these same libraries, joining with them small public libraries in the neighborhood, group themselves geographically and engage a professional cataloger, who should pass from one to the other. Thus all accessions could be properly cataloged without undue delay and at far less expense than would be the case otherwise. The librarian, relieved of this time-consuming work, for wdiick, perchance, he has neither aptitude nor training, can devote his energies to duties of his position previously neglected by constraint. Cooperative cataloging, though so often urged and so obvious a means of diminishing the cost of library administration, is by no means the only channel in which union of effort will bring increased effi¬ ciency to smaller college libraries. The practice of lending books from one library to another has not been developed or systematized to the extent it could be, were there a hearty spirit of cooperation. Its impor¬ tance and usefulness depend, of course, on a certain degree of speciali¬ zation on the part of neighboring libraries and some consideration and inquiry before buying expensive works. It is a shame that two colleges with modest book funds and only 50 miles apart should each buy a copy of Sargent’s Silva of North America, and neither be able to supply an inquirer with Scudder’s Butterflies of the Eastern United States. It may happen that the institutions in one State can make a single set of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Great Britain serve them all. This mode of cooperation is specially advantageous in case of the pub¬ lishing societies. In the department of English, for instance, no small college can afford to buy the issues of the Philological, Early Eng¬ lish Text, New Shakespeare, Spenser, and Browning societies, and yet by agreement with its neighbors it is possible for each professor of English literature to have a complete set of one of them at hand, as well as access to all the others at slight expense. By specializing on State and local history a group of college libraries may supply themselves with sufficient and suitable material for original work in American history. Let each turn over from its accessions all that belongs to the field assigned another, thus securing special rights as a future borrower. Students from the various towns can be inter¬ ested in collecting municipal reports and local publications. Others will be willing to undertake the compilation of scrapbooks containing all historical and biographic matter of note that appears in local papers. 932 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Such a course systematically followed for a score of years by a dozen cooperating libraries in any section of the country would give the teachers and the students in the smallest of these colleges better facili¬ ties in the manner of completeness of historical matter than is now offered by the largest. The department of bibliography, in which the university libraries have already done much elaborate work, is also one in which much more can be accomplished by joint action. The need as well as the demand for books like Adams’s Manual of Historical Literature is ever increasing. Such work must be revised so frequently that it is unlikely to be undertaken and kept up to date from merely commercial consid¬ erations. Is it not, however, practicable so to apportion the field that the colleges of the United States may together give their under¬ graduates and the public simple statements in print of the scope and comparative merits of those books in English that are most used and best adapted for affording information in each of the departments represented in their curricula? Much that has already been done could be used, or by reference made more widely known, and, most important of all, provision could be made for the future revision and issue of these lists. Uo one library can and no publisher will do this. But all col¬ lege libraries have daily use for such a series of brief annotated bibli¬ ographies and together are able, through the men whose services they can secure, to prepare and to publish them.1 The college library and the public library. — If the proprietary library is the parent of the free public library, college and school libraries may justly claim rank as paternal and maternal grandparents.2 Though, as often happens on this side the Atlantic, the child has out¬ stripped its ancestors in size and importance, and has occasionally forced them to follow rather than lead in new and improved methods, still friendly, if not filial, relations must be maintained. When they exist side by side in the same town one can easily supplement the work of the other. Few would claim that the college student should be denied access to the popular literature of the day; all agree that it must not be too accessible. The college library can, therefore, leave this field 1 At the Chicago meeting, where this paper was read, the A. L. A. publishing sec¬ tion was reorganized and is actively engaged in several enterprises such as is here suggested, and proposes to organize others as fast as the demand and support of librarians justify. Full information of the work of the section and of the different publications in preparation can he had from the president, Melvil Dewey, State library, Albany, N. Y. — M. D. To those who have read Otis H. Robinson’s report on cooperative college catalog¬ ing, in Library Journal, 1 : 434 — to cite but one out of many references that might be made — it is obvious that these suggestions are by no means novel. College librarians as individuals, however, have had so prominent a part in the cooperative work accomplished since 1880 that it seems proper to urge on college librarians as a class the need of organized effort in the same direction. 2M. C. Tyler on the Historical evolution of the free public library, in Library Journal, 9:41. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 933 to be entirely supplied by its neighbor. On the other hand, the public library should be encouraged by the college library to refer to it school teachers and all persons of studious tastes who find its collection too limited for their needs. The college, through the librarian and pro¬ fessors, can increase its efficiency as an educational factor by lectures or informal talks, setting forth its resources in the departments they represent {L.j. 12: 253; 16: 214). The use of a university library as a semipublic reference library is in strict accord with the general purpose for which the institution was founded (Otis H. Bobinson, L. j. 2: 57). It is surely to their credit that a recent traveler has written that in America the college libraries offer the best facilities for literary work on the premises. In large cities it sometimes happens that the relative position of the college and the public library is reversed. The latter from its age and large income can supply all that the collegian requires, save a carefully selected collection of reference books in connection with his recitation rooms. If the process of sifting or weeding out public libraries, discussed in another chapter,1 is generally adopted, it becomes specially desirable that each university library should have the privilege of selecting cer¬ tain classes of books; for instance, text-books used in the past in the institution, writings of its alumni, reports of charitable bodies useful in sociologic study, before these are consigned to the auction room. In return for such gifts, temporary loans may be made during the con¬ tinuance of university extension lectures of scientific and expensive books which would not otherwise be obtainable. In a word, the spirit of mutual helpfulness is alike necessary and profitable if the two classes of libraries are to attain to their ideal. Fiction. By Ellen M. Coe, librarian New York free circulating library. The importance of the careful consideration of fiction, especially in free public libraries, is never questioned. It was discussed at length at the first meeting of the A. L. A. in Philadelphia in 1876 {L.j. 1: 96, 98); also at the first meeting of the L. A. U. K., London, 1877 {L. j. 2: 255); and again at the Boston conference of the A. L. A. in 1879, when a number of valuable papers were contributed {L. j. 4: 319). It is the subject of a report of the cooperation committee {L. j. 7 : 28), and of a symposium {L.j. 15: 261-64; 16: 8-10). Magazines and periodicals are constantly publishing articles on the various relations of libraries and librarians to the reading and supply of fiction ; the Library jour¬ nal alone in its 16 volumes indexes over 120 articles and paragraphs. Criticisms by men of letters and by educators which are everywhere met in print are not to be ignored by the library profession ; no presi¬ dent’s address at any meeting of library association or club fails to touch feelingly this important subject; and speakers at the opening of libraries always point the moral and utter the note of warning. Books 1 See discussion by S: S. Green, p. 698; also p. 918 of this paper. 934 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. and pamphlets in great number and of no little value have been pub¬ lished, and, indeed, it would at first seem impossible to gain from this mass of material the fair judgment of the majority. After carefully reading some hundreds of books, pamphlets, articles, and letters on the subject, and considering the opinions brought out in the discussion of this and kindred topics at the A. L. A. Chicago meeting, I present the following as a fair deduction, not affected by my own feelings or opinions. Value of fiction. — The utterance is almost as one voice that fiction is of the greatest value in developing a taste for reading, but is most cer¬ tainly injurious unless of good quality, or if the reading of that class of literature is indulged in exclusively. It is agreed that false literary taste in the young may by judicious direction be corrected, but that in adults the effect of bad reading is almost ineradicable. It is urged that everyone should be familiar with the great works of imagination, and the fact is pointed out that nearly all the greatest — the immortal — literature of the world is fiction. The educational value of the novel is maintained. It is claimed that the imagination is the first faculty that should be developed in child¬ hood, but it is believed, however, that the reading of stories by chil¬ dren should be largely in connection with their studies and under their teachers’ direction. In particular the educational value of the historical novel and the travel story is emphasized as helping to fix in the reader’s mind the facts of history,, and as giving vivid and enduring pictures of remote times and places. Such books are admitted to libraries from which romantic fiction is excluded. It is, however, chiefly as “ pastime reading” that fiction, is demanded, and the argument for its supply by the public library runs mainly as follows: The majority of people are busy so many hours of the day that when they have time to read they have little strength for such reading as may task the brain. Reading is at once the most elevating and refining of all pastime, and people have the same right to it that they have to recreation in the public parks. While a librarian should try to guide his readers judiciously from lighter fiction to that of the best class, and also to works of more serious character, it is deemed dis¬ tinctly his duty to furnish entertaining reading matter to his public. The function of the public library becomes more and more educa¬ tional, and it is interesting to note an advance toward the radical wing of the division. Many librarians in their published writings, as well as in their recent letters to me on this subject, acknowledge that their theories and practices are becoming more strict since they do not find the necessity laid on them to provide a great deal of light entertain¬ ment for their public. At the same time the value of the novel as a proper means of rest and relaxation after severe mental or physical toil is constantly urged. It is contended, however, that this may be provided in ample quantity without the admission of novels questionable from the strict literary or THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 935 moral standpoint. Many writers on this subject deprecate the exces¬ sive reading of even the best novels, believing that in most cases it is only an excuse for mental laziness, and that it weakens the power of serious study and application, and unfits for the higher duties of life. Schopenhauer remarks that u feeble writing unfits us for stronger food.” From this point the argument leads naturally to the extreme view that public libraries should draw the line absolutely at what is believed to be of educational value. Quality of fiction supplied. — Regarding the literary quality of the fiction which a public library should supply opinions vary from “admit whatever is called for” to “ exclude the works of all living novelists while admitting very few by the dead ones,” but the great and reason¬ able majority reaffirms the theory that “it is best to avoid the lowest classes of books and to keep up a high standard.” A large provision of trashy fiction is not necessary to draw the public to the library; indeed only a very small minority expresses itself in favor of this practice, which would find its only excuse in proving that this kind of literature is the most entertaining. The point is made that much fiction which is light and entertaining is, at the same time, of excellent liter¬ ary quality. The pertinent question is asked, “ Why should a different literary standard be applied to fiction than to other classes of books in the selection of which the greatest care is taken, and the opinions and criticism of experts sought in order that the best books maybe chosen for library lists'?” Also, “ Since even the largest libraries must select, as they can not buy all the novels published, why not select the best*?” There is much testimony to show that the public likes the best books, and will read them when x>rovided. One writer says, “ Supply fiction liberally, but at the start furnish only the higher grades, adding sensational books sparingly to catch certain classes of readers when it is found impossible to attract them otherwise.” That libraries should be obliged to furnish books which they would, for sound reasons, otherwise reject “ in order to gain the public support that comes from an extended use of the library” would seem unfortunate, and a distinct degradation of the purpose of the library, that of public benefactor. The moral aspect of the question provokes little discussion, and that mainly in treating of translations. Feeling unquestionably favors ad¬ mitting in the original much which would be excluded in translation, always on the ground that this is necessary to the study of foreign lit¬ erature, and that the books will be mainly used for such study. The universal opinion is that as far as possible all evil should be kept from the young. Quantity of fiction supplied. — This varies, according to answers to my circular letter, from 10 to 45 per cent of the whole number of vol¬ umes in the library. The average is 24, which is somewhat larger than the 20 per cent advised in starting new libraries. The percentage allowed by the committee for the A. L. A. libiary was only 10. 936 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. The library making the largest provision for fiction reports the largest yearly issue of fiction. Exactly the same fact was observed by Mr. T. Mason in determining the average per cent circulation of fiction in 25 libraries of Great Britain, and is noted in his report (L. j. 15: 265-66). Fifteen per cent of the money allowed for buying books is believed to be ample for fiction, these publications being usually of low prices and large discounts. Belection. — This is not usually, and probably should never be, left wholly to the librarian, as this involves undue responsibility. In most cases purchase lists are made up by the librarian from reviews, aided by requests and suggestions from readers. “ Books called for’’ are noted in a blank-book or on slips giving publisher, price, and, whenever possi¬ ble, reliable criticism, and are usually signed by the person making the request ; duplicates wanted are indicated in the same way. These lists are approved and should always be signed by a trustee, and preserved, in order that the librarian may be protected from adverse criticism. Direction of fiction reading. — This is not often attempted except through the annotated catalogs and lists, and by preparing lists and bulletins of “Best novels,” “Historical novels,” etc. Bulletins of care¬ fully selected and annotated books suitable to various school grades are constantly appearing. Personal effort by librarians is usually judi¬ ciously limited to such as is requested by readers or by parents and guardians. In small towns or communities th*e librarian becomes the acquaintance and friend to whom the reader naturally turns for advice, when the conditions become quite different from those existing in the general public library, where the keeper and distributor of books can not be held responsible for the moral and intellectual well-being of the community. Common-sense and tact must direct in this as in all departments of library work. Classification. — Fiction is almost always alphabeted under authors’ names, and Cutter book numbers are generally used. Fiction suited to the young is sometimes separated from other for convenience in delivering books, and should always be indicated by some sign on the outside of the book which will serve as instruction to attendants in selecting suitable books for young readers. Fiction catalogs. — These are usually both author and title lists ; if only one can be provided, the title list is preferred. Whenever possible, lists should be annotated. Very brief notes indicate place and period treated in historical novels, or subject and scope of the “Tendenz- Bornan,” and these add greatly to the value of the catalog, whether printed or on cards. The little time and labor required to prepare these notes will be repaid many-fold. Happily much good work of this kind is already at the service of the librarian or cataloger, and much more is promised in the near future. Fiction lists which are not anno¬ tated should be accompanied by a comprehensive list of “best novels” as a-guide to those wishing to read the best, together with references THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 937 to Boston, Philadelphia, and other u Historical fiction” lists, Griswold’s u Descriptive lists,” etc. It would not be just to omit from this consensus of opinion the report of William Kite, librarian of Friend’s free library, of Germantown, Pa., the only public library reporting to me which admits no novels. This report gives assurance that, after persevering for twenty years in its extreme radical course, the library stands in its community as the exponent of the highest benevolent and educational ideas, and the man¬ agement sees no reason to change its attitude on the fiction question. AIDS TO READING AND THE SELECTION OF BOOKS FOR LIBRARIES. Abbott, Lyman, ed. Hints for liome reading. N. Y. 1880. Baldwin, J : The hook lover ; a guide to the best reading. N. Y. 1888. Boston Pub. Lib. List of books on books and reading. Bulletin No. 9. Burt, M. E. Literary landmarks ; a guide to good reading for young people, and teacher’s assistant. N. Y. 1889. Caller, M. A. Literary guide for home and school. N. Y. Harrison, F : Choice of books. N. Y. Parsons, F., and others. World’s best books. Bost. 1889. Perkins, F. B. The best reading. (With supplements) by L. E. Jones. N. Y. 1879-91. Porter, Noaii. Books and reading. With an app. containing a select catalogue of books. N. Y. 1881. Pryde, D. Highways of literature, p.26. N. Y. (1883.) Pycroft, J. Course of English reading, p. 65. N. Y. 1845. Richardson, C. F. The choice of books. N. Y. 1882. Sargant, E. B., and Whishaw, B. 'Guide-book to books. Lond. 1891. Sonnenschein, W : S. The best books. A reader’s guide. Lond. 1891. Van Rhyn, G. A. F. What and how to read. N. Y. 1876. Consult also the A. L. A. catalog, fiction list. annotated and selected lists of novels. Boston Pub. Lib. Chronological index to historical fiction. - Class list of English prose fiction, including translations and juvenile books, with notes for readers, intended to point out for parallel reading the histori¬ cal sources of works of fiction. 1877. - Catalogue of English prose fiction and books for the young. 1885. Bowen, C. Descriptive catalogue of historical novels and tales. Lond. 1882. Brett, W : H. Best ten novels for the minister. Advance, Nov. 28, 1891. Griswold, W : M. Descriptive lists of novels and tales dealing with life in France, Germany, etc. Guy, W : E. Pastime reading; a partial list of novels that would probably be called standard by the majority of readers, prepared for the convenience of those who are at a loss for some light but good reading. St. Louis. 1891. 248 titles. Hardy, G: E., ed. Five hundred books for the young. N. Y. 1892. Hartford, Conn., Library Association. Author list of novels. 1893. (Annotated.) - Boys’ and girls’ books. 1892. (Historical and critical notes.) See also Hewins, C. M. Hewins, C. M. Grown up fairy tales. Travelers record, v. 26, No. 6. - Notes on novels. Bulletin of the Hartford Library Ass’n. v. 12. - Our grandmothers’ novels. Travelers record, v. 26, Nos. 1, 2. - Some historical novels. Travelers record, v. 25, Nos. 2, 3. 938 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Hewins, 0. M. Some novels to read. Travelers record. ■ - Ten years’ novels. Travelers record, v. 27, No. 7. Hundred greatest novels. L.j. 17 : 55. Lixderfelt, K. A. Historical novels of Alex. Dumas. Arranged chronologically according to the date when each one begins (etc.). L.j. 15: 270. - One hundred of the best English novels. - Eifty of the best foreign novels in English dress. L. j. 15: 67. Pall Mall Gazette. Best hundred books. 1887. Philadelphia, Mercantile Lib. Historical fiction. Bulletins, Oct. 1886-90. 17 nos. St. Louis Pub. Lib. Best books for the young. A selected and graded list. 1884. - “Best ten,” “'Next best ten,” “Best hundred,” etc. A consensus of opinion. Bulletin No. 28, also in pamphlet. Salem, Mass. Pub. Lib. Some of the best novels. Bulletin, April 1891. - Fairy tales, Mythology, etc. Bulletin, Sept. 1891. San Francisco Free Public Library. Classified English prose fiction, including trans¬ lations and juvenile works with notes and index to subject-references. 1891. Sargent, J : F :, ed. Reading for the young ; a classified and annotated catalog. N. Y. 1890. Worcester, Mass. Free Pub. Lib. Bulletins (Annotated). World almanac. List of ten best novels. - List of one hundred best novels. L. j. 17 : 55. BOOKS, ARTICLES, PAPERS, ETC., RELATING TO FICTION. Alison, Sir A., The historical romance. Essays, v. 3. Edin. 1850. Atkinson, W. P. On the right use of books; a lecture. Bost. 1880. Bates, Arlo. Realism and the art of fiction. Scrib. 2: 241. Battle of the novels. From the Saturday review. L. j. 15 : 310-11. Books which have influenced me. N. Y, n. d. Calvert, G : H. Books for boys. In Brief essays. Carlyle, T: On the choice of books. Lond. 1871. Chambers Cyclopaedia, new ed. Article: Novels. Church quarterly. Theology and morality in fiction. April 1892. Cowell, P. On the admission of Fiction in free libraries. Paper read at the con¬ ference of librarians held in London, Oct. 1877. L. j. 2 : 152-59. Craik, D. M. M. On novels and novel-makers. In Plain speaking. N. Y. 1882. Crunden, F: L. Literature in education. Address before the Unitarian club of St. Louis. Cutter, C : A. Common sense in libraries. President's address. L.j. 14: 150-51. Cutting, M. D. Two forces in fiction. Forum 10: 216. Dolman, F. The social reformer in fiction. Westminster review. May 1892. Egan, M. F. An old-fashioned view of the novel. Lippincott’s mag. July 793. Eliot, George. Silly novels by lady novelists. Essays, p. 157. N. Y. 1883. Foster, J: Morality of works of fiction. Critical essays, 1: 417. (Bohn ed.) Goschen, G. J. Cultivation of the imagination ; an address. Lond. 1878. Gosse, Edmund. Tyranny of the novel. In Questions at issue. Also Eclectic Mag. May, 1892. Green, S : S. Remarks at conference of librarians, Phila. 1876. L. j. 1 : 99-100. - Remarks at conference of librarians, Lond. 1877. L.j. 2: 256-57. - Paper read at conference of librarians, Bost. 1879. L.j. 4: 345-355, also in pamphlet. - comp. Libraries and schools. N. Y. 1883. (Essays by) C : F. Adams, jr., S: S. Green, R. C. Metcalf, W: E. Foster. Greg, W. R. False morality of lady novelists. Literary and social judgment, p. 85. Hamertox, P. G. On reading. In Intellectual life. N. Y. 1873. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 939 Hardy, G: E. The school library as a factor in education. Paper read before the N. 1\ State teachers’ ass’n. L.j. 14: 344-347. Harris, M. C. Seventh-commandment novels. Lippincott's monthly magazine. Feb. 1893. Hodgson, W. E. A prig in the Elysian fields. National review. April 1892. Hubbard, J : A. The public library and the school children. An appeal to tho parents, clergymen, and teachers of Boston. Bost. 1881. Jeaffreson, J. C. Novels and novelists from Elizabeth to Victoria. 2 v. Loud. 1858. Jefferson, T: On novel-reading. From a letter printed in Ford's e: Writings of Jefferson.” L.j. 18: 154. Kite, W : Fiction in public libraries. Phila. 1880. - Demoralizing literature and art. Phila. Tract association of Friends. 1882. Lang, Andrew. The last fashionable novel. Essays in little, p. 93. Larned, J.N. Public [libraries and public education. Am. social sci. ass’n. Pro¬ ceedings, 1883, also L. j. 9 : 6-12. Lowell, J. R. Books and libraries. In Democracy and oilier essays. N. Y. 1886. Mabie, H. W. Fiction as a literary form. Scrib. 5 : 620. Martin, Sir Theodore. Novel-reading. Address in aid of funds, Llangollen, Wales, Pub. Lib. L.j. 17: 241-42. Mason, T : Fiction in free libraries. Paper read at the annual meeting of the L. A. U. K. Lond. 1889. L.j. 15: 265-66. Masson, David. British novelists and their styles. Lond. 1859. Matthews, Brandee. Home library by Arthur Penn, {pseud.). N. Y. 1883. - Recent British fiction. Cosmopolitan, June 1892. Maurice, F: D. The friendship of books. N. Y. 1874. Miller, Hugh. Our moral literature. In Essays. Bost. 1865. Novel-reading: pro and con. In Girls and their ways. A book for and about girls. By one who knows them. Lond. 1881. Poole, R. B. Fiction in Association libraries. Young men's era. Chic. Apr. 30, *91. - Fiction in libraries. L. j. 16 : 8-10. Poole, W : F. Fiction in free libraries. Discussion. L.j. 2: 256. - Some popular objections to public libraries. Papers read at the conference of librarians at Phila. 1876. L.j. 1: 45-51. Ruskin, J : Sesame and lilies. N. Y. 1892. Schopenhauer, A. On books and reading. In Religion; a dialogue. Lond. 1890. Smith, Gold win. Lamps of fiction. Lectures and essays, p. 69. Stevenson, R : L. Some gentlemen in fiction. Scrib. 3 : 764. Sully, J. The future of fiction. Forum, 9 : 644. Thwing, C : F. The reading of books; its pleasures, profits, and perils. Bost. 1883. Consult also A. L. A. Index to general literature: Books and Reading, p. 33, Fic¬ tion, p. 105; Novels, p. 207. Regulations for Readers. By W. H. Brett, Cleveland (Ohio) Public Library. The following paper is based upon replies to a series of questions upon the subject, received from 110 free public libraries, 22 public libraries for the use of which a fee or subscription is required, 31 libraries of colleges and other institutions of learning, 12 libraries of societies of various sorts, and 13 State libraries; 191 in all. The assignment of papers for this meeting contemplated a historic review of each topic for the past seventeen years, but the subjects in regard to which rules are framed are so various that the most which 940 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. can be attempted is a brief survey of library practice. I think I may fairly say, however, from such information as I can gather, that while the changes that have occurred in that time have been few, so far as they have been made they have been in the direction of greater liber¬ ality. A general free public library in a large city, comprising both a refer¬ ence and a circulating department, comprehends within the scope of its work every phase of library activity. It includes upon its shelves, more or less fully, the whole range of human knowledge, and it meets so far as possible the wants of all classes of people. In framing its rules it is necessary to consider almost every possible problem in library economy. The discussion of a comprehensive code of rules for a public library would include, therefore, every condition likely to confront the librarian of any library. I can at this time only attempt to present to you a resume of the rules now governing many of the public libraries of this country, some brief notice of the variations therefrom in other classes of libraries, and the suggestion of a few questions which may be fairly regarded as open for discussion. Library rules naturally fall under two heads : First, the qualifications of the reader; second, methods in the library; or, in other words, they answer the questions : Who shall use the library ? How shall he use it ? QUALIFICATIONS. The qualifications usually regarded are as follows : Residence. — Most libraries issue books for home use to the resi¬ dents of the town or city only. In a few cases it is extended to the county, and in one instance, a radius of 10 miles is mentioned as the limit. The use of many free endowed libraries is limited to the com¬ munity which is the recipient of the beneficence, and the prevailing practice among those supported by public funds is to limit the use to the territory taxed for its support. A small number of libraries, among them some supported by taxation, extend all their privileges to all within their reach. Age. — Most libraries fix an age before which a child may not draw books. In 31 libraries from which I have heard, the limit is 12 years, in 24 it is 14 years, in 12 10 years, in a few others ages varying from 6 to 16. In 22 no age was fixed, but the qualification was variously stated as “ ability to read,” “to use a book properly,” or “to write one’s name.” Responsibility.— This is usually stated about as follows: “Persons known to the librarian, or satisfactorily vouched for in writing.” This rule is almost universal, as is also that of accepting a deposit of money varying from $2 to $5, and in a few cases even more, in lieu of a guar¬ antee. The foregoing applies only to those who wish to draw books for home use. In a few libraries similar restrictions apply to the use of reference THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 941 departments and reading rooms. In most libraries, however, these are practically open to all, the only qualification being proper behavior. RULES FOR LIBRARY MANAGEMENT. These relate to the hours of opening, facilities for the selection and use of books in the library, and for their issue. This subject can not be treated fully without trenching on other fields, but this will be done only so far as necessary. Library hours. — Usage varies greatly. Libraries of the larger cities are usually open twelve hours each week-day, the time of opening vary¬ ing from 8 to 10 o’clock a. in., and of closing from 9 to 10 p. m. In some libraries the reference department is open longer than the circulating department. Sunday and holiday opening. — In most of the larger and some of the smaller libraries, the reference and reading rooms are open on Sun¬ day afternoon and evening, in a few instances for the afternoon only, and in three libraries of which I am informed these departments are open in the forenoon also. A few libraries keep the circulating depart¬ ment open on Sunday. The smaller libraries throughout the country, specially in Vew England, generally close. The reply to the question in regard to this was usually accompanied by the remark that it was not desired nor needed, and occasionally by an adverse opinion as to its propriety. The experience of many libraries covers a period of from ten to twenty years or more, so that it can not be regarded as an experi¬ ment. Those librarians who have had experience almost unanimously favor opening reading and reference rooms on Sunday afternoons and evenings, and with equal unanimity regard it as unnecessary to open the circulating department. In some of the larger and a few smaller libraries the reference and reading rooms, and in two or three instances the circulating depart¬ ment also, are opened on holidays. Two or three libraries report it as their practice to close on Christmas, the universal holiday, and Fourth of July, the national one, and to open on all others. The whole question of library hours during the week, and of Sunday and holiday opening, is purely a local one, in which uniformity is neither possible nor desirable. Each library must conform to the needs of its own locality. Selection of books. — Most public libraries have printed or card catalogs, or both, to assist readers in selecting books. Besides this a small number permit general access to the shelves in the circulating department, for the examination and selection of books. In about 55 per cent such access is entirely prohibited, and in the remainder, or about 45 per cent, although prohibited generally, exceptions are made. These exceptions are. variously stated as being in favor of 66 professional men,” “ ministers,” “ teachers,” u students,” or as being “ occasional” or “for sufficient reason.” Views as to its desirability differ widely. 942 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Tlie opinion of those librarians where access is permitted are with a single exception favorable, some enthusiastically so. It is curious to note that to a large extent the favorable opinion seems to be based on experience, and the unfavorable on a lack of it. In the reference department the reverse of this condition prevails. In not less than 75 per cent of the public libraries from which I have information, free access is permitted to most books in the reference department, the exceptions noted being that special care is taken of tine illustrated books and of medical works. In a number of other libraries, the most common books of reference — as dictionaries, gazet¬ teers, cyclopedias — are placed where they can be freely used, and all others are given out on application. Reading rooms. — In a majority of libraries magazines and papers are placed where readers can select for themselves. In some libraries papers are left on files, but magazines are given out from the desk and a receipt taken. In a very few libraries only are both papers and maga¬ zines given out in this way. Issue of books, borrowers’ cards. — More than 90 per cent of those public libraries furnishing information require a card of membership to be presented each time a book is drawn or returned. On most of these an entry is made, usually the date of issue and return, and in a few cases the book number also. In a few cases only no entry is made. About one-fourth of those libraries adopting this plan make exceptions and permit books to be issued occasionally on a temporary slip or memorandum. In the others the rule is, presumably, rigidly enforced. About 10 per cent do not require membership cards. Number of books.— The general practice is to issue one volume at a time on a card, except that two or more volumes of the same set are issued as one book. In a few libraries two, and in one case three, books are regularly issued at one time on one card. Frequent excep¬ tions, however, are noted to this rule, in Avhich additional volumes are issued to students. The rules very generally allow additional volumes to teachers. Time of issue. — The time for which books are issued is generally fourteen days, with the privilege of one renewal for the same period. In some cases the renewal is for one-lialf the original period, and very rarely no renewal is permitted. In a few cases books are issued directly for three or four weeks and no renewal permitted. One very common exception to the fourteen-day rule is the issue of new books for seven days only and of magazines for seven days or less, both without privi¬ lege of renewal. In some libraries it is necessary to bring the books in for renewal $ in others a personal request or one by mail will be attended to. In some libraries the rule requires that all books be returned on or before a certain time, for an annual examination, during which the library is closed. 943 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. Fines. — Tlie current rate of fine for overdetention is 2 cents for each day. In a few cases this is 1 cent or 3, and in one instance only, 5. Barely the fine is assessed by the week, at 10 or 25 cents. MISCELLANEOUS RULES. Rules requiring proper behavior and forbidding the use of tobacco are almost universal, as are those which forbid copying or tracing of illustrations without permission, or the use of ink at the tables. Can¬ vassing or the display of advertisements is also forbidden. A rule which occurs in some codes requires the borrower to notify the librarian promptly if a case of contagious disease occurs in the household of which he is a member, and to retain the book until a proper disposition can be made of it. Some of the larger libraries have formulated codes of rules for the library assistants. The only ones which have come under my notice which affect the users of the library, even indirectly, is one which for¬ bids conversation of a personal nature, and another which restricts the privileges of the assistant as a borrower of new books. Subscription libraries. — The practice in public libraries requiring the payment of a fee varies little from that of other public libraries, except in that particular. There is apparently somewhat greater free¬ dom permitted in the library, as about one-half of the libraries from which I have information permit unrestrained access to the shelves. The libraries of secret and other socities are practically subscription libraries. Among the Y. M. 0. A. libraries of which I am informed, one is a free circulating and reference library, another is a free library, for reference only, and a third charges a small fee in its circulating department, but makes its reference department practically free. College libraries. — The practice in college libraries varies greatly. A majority are for the use of those connected with the institutions only. In others the privileges are extended to graduates and to pro¬ fessional men or special students, and a few are free to all who wish to use them. Some libraries issue books for home use to members of the faculty only, limiting their use by students to the library rooms, but generally they are issued to both students and professors. The hours of opening are generally less than those of public libraries, only about one-third being open evenings. More than one-half the libraries from which I have information permit general access to the shelves, and in most in which the practice does not prevail members of the faculty invariably have the freedom of the shelves, and permission is granted to the students for any sufficient reason. Most college libraries which issue books fix a definite period for which they may be kept, and assess a fine for their overdetention, as in public libraries. State libraries. — These vary so widely in their scope and methods that no general statement of these rules can be attempted from the data at hand. 944 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Reading of the Young. Caroline M. Hewins, Hartford Public Librarian. In tlie Government report on libraries, 1876, the relation of public libraries and the young was treated by Mr. W. I. Fletcher, who dis¬ cussed age-restrictions, direction of reading, choice of books, and inci¬ dentally the relation of libraries to schools, referring to librarians and trustees as “the trainers of gymnasts who seek to provide that which will be of greatest service to their men.7’ The report was suggestive, and called for several radical changes in the usual management of libraries. Yo statistics were given, for none had been called for, and the number of libraries which were working in the modern spirit was not large. Mr. Green, in his paper at the Philadelphia conference of 1876 (L.j. 1: 74), gave some suggestions as to how to teach school boys and girls the use of books, and in one or two of the discussions the influence of a librarian on young readers was noticed, but the Ameri¬ can Library Association did not give much time to the subject till the Boston conference of 1879, when a whole session was devoted to schools, libraries, and fiction ( L . j. 4: 319), the general expression of opinion being similar to the formula expressed in the paper by Miss Mary A. Bean, “ Lessen the quantity and improve the quality.77 In 1881, Mr. J. NT. Larned, of the Buffalo Young Men’s Library, issued his pamphlet, “ Books for young readers.77 The report on “Boys7 and girls7 reading7’ which I had the honor of making at the Cincinnati conference of 1882 has answers from some 25 librarians to the question “"What are you doing to encourage a love of good reading in boys and girls ? 77 (X. j. 7 : 182.) Several speak of special catalogs or bulletins, most of per¬ sonal interest in and friendship with young readers. One writes, u Give a popular boy a good book, and there is not much rest for that book. Librarians should like children.77 It was in 1883 that, by the suggestion and advice of our lamented friend, Frederick Lypoldt, I published a little classified pamphlet, “Books for the young.77 In January of the same year the Library Journal began a department of “ Literature for the young,77 which was transferred at the end of the year to the Pub¬ lishers7 Weekly, where it still remains. The report on the subject, made for the Buffalo conference by Miss Bean, is on the same lines as the former one, with the addition of the experience of some smaller libra¬ ries. She says, “I believe the Lynn library has hit a fundamental truth, and applied the sovereign remedy, so far as the question con¬ cerns pnblic libraries, in its 4one-book-a-week7 rule for pupils of the schools.77 Miss Hannah P. James’s report at the Lake George conference in 1885 [L.j. 10: 278) sums up the information received from 75 sources in some suggestions for work in connection with school and home, suggesting the publication of book lists in local papers, supervision of children’s reading if authority is given by parents, and the limitation of school 945 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. children’s book to one or two a week. At the St. Louis conference of 1889 Miss Mary Sargent reported on “ Reading for the young” (L. j. 14: 226). One librarian fears that lists of books prepared for boys and girls will soon become lists to be avoided by them, on account of young people’s jealous suspicion of undue influence. Sargent’s “Reading for the young” was published just after the White Mountain conference of 1890, and the subject was not discussed in San Francisco in 1891 or at Lakewood in 1892 except in relation to schools. The Ladies’ Commission on Sunday school books is at least five years older than the American Library Association. It has done good service in printing lists of books specially adapted to Unitarian Sunday schools, others unfitted for them only by a few doctrinal pages or sentences, and a third class recommended as household friends on account of their interests, literary value, and good tone. The Church Library Associa¬ tion stands in the same relation to Episcopal Sunday schools, recom¬ mending in yearly pamphlets: 1 Books bearing directly on church life, history, and doctrine. 2 Books recommended, but not distinctly church books. The Connecticut Ladies’ Commission has, at the request of the Con¬ necticut Congregational Club, published since 1881 several carefully chosen and annotated lists. The National Young Folks’ Reading Circle, the Chautauqua Young Folks’ Reading Union, and the Columbian Reading Union, the latter a Catholic society, the others undenominational, have published good lists for young readers. The Catholic Church also recommends many recent stories for children which have no reference to doctrines or differ¬ ences in belief. One hundred and fifty -two out of 160 libraries have answered the following questions : 1 Are your children’s hooks kept hy themselves? 2 Are they classified, and how? 3 Have they a separate card catalog or printed finding list? 4 Are they covered ? 5 Do you enforce rules with regard to clean hands? 6 Have you an age limit, and if so, what is it ? 7 Do you allow more than one hook a week on a child’s card? 8 Are children's cards different in color from others ? 9 What authors are most read hy children who take hooks from your library? 10 What methods have you of directing their reading? Have you a special assist¬ ant for them, or are they encouraged to consult the librarian and all the assistants? 11 Have you a children’s reading room? Seventy-seven reply to the first question that their children’s books are kept by themselves, 22 that stories or other books are separate from the rest of the library, and 53 that there is no juvenile division. Three answer simply “ Yes” to the second question, 24 have adopted the Dewey system, in two or three cases with the Gutter author marks, 4 the Cutter, and 1 the Linderfelt system; 10 arrange by authors, 18 by ED 93 - 60 946 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. subjects, 4 by authors and subjects, 42 report methods of their own or classification like the rest of the library, and 46 do not classify children’s books at all. In answer to the third question, 6 libraries report both a separate card catalog and finding list, 43 a finding list for sale or distribution, 15 a card catalog for children, and 88 no separate fist. Of the printed finding lists 4 are Sargent’s, 1 Larned’s, 2 Hardy’s, and 2 Miss James’s. The fourth question relates to covering books for children. Eighty- five libraries do not cover them, 30 cover some, either those with light bindings or others that have become soiled and worn, 35 cover all, and 2 do not report. In reply to the fifth question, 45 libraries require that children’s hands shall be clean before they can take books from the library, or at least when they use books or periodicals in the building, and 50 have no such rules. Others try various methods of moral suasion, including in one instance a janitor who directs the unwashed to a lavatory, and in another a fine of a few cents for a second offense. The sixth question, whether there is an age limit or not, brings vari¬ ous replies. Thirty-six libraries have none, five base it on ability to read or write, one fixes it at 6, one at 7, and one at 8. Ten libraries allow a child a card in his own name at 10, two at 11, forty-seven at 12, six at 13, thirty-three at 14, four at 15, and six at 16. They qualify their statements in many cases by adding that children may use the cards of older persons, or may have them if they bring a written guarantee from their parents or are in certain classes in the public schools. Question 7 deals with the number of books a week allowed to chil¬ dren. Mnety-five libraries allow them to change a book everyday; one (subscription) gives them a dozen a day if they wish. Fifteen limit them to two, and 3 to three a week, and 16 to only one. Several librarians in libraries where children arc allowed a book a day express their disapproval of the custom, and one has entered into an engage¬ ment with her young readers to take 1 book in every! from some other class than fiction. Others do not answer definitely. A few libraries issuing two cards, or two-book cards, allow children the use of two books a ’week, if one is not a novel or story. Question 8 is a less important one, whether children’s cards are of a different color from others. There is no difference between the cards of adults and children in 124 libraries, except in case of school cards in 2. In 4 the color of cards for home use varies, and 4 report other distinctions, like punches or different charging slips. Eight do not charge on cards and 12 do not answer. With regard to question 9, u What authors are most read by children who take books from your library ? ” the lists vary so much in length that it is impossible to give a fair idea of them in a few sentences. Some libraries mention only two or three authors, others ten times as many. Miss Alcott’s name is in more lists than any other. Where THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 947 only two or three authors are given, they are usually of the Alger, Castleman, Finley, Optic grade. These four do not appear in the reports from 35 libraries, where Alden, Ballantyne, Mrs. Burnett, Susan Coolidge, Ellis, Henty, Kellogg, Lucy Lillie, Munroe, Otis, Stoddard, and various fairy tales fill their places. Seven are allowing Alger, Castlemon, Finley, and Optic to wear out without being replaced, and soon find that books of a higher type are just as interesting to young readers. Question 10 asks what methods are used in directing children’s read¬ ing, and if a special assistant is at their service, or if they are encour¬ aged to consult the librarian and all the assistants. Many librarians overconscientiously say, u Ko methods,” but at the same time acknowl¬ edge the personal supervision and friendly interest that were meant in the query. Only nine do not report something of this kind. Six have, or are about to have, a special assistant, or have already opened a bureau of information. Five say that they pay special attention to selecting the best books, 4 of the larger libraries have open shelves, and 2 are careful in the choice and supervision of assistants. In answer to question 11, 5 report special reading rooms, present or prospective, for children; 3 more wish that they had them, while others believe that the use of a room in common with older readers teaches them to be courteous and considerate to others. Most reading rooms are open to children, who sometimes have a table of their own, but in a few cases those under 14 are excluded. My own opinion on the subjects treated in the questions are : 1 It is easier for a librarian or assistant to find a book for a child if whatever is adapted to his intelligence on a certain subject is kept by itself, and not with other books which may be dry, out of date, or written for a trained student of mature mind. 2 It is easier to help a child work up a subject if the books which he can use are divided into classes, not all alphabeted under authors. 3 A separate card catalog for children often relieves a crowd at the other cases. A printed dictionary catalog without notes does not help a child. A public library can make no better investment than in printing a classified list for children, with short notes on stories illustrating his¬ tory or life in different countries, and references to interesting books written for older readers. Such a list should be sold for 5 cents, much less than cost. 4 The money spent in paying for the paper and time used in cover¬ ing books is just as well employed in binding, and the attractive covers are pleasant to look at. 5 The books can be kept reasonably clean if children are made to understand that they must not be taken away, returned, or if possible, read with unwashed hands. City children soon begin to understand this if they are spoken to pleasantly and sent away without a book till they come back in a fit state to handle it. 948 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 6 As soon as a cliilcl can read and write lie should be allowed touse books. A proper guarantee from parent or teacher should, of course, be required. 7 A child in school can not read more than one story book a week without neglecting his work. If he needs another book in connection with nis studies he should take it on a school teacher’s, or nonfiction card. 8 It is best, if a child has only one book a week, for his card to be of a different color from others, that it may be more easily distinguished at the charging desk. 9 It has been proved by actual experiment that children will read books which are good in a literary sense if they are interesting. Hew libraries have the advantage over old ones, that they are not obliged to struggle against a demand for the boys’ series that were supplied in large quantities fifteen or twenty years ago. 10 As soon as children learn that in a library there are books and people to help them on any subject, from the care of a sick rabbit to a costume for the Landing of the Pilgrims, they begin to ask advice about their reading. It is a good thing if some of the library assist¬ ants are elder sisters in large families who have tumbled about among books, and if some of the questions asked of applicants for library positions relate to what they would give boys or girls to read. If an assistant in a large library shows a special fitness for work with chil¬ dren, it is best to give it into her charge. If all the assistants like it, let them have their share of it. 11 The question of a children’s reading room depends on the size of the room for older readers, and how much it is used by them in the afternoons. Conditions vary so much in libraries that it is impossible for one to make a rule for another in this case. SHORT LIST OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES SUGGESTED FOR READING, 1894. Lists like those by Mr. Sawin, of Providence, belong to libraries and schools. The bibliography of children’s books, although most interesting to a student, does not bear directly on their relation to libraries. Welsh’s Bookseller of the last century, Loud., 1885, and Mrs. E. C. Field’s Child and his book, Lond., 1891, with the articles indexed in the three volumes of Poole, are the best authorities on the subject. Abbott, L., eel. Hints for home reading. 4-J-147 p. N. Y. 1880. Bean, M. A. Evil in unlimited freedom in the use of juvenile fiction. L. j. 4: 341. Brooks, M. II. Sunday-school libraries. L. j. 4: 338. Burt, M. E. Literary landmarks. 8-|-152 p. Bost. 1889. Fletcher, W : I. Public libraries and the young. ( See U. S. Bureau of Education Report on Public Libraries in the United States, 1876, 1: 412.) Foster, W : E. How to use the public library. {In his libraries and readers. N. Y. 1883.) Green, S: S. Personal relations between librarians and readers. L. j. 1: 74. - Sensational fiction in public libraries. L. j. 4 : 345. Hale, E : E., and others. Books that have helped me. N. Y. 1888. - How I was educated. N. Y. 1887. Hanaway, E. S. Children’s library in New York. L. j. 12* 158, 185. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 949 Hardy, G: E. Five hundred hooks for the young. 6-f-94 p. N. Y. 1892. Hawthorne, J. Literature for children. Xo. Am. 138: 383; also in his Confes¬ sions and criticisms. Bost. 1887. Hewins, C. M. Books for the young. N. Y. 1882. - Yearly report on hoys’ and girls’ reading, 1882. L. j. 7 : 182. Home libraries of the Children’s Aid Society. L. j. 16: 278. James, H. P. Yearly report on reading of the young. L. j. 10 : 278. Massachusetts Free Public Library Commission. Reports, 3 v. Bost. 1891-93. Matthews, B. (Arthur Penn). Home library. (Appleton’s home books.) 154 p. N. Y. 1883. Repplier, A. What children read. (Allan. 59: 23; also in her Books and men. Bost. 1888.) Sargent, J:F: Reading for the young. 4+121 p. Bost. 1890. Sargent, M. E. Yearly report on reading of the young. L. j. 14 : 226. Scudder, H. E. Childhood in English literature and art. Allan. 56 : 369, 471. - Childhood in literature and art, with some observations on literature for children. 253 p. Bost. 1894. - Childhood in modern literature and art. Atlan. 56: 751. Stearns, L. E. Reading of the young. L. j. 19: 81, 136. Wells, K. G. Responsibility of parents in the selection of reading for the young. L. j. 4 : 325. Wiggln, K. D. What shall children read? Cosmopol. 7: 355; also in her Children’s rights. Yonge, C. M. What books to lend and what to give. Lond. 1888. Answers from librarians to questions on page 945 — Part I. 950 EDUCATION REPORT, 1S92-93. C © £ c o Jz5 £ odd A A £ d o £ A s s o o £ S 3 3 (x N X 3 S 3 3 § § t* h 2 B © 5 I © © fS f* a “S » llfi till s-~ §£ & 'A 'A s h A Z o c £ £ 1 : 1 1 8 : ph ; M .3 ; 1 i fcr £ ' £.3 g £3 : 3j§J r ^ O II fill* ’B I t» © PP l :i |x ZB ■©©M'©'©'^- |il!!H1pl •5g|>^s2.©3S o > A rO'.S f> © I* O 2 3 A h f* § S pp . 3 >4 1 1 II m q^sl ^Jr jp III tAi 5°Sf THE WORLDS LIBRARY CONGRESS. 951 •• tc ® O B Z = C=__ S- =3 o <*■£ do dodo' do c —i © 3 2 o § |^3-3 3 i [X >■ 3 1 fx i i t>s r*s c 5 i 1 ; o t* O £ ~£i? §23 ^ o o ~ fl ® o'” 2 § j? ^ s'© < P a o c [X !z i Is ® c i p |Z o i a . No . No . Nn _ * c a G * ; o ; i || : * £ o • • r- . o o c fc 02 a • Jz o i a F 'S'T^'S - S © S § £=i-:-i ' S.lslslg’ ?£. §SsS>js3 5s I Isi&sas tc H £ £ c i 5Z ii 'Ss5 Bh O o3! ^2§ ; > rt:s = ; p sz a: C_^ C-o! rB S3 ^ rs © JS^II ip III = tliJi O “ i ) o; B P,o=2 ? c I H |z .s do | fl Cfi 3 B i E lii ifiii^ii .1 =iiF!5.!:iisii Siill^KIii S 'S © > a — - ... C'B *g — . B p f; At > ~i A"? - § -2 e ® - 5 ~ ~t z ~.£ ’fiM ^ i5 /-t- c > cA-P ©.s a •^<1 ti'H a <1 c 1 ! s il I > ■. p iC* !° £ 5 ^^:g‘f£g'o6 6£ - ©3 ... ^ • b ® 3 - S *2 sSS'S > c- . ~ >0,0.0 +3 — J5* ^ •o-'P'r-oi ® ~~ 00 o 2 73 ol-a StiH-o^c CiS s | ..£&■§ S*1 St s* .r HltiiJlKllSil. ; ^ m a i§iilij ij glllciiL 3« llal^l -1 Z°£fiM°S |° S3*= ==-rs| s j 1“ . &s^1‘|:e£|s i|.§ ^ P C ri'-5 i H Pa Yes . Yes . Yea . I c a 3 f* 1 8 N _ a §1 111 x a k 1 o c O 2 H F o II a ii * & ss mi ij u it |h iTa .2 s s? Wsga 2 -es | s 3 53 © o o c 6 © ! 6 © © o' A £ ^ A £ £ A £ A A A A 3 c3 • i iiUt s^lS* • • • • • • s gs§»Sa l 1 i 1 s 8 c i i s 1 I i j* P >1 V I t> 1 > i J* £ i Is" t>1 t> < H ^ 15 years _ No . "No _ > > oc f 1 I 1 1 J . 12 years - - - - "NTn ffs PSpJ ■ ^ ^ 12 years .... 10 years . . . . Hi 1 HI I* ir ©-gtjg 5 ^ E S O O <1 £ Sg=>sS =:i=^ . ijffll !I!!!1 ~ 3 3 — 3 © o s § I* ^ s ■ o 6 ^ o © © A £ fz< §D !1 s *.-5 -§V g £ o o fc 6 bco A 3 it Hi .53 ^.S.3 ■g'Sb g la illUl £ M £ £ 1 fl-s * ^© S « ^ 1SI13 IIS I. *£ « ^ ^ £ 1> S*ssss ■g ■ II ! © Jh 11 &* ^•3 1 t III!-!!.- Ib^.^I .la- iftflpH! =-=S=5£?sS1a < >* a •sii ® ffg- o © 6 £ v +-> « S' ’ a-al : 1st : s s S © i s s 8 8 8 o h N A H J* h 6 2 ^ O •—* p< I! s» <4 s >i 1 3 2 ^ 3 © 33 P-P g © <5 © 3 13 SM IS IS •eg o It 3 3 .2 © rs ig| f 8 is 3 .2 f S |«3l s h> C P ll 5 5 la? | i SI Sj 1st* II II a h Answers from librarians io questions on page 945 — Part I — Con tinned. 954 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 3 21 © .73 ► 5 -p a ©2 43 C3 03 CO © © © © 7 e allc books room. 1 r3 > s © o 2 o • © &S.SII «M . -g bug - o o 2.® O o 43 © rP 6 £ S a © O g O 2^3 rt O 945 ja f-i © +3 _&><» <3 o "2 cS ■43 fi O i> o I-*3 ^ Ha 'ZS a © H © 5 a ,s g - fcXi © a t* H O cS o 6 £ (X P 'P © p 32 pH c3 43 P o 3 £ g © 43 o H>©2 ^•grg .-rO g 02 P ^ © © >> Kj aa 43 C3 t>>© O 2-i <1 © cS O fH 2^ pt3 3 ffl'nO 22'3 cc f3 2 'Zl bc2 pi ©2 «a ^ © 2 2 § §22 H t* h £ t* / \ r”"< © "bJO g’S co If* !>a JS® ^ © 2 £ | § §£ s -i-2 s ©5cq 9^43-^ bJD^{L_, 2 ® fl fi ,p1 O W t: © >.© a p <3 43 P? ft ; 02. 3 j? M 02 ® o p p © Sp bJOlg 52 {S © 2^ © r© S P «a'H '© £ g-N H p © S © © cq ^ 2 'B § cjp o 'p . 50 2 W 5 g ©£ o2 p ft es P &p rP H O * sW ft iM p <3 P •5 fe ©■ o.a ■§8 P^> ^4 6 r© w THE world’s LIBRARY CONGRESS. 955 6 6 d d o o o o o o o o o o }Z5 {25 £ fc fc 6 6 ft £ 55 {25 £ {25 • i "o S P © * i * i -2>> . Two.... s 8 s s s 8 No . Three .. 3 8 I d 8 © nr rule strict! forced h H ^ N N t* H H 55 N {25 i Ip « s iilii! I1"11! >J >s * 6 III pis © ®*P -3 fr g I i ' — 1 'P 43 ' 2 © c i E-ss o . o § -g ,0 g Sc rt 2 © 1 - .£ - 2 „|§ ^s.ssaa 8 8 8 8 ■ III • III • i*i d d 8 8 i f§! : cS=3 1 -^ © : *i* £ 8 h h 55 f2i <1 H h r* t* N {25 £ {H {H N {25 ® © 1 .1 . U fcfi £ .g o 1-2^1 gas|‘ ^o§5§|| S*43 §*S H CQ o © 525 £ £ m & £ ££• <3*>r ?§- £ £ £ {z? - 5J © S = £ ~ O&DS K O - ^ of ^-sa > ** ml 'I £ ffi- •- II Si P5 — S gfl JM Si ji Is I f°i| SiflS Pag : ~P P.p =0=3 gSItls R.s-.s:-| '5~t3 * §A £ i fi:*i »a|n|S" . Il2"l?|l |^I|sss'S Oh gl »g 54 umm |i=sl=gs fi 3 ^ h l| ?P° ss II 3h ■Sg B rP tH S g S* £ -1^5 tup min ilni! PP o4 gp: gr W ^ fe B a If HI l* > : : : a • . . 0 : : i | is s s s S i >i ^ >H >- ^ » : 8 d £ i l r*> p's - 3 s ^ i MM >> >*>;?> ;S S to s 5i3 1& «2|g . i • s a u*i: 1 ° 4i|s ^ i1«gl^|-sli» i M J« i ■§i5ll-i-SJ3.= o .8 ®! f - ^ <; ^ ■>* do c £ 2 =t- ■ > 0 : ~ * J j & - += 0 c rR 5>* < js 0 ® s i .2 ; ; I S • - . 0 -r- '» g : : ;i|H IflfJ ! i - 5 ® i %Oftfl§ g C ; < m ^ ^ ^ : “ mu n\ 1 *'3 2* so ga* : 0 ia*3a ajsi : 5 „ « c rr^. c ■ .5 tmi U; S« 0'3rO.S-S *£,£s'C O g%S C JZ. Ch pu to aa 5Z ^ ® ® ® : Imm i |^s|r: i IflPf! 0 =c » . : c 0 b£ a llfl-a ; 114=3^ olsS 1 1 J :-ii§4sfc ; P 525 ^ ^ }z > 11 llil sfi lib J|s 3 41 %f!f I 5 ■» | d 2|-| 2^ § M |fl-g-s is * 1 2>| *3 2 : I211 • ff b 1 ®|S 1® ss : §o2^ |= | a ss| |* || ; i«a|l I*** 1 S3? 3| 11 : 11^8 • IgSrf.Z !*g. ?l si. : 3f5S-3 8 S frill :i5l fl§ S* : l-~g| : :a ~ ^ a ^ - 0- 0 =cs?w03 ;^hoh >■ £ 1-3 i s f* >H JZ d s i ; 525 N >■ © ... «=i : >, a \ ! i 1 >-3 6 ? d s £ & (5 & s> 1 | II § i l| M :||4 I r SM T |1 |a - |® : | «5 gj 3^ ^2 -eii 1 || blc H ^ ^51 | si || s| |g g.„- 5 "®- "3 s-^ 3^ 3 ^ >£ 2c 1 83 a ew go |gs'|ai J ® -2 . « . s d ; 1 13 J « , M l& I1 s! 1 1 =MM Q ^ ® L M f; II 1 1 If ’Sf "| Is |! : ;.=f ^ ^ £.5 t 3 22 ci (25 <0—1 c -o c a c ^5?; |Z5 jzj 5z || ~ a [l il )rO THE WORLD S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 957 6 6 A VA % § r* (X ■gl?! O © © «2o2*2 : cift H H I I a" S’S A - •:«li ^ CS © cPQ g !X .3 £ I I SJS 111 1 ipj ! M i 1 ; ; ; G • 1 ! 1 i s t-ill : | ® g 1 s : -r *2 a : o cft££ o Only in room. No . Yes . Yes . a . ■ 6 & fc N °lS S 8 | Up- j i Idlliji d d § s : 6£S : s c2 ■ fcfi •- O a; : >>© 2 C C c3 O N t* fzj . if = * ^ .tjjj’lliul i : j ^»p,o £ H _2 ' >j i'll i Ss ~ o A A® S § § £ t* o o o £ Jz? S II ft 3 111 ^ »rj 2 0 ft t :ir ~ .£« X ILrX 3 |f|| ^33 © rz . -4-3 G ncy, Thomas Grant e library. — sft Oft §em tlsll !^l}| asgj-fS il| 1 1 ,• a 5^ ftO 2ft cft' M M W j?i II f « -3 <1 ©,© |1M §p ill I •S|S£ i*r Answers from librarians to questions on page 945 — Part 1 — Continued. 958 EDUCATION REPOST. 1892-93. dod £ £ § § £ I •-if « £ a >s® .2 ^■s ^ 5 — C£ £> - „ GO .5 £ ^ 20 O e3 3 3£ S ! f 3 ®‘> © : 1= Ua 5 5. — o N £ il|3- bc^ bt:3 a | ,.£ a « s ~ £~ bB © -S3 0 11 Iris i s-s ^ feiaai H ? | Is “■g a I 4 ill -+^3 2 1-2.3 xrz IP | I lllj >3 O i&es = ?1| sail t* o !3^>2Sg -£■§ ~ 2 Sgl'sJgS irr^-i ill I 111 s £ O g.2 ► h«c;5*o ft P S-J 3 N !zi fc ||a I Isglli Mi|jf ,ii i| & & a 5^ t! Ci >~3 nr b, b i 959 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. Answers from librarians to questions on page 945 — Part I — Continued. 960 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Buffalo. Buffalo THE WORLD S LIBRARY CONGRESS, 9G1 g* d o I zj 600 free tick-, eta are dis¬ tributed in the publio schools. Yes. H o w- ever, I fre¬ quently call the atten¬ tion of par¬ ents, teach¬ ers, and chil¬ dren to the evil effect of too many books. Not to chil¬ dren under 10. Yes _ Yes; in our library the children have en¬ tered into an engage¬ ment with the 1 ibra- rian that every fifth book shall be of her se¬ lection and other than fiction. Yes _ I 1 ! . c * • +3 1 fi ! 6 >» Sc fc S S p. ® © ©.2J||^|.5| !*frur-5. §©s^So "S-la © goS £££ * a g A. 2 ^ S Pips s^slg, 6 o s i h fc < 'A t* s|1i= rs** .o- d © •II C PS Ills ill ifjil I^P-Jf fill Ilf | :1aHUi £ tifiil-f ii|iP|4 JS >» § o •<-« — C PS 3 -d £ Pi* Answers from librarians to questions on page 945 — Part I — Continued. 962 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1892-93. 00 o odd o ood o odd fc £ & £ 5S £ 5* £ 2J 5S £ ^ !>• t s s ! ! 1 : : 1 : : t? g 3 3 § N ^ n : s 1 ® 1 £ HjjLa : i fill f i ^ 3 0 £ 0 Cl ® ^ ® 3 : : °l 1 S £ O ' p 5 • SI = <1 fc d 0 b-':- ~3fc2* - 2 - ^ B - SIS 8 2-3 >=§3^ fti i S io 1 CD « I « " • m . « O > ' o'' 2 C ' 2 •£* J= i s| i ; | | 1 i ° a 5 2^ : t s c : -« S : ® ^ p O O B O =0 C 6 fc fc £ P : : * 1 '£$ : : j 12: : i Ilf : : t J c r*1 ■ ■ h i 3 sis : : « !^g® § S3 1 P N N ^ i 1 j : g a- • S1 B * ! 2 ; 0 ^ ! Sg- : 0 =-> 1 ?• 00 > — * U O -4-3 3H§ o § £ c £ ' }Z cd c c *2? £ £ i !' i : ; | c 0 ~ c ; ^ ^ < £ : O C ; £ £ i i m <3 ■ JO B ■+3 -H> •2 o »! Hi £&- $ rd >jO © -2 ^5 g - B 5 fl 'g p. a & 2 2 £ 3 *« ~§ o| ft o > B 0 a “ s|£> g| l| >.13 Ji 22 2~g 0- c ; P- h ^ £ i° i i 3 : : g : : ! ! 2 0 ■ > 2* ■ 0 c i m : £ ^ j d c ; 'a y 5 « . 9l P-H II gS Pi ) C ^ i 5s Cl 1=1 § >3° lit g-lg Ka 2 « 2^ oSsSj <25 £ 1 = 1=1 ; J? #6 111 1 f. tf ! *H i •-|i -| * 2®il ^ ■ «-R ■§§ 2^"S 3 .52 -So a --3 3-p s 233 0 £ ; -^0 = = ^ >5 * 2r^3 C 0 i 1? Sg || . S <=t2 t. ^P S j • sfl 1 $&% rti !l . Bs >, ^ 11 J = - 23 0 ? i^-p 1 i s i 1 ) 0 : x j -B s eg | i t* £ j i =fit : i Pits ■2 0 p,^-c § d c2325? 5 X K m > : : : . g ® ■ 0 : 2 § I i 1 % z ( 03 P r> i d : ■ K y s 5 T A « B P B .2 2 -2x * © a § ! ^ ; a 1 ^ - ,K c,S 2rt ^ S & c >; ft rB S ^3 3 2=2 §2 mS ox |§ .3 5-3 2A|o| 1*1 fsSlgSli S3 ilia's?. SIS g pJS S «£.* O'JI O— c3 aj Bft ;H ft z c ~ j= — — © P [T i !s ft H P O QmH <1 C ft a 2 f> j | 1 ~ • 6 1 JO BJ 963 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 964 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. ?S © o A n 30 o-2 6 ft ft ® ® ft ft o o ft W © oo Jd ' 3©§® h-j tr _ -Zt C3 ^3 £ rQ 5 2 S ^ ^ P« PS c33 4°'e3 >%£> .2 2 43 ®r2'tH © 9 O 3 © 43 * >> . £ .© © P ® a © s g 2 § £ o o 6 ft &H a Ci ■© O oo © Pi A © eg += !h45 gM ll'f r-H 43 © •q <-i P rP 33 43 3 “Ah'S © t'S g W If S S 9 pft! « © PI.® P-0 3 S <3 43 ® 43 M ^ 3 3 ©^92 § foSo 3 © © © -2 ® „ 3 43^ -g > ® Si Jn c3 rt c3 O 2 &® ® 8 gp;*g fl 4f 00 EfP |H| 3 © 2 * shc p >3 © © o © H^H -Sh£ 43 <4-1 ^ 43 • 1-1 _ . © © 33 j© 30$° '©s © ®-S®£ a 2 ® ^ 3 H Q 3H ,®I £ I M § Ph W W .9.2 43 © .v. © 43 ft u oo ,2 ® P3 ff -3 8^ 30 © © © 05 •- 3 ft © 0 3 9 I © ^ bfl .2 © t> PH “§i 2 43 -3 o -p ® g'S'B £ G cc (i^ c3 c3 PH 9 5 • 2 9 .2 ^2 8.2 3 •9 43 r© 43 3 fl 00 © © © be ® 9 • 3 m •s § 8-1 •1.1 S | o 2 © © £ * g ® >,tj© ? PP H 43 PI © o -2 2^ 2 8 = &&> ■2 1^2 - 43 o * © pH 43 S q m © 9 ’3.2 © 8 43 © Jh O _© ft ^ 33 9f 05 <3J 30 © *3 rj 1-, 3 3 >4- TO Fh 9 eo -4- o 5 5 S‘o®‘g +J r-4 .+3 3 ... 3 O f4 ob 9 © -2^ 'g © © O ^ 43 £ .^°2p © ® i>3"3 2 943 ft© ^ 0 W (X) & © O o cc +3 O |zi M M _ _ nCr2 **' ^ hp3 .2 §-§ © 1^1® ©I© f> -fj g ^ ^ .2 _ Tr^H . 4-3 —a 4-P r-H +3 ^ FH O ^ * M 'h * 313 -3 g 1 ^9 « 93 Phu_, 92 343 S _ ® ft ft43 05 ^4 - 43 j 9 q3® 3 O 3 ^3 5 3 ^ ^ ^IgasiS .0 ®^o © .©2 o g S Z 'g ^ -^S g I'Sfl’-S ® 8^2 <«©3®gq|2p3 bC > A 2+^4^ •2 f® n ^ H .W > <£ r-H C3 ?H o © 9 « a JH2.9=PI • s 3 © 0-3 8 ^93 P a © ®ff © 53 ft • > © > 9 0 w (/) Co O ^ t>A fl-o ^ 1'^ •2 ©" .© be s r© ft ft ■g 0 0 ft 02 be s? 0 it pi ft 2 r9 o fT 52 o O - _r 'A 5 ® 'S Ph ©92 cSfe Es ® o Ph Sr ?H ||h <5-2 p Pp © 3 - bX)^ S C43 O o o ©j>i^ <1 PI © w © fl s IP o w 9 fob ® § H o pf O p . 2 O V G> bC-^3^ if ^ 9T o « O Is jap <1 <1 33 >j 3 1 m M 9 ft Mo t£> foX) ^ rS^ "© O M « o . jP 0Q a-ii P'9 «2 03 o ^ §4 ◄s. © s'* o o MH ft o £ 5§fe-S ~S ®c© £ U -9aJ ~ ■A © M ^H 33 33 '©•n q ©.„_ *°f I q iS P - !h q ,©MSH i Big-d - r} -V) « rH © 8 bc.2^ P 3 p O o -go M w oq JS - blcM ® >3 bC-^ 2 <2 © ® PP PS p pM Ph © Ofl * ft 5 o o r© £ <1 <1 q 3 © 9 -Hi W « 9 92 © 43 o 00 o PH 3 ©HO |S"|s ■ 5 rt ^ , <1 O "q S ©“ >j © p © , 4§ MW H-S It 00 §° A > a ‘ ■ © ^ o 4-^ frt rH tD rl ‘ r* il'i'lai-g3 <1 W § I 2 S s rp t w „ ^ „ p h © g sg p©s2^£ ^9 O ftH 3 92 3 —4 M H O Ph 9 o I .© .9 !r§^ O ftgg ©^ Is If 8 ©- OP s b-g 2 9 9 92 P . ftp o 3 SXq .2 P Ci o 3 p . j TO Ph 03 o •" b£>3 . . © Sh ..■S5| S8gS m III »«« . £h J o ©4 ^ 43 p g © ^ Stw 8 CS M .. >P a -ca g 3 b^o ©^ 2^9 Cfl ^ " " 3 3 3 •'"' •+-; r-\ • n m rn lo §P p p 2 bo p.2 Hi'S t£m pH <1 A © 9=3 ^W l4 O 2 30— 33 © ft >3 S P 2-2 © g 3 a © «? p ^ftSW ft tv- M 9=2(3^ = 8-3 §,-.8 302 C 2 © • H ft ft © .W^gh, - >> U • tn >» O P4 P ©ft p4 43 3 r© q 3 .2 2 n !si t 2 q -© 3 ^ s9 PP P H THE WORLDS LIBRARY CONGRESS. 965 O O ft B 6 o o o Answers from librarians to questions on page 945 — Part TI — Continued. 966 EDUCATION REPORT, 1:892-93. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CORGRESS. Abp° pp3 P 35 'a „ 05 >J«3 - 02 .9 o £ « cS © m rP p © i ^ © ... E >» t£d a>E © 2 2 © si o © o EE E U PD e3 t>5© © A • r p- p 42 p £ u §2 p2 fcfi on a o rt .2^3 g "rt p,® 9 ss£y S _ o-P #P £ [fe.ct 9 ft! 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H59g>gl'SS®9.3'°ll — 2 © O 5 5 s2 -3 -H 2 9 rO o a © © br« CC A* A 5 rp 1 © P i -, .2 © © 2 5 : — O a2 ft h! .3j ® ri bcTS « o«px .o 2 bB O 5M fr© .r^ >H s-\ k/~ -+^ O ftHft P „5q IB ft’2 P l|£ w a '2.0 © $^3 O © P O o l^| .©^ft9 a. 2 2 © -^ 2 2 o p-^4 p ® brg ft ft © S'” 2 P 2, „ A PJ A M C3 _1d’© ^-P©©®'-^” ®-^3H ora croft ^f© 9 52^ p" 3 p" ®^ . A aS fe.2 A aP 2 pOH s“ °'",‘' <1 orO P'O (P © R P 9^ ft t>ft si ©■'©• 03 P ">rQ ® © ■— ' © © > © 2ft 3 2 ch |a ^ M o ^5 © M }zi tt ^ A+i 2 2 © cC M'p © © is 5 p © m|5 S-sS Answers from librarians to questions on page 945 — Part IT — Continued. 974 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. o 6 & fc s Is II I gt II 6 3 I s •SSs^l o| is-lf3 li SoUo t." ofs fr-® 2 g SJasiFs 2 C P g - ^ —4 £$jflj ll If !l|i 3r== || If >S .id O U j§ .3’^ .28 p o IIII^ 12 o'S5 1 •|lq t-=- ir ?i-i ss§.§4§ £ 1 *J § "I s fe'0 § o ^'2o2s &|s^5 «.g3.S| g S 2 g .3 r* H Ilf ll @ a c 2 s s =c23 s’3 53 " o®.S^?S is ll-til s' m £ a 1 1 3d* £§§ A 2s -3 5 Iff- fig 1.23 lul -*r III <0 sis' 5SS 3 3 g? M ig °i F- S 3 sgf ^tg igS 33H <1 St a 50 so 51 IS # a il IS 3 p- eg, l-i 11 io 8° .5 ^ al Sj c 3 13 n“- o d) .'8 |g Is- p 5 rs ® g fa U 1| & >> ° - 1 £ a 2 o 3 s p 4='.S 21 < fl < 11 II < I3g l& 1HH g>5 2 bMIs C “3 S S-^-qP library ; tho THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 975 u *•§ ill rt.Cr- IS! s|1 sis Hi i o © £ 2 o d o 6 o c «.a fc fe? £ £ 6 jzi guiil- it it is for all isi fj? &E 2* .fS 11 O s r.-£ 4-3 I (D £ S2 ! « q > Ipplssjjlfl is- "S'* £§3 §.§,*« m 6a: gits c -p 3 f> 2 o t-i > erience has shown to be fundamental and about which there is general agreement may be named. (1) Determin¬ ing the position of the natural centers or axes, in the relation of the different parts to each other, and thence radiating in such a way as to secure the least expenditure of time, space, and effort, as well as the nearest approach to straight lines of access. (2) Foresight in making such a disposition of the parts at the outset as will not be negatived, but rather emphasized, in all subsequent extensions which maybe made necessary. (3) Combining, so far as possible, compactness in the stor¬ age of books, with the most generous f>ro vision for the specific needs of individual students and readers.1 In all these details, and particularly the provision for the u least expenditure” of time, space, and effort, it would be easy to misconceive of the matter as one affecting the con¬ venience and efforts of the library attendant alone. It must not be forgotten, however, that, even where the reader or student does not personally visit the shelves, he does so, vicariously, in the person of the library attendant.2 To a fruit merchant in Hew York a shipment of peaches which consumes five days when one day might have served is of vital consequence to him, even if he does not take the railroad jour¬ ney himself; and it is no less vital to the reader or student that an unnecessary amount of space, interposed between the attendant’s start- 1 See C. C. Soul6’s paper, L. j. 17 : 124-25 ; also discussion of tlie subject by Messrs. Ford and Carr, at Chicago, L.j. (July, 1893), 18: 219,225. 2 A. L. A. Proc., 1890, p. 7 THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 089 ing point and tlie book required by the reader, shall not multiply to an annoying extent the time which the reader must wait before obtaining his book. The question of access to the shelves 1 at all on the part of the reader is one which has two sid.es, even in this matter of time- saving. In a very small library it is probably true of the greater num¬ ber of the books charged to readers that they will have been taken from the shelves by the readers themselves and brought by them to the desk to be charged. Here the balance of advantage wSuid be decidedly in favor of access to shelves, on the basis of time saving. These con¬ ditions would be almost wholly reversed in a large library. In its stack, if of the conventional type, with its labyrinthine passages, the book borrowers would be not only bewildered, but in each other’s way; while the impossibility of- supervision, resulting in large loss of books and in very certain displacement of them, would inevitably waste the reader’s time and convenience. The conventional stack construction is not the only one available. Few principles in library construction seem likely to prove so fruitful as those associated with the name of the late Dr. W: F: Poole, namely, the housing of each great class in a separate room, with its own attendants, and supplied with all the apparatus of a great study room or laboratory. The fact that Dr. Poole’s application of his own principles,2 in the Newberry Library at Chicago,3 is on a scale far beyond the means of the average library, does not in any way impair the general soundness of these principles, nor the duty of each library to avail itself of their benefits, so far as its own conditions will admit. This is, in fact, one of those instances where very much more than “half a loaf” can be secured. In an increasing number of libraries the fol¬ lowing principles are now recognized : 4 (1) A sharp distinction between the circulating department and the reference department, thus admitting of placing the latter (dictionaries, cyclopedias, etc.) on open book shelves in the reference room, where they are constantly accessible to all readers without the necessity for applying 1° an attendant. (2) Providing an open bookcase in the delivery room, for the current additions of a specified number of weeks back (eight, ten, or twelve). These books may be there handled and examined, and, when desired, charged to the reader, for home use. A reader who should have closely followed up his opportunities in connection with this open bookcase for a year in succession, would have practically had “ access to the shelves,” so far as the additions of that year are concerned. 1A subject whose voluminous literature may be traced by the index in all the recent volumes of the Library Journal. But see particularly the following: 15: 197-98, 229-31 ; 16 : 268-69 ; A. L. A. Proc., 1890, p. 33-37 ; Chic. Proc., July, 1893, p. 217, 219, 231. Elaborated in his 11 Construction of library buildings,” 1881; and his “Remarks on library construction,” 1883; also in Lib. Jour., passim. 3 Explained by Dr. Poole, with plan, in 1890, Proc., pp. 107-11. 4 See also Prov. Pub. Library, 15th an. rept., 1892, p. 6. 990 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. (3) Selection of one or more of the classes usually stored in the stack, to be shelved in a room by themselves; an application of the Newberry library plan, with its tables, desks, and other facilities, not to the whole library, but to a fragment of it. In some libraries the bound volumes of periodicals are so treated, in close proximity to the reading room for current periodicals; in others the industrial works in close relations with the patent room, etc. (4) Provision of rooms in portions of the building adjacent to the stack to be used as special “study rooms/7 “class rooms/7 “dictating rooms/7 etc., in which the needs of special students, or classes, or uni¬ versity extension centers,1 or study clubs, or other studious individuals or groups may be specifically met. (5) The provision of other “study rooms 77 or “ study tables/7 within the walls of the stack itself, for the use of any serious students who may with confidence be trusted there. (6) The system of “ permits to enter the stack,77 for an even wider section of the public, which has been developed under very interesting conditions at Cleveland2 and Minneapolis.3 In some communities the local conditions will admit of going further than in others in the direc¬ tion indicated, but there are few which can not avail themselves to some extent of the manifest advantage thus rendered possible. Indeed, the planning of library interiors for some time to come is likely to throw additional light on the capabilities of library architecture in facilitat¬ ing assistance to readers. 5 The personal element. — The library may be equipped with a collec¬ tion of books most skillfully chosen and sifted; the books may be marshaled on the shelves in an arrangement which most perfectly facilitates the path of the student to the desired subject or book ; the contents of the volumes may be elaborately set forth in every form of cataloging helps; and every feature of the building even may be dom¬ inated by attention to specific needs of students and readers; and still, possibly there may be a missing factor, the operation of which is neces¬ sary to the maximum of effective assistance. It is true that library “machinery77 is excellent in its way, and any library which disregards the necessity for bestowing much time upon it and effectually avoiding every tendency to clogging, or congestion, or irregularity, will do so to its cost. But long observation has everywhere confirmed the con¬ viction that a reliance solely on “ general methods,77 those for the public at large, is like using a rake with teeth too far apart, and inevi¬ tably some of the library’s most vital opportunities for usefulness will slip past, unrecognized. The personal contact of the library officer with the individual reader is still needed after all else has been said 1 The extraordinary possibilities of this line of work are indicated in Miss Kath¬ arine L. Sharp’s “ Libraries and university extension,” Library school, Albany, 1892. 2 L. j. 16 : 175. 3 L. j. 17 : 445-47. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 991 and clone. In libraries where the force is inconveniently small, one of two results is likely to follow. On the one hand, exclusive dependence may be placed on the perfection of the library “ machinery,” with the result of great smoothness of routine administration, but also with the resulting waste of opportunities just referred to. On the other hand, while the advantage of the needed contact of reader with library attendant is secured, this comes as a sort of u running fire” all along the line, and there is consequently the disadvantage of introducing a constant element of uncertainty into the accomplishment of the routine work1 of the respective attendants appealed to. One of the earliest libraries to respond to the demands of this problem and to concentrate this work upon a single officer, was the Boston public, in which, from the first, the volume of assistance to readers has undoubtedly been larger than in any other American library. Several other libraries have, within more recent years, established an information desk;2 and in one3 of these at least the officer is provided with no other work, but finds every moment of time claimed by the applications of individual readers and students for specific assistance and direction in the use of reference books in pursuing inquiries, etc. There is plainly a growing tendency among libraries to adopt this fundamentally effective feature of assistance to readers, but there are certain aspects of the matter which should be clearly recognized, else disappointment may result. For instance, so strongly does one libra¬ rian fear the tendency of this concentration on one clerk, to produce apathy in the matter ot assistance to readers on the part of all the others, that he would take the risk of constant interference with the time of every clerk. There are several Avays of meeting this objection. Where the force is large, or of u average size,” it is possible to arrange a comprehensive scheme, whereby, at some time during the Aveek or month, the service of eA7ery other member of the staff is called into requisition, as a substitute, either at meal times, half holidays, vaca¬ tions, or other necessary absences of the regular clerk. Extremely useful also in the same direction, though for other reasons besides, is the practice of holding monthly or fortnightly u staff meetings,”4 fol¬ lowed with great success in at least one library, in which the study of the many-sided subject of assistance to readers, both in the shape of specific instances and of comprehensive general principles, is a constant feature. While it is not possible, even by this method, for a library to bring all the beneficial influences of the u library school” to its own doors, in one particular it is invariably effective; namely, in developing on the part of all the staff not only a true esprit de corps, but, in partic¬ ular, an eagerness to render the best service of which they are capable, 1 Prov. Pub. Library, 13th an. rept., 1890, p. 9. 2Z. j. 16: 271-72,263; 18: 178,179,219, 3 Prov. Pub. Library, 13th an. rept., p. 9 ; 14th, p. 10-11 ; 15th p. 10. 4 Prov. Pub. Library, 13th an. rept., 1890, p. 11. 992 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. in this matter of assistance to readers. The fundamental importance of this u unperfunctory ” element in the work of the information desk is not easily to be overestimated. Indeed, it will be far better not to establish this position at all than to be obliged to fill it with one who gives it a careless, an unintelligent, above all, a perfunctory attention. This is one of those positions where the bright face of the attendant meeting the application, timidly perhaps presented by the reader or student, puts the latter at once and completely at his ease, and goes far to make actual the ideal suggested by Mrs. M. A. Sanders at the Febru¬ ary, 1893, meeting of the Massachusetts Library Club, that the librarian should meet the reader in the position of a host or hostess welcoming a guest. There is, moreover, another side to this matter even, due to the fact not only of the immensely differing needs of individual readers, but -of their no less widely differing temperaments and capabilities as well.1 To read that it fell to a certain librarian to hear during one and and the same week two such apparently contradictory commendations of this feature of his library as the following, may suggest a paradox: “ I like your information desk; one is put so completely at his ease by the attendants interest;” and “I like the service of your information desk; it is so impersonal.” Yet it only goes to show the success with which the attendant had suited the manner as well as the material of the assistance to the varying conditions of the two individuals. The successful coordination of apparently divergent conditions is not an easy matter here, any more than in architecture; yet it is in triumphs such as these that the mastery of the art is shown, in the one case as well as in the other. Yot only trained intelligence and genuine interest, but tact and discrimination, are requisite here; and it should be borne in mind by library directors, not only that the establishment of the information desk as a distinct position will involve a generous allow¬ ance of additional time and the consequent expense, but also that the officer who can successfully meet the requirements of such a position is necessarily one whose services should be well remunerated. There is, doubtless, a certain quality of intellectual force and helpfulness in the books themselves, in the case of a library of average excellence, and others besides Sir Walter Scott have profited from the mere opportunity of “browsing in libraries;” yet to base on this fact an argument against employing well-directed efforts of assistance, when needed, is to repeat the fallacy underlying the familiar “self-made-man” argument against education. The man, in an instance of the kind named, would have made, not an inferior, but an even greater achievement, if, to his unde¬ niably exceptional native gifts, he had been able to add that which the discipline of education can supply. The books will possess not a less, but a far greater degree of efficiency if to their inherent vitality and effectiveness there shall be joined the minute and compreheusive study of the needs of readers, as related to the books, on the part of a thor- L.j. 16: 297-300. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 993 ouglily equipped library officer. That the needs referred to really exist, the experience of the larger and smaller libraries alike goes to show. “The timidity of the average person desiring information, and especially the stranger who comes to the library for the first time, is a factor in library administration which must be acknowledged and dealt with. * * * We have seen person after person enter a library, and, after a brief struggle with the card or printed catalog, leave the building. * * * Yet, whenever we have spoken to such people, we have found they wanted a definite thing.” 1 It is the significance of instances like these that has led one of the most progressive of librarians to distrust the desirableness of universal access to the shelves, since in this way much the larger part of the class of readers referred to would miss the personal guidance and assistance which they obviously require. In at least two of the libraries where this personal element of assist¬ ance has been most comprehensively developed, this fundamental rule is insisted on, that if the library officer to whom a question happens to be brought has the slightest reason to suppose that the information which he is able to supply is not an adequate and satisfactory answer, the question must be referred to some other library officer who is reason¬ ably sure to be able to do this. In one of these two libraries, printed forms 2 are kept constantly at hand for this purpose. Sometimes it will happen that the library itself is found not to be in possession of the work or works which alone will answer the inquiry. In this case either an order is at once given for the book, or recourse is had to the scheme of library transfers mentioned elsewhere. Even when the reader finds the library classified by a comprehensive system, sufficiently closely classi¬ fied to respond to his varying needs, supplied with a subject index, as a ready key to the whole, arranged on the shelves with as close an approach to correspondence to abstract classification as is found practi¬ cable, and the shelves accessible to the intelligent reader wherever practicable, he must, after all, have these forms of assistance, plus the privilege of a special study room where the bringing of books from other portions of the library may correct the inadequacy of shelf arrangement already referred to; plus the helps furnished by bibliographies in sup¬ plying a bird’s-eye view of tbe subject not possible in this particular library; plus the helps supplied by subject catalogs for subjects on which no bibliographies have been printed; plus all reference lists and other miscellaneous varieties of help. And even this is not sufficient unless we add, also, the librarian himself, that he may correct and sup¬ plement all deficiencies and inadequacies of the various kinds specifi¬ cally mentioned above, by his own trained, interested, and effectual service of the reader.3 lL.j. 16: 263. 2 See Prov. Pub. Library, 14t.h an. rept., 1891, p. 11. 3 See A. L. A. Proc., 1890, p. 9. ED 93 - 63 994 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. Expert Annotation of Book Titles — Indexing Literature OTHER THAN BOOKS. By George Iles, New York. There is much in a welcome. The stranger who enters the Boston Public Library is met almost at the threshold by an attendant who invites questions and answers them in the most helpful possible way. To those unfamiliar with the card catalog he explains it; he can often supply a forgotten name or a title; frequently he names a book his ques¬ tioner needs and has never heard about. Such an officer makes people feel that the public library is really theirs; that its machinery, formida¬ ble though it seems, is in fact simple; and when, as in Boston, the officer charged with reception moves about quite freely, instead of occupying a desk clerk fashion, his hospitalities can be multiplied. Next in value to his services, to a stranger at least, comes the aid of a card catalog, from its inclusiveness vastly to be preferred to any catalog in book form, and, speaking from my own experience, best arranged under a single alphabet. The card catalog has now a formidable rival in the Budolph continuous indexer, which novel device, from its nonliability to wear or soiling, removes the excuse oftenest given for withholding the card catalog from the reader. Only when the full catalog, whatever its form, and the shelves themselves are at the free disposal of the public, does the public library fully stand by the promise of its open door. But a reader, specially of the serious stamp, needs yet more; it is not enough that good books in abundance be offered him, for how shall he know which of them can best serve his purpose? Suppose that he is to inform himself regarding the principles underlying the transmission of electricity from Niagara Falls to the lamps and motors of Buffalo, which of the scores of books presented in the department of electricity will take him, beginner that he is, and lead him to a' full comprehension of the subject? Or, imagine him to be curious respecting the latest achievements of the camera — its seizure of stars beyond the telescopic range, its interpretation of color in black and white with truth of effect, its reproduction of color itself, or its supersedure of the graver — which of the many works on photography at hand will answer his ques¬ tions in the clearest way? If, in a very different branch of literature, he seeks to know something about the government of the nation, a topic treated by hundreds of writers, to which of them may he with confidence turn? Or, if he desires to acquaint himself with the funda¬ mentals of political economy, what authorities shall he choose? A response to these inquiries is given in a card catalog of four subsec¬ tions of the model library shown by the American Library Association as part of the Columbian exhibit of the National Bureau of Educa¬ tion, to go at the close of the exhibition to the Bureau’s headquarters at Washington. There following each card title is a note — in the THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 995 department of electricity by F. B. Crocker, professor of electrical engi¬ neering at tlie school of mines, Columbia College, New York; in that of photography by the committee on literature of the Camera Club, New York; in that of American Government by Dr. J. C. Schwab, instructor of political economy, Yale University; and in that of general political economy by E. B. A. Seligman, professor of political economy and finance in the school of political science, Columbia College. The notes printed on slips are distributed at the exhibit in Chicago and are also to be had from the Bureau of Education, Washington. It is hoped that in connection with the American Library Association a bureau will be established for systematically extending this plan of appraisal to the whole working literature of education. To be as useful as it can a note card should tell: Whether a book is a mere compilation or a transcript of fact and experience by a doer or a worker; the comparative merits of various editions where they exist; for what classes of readers a book is best suited; its special excellencies or defects, and important errors, if any; how it compares with other books in the same field, and if in its field — let us say of taxation, or money — there is no book up to date, reference may be made to sources of information in periodicals or else¬ where; if a book treats a subject in debate, as homeopathy, protection, or socialism, fact and opinion will be carefully distinguished, and views of critics of opposed schools may be given; and, finally, the best extended reviews will be mentioned. The annotator should append his name and place wilh date. To this signing I find no objection raised by the reviewers whom I have thus far engaged. It has been estimated that books of importance in ordinary demand do not exceed 10,000. It is suggested that these works, divided into departments, be selected and annotated for public libraries by the men and women most fit for the task. Every day these men and women are asked for direction in the fields of literature they have made their own. Through the public libraries their judgments can be placed at the serv¬ ice not only of an individual here and there, but at that of every inquirer in America. Guidance here will chiefly come from teachers whose life w ork it is in the study, the class room, or the laboratory, to know the latest books in a specific domain and master the best, whether old or new. To these teachers can be joined scholars and critics of dis¬ tinction specially versed in history, belles-lettres, the literature of art. So far as an appeal has been made to teachers and others on behalf of this new aid to readers, the most cordial response has been given; busy men have turned aside from pressing tasks to write the notes offered in the model library. Their generous assistance has arisen in seeing that the need for the help contemplated is urgent and growing. Alliances between the public school and the public library are becom¬ ing closer. These alliances, together with Chautauqua and similar agencies, prove that popular reading can rise to a new interest and value wrhen it has consecutiveness and purpose. At the same time new 996 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. books abound and superabound. Clearly it is more than ever desir¬ able that trustworthy pilots be organized to spare the people the time and effort they now waste in reading books other than the best, to warn them as to defective statements and loose arguments, to invite them into paths of study which without a guide they would never dare to enter. The notes, of course, will often name books not possessed by a library, in which case not only will a reader be told about a book he needs, but the librarian will receive a hint for buying which will be of inestimable value when the system has matured sufficiently to keep pace with the latest issues of the press. As public libraries multiply and stren gthen we may expect the notes to bring to birth a class of valu¬ able books, translations of sterling foreign works and books by Ameri¬ can authors, which to-day could not afford the advertising broadside required to hit here and there the scholars who want them. In the Atlantic Monthly for June, 1893, Mr. Justin Winsor says that the Socffite Franklin, of Paris, which acts as a central agency for the libraries of France, has found that with the sale its circle of libraries assures, a trained writer and a responsible publisher can be engaged to supply any needed book. As to the financial side of the jfian for book notes. The cost of annotating 10,000 important books, including sending note cards to, say, 500 libraries, is estimated at $100,000, and the time necessary for the task at one year. To continue the work on new books of the same relative importance, as they appear, would probably require $10,000 a year. Can this amount be collected from the libraries served ? It is doubtful. As elsewhere in the field of education, a service worth vastly more than its cost can not be paid for by the men and women to whom it is rendered. An opportunity thus offers itself for an endowment which at no greater outlay than that needed to establish and maintain a single good library can double the usefulness of 500. It is said, with truth, that in many towns and cities there is but slight demand for the guidance proposed in this scheme of book notes; but is it disputed that that demand ought to be increased, and how can it be increased better than by supply? To take a homely illustration, has not the advent of the Italian fruit vender, passive though he is, greatly stimulated the consumption of bananas and oranges? Let the trustees of literature learn of him, and rest content only when the treasures in their keeping are hospitably proffered to the people, the invitation made as telling as it can be by having the best critics join in it. If the ignorant choose to remain untaught, to miss the light and lift that books stand ready to bestow, let them do so only when every means of winning their interest has been exhausted. In this matter the recent history of our public libraries is full of promise. Every increase in their stock and store, every improvement in their arrange¬ ment and accessibility, has roused appreciation in a degree which has richly repaid the means and toil expended. Let public libraries not THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 997 only contain but indicate the most helpful books and we shall find the public library more than ever the people’s university. It con¬ stantly befalls that a great book reaches us too late to bring its best message; the regret, “why was not this book pressed upon our atten¬ tion long ago?” should lead us to do what we can to spare others the labor of mining any vein but gold. Up to this point we have had in mind only the serious reader; it is time that we remembered the reader who simply seeks recreation. Scott maintains his primacy as a novelist, yet it is worth while to learn in what particulars modern research, historical and antiquarian, must affect our estimate of Ivanhoe, the Talisman, and Quentin Durward. In the life of Darwin by his son we are told that the naturalist was wont to refresh himself with the novels of Mrs. Oliphant, but who shall tell us which of her many romances are best worth reading? Browning, too, is abundantly represented on library shelves, but which of his longer poems best deserve perusal and why? His works come to us as 17 lusty tomes, while few students care for a single book of selections, even though it be the poet’s own. When the literature of instruction has been surveyed by the annotator and its guide posts set up, it will be fitting that other literature receive the same attention, of necessity with a lighter and less laborious touch. On the general lines here suggested a pioneering attack has been undertaken by Mrs. Augusta H. Leypoldt, editor Literary News, Hew York, and the present writer. Their project is to compile and edit an annotated list of about two thousand books suitable for girls and women and their clubs. This list will conprise carefully chosen titles in the whole round of instruction and recreation. The works of fiction will be selected and annotated by* a reviewer for the Nation. Other contributors of mark have agreed to cooperate in preparing the list which, as far as it goes, will be of service to all public libraries, to readers and inquirers everywhere. The list will be published by the American Library Association in October, 1895. It is expected soon to enlarge its departments of art and music so as to fairly give them com¬ plete scope. Let us now return to the reader in science and consider one of his perplexities, born with the present generation. Day by day he finds periodicals multiplying to so prodigious an extent that the fuel of information threatens to put out the fire; on every hand he sees the serial steadily encroaching on the sphere of the book. For this there are many reasons, the weekly or monthly can tell a fresher story than the book, it can tell a story too short for a book; advertising which falls on the book as a crushing tax provides the periodical’s main sup¬ port; through the wider sale of periodicals they give buyers more for their money than books possibly can ; many a book on technical science is but a reprint or a summary of what has appeared in serial form, a 998 EDUCATION REPORT; 1892-93. circumstance, by tlie way, of no little advantage to the book. And where in the swirl that now encircles the press shall the reader find what he seeks? If he is pursuing the causes which have cheapened steel, he must consult not only the journals devoted to mining and to steel manufacture, he will also have much to learn from the engineering and architectural press. And so aggressive is the enterprise of the magazines that the latest word regarding the domination of the air by the inventor, may come in the Century , and a review of the cotton- oil industry in the Engineering Magazine. Here it is plain that to be of value an index must be very full. An attempt to meet the emergencies of the case has been made by the Engineering Magazine at Chicago, the Review of Reviews of New York, and other publications, each presenting a list of articles in selected periodicals; none of these lists is full enough, yet the labor of consulting them, particularly as a year approaches its end, is what few readers have time for. The linotype, which enables a title to be cast as a solid line of metal, promises to lend itself to the quarterly and annual recapitulations here demanded. The world of science, as never before, is to-day roused to the necessity of taking stock of its wealth. In the Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, vol. 14 (1893), Mr. W. L. Chase presents a plan for extending the Dewey classification to engineering literature. The Eoyal Society of Great Britain announces an author index of its monumental list of technical papers. Mr. H. Beckhold, of Frankfort-on-the-Main, began the issue, beginning with 1894, of a monthly and yearly index to papers in pure and applied chemistry; the Physical Society of London in 1893 began to publish a monthly pamphlet giving abstracts of all the papers which appear in the principal foreign journals of physics. And a concerted movement is afoot which aims, by 1900, at organizing on an interna¬ tional basis, a comprehensive index to all scientific literature. This done, experiment in every workshop and laboratory of the world can be supplemented by full information of every recorded result achieved in all other workshops and laboratories. Then the man of research can avoid the blunders of his fellows, need not uselessly duplicate their labors, and can seek their cooperation in ambitious tasks beyond his individual reach. Were books and periodicals disposed and indicated as theyoughtto be, we should still be far from having exhausted literature. There remains a flood of publications, many of which contain valuable data for the investigator, fruitful seed thoughts for the student and literary worker. I refer to the transactions of learned societies, the proceedings of insti¬ tutes and academies, of such government offices as issue reports, labor bureaus, geological surveys, and the like. So oppressive is the multipli¬ cation of these that the president of the British Chemical Society, in 1894, urged the consolidation of authoritative scientific organs throughout THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 999 the English-speaking world. This however, would be only in part a remedy. Suppose that the rate at which the consumption of liquor advances or recedes is to be ascertained, the information is set forth authoritatively in reports of the Secretary of the Treasury, where inci¬ dentally we are told how far the use of strong waters has been affected by the competition of beer and light wines. One would scarcely look in the Proceedings of the American Institute of Mining Engineers for light on the labor x>roblem, yet the volume for 1S90 contains a masterly discussion of it by Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, in the course of his treat¬ ment of Ci Iron and labor.” Two examples, these, of hundreds uTiich might be cited. In such documents as have been named we tap the stream of knowledge at its very source, and yet for lack of indexing how little is done with a wealth of material it costs so great pains to create ! Mr. Talcott Williams, of the Philadelphia Press, who has given the question a good deal of thought, estimates the expense of index¬ ing this important branch of literature at $50,000. His suggestion is that the work be attacked cooperatively, and that publication of the manuscript iudexes be sought at the hands of the Smithsonian or other imblic-spirited institution. To the Smithsonian a debt beyond estimate is already due for its issue of bibliographies, the last and greatest of which is Dr. H. Carrington Bolton’s bibliography of chem¬ istry. Mr. Williams believes that a considerable number of learned societies could provide the money needed to index their transactions; for the rest he proposes an appeal to unpaid volunteers such as those who, under the leadership of Dr. W. E. Poole and Mr. W. I. Fletcher, have in times past done so much to bring the bread of knowledge within reach of the people. Were all this accomplished, together with the indexing of current X^eriodicals and the annotation of books, I know not what the reader could wish for in the wav of stock-taking in literature; everything of importance in print would be placed at his service. If the librarian’s finances forbade his having other than a small library, he would never¬ theless be able to tell a reader where to get what he wanted, and per¬ haps through the cooperation of larger libraries be able to procure it for him. Speed the day when between the seekers and the light there shall be no obstacle of any kind, the day when the generous, the wise, and the informed shall give their less favored fellows all the aid they can ! Scrapbooks. By W. A. Bardwell, Librarian of the Brooklyn Library, Brooklyn, N. Y. Among the minor departments of library work that have, in some insti¬ tutions, come to be recognized as useful and valuable is “ scrapping,” or the collecting odds and ends of information not contained in books 1000 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. or tlie cyclopedias, but clipped from newspapers or from magazines not covered by Poole’s or the cooperative indexes. In this way may be preserved for convenient reference the most recent facts, which other¬ wise would be buried and lost in the mass of back files. Thomas S. Townsend’s “ War library of national, State, and biograph¬ ical records,” the largest collection of scrapbooks in existence, is still deposited at the Columbia College library, NTew York. This work is in more than 100 volumes, each as large as a man can easily lift. The work is well indexed and is an invaluable fund of material relating to the civil war. The arrangement is chronologic from December, 1860, to the end of General Grant’s second administration. The price at which this collection is held is $50,000, though Mr. Townsend would have sold it to the United States at a somewhat lower figure. He has also suggested a scheme to dispose of it by means of popular subscrip¬ tions, each subscriber having the right to vote where the work shall be deposited. The Los Angeles public library has recently formed a plan for collect¬ ing information regarding local interests, which is thus described in their library bulletin : CLIPPING BUREAU. The realization of the utter lack of practical books on tbe local manufacturing, agricultural, and industrial interests and the impossibility to procure such informa¬ tion has resulted in the project of a clipping bureau, and a systematic segregation of reliable matter bearing on these subjects is t'o be begun at once. A practical scheme has been worked out to handle and prepare this material. The chamber of commerce has agreed to cooperate to the extent of furnishing material on hand, and we earnestly invite the further cooperation on the part of fruit growers, bee keepers, fruit packing and drying specialists, and others who have from time to time made scrap collections. We invite them to come to the library to have our system explained to them. LIBRARY SCRAPPING. In order to preserve the great amount of floating material on topics of local value constantly appearing in newspapers and periodicals, it is proposed to detail special attendants to the collection, segregation, and arrangement of this matter. The clippings in the first place will be kept in a series of indexed envelopes, and when enough material has accumulated on any one subject it will be carefully examined, and only that of some real value will be retained. For final preservation the clip¬ pings are to be pasted in scrapbooks designed for this purpose. The binder was instructed to furnish a quantity of ordinary manila paper, cut 11 by 17 inches, and folded into sections of 10 leaves each, and punched on the fold. These leaves will hold the clippings, and the sections may be strung together like the sections of a book. No one section is ever to hold clippings on more than one subject ; thus there may be a series of sections on the orange, and when these are sufficient in number they will be bound, forming a complete volume of statistics on orange culture. The subjects for clipping purposes will be assigned, and it is anticipated that by this expedient many of the drawbacks of the ordinary scrapbook will be done away with. Suggestions for modifications will be considered and results noted. THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 1001 Since tlie report on scrapbooks in 1889 a considerable number of libraries have done some work in clippings. A circular recently addressed to more than 100 representative libraries throughout the country has elicited responses from about half that number of librarians who cultivate the general art of scrapping to some extent, while others who have not yet fouud time for it are favorably impressed with the idea, and confident of its utility. The information supplied in response to the circular is epitomized below : Scrapping worlc in certain libraries. 1002 Q m 'rz >> ■g £3 II - ft 1 s if il §-2 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. II A g 11-1 ■" gS-2-d £8, §12 aj - > “|1 3".3 lag = S-g = SBS S P N ^ t>>>3 n? t> *! a. a Is 5 i M c >S OP £ I! cP.I £0M • 1, ~ s -.2 © ” 2 2 g» Is 5 ft o -+P ^ i! i. £ o <3 n .a fi-S 111 ir«it £,1^ A- :PI!I G ^ 43 -r= O ■" g C3 r^O J=-Ha. ^ **§S 'm S'g > 11 3P g bfl 2p,S 3 p 6 ri !!l "13 rs § =5 .5 pr° c 5 ?Pft S £ a 111 fta „ ° -<5'g 3 j“i:il stillll 3 ^ e3 a .2 S ftgft G^rS o B 8 " 65 A cJ^S I oS§*d| ^ft^aft 'SMI | I f53l! I a N gS-e-5 2 2 2 © Ifs B S ei o^l!-s 2 t. 2E B .g^aft g §^-2 1 "I'S^lsl 12 'SPes&svse 1sii^*i3|a * s a II i a'o.j III ill 51 a 1*1 n 1 1 ft +3> Hill ^ ^ a §3 2 HI rj r~r© Ph i " 2 !-0£a| a ©~_ - E ft 3 ® c« 2a c s x a: o 1=3- = a a ft c a P || § § 1 1 ® 23 £ ft 1 K, 8 -I g§ c l1 a Is P i i S’lo a £Ss2 s o 3" ■ ! J? o 1 1|e s 1 fiSaj ftp so a a. P ft a gs^ii Ell. “-B * *= i— i s a o au: §g s Up Hfi eta :Q ® ft 2 2 w> XZr3$£ , ft ,-t: ?iMI illll Kl*: 3 i ft -l 1| ft ^ 3| a ? ft 3 "If .a ft ® >, 1 mi i 3-3is I! a coft <1 Pft'SP fig!* Ii; 2*3' 4 3 r i "Pi m i ^ i im ftP g B sSlI « p p If ^3 11 C ^ +3 O ' W)ft a a . -r 2 apft P THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 1003 Scrapping work in certain libraries — Continued. 1004 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. THE WORLD S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 1005 I 3 II © > :t2 © r © a © 2 s| a § §* " 2T°£ p.5i %%e6 li:l ■ii-l VI* O* *.2^ S«i ^ — a 5'p, ipi ii •* £ a 9 "c iv • $ *i-s ? gsg flip **§*" i^-s l=-s god — ••” si ©^S ^§5 © c^ ,S d d 5 - § % d p >> i El JZ5 ^ £ To © II 2 > i'c'd" cdo ® Ske-s © d ©'S i-J*1 4*«e* a eg -o •» ^11 — %%tai 02 'w © a f* If d g sl |.3 P’S Is rd L, II 13 dr- 22 5 : t .111 3 SrS - P^ P O 2Z! ©T psa©si M O P< s p- SrS II C \ p-| © d © m .= § si’s III III gji& «3=-B §•§§■ 3^-S ,2 5 p-'T 5 ° d <« 5 .© © . 2 ~ © u ipfllll! | II If fils N £ . 52 a -d T « a & 2Q - £ ? © c a o 2 2 | II c £ I- a> ‘5b fe* -Jl§ • g £2~ I T> §-5 2 •d © d d d d - da ^ o >3© ■So S! .d m © 4. ■jsSJ :8 -£,£ Is 1 SsSf |Sl?I-S II? 8 l| Sill pM’ al «-s , a f. gj all 3| Ills % s .1 >3© 22 d d O d 'S et* T d a Scrapping work in certain libraries — Continued. 1006 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. date; I Not THE WORLD’S LIBRARY CONGRESS. 1007 n 53 5 gpS-P O S GS +3 CO ^ p£ P fa > o ®®sft 3 1:3 >>P g §§-a . -} O W Co ^ cs aa ©*E g U ct O .Ji ©'§'2 p a CO © (U o ra_,r3 © © 3 ^ f-i .. O © •+3 r) © r ©3 © © £ >j8-p *0328 ■§3 a +s a |i3 O4S tH p«a p &* 8 « rO © 2 p-fa a 'p C O ' o s 3 >3 P cc cc ?3 ^ 2 -5 ^ ® U Cj o £8° p3 'S Fh ,2 c3 S3 0 *® o 3 o' Cro «3 2 © -t^'0 a g bo- © § >3 p S 3> © ^ ci > a 2 eS © " « c3 M J-a n * 2 “ ;SeSl| ?±5 IbS c3 'm O cS P • O >3 P JH O o r