Villanova College VILLANOVA, PENNSYLVANIA LIBRARY L 111 Class....* A3 . 1S.?.1.t.9.S j v.l Accession 27373 [ Whole Number 211 REPORT OF THE THE Y E Y E 1 8 9 1 - ’ 9 2 . NO LONGER PROPERTY OF FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY Volume 1. CONTAINING- PART I. WASHINGTON:. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFR'lCR 18,94-. THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Created as a Department March 2, 1867. Made an Office of the Interior Department July 1, 1869. ■ - :-i o' ; , : - f^jTOMMISSIONEES. iT ■ s - j : — ftmm barnar:°7 ll- ' 1867 , to March 15 , 1870. John Eaton, Pli. D., LL. D., March 16 , 1870, to August 5, 1886. Nathaniel H. E. Dawson, L. n. D., ' f - • ’ «- v • * ,♦ August 6, 1886 [y to Sep tem lfer~3 ffi§89. !U &A: •' \ ; ' ' William T. Harris, LL. D., September 12 , 1889 , to date. b Ml 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vo. I - i- _ Page. COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION . . . . _ . . xi X^AIiT I. Chapter I.— General Classified Summary of Pupils of All Grades in Public and Private Schools and Institutions. Number of pupils or students in all grades in both public and private schools . 1 Where the secondary pupils are found . . . . . . . . . . 4 What per cent of the total population is under instruction _ _ _ _ _ 4 What part of the school population is attending school . . . 6 Proportion of elementary, secondary, and higher pupils. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8 Proportion of public and of private instruction. . . . . . . . . 8 Higher students and population compared _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 10 Public and private higher instruction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 11 Distribution of students in professional schools. _ _ 15 Sex of secondary and higher students _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 15 Number of female college students as compared with the population _ _ _ 20 Sex of normal students . . . . . . . 23 Chapter II.— Statistics oe State Common School Systems. General summary . . . . . . . . General remarks upon the tables . . . . . . . . . Table 1. — Total population, school population, and adult male population _ _ Table 2. — Relation of school population to total population and to adult male population; proportion of white school population of foreign birth or extraction; percentage of for¬ eign born of total population . . . . . . . . . . . 30 ■ Diagram 1.— Showing for each State the number of adult males to every 100 children of school age in 1890 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 32 Table '3.— Number of pupils enrolled at various periods, and relation of enrollment to school population _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 33 Table 4.— School enrollment of 1891-92, classified by sex, and compared with the enrollment of the preceding year; per cent of the male and of the female school population enrolled. 34 Diagram 2. —Showing for each year of age from 5 to 18 the whole number enrolled in the com¬ mon schools _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 36 Table 5.— Showing for each year of age from 5 to 18 the whole number of children and the number enrolled in the common schools - - - - - 37 Diagram 3. — School enrollment compared with school population . . . 38 Table 6.— School population of the United States and number of pupils enrolled each year since 1879-71; per cent of school population enrolled in each geographic division - 39 Diagram 4. — Showing the per cent of school population enrolled in the common schools - 40 Table 7.— Average daily attendance at various periods and its present relation to the aver¬ age attendance of the preceding year, to the enrollment and to school population . 42 Diagram 5.— Percentage of school population in attendance at school - - 45 Table 8.— Aggregate number of days’ schooling given to all pupils . . . . - . 46 Length of school term, etc _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 47 Diagram 6.— Average length of school term in days. - - - - - 48 Diagram 7 — Average number of days’ schooling given for every child 5 to 18 years of age, by States - - - - - - - - - - - - 50 Diagram 8.— Average length of school term, by sections . . . . . 52 Table 9 —Length of school term _ _ _ _ _ _ 53 Table 10 — Number and sex of teachers.. _ _ _ _ _ _ 51 ill £1311 8 8 3$ IV TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Diagram 9.— Number and sex of teachers . . . 55 Table 11. —Showing what per cent of the whole number of teachers are males . . . 56 Diagram 10.— Ratio of male teachers to whole number of teachers each year since 1870-71 . 57 Changes in teaching force during the year . . . . . 58 Table 12. —Teachers’ examinations and certificates . - . - . . . 59 Table 13.— Education, previous experience, and continuous service of teachers . __ 60 Table 14. — Salaries of superintendents and teachers . . .* . . . 62 Table 15.— Schoolhouses and value of school property . . . . . 63 Table 16.— Public secondary education— private schools - - - - - . . . 64 Table 17.— Receipts of school money - - - - - 65 Table 18.— School revenue compared (1) with adult male population, and (2) with school population . . . - - - - - . - . 67 Table 19.— Progress of school expenditure - - - - - 68 Table 20.— School expenditure in 1891-92 - - - ; . . . . . 69 Table 21.— Expenditure per pupil; percentage analysis of expenditure . 71 Chapter III.— Education in France. Brief view of the educational systems and operations in 1892 . . . . . . 73 State faculties, proposed transformation _ _ _ _ 1 _ _ _ 76 Development of teaching functions - - - - - - - - _ 86 Chapter IV.— Elementary Education in Great Britain and Ireland in 1892. Summary of educational statistics _ 97 England - - 98 Scotland . - - - - - - - - 101 Ireland - 103 Chapter V.— Technical Instruction in Great Britain. Introduction - - - - - - - - . 105 Report of operations under recent laws - . - - - - - - 107 National agencies for promoting technical instruction. _ _ 109 Agencies for technical instruction in individual cities : London . . . . - . - - - - - - 109 Bristol _ _ - . . . - - - - - - - - - - 113 Birmingham - - - - - - --- 117 Sheffield _ _ _ • _ _ _ 120 Liverpool _ _ _ _ _ _ - . - 121 Manchester - 123 Leeds... - 126 Bradford _ 129 Agricultural instruction. - - 130 Chapter VI.— Training of Teachers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Introduction - 139 Historical review _ 141 Statistics of normal schools in Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Switzerland. . . 153 Rules and regulations of Prussian normal schools _ _ _ 157 Present management and course of study . . . . . . . . . 160 Professional study of German teachers _ _ _ _ _ _ 170 Training of teachers in Switzerland _ 172 Views of normal-school men concerning the training of teachers _ _ _ 175 Personal observations . . . . . . . . . 184 Chapter VII.— The Swiss School System— An Historical and Statistical Review. Introduction . 197 Historical development of the Swiss school system _ _ _ _ 200 Present condition of the Swiss schools . . . . . 213 Chapter VIII. The Results of Home Training and Influence . . . . . . 231 Chapter IX.— School Museums, Educational Libraries, and Permanent Exhibitions of Appliances for Teaching. History of educational collections . . . . . . . . 239 Educational collections of the present time . 241 TABLE OF CONTENTS. V Chapter X.— German Universities. Page. Character and historical development of . German universities . . . . . . 347 Sketch of their historical development _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 253 Relation of German universities to state, church, and society _ _ _ _ _ 277 Teachers in universities and university instruction _ _ _ _ _ _ . . 290 The students and their work _ _ _ _ _ _ 395 The unity of the university . . . . . . . 334 Statistical review of German universities _ _ _ 328 The different faculties _ _ ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 330 Preparation of German students _ _ _ _ _ _ 339 Nationality of the foreign students _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 340 Length of the university courses _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 342 Military service _ _ _ _ _ 345 Age of the students _ _ _ _ _ _ 340 Occupation of the fathers - - - 343 The religion of German students _ _ _ _ _ _ 354 Professors in German universities. : _ _ _ _ _ 353 Degrees granted _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 350 Income and expenditures of German universities _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 353 The costs of university study _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 303 Benefices... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 305 Appendix — Secondary school statistics . . I _ _ _ _ 308 Chapter XI.— Schools for Recruiting the Civil Service in France, and an Account of the Civil Service Requirements in Prussia. France— Introduction . . . . . . . . 309 The polytechnic and affiliated schools _ _ 372 The national agricultural institute and affiliated schools _ _ _ _ 392 Efforts toward a school of administration _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 404 Conclusion _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 407 Prussia— Introductory _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 442 General requirements _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 414 Judicial officers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 415 Higher administrative offices _ _ _ _ _ _ 417 Administration of the royal forests _ _ _ _ 418 Administration of public railroads _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 420 Public works - - - - - - 420 State medical officers _ _ _ _ _ 421 Chapter XII.— Education in Sweden. General view of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Elementary schools _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 424 Training in Slojd . - - - - - - - - 427 Schools of Stockholm - - - - - - - - - - 439 Secondary education - - - - - - - - - - 432 University education _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 434 Technical schools _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 437 Agricultural, dairy, forestry, and mining schools . . . . . . . . 440 Training for the Army and Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 The defective classes _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 441 Public and private charities. . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Educational aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Swedish gymnastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 General trend of education. . . . : - - - - - 445 Educational literature and reports . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 Chapter XIII.— Physical Training. In Greece: The oldest description of athletic games. . . . . 451 The periodical games _ _ _ _ 453 The Greek gymnasia _ _ _ _ _ _ 456 The exercises practiced - - - - - - - 458 Medical gymnastics _ 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 Gymnastics for the young - - - - - 459 Decline of Greek gymnastics . . . 461 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. In Rome: Page. Origin of the Roman games . . . _ . . . 462 Early character of the games . . . . . __ . . . . . . . 463 Martial exercises . . . . . . . . . . . 464 Introduction of Greek gymnastics . . . . . 465 Growth and later character of the games . . . . . . 465 The Middle Ages and modern gymnastics : Bodily exercise practically universal. . . . . . . . . . 467 Ancient Germany _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 468 Chivalry ; education of a knight . . . . . . . 469 Tournaments . . . . . ...v _ _ _ _ _ _ 470 Decline of chivalry and of physical exercise . . . . . . . . . 471 Satires of Rabelais _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 472 Montaigne’s essays _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 473 Mulcaster and Merchant Taylor’s school _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 475 Other defenders of physical training _ _ _ _ _ _ 477 John Locke’s utterances and influence _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 479 Child life in the eighteenth century. . . . . . . . . . . 481 Jean Jacques Rousseau . . . . . . . . . 481 Basedow’s Philanthropic . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Salzmann and Gutsmuths, and their followers . . . . . . . 483 Pestalozzi ; Fellenberg’s school at Hof wyl . . . . . . . 485 Friedrich Ludwig Jahn and the turners . . . . . . 486 Varying fortunes of the Turners’ Association _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 488 Sclfbol gymnastics in Prussia . . . . . . . 489 Gymnastics in the Kingdom of Saxony . . . . . . . . 490 Physical training in America : Benjamin Franklin . . . . . . . . 494 Thomas Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Gymnastics for the early militia . . . . . . . . . 497 Early physical training at W est Point . . . . . . . 499 Captain Partridge’s lectures and academies . . . . . . . . 501 America’s introduction to German gymnastics . . . . . . 502 The Fellenberg or manual training movement . . . . . . 506 Movement for physiology and hygiene . . . . . . . . 510 Revival of gymnastics . . . . . . . . . . . . 512 Dio Lewis, and the “new gymnastics” . . . . . . . 515 Recent revival of gymnastics . . . . . 518 Present status of physical training . . . . . . 521 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 History of gymnastics in three typical American city school systems: St. Louis, Mo... . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Cincinnati, Ohio - - - - - - - - - 526 Boston, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 The principal systems of gymnastics: The Swedish system. . . . . I _ _ _ _ _ 536 The German system . . . . . . . . . . 542 Dr. Sargent's system . . . . . . . . . . . 549 The Delsarte system . . . . . . . . . . 555 Gymnasiums for city public schools . . . . . . . 560 Table 1.— Summary of statistics of physical training in cities which have regular systems and employ specialists . . . . . . . . 580 Table 2.— Summary of statistics of physical training in cities which employ no specialists, but require regular instruction by class teachers . . . . . 581 Table 3.— Statistics of physical training in cities which have professedly introduced a regu¬ lar system under the care of a specialist . . . . 582 Table 4. —Statistics of physical training in cities which employ no specialist, but which require regular instruction by class teachers . . . . . . . . . 590 Table 5.— List of 108 cities in which physical exercises are practiced at the discretion of the teachers, but without special supervision or effective regulations to make the training systematic . . . 594 Chapter XIV. The Age of Withdrawal from the Public Schools . . . 595 Chapter XV.— Classification in Graded Schools. Advantages of the graded system . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 Disadvantages of the graded system . . . . . . . ... 602 The remedy —a special school . . . . . . 303 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VII PART II. Chapter XVI.— Name Register. Page. Chief State school officers .. _ _ . _ _ _ _ 637 List of city superintendents _ _ _ _ _ _ 638 College presidents _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 616 Chapter XVII.— City School Systems. Enrollment _ 651 Average attendance _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 663 Length of school term _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 663 Supervision . 665 Number of teachers _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 667 Sex of teachers . . . . . . . . 668 School buildings _ _ 671 Number of sittings _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _ 673 School property _ 674 Expenditures _ 675 Table 1. — Summary of statistics of school system^ of cities, showing increase or decrease from the previous year _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 677 Table 2.— Summary, by States, of population and school enrollment and attendance in cities. _ 679 Table 3.— Summary, by States, of supervising officers, teachers, property, and expendi¬ tures of school systems of cities - - - - - - - 680 Table 4. —Summary of statistics of public evening schools _ _ _ _ _ _ 681 Table 5.— Comparative statistics of school systems of cities . . . . 682 Chapter XVIII.— Secondary Schools. . Summary of statistics of public high school s... . . . . . . 685 Of private secondary schools _ _ _ 688 Tables and diagrams illustrating status of secondary schools _ _ _ _ _ 690 Number of students in each branch of study in public high schools _ _ _ 695 Number of students in each branch of study in private secondary schools . . 698 Number and percentage of students pursuing eertain studies to whole number of students. 701 Sex in secondary schools . . . . . . . . . 707 Chapter XIX.— Universities and Colleges. Discussion of statistics . . . . . — - - - - - 711 Professors and instructors . . . . . . . . . . 712 Students - - - - - - - - 713 Preparation of freshmen . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 Equipment - - - . ; - - - - - 720 Income and benefactions . . . . - - - - - - 721 Degrees in letters, science, and philosophy . . . . 722 Honorary degrees...... . . . - . . . - - - - - 723 Chairs of pedagogy . . . - - - - - - . - - - 725 Chapter XX.— Colleges for Women. Discussion of statistics - - - - . . . . 731 Chapter XXI. The Place of University Extension in American Education - - - 743 Chapter XXII. The Relation of the Independent Colleges to the System of State Schools... 753 Chapter XXIII. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute - - 757 Chapter XXIV. United States Military Academy at West Point — . . . --- 707 Chapter XXV. The Care of Truants and Incorrigibles . - . — 775 VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter XXVI.— Coeducation of the Sexes in the United States. Page. Introduction . . . . . . . . . - - - - - . 783 Status of public schools with respect to coeducation: State systems . - - . - . - - - . - - - - - . 781 City systems . . . . . - - - - - 786 Coeducation in colleges and universities . - . - - - - - 791 The literature of coeducation . . . — . - - - . - - - . — 798 Physiological and hygienic bearings of higher education for women with special reference to coeducation . . . . - . - . . 838 Views of college and university presidents and professors . . 816 Bibliography . . . - - - - 860 Chapter XXVII — Education of the Colored Race. Public school statistics . . . . 861 Secondary and higher institutions . . . . - . . . - - - . - 862 Universities and colleges - - - - - . . . . 863 Northern aid to colored schools . . . . - - . - - . ------ 865 Schools conducted by colored instructors . • - - - - - 866 Industrial instruction - - - - - - - - - - - . . 866 Institutions for the colored race, property . . . - - - 867 Chapter XXVIII — Report on Education in Alaska. Number and general condition of the schools . . . - . ,- . 873 Killing of Charles H. Edwards and the outrage upon J. E. Connett . . . . . . 878 Statistical tables - - - - - . . . - - - - - - 880 Supervision . . . . . . . . - . . . 884 Chapter XXIX.— History of Summer Schools in the United States. Contents . . - - - - - - - 893 Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - . . . . 891 Schools for original research and for the training of specialists. _ _ 898 Summer schools giving instruction in single subjects: Schools of philosophy, literature, and ethics . . . . . . . . . 909 Schools of languages, music, oratory, expression, and of physical training _ _ 917 Summer schools giving instruction in several branches: Chautauqua - - - - - - - - - - 921 Chautauqua assemblies - 937 Marthas Vineyard Summer Institute _ _ 915 Summer schools of Harvard University, of the University of Virginia, and of other schools . 952 PART III. STATISTICAL TABLES. Population, private schools, and public school enrollment, attendance, length of session, supervising officers, teachers, accommodations, and length of course of study in cities of over 8,000 inhabitants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962 Evening schools in cities of over 8,000 inhabitants _ _ _ 980 Property, receipts, and expenditures of public schools of cities of over 8,000 inhabitants 981 Public high schools . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002 Private secondary schools. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1081 Universities and colleges . . . . . . 1140 Colleges for women (Division A) _ _ _ _ _ _ 1158 Colleges for women (Division B) . . . . . . . . . . 1159 Summary of statistics of schools of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, and for nurses and vet¬ erinarians _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1163 Schools of medicine _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1166 dentistry _ _ _ _ _ 1172 pharmacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174 veterinary science . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176 nurse training _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1177 law.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179 theology . . . . . . . 1182 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX Page. Colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts . - - _ _ _ _ _ 1183 Scientific and technological schools. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1193 Manual training schools _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1197 Normal schools _ _ _ _ 1198 University extension _ _■ _ _ _ 1208 Business colleges _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1216 Schools for the colored race _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1234 Schools for the deaf - - - - - - - - - - 1238 Schools for the blind _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1251 Schools for the f eeble-minded _ _ _ _ _ _ 1257 Reform schools _ - _ _ _ _ _ 1263 Index - - - - - - - - 1273 REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washingto?iy D. <7., January lr 1894 . Sir : I have tlie honor to submit herewith my fourth annual report, the same being for the year ending June 30, 1892. GENERAL STATISTICS.1 The total number of pupils in schools of all grades, public and private, including all who attended for longer or shorter periods at some time during the school year, is given (p. 2) at 14,714,933, or 22.69 per cent of the population. This number, however, does not include the pupils enrolled in evening schools, nor in schools of art or industry, in business colleges, in schools for defective classes, nor in the Indian schools. These make an aggre¬ gate of more than 300,000 pupils, and increase the total in school to over 15,000,000 pupils. The average annual increase of the school enrollment for the six years next preceding (1885-1891) was nearly 250,000 pupils (249,260). This is about the same ratio as the increase in population. But the average increase for the twenty- one years, 1870-71 to 1891-92, has been something greater (268,780), and also in excess of the ratio of the increase in population. GRADE OF PUPILS. Of these jmpils 14,165,182, or 96.27 per cent of all pupils, were enrolled in the elementary grades included in the first eight years of school work. In the secondary schools, including public high schools and private academies or seminaries, there were in all 402,089 pupils (or 2.73 per cent of all) engaged on studies belonging to the third period of four years of school work (ninth to twelfth year). Only 147,662 pupils (or 1 per cent of all) were enrolled in the higher studies included in the fourth period of four years’ school work, carried on in colleges, universities, professional and technical schools, including nor¬ mal schools for the training of teachers. Out of an average number of 1,000 pupils 963 are in the elementary schools, 27 in the high school, and 10 in the college or professional school. See Chapters I and II, pp. 1-72. XI XII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS. Out of every 100 pupils in the elementary grade (or first eight years of school work) 91.51 pupils are in public schools and 8.46 pupils in pri¬ vate schools. But in secondary education (ninth to twelfth years’ work) the proportion in private schools is much greater, reaching 38.41 per cent, while in the higher education 64.61 per cent of the pupils are in private institutions, and only 35.39 per cent in State universities and normal schools. The private schools enroll nearly one-sixth of the pupils in the North Atlantic division of States (including New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania), but only one-fourteenth of the pupils in the Southern and Western States, and less than one-tenth of all the pupils in the nation. As I remarked in my last report, the private school assists the public school in the way of making useful educational experiments, and in providing a safeguard against a par¬ simonious management on the part of public school directors. When teachers’ wages are reduced private schools increase in number and excellence, and a healthy reaction sets in on the part of the friends of free schools. Moreover, a certain proportion of the children of the community have, or are supposed by their parents to have, need of special concessions either in regard to regularity of attendance, hours of schooling, course of study, or methods of instruction, and these pupils often find their requirements met in private schools. I have pointed out elsewhere that a certain proportion of private schools, say from 5 to 15 per cent of the whole teaching force, is desirable for the best progress of the whole school system. The pride of the public school system is its cul- ivation of the virtues of regularity, punctuality, self-control, and industry; its thoroughness of instruction and its democratic association of rich and poor, of high and low in the same school. But its danger lies in the direction of too much mechanism. In its school discipline this is generally healthy unless secured by harsh punishment; but in the matter of instruction it is sometimes an overcultivation of the verbal memory and a corresponding neglect of the more human training in power of thinking, the taste for literature and art, and the ability to make the most of the gifts peculiar to the individual pupil. The private school sometimes discovers and develops better methods in these particulars, and the teachers of the public schools profit by adopting them. Especially is this the case in that feature of work called u thoroughness.” It is often the case that pupils who have mastered the new thought of a study and gaiued all that it gives in the way of culture or mental nourishment are kept back in their course of study for the sake of more drill in mechanical accuracy in details. It will be seen on the inspection of school programmes that pupils are sometimes kept five years on studies that can not nourish the mind of youth for more than three or four years. The elementary course is lengthened out to nine or ten years when pupils would do much better REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. XIII to take up secondary studies after seven or eight years devoted to elementary studies. In these matters the private school is apt to make the opposite mistake, it is true, and begin the secondary studies before the pupil has a sufficient acquaintance with elementary work. In the former case the pupil is deadened by too much mechanical perfection in dealing with details; in the latter case he is discouraged by attempt¬ ing subjects too difficult for him to grasp. LENGTH OF SCHOOL YEAR. The average length of the annual school term increases with the growth of cities. In the North Atlantic Division the average length of the last scholastic year was 169.1 days of actual school sessions. In the South Central Division (including the Gulf States and containing few cities) the average annual term was 94.5 days. The average for the whole country was 137.1 days, the same being an increase from 132.1 days in 1870-71. The average length of annual term is slowly approach¬ ing 200 days, which is the maximum length of the school year accord¬ ing to present opinion. TOTAL AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING, PER CITIZEN, AT PRESENT RATES. In the table showing the actual average amount of attendance on school in the public schools (Table No. 8, p. 46) it is seen that the total number of days’ attendance reported for the year is 1,172,261,842, or an average of 88.8 days apiece for the 13,205,877 pupils enrolled. In my report for 1889-90 I showed that at the present rates of attendance each inhabitant is receiving an average of four and three-tenths years’ schooling, counting full years of two hundred days each, the ratio for each section of the country being as follows (counting both public and private schools) : Schooling to each inhabitant, in years of 200 days each. Years. Whole country . . 4.30 North Atlantic Division . 5. 89 South Atlantic Division . 2. 52 South Central Division . 2.56 North Central Division . 5. 15 Western Division . * . 4.40 But it should be mentioned that the above estimate does not take into consideration the fact that the proportions of children and adults vary largely in the different sections. In former reports (for 1888 and for 1889) these variations have been fully discussed. The school population of six to fourteen years was on the average for the whole country and its divisions according to the census of 1880 as follows for each 100 of population : For the United States . 19. 4 North Atlantic Division . . 17 South Atlantic Division . 21. 4 South Central Division . 22. 2 North Central Division . 19.5 Western Division . 15. 9 XIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. If these proportions are considered, the average length of school life of the population will be increased for the Western Division, which shows a d ^proportionally small number of children in its population owing to the fact that, being newly settled, there are fewer families than in older settled parts of the country. According to the estimate based simply on the average number of days’ schooling each child of the ages 5 to 18 years gets in the several States (see discussion of Table VIII, p. 51), omitting the private schools from calculations, each inhabitant receives 3.6G years of 200 days for the United States, 4.71 for the North Atlantic, 2.28 for the South Atlantic, 2.22 for the South Central, 4.38 for the North Central, 4.08 for the Western. This estimate takes into account the variations in the proportions of children of school age in the entire population. CLASSIFICATION BY SEX. While the elementary schools show a somewhat larger number of boys in attendance, the secondary schools show 53.9 per cent of girls, or 216,658 girls to 185,431 boys. Of these the public high schools report 147,162 girls to 100,498 boys and the private academies and seminaries 69,496 girls to 84,933 boys. The institutions of higher edu¬ cation report 23,360 female students and 49,100 male students in col¬ leges and universities, 26,725 female and 12,412 male students in the normal schools. The ratio of women to men in higher education is changing from year to year in favor of the former. The coeducational colleges and universities enroll 10,846 female students, while the col¬ leges for women enroll 12,514. TEACHERS. The number of teachers in the public schools is reported at 374,460, of whom 252,822, or 67.5 per cent, are women. In 1870-71 the per¬ centage of male teachers was 41; nine years later (1879-80) it was 42.8; ten years later (1889-90) it had fallen to 34.5. SCHOOL EXPENDITURES. The total expenditure for public schools is reported at $155,991,273, the same being an increase of $9,191,110 over the year preceding. Of this sum $100,333,071 went for the payment of salaries of teachers and superintendents. The average expenditure per pupil was $14.80, not counting the expenditures for new buildings. HOW THE BUREAU OBTAINS ITS STATISTICS. The statistics published in this and preceding annual reports are obtained partly from direct returns made to the Bureau from the super¬ intendents of States and cities and the heads of institutions, and partly by compilation from printed reports. The schedules sent out annually REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. XV to superintendents of school systems and the heads of institutions number 24 in all. These call in the aggregate for 566 items. The total number of returns made the past year was 7,483, but in order to obtain this number an average of three schedules were mailed to each party who reported. The following exhibit shows the titles of these sched¬ ules and indicates the pages where the information is tabulated in this report : Schedules (annual) . Items. Sched¬ ules tab¬ ulated . Sched¬ ules mailed, about — Where information is tabulated in report for 1891. State systems . 20 50 200 i Tablesl-18. Chap. I: Tables 1-21, Chap. II. Tables 1-5, Chap. XVII; Tables 1-3, Part III, p. 962. City systems . 41 459 2,000 City and village systems . 19 500 2,000 Industrial training schools . . 31 500 Public secondary schools - 20 3, 035 7, 000 Tables 1-7, Chap. XVIII ; Tables 1-4, Part III, p. 1002. Private secondary schools . . . 20 1,549 5, 000 Tables 1-7, Chap. VIII; Tables 5 and 6, Part III, p. 1084. Universities and colleges. . . . 23 442 1,200 14 tables, Chap. XIX ; Table 6, Part III, p. 1140. Colleges for women . 18 158 500 10 tables, Chap. XX ; Tables 7 and 8, Part ! Ill, p. 1158. Schools of technology . 20 21 100 Table 22, Part III, p. 1196. University extension . 8 19 500 Table 29, Part III, p. 1206. Agricultural colleges . 20 60 400 Tables 19 and 20, Part III, p. 1188. Medical schools . 30 136 400 Tables 9 and 10, Part III, p. 1163. Law schools . . 25 58 200 Tables 15 and 16, Part III, p. 1179. Theological schools . 25 141 450 Tables 17 and 18, Part III, p. 1182. Dental schools . 20 27 100 Table 11, Part III, p. 1172. Schools of pharmacy . 20 28 100 Table 12, Part III, p. 1174. Nurses’ training schools . 12 37 150 Table 14, Part III, p. 1177. Normal schools . 24 178 1,000 Tables 24-28, Part III, p. 1198. Tables 30 and 31, Part III, p. 1216. Commercial schools . 18 234 750 Institutions for the blind. . . . 33 34 150 Tables 39 and 40, Part III, p. 1251. Institutions for the deaf . 33 61 300 Tables 33-38, Part III, p. 1238. Institutions for feeble minded 33 27 150 Tables 41-45, Part III, p. 1257. Reform schools . 33 79 300 Tables 45 and 46, Part III, p. 1263. Schools for the colored . 20 150 600 Chap. XVII, p. 863, Table 32, p. 1234, Part III. Total . 566 7,483 24, 050 The statistical division of the Bureau, besides tabulating the returns from the schedules, examines and compares the published reports of State and city school systems, the catalogues, yearbooks, and manuals oi the several kinds of educational institutions. The division of for¬ eign exchange studies the official reports on foreign systems and all the books published by investigators on those systems, whether in Eng¬ lish or in other languages. Besides the twenty-four regular annual schedules mentioned above, the Bureau undertakes each year some one or more extra inquiries, pub¬ lishing the results either in the annual report or in a separate circular of information. Examples of this are the chapter on “ kindergartens,” published in the report of last year (1890-91); also the report on legal education in the different countries of the world, and the report show¬ ing all public libraries of over one thousand volumes, prepared by the statistical division and published as a separate circular of information. To some extent special inquiries by clerks detailed from the office are made, as, for example, those into art and industrial instruction by XVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Mr. I. Edwards Clarke, and into laboratory work in educational path¬ ology by Dr. Arthur MacDonald. It has been the practice of the Bureau since dhe begining to obtain from experts special treatises on various topics of interest as they awaken public inquiry. EDUCATION IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. France. — In Chapter III (pp. 73-96) a brief survey is given of the educational system of France, abridged from the more extended study made in a previous report. To this is appended an account of the important operations of the year 1892. France, since it began the work of educating the whole people, has been a profitable object lesson for the study of methods of organization, instruction, and course of study. There is no field on which a more interesting experiment is in progress. Will the universal education of the people develop local centers of self-government, or are the course of study and the methods employed such as to make it a second nature for the inhabitants of the provinces to look to Paris for each and every initiative? It is interest¬ ing to note in this connection (p. 91) that the provincial centers now show 13,287 university students, while Paris has only 10,110, whereas Paris had the larger number five years before. The history of education in China shows that a nation may have a universal system of school education and yet develop little or no local self-government. If the memory is the chief faculty cultivated, and the course of study includes little else besides the sacred codes of morals and religion, the result is to fill the mind with the traditional forms of thinking and acting. Whence it results that the child learns to think and act and to take precisely the view of the world that his fathers took before him. The more education in Confucius and Men¬ cius the more safely conservative will be the life of each new inhabi¬ tant in China. But on the other hand, let the child start in a kinder, gartenand develop self- activity along all the lines of his character ; let him continue his studies in the primary and grammar schools, cultivating the habits of observation and scientific investigation ; let him keep abreast with scientific research ; let him have access to the literature of the world, and he will find a constant stimulus toward freedom and local self-government ; toward emancipation from authority. The fact that France lays great stress on scientific methods in its schools, therefore, goes to show that the universal education there in progress is an education that moves toward decentralization. The influence of Paris will now help emancipate the provinces, and each other city in France will develop within itself its own Paris. Mean¬ while Paris will grow all the more in its influence on the world as one of the three great modern civilizing powers. Great Britain and Ireland. — In Chapter IV is given a brief survey of education in England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, supplementary to REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. XVII statements printed in the report of 1888-89, in which the system of England, and the report of 1889-90, in which that of Scotland, were presented historically. In 1891 school fees were remitted in the Gov. ernment elementary schools. The statistics of the past year show an increase of attendance due to this fact, and the elementary schools of England now enroll 17.13 per cent of the population. The number of schools under municipal school boards has increased, and they now enroll 40 per cent of all pupils. The private and parochial schools still enroll 60 percent, while the private and parochial schools in the United States enroll only 10 per cent of the pupils. The struggle of the friends of the parochial schools will doubtless have a purifying and beneficial effect on the management of schools under public-school boards. The fire of opposition saves much waste¬ ful experiment by exposing the weak features of a system in advance of the actual trial by experiment. In England the old challenges the new and pours upon it a storm of ridicule; points out its inconsistencies and want of logic; praises the good old way; foresees the dreadful con¬ sequences to church and state of the new plans if carried out. Such a winnowing of a new scheme lets through only the best and wisest features, and the progress is continuous if slow. There is much less of the pendulum movement in English reform, less swinging from one extreme to another, which u marks time,” but does not march. Meanwhile, an equal amount of interest exists for us in the course of study and methods of instruction pursued in English schools but not the same kind of interest that we found in those of France. English- speaking peoples have for centuries insisted on local self-government. W e do not feel so anxious to see the modes by which English schools secure independence and freedom of local centers as to see how they correct ten¬ dencies to extreme individualism and jmovincialism. What place does English literature hold in the education of English and Irish and Scotch youth'? There are more first-class poets in England at the present time than in all tlierestof Europe, and the total roll of its poets and dramatists of high order of merit is also greater than that of the rest of Europe. The social and political atmosphere of this people, with its national idiosyncrasy tending to personal adventure and local self-government, seems to favor the evolution of poets. The poet makes public opinion by uttering his view of the world in beautiful forms of speech and can¬ vassing the grounds aud motives that tell in its favor. An education in the national poetry of England therefore furnishes the needed uni¬ fying influence for its adventure-seeking people. They form, whether in Great Britain or in English-speaking colonies, a nation whose rule is chiefly that of public opinion, fed by the national poets and novelists, and exfjressed in its organ, the daily newspaper. It is of interest to note that the enrollment of children in the schools of Ireland slightly exceeds that of England, being 17.34 per cent of the population. Here the same investigation, as to the course of study and ED 92 II XVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. methods of instruction, is necessary in order to answer the question whether this system of universal education is to settle the Irish politi¬ cal problem. Chapter V gives a summary of the reports on technical instruction in Great Britain, showing the status of the great movement inaugurated after the first world’s fair, when English statesmen learned that certain other countries surpassed their own in the artistic finish of goods. Germany , Austria. Switzerland.— In Chapter VI the present opera¬ tions of the schools for training teachers in the German speaking nations are discussed in the light of their history. Much interesting mat¬ ter is to be found in the courses of study of those institutions. In Chapter VII an historical and statistical review is given of the Swiss school system. In Chapter VIII is an interesting study of the schools of Vienna as regards the home influences of 9,000 children aged from 10 to 14. The article is translated from Franz Schoberle and is a contribution to the vast subject of child-study now gaining so large a place in educational literature. In last year’s report I printed Dr. Francis Warner’s studies made on 50,000 children of the London schools in respect to physical and mental condition, a noteworthy contribution to this same subject of child-study. In Chapter IX (pp. 239-246) are to be found notes on school museums in various parts of the world. Inas¬ much as no complete list has been printed of such museums, contribu¬ tions to such a list are desired. In Chapter X is given a translation of a remarkable article on the character and historical development of the German universities by Professor Paulsen, of Berlin, supplemented by a statistical review of the subject by Professor Conrad, of Halle. It is one of the noblest contributions made to the Columbian Exposition. The civil service in France and Prussia. — Chapter XI contains the results of a special investigation made by experts for the Bureau into the schools for recruiting the civil services in France, and an account of the civil service requirements in Prussia. Prussia and France stand in the foremost rank of the world for the perfection of their civil serv¬ ice. In the infancy of our American system we naturally have much to learn from them in this particular. Prof. Herbert B. Adams’s excel¬ lent suggestion of an academy in Washington for the training of can¬ didates for civil service, is given a place in this chapter (pp. 410-412). A brief survey of the education of Sweden, together with some account of current operations, is given in Chapter XII. PHYSICAL TRAINING:. In Chapter XIII is given an historical sketch of physical training, together with a careful study of the systems in use in this country, namely, the Swedish, the German, Dr. Sargent’s, and that of Delsarte. This elaborate article is closed with suggestions regarding school gymnasiums, and tabular views showing the statistics of physical train¬ ing in the city schools of the United States. REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. XIX I am not convinced that the present theory of physical education, as taught in the schools, gives enough weight to the bodily conditions that favor the restoration of nervous energy. It is well known that physical exercise affects directly the muscular system, and that the muscular system is not all of the body, nor, indeed, itself directly the generator of what I have called nervous energy. There is a nutritive process of digestion and a distributive process of circulation through the heart and lungs and liver, the two forming a building-up function which restores, repairs, and increases the organism and removes the waste. There is, besides, a nervous organism which receives impressions from without and sends out impulses that react on the environment. Physical training, as we understand it, deals directly and chiefly with the muscular system and with that part of the nervous system which conveys impulses from the brain outward through the limbs to the environment. Physical exercise indirectly acts on the digestion and the circulatory system and on the nerves of sensation, and its relation to those other bodily functions is nearly or quite as important as the direct relation of exercise to the muscles and the acquiring of strength. During the first fifty years of agitation on the subject of bodily train¬ ing, connected with the rise of Turner societies in Germany and the preaching of the gospel of bodily culture as auxiliary to intellect and will by Spurzheim, his disciple, George Combe, and their numerous followers, we may say without hesitation that the doctrine of phys¬ ical exercise was passing through its stage of superstition and quackery. There was a sharp dividing line between the believers in hygiene and the old school of physicians, and this separation led quite naturally to dismal results. The doctors opposed with blind conservatism the new apostles, and the latter justified the attitude of the former by a radicalism equally blind and fanatical. It is the glory of the present revival of physical exercise that it is led by educated physicians. It is a new movement of the highest importance, the establishment of a resident physician in each of our colleges as supervisor of gymnastics and recording inspector of phys¬ ical development among the students. It means a synthesis of science with reform and the end of the era of quackery in hygiene. But it is not something that can be matured all at once. There is a fringe of the old fanaticism which still attaches to the new movement, and consequently an unreasonable conservatism, which is the result of a reaction against obvious quackery. The regular medical directors of physical exercise are reducing their observations to a statistical form, and are rejecting many of the principles supposed to be fixed in former times. They are dispelling many old illusions. They are widening the survey of effects direct and indirect. Already we are beginning to have a harvest of treatises which record the more scientific observations. The old athletism in a college produced a small quota of splendidly XX REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. trained bodies. The majority of the students made but little progress. Their exercise consisted for the most part in sitting on the damp ground (or on a dry fence) and seeing the picked men of their classes engage in a violent contest for mastery. Athletics was rather a system of elimi¬ nating the weak and of selecting the already strong for the contests at ball or boating. Even in the gymnasium it was the strong who held out and continued to practice the exercises. But a system that selected the already strong rather than transformed the weak into the strong was only a sham for physical education. That sham is now in process of removal by the substituting of special courses of exercise provided by the medical gymnasiarch for each individual after special diagnosis. The athlete theory of gymnastics was a sort of survival of the old Greek and Roman customs. It was not realized that the Greeks and Romans attached not so much a hygienic value to athletics as a reli¬ gious significance. The Greeks celebrated their worship of physical beauty, the gods of Olympus, by their games, and the Romans equally celebrated, not beauty, but self-sacrifice by their sports in the arena. The Greeks conceived the divine as a god like control of the body by the mind in such a form as to produce gracefulness of carriage. The Roman worshipped the political state as the incarnation of the divine, and celebrated it by spectacles of self-sacrifice wherein human gladi¬ ators contended in the death struggle with each other or with wild beasts. This symbolized for him the struggle within each citizen who sacrificed his life or property for the safety or advancement of Rome. Careless readers of history may suppose that all nations have culti¬ vated bodily perfection in the same way as the Greeks and Romans, and for the same ends. But it is not so. The savage tribes seek skill in war by physical training, while we seek to increase the healthful gen¬ eration of nervous energy. But many Asiatic nations have, for religious reasons, opposed physical culture as something leading to evil — as, for example, the Hindoos and the Buddhists. The Hindoo worshipped an abstract unity, devoid of all form, which he called Brahma. His idea of the divine is defined as the negation not only of everything in nature, but also everything human. Nothing that has form, or shape, or properties, or qualities — nothing, in short, that can be distinguished from anything else, can be divine according to the thought of the Hindoo. This is a pantheism that worships a negative might which destroys everything. If it admits that the world of finite things arises from Brahma as creator, it hastens to tell us that creation is only a dream, and that all creatures will vanish when the dream fades. There can be no hope for any individuality, according to this belief. Any art that grows up under such a religion will manifest only the nothingness of individual¬ ity, and the impossibility of its salvation. Instead of beauty as the attribute of divinity, the Hindoo studies to mortify the flesh ; to shrivel up the body $ to paralyze rather than to develoj) his muscles. Instead REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. XXI of gymnastic festivals, lie resorted to the severest penances, such as holding his arm over his head until it wasted away. If he could pro¬ duce numbness in his body so that all feeling disappeared, he attained holiness. His divine was not divine-human, but inhuman rather. But opposed to this oriental idea, the Greek religion made beauty the essential feature of the idea of the divine, and hence his art is created as an act of worship of the beautiful. It represents the supreme attain¬ ment of the world in pure beauty, because it is pure beauty and noth¬ ing beyond. Christianity reaches beyond beauty to holiness. Other heathen religions fall short of the Greek idea, and lack an essential ele¬ ment which the Greek religion possessed. The Greeks believed that the divine is at the same time humau ; and human notin the sense that the essence of man, his purified intellect and will, is divine, but human in the corporeal sense as well. The gods of Olympus were thought to possess appetites and passions like men; to have bodies and live in a special place. They formed a society, or large patriarchal family. The manifestation of the divine was seen In celestial beauty. Moreover, it was supposed that the human being may, by becoming beautiful, become divine. Hence the Greek religion centered about gymnastic games. These were the Olympian, the Isthmian, the Nemean, and the Pythian games. Exercises that shall give the soul sovereignty over the bodj^ and develop it into beauty are religious in this sense. Every village had its games for physical development ; these were attended by the people, who became, in time, judges of perfection in human form, just as a community that attends frequent horse races produces men that know critically the good points of a horse. It was known who was the best man at wrestling, boxing, throwing the discus, the spear, or javelin; at running, at leaping1, or at the chariot and the horseback races. Then, at less frequent intervals, there was the contest at games between neighboring villages. The successful hero carried off the crown of wild olive branches. Nearly -every year there was a great national assembly of Greeks, and a contest open to all. The Olympian festival at Olympia and the Isthmian festival, near Corinth, were held the same summer; then at Argolis, in the winter of the second year afterward, was the Nemean festival, the Pythian festival near Delphi, and a second Isthmian festival occurred in the spring of the third year, and again a second Nemean festival in the summer of the fourth year of the Olympiad. The entire people, composed of independent states, united by ties of religion, assembled to celebrate this faith in the beau, tiful, and honor their successful youths. The results carried the national taste for the beautiful, as seen in the human body, to the highest degree. The next step after the development of the personal work of art in the shape of beautiful youth, by means of the national games and the cultivation of the taste of the entire people through the spectacle of XXII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. these games, was the arc of sculpture, by which these forms of beauty, realized in the athletes and existing in the minds of the people as ideals of correct taste, were fixed in stone and set up in the temples for worship. Thus Greek art was born. The statues at first wrere of gods and demigods exclusively. Those which have come down to us cause our unbounded astonishment at their perfection of form. It is not their resemblance to living bodies, not their anatomical exactness, that inter¬ ests us, not their so-called “ truth to nature,’7 but their gracefulness and serenity — their “ classic repose.” Whether the statues represent gods and heroes in action or in sitting and reclining postures, there is this “repose,” which means indwelling vital activity, and not mere rest as opposed to movement. In the greatest activity there is considerate purpose and perfect self-control manifested. The repose is of the soul, and not a physical repose. Even sitting and reclining figures — for example, the Theseus from the Parthenon, the torso of the Belvidere— are filled with activity, so that the repose is one of voluntary self- restraint and not the repose of the absence of vital energy. They are gracefulness itself. Modern civilization has adopted from the Hebrew “chosen people” the idea of holiness; from the Greek the idea of beauty; from the Roman the idea of a social or civil whole as state and nation, as municipal corporation, and as free association — and it unites these ideas and subordinates each to a higher ideal. Even the Hebrew idea of holi¬ ness is subordinated to the Christian ideal of divine charity in the service of humanity. W e do not approve the sacrifice of the higher interests of the soul for the beauty of the body; nor for the needs of military service; nor for the theatrical display of strength in brutal contests. W e regard physical exercise as desirable for the increase of nervous energy, to be expended for rational spiritual purposes. Our civilization is so bent on the conquest of nature and the produc¬ tion of wealth that it perpetually strains its supply of nervous energy and produces disaster. Here is the special problem of our time for hygiene to meet, How to restore and conserve nervous energy? There are three factors here : First, the one of food and its proper assimilation ; second, the factor of rest and sleep ; third, the factor of exercise — muscular and mental. It is obvious enough that digestion requires nervous energy just as muscular and mental labor does. Hence, digestion must be given time. It must not be encroached on by bodily exercise, or by mental exercise. But what is the average amount of time required for this, and should it be total cessation from bodily and mental labor, or is light labor of both or either best for the diges¬ tive process? Here our quantitative tables and the observations of our medical directors are to give us the true answer ; not abstract, general answers like those old dogmatic answers, but definite answers, qualified to suit different temperaments and abounding with tests easily applied by REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. XXIII each individual. It is necessary to have the directions so specific that inexperienced youth will not err in their application. This is an age of self-educated men. The printed page is the means of such education. It is all the more necessary to surround new departures with the safe¬ guards of printed rules and cautions. If the chajfters could be written which describe the grave mistakes committed by amateurs in the use of physical exercise as a hygienic measure, they would furnish a sufficient warning for the present gen. eration. They would describe various experiments of using midnight hours for walks and rides in the open air — the student used all bis day for intellectual work and supposed that an hour or two of exercise taken at a late hour of the night- would answer his needs. Another experiment selected its period of exercise in the early morning, cur¬ tailing the -period of sleep in order to secure the requisite time before breakfast. Violent physical exercise taken early in the morning is very exhaustive of nervous energy, and probably in most instances the student has cultivated nervous dyspepsia quite as much as he has cul¬ tivated his muscles. We have all read in the biography and autobi¬ ography of Thomas Carlyle the mention of his w'alks and horseback rides late in the night. Everyone has had something of this kind in his own experience or in the experience of persons of his acquaintance. A dis¬ tinguished laborer in the cause of education told lately his own follies in this matter. Led on by reading injudicious writings on this subject of hygiene, he had so curtailed his night’s rest for the sake of morning exercise that nervous collapse resulted. His physician prescribed as the only possible remedy a long period of total rest. The hours of sleep at night were nearly doubled and a relaxation from study in the daytime was insisted upon. Relief came as a consequence. Besides this mistake of cutting oft* the sleeping hours at the begin¬ ning or at the end for the sake of physical exercise, there is an equally harmful mistake of bringing the hour of exercise close to the hours for meals. Just preceding or just succeeding a meal, any exercise of a suffi¬ ciently energetic character to cause the blood to leave the organs of digestion and fill the muscles of the body or the brain is injurious and tends to produce dyspepsia. The stomach needs the greater share of 'the nervous energy and likewise of the arterial circulation. Dr. Sargent thinks that violent exercise should not be taken at a period so long as three hours after a meal, on account of the danger of faintness, which neutralizes the good results of such exercise. Provided the person has just taken violent exercise, the blood is diverted to the muscles and brain and away from the stomach. The taking of food at this time, when the nervous system is depleted of its vitality, is considered unfavor¬ able to the best action of the digestive functions. It must be admitted, too, that cold bathing, which has been so often commended with a great lack of discrimination, is another source of injury to the health when it is resorted to by persons with nervous tern- XXIV REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. peraments or feeble constitutions, and at a time when the system has been depleted of its vital energy by work or exercise, or when the digestive organs are occupied with recently taken food. The old ruie, made by a farmer population to encourage early ris¬ ing, which mentions, as its effect, health, wealth, and wisdom has made mischief with conscientious students who have supposed that early rising is m itself a good thing, even when not preceded by the precaution named in the adage, namely, “ early to bed.” It is a very important matter to consider that physical exercise has its best effect when it is carried on socially in the form of plays and games or con¬ tests with one’s fellows. The stimulus which is derived from emula¬ tion and interest in one’s fellow students has to be compensated for by a sheer exertion of the will in the case of calisthenic exercises and in the case of prescribed athletic training by the use of weights, ladders, and the other machines of the gymnasium. The object of gymnastic training, it has been said often enough, is to put the will into the muscles. It is to give one such control over all his muscles that each act performed by the body is performed by the use of all the muscles which nature has provided for the purpose. The farmer or the blacksmith develops a few muscles and neglects others. The gymnasium is supposed to cultivate many muscles which remain rudimentary in the original man; and here, I think, is an item of com¬ pensation which makes up for a great deal of the deleterious results coming to the imprudent gymnast who is careless about the hygienic precautions just now mentioned in relation to eating and sleeping. The gymnast— and I mean by the gymnast one who has taken suffi¬ ciently violent exercise to develop to a considerable degree the muscles of the chest, back, arms, and the other limbs — the gymnast has acquired the power of putting his will into his muscles by a slight effort. The gymnast performs all slight bodily actions — such as rising from a chair, sitting down, walking, climbing stairs, swinging his arms, turning his head, everything, in short, that he does with his body — by using many more muscles than the untrained person uses. Hence, it happens that one who has taken gymnastic exercise retains till old age the power of gettinga maximum of exercise out of a minimum of bodily movement. Walking a few rods and running up and down stairs two or three times a day gives him as much exercise as the average farmer gets from two hours of farm work. It is most important to note that gymnastic and calisthenic training, so called, are violent demands upon the will power and a rapid drain of the nervous energy. Hence, physical exercise directly after a hard lesson is not a proper sequence. The will power which has been drained by the mental work is reduced to complete exhaustion by violent physical exercise. “Every pound of energy expended on work, either of mind or of body,” says Dr. Sargent, “ must be made good by food, rest, or sleep/ REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. XXV Severe mental work can not be compensated for by severe physical work. It is rest for the will which is required, and the will is rested not by a new tension of its exercise, but by a state of collapse such as comes when caprice and arbitrariness and the yielding to one’s humor succeeds the tension of work. Plato’s description of the Greek athletes, stupid and lazy fellows, who did nothing but eat and sleep, describes the condition of rest after severe physical exercise, and still more the true condition of rest of the intellectual athlete after severe mental exercise. I have here enumerated some of the results of injudicious physical exercise. The effects of judicious exercise are those which are usually described in works of hygiene and physical training. I quote an enumeration of them from Dr. Ray Lankester to show how simple the whole matter looks when the precautions are omitted. Nearly all things seem simple when taken out of their relation to their environ¬ ment. He says: The employment of the muscles in exercise not only benefits their especial structure, but acts on the whole system. When the muscles are put in action the capillary blood vessels with which they are supplied become more rapidly charged with blood, and active changes take place, not only in the muscles but in all the surrounding tissues. The heart is required to supply more blood, and accordingly beats more rapidly in order to meet the demand. A large quantity of blood is sent through the lungs, and larger supplies of oxygen are taken in and carried to the various tissues. The oxygen, by combining with the carbon of the blood and the tissues, engenders a larger quantity of heat, which produces an action on the skin, in order that the superfluous warmth may be disposed of. The skin is thus exercised, as it were, and the sudoriparous and sebaceous glands are set at work. The lungs and skin are brought into operation, and the lungs throw off large quantities of water containing in solution matters which, if retained, would produce disease in the body. Wherever the blood is sent, changes of a healthful character occur. The brain and the rest of the nervous system are invigorated, the stomach has its powers of digestion improved, and the liver, pancreas, and other organs perform their functions with more vigor. By want of exercise the constituents of the food which pass into the blood are not oxidized, and products which produce disease are engen¬ dered. The introduction of fresh supplies of oxygen induced by exercise oxidizes I these products and renders them harmless. All other things being the same, it may be laid down as a rule that those who take the most exercise in the open air will I live longest. But the student who reads of these direct effects without, at the same time, carefully learning the indirect effects on digestion and sleep and mental work or worry will be likely to neutralize all the good that comes from physical exercise. The teacher who, full of faith in calisthenic exercise, thinks to do away with the old-fashioned recess and to gain a positive benefit by physical training, will fall into serious errors. A consideration of the conditions of the problem will show this. Within the school the pupil is supposed to be under a severe strain of discipline and attention to study. Regularity, punctuality, silence, conformity to rules as to sitting or standing, strict self-control on the part of the pupil, and a XXVI REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. forced attention to his lesson, or to the recitation of his fellow-pupils, or to the explanations of his teacher — all this produces a great tension of physical and mental powers. If it were continued too long, con¬ gestion would he produced, affecting the heart or brain or digestive functions, or some local nerve center. Past experience, noting this fact, has endeavored to avoid the danger by establishing the interval of rest and recreation known as the “ recess.” The pupils are all dismissed from the school building and removed from the school restraints for an interval of a few minutes. The pupil leaves the close air of the schoolroom and rushes out into the pure air, suddenly relieved from the cramp of muscles in sitting in a partic¬ ular position on a hard seat, and relieved likewise from the cramp of nervous energy that has been diverted from natural functions of diges¬ tion, circulation, and secretion, and concentrated on the conscious pro¬ cesses of attention and obedience to the external commands of the teacher or to his own self-imposed industry. The chief use of the “ recess” is its complete suspension of tension of will power and the surrender to caprice for a brief interval. Any form of calisthenics or gymnastic exercise is therefore a diversion of the recess from its normal function. It is the substitution of one kind of tension of the will for another. The tension of the will requisite to perform properly the requirements of school discip line and instruction is such as to withdraw the nervous energy from those great centers of secretion and circulation, stomach, heart, kidneys, liver, lungs. Conges¬ tion, as before said, is easily initiated, and if continued will produce functional derangements connected with the organs of digestion and circulation. The seeds of indigestion, renal weakness, liver complaint, constipation, even of fearful scourges like Bright’s disease, may be sown in the system in early years by injudicious confinement in the schoolroom. The great physical need of the pupil is relaxation. The pupil needs to stretch his cramped muscles and send the blood in torrents through his limbs, which have become torpid with disuse. The pupil is in want of fresh air and of the deep inflation of the lungs that exercise in the open air gives. He ought to use his voice, too. The reformers propose to substitute light exercises called “calisthenics” for the purpose of supplying all these wants. They will throw open the windows and let in fresh air; they will have a system of well-devised movements which will give the needed circulation of the blood, etc. Oalisthenic exercise serves a good place in the schoolroom, but its most important function is not a physiological one. It is true that the blood is caused to circulate more vigorously through the limbs and those parts of the body that have become partly torpid with sitting or standing still. But the chief demand upon the pupil in calisthenics is the requirement to strain his attention and exercise his will. It is a will training to a greater extent than a physiological training. The REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. XXVI I great distinction between work and play is this one: In play, the mind is spontaneous, governed entirely by its own individuality; in work, the will power is exercised to conform its individuality to some exter¬ nally prescribed course of action. Calistlienic exercise is severe work, and not by any means a relaxation. But the child needs relaxation and not merely a change of work, although the change is of some ben¬ efit. Exercise of the limbs, in accordance with a prescribed formula, is not the thing that nature requires. The child has been exercising his will in the four directions of self- control: To be regular, punctual, silent, and industrious; now giving his attention to the mastery of some subject by himself, and anon, fol¬ lowing with alertness and critical acumen the recitation of some fellow- pupil, or some explanation or direction by the teacher. Calisthenics does not afford relief to the will power. We have seen that all exer¬ cise of the will, in the act of fixed and unremitting attention, has a pow¬ erful influence over the digestive, circulatory, and secretory functions of the body. This influence, if not intermitted, will cause derangement of these functions. A run in the open air, a saunter at will, or a vigorous game with one’s fellows, free from restraint or authority — any exercise, in short, of the spontaneous choice of the pupil, will give this desirable relief to the lungs, the heart, the stomach, the glands, and the ganglia. Our medical advisers who supervise gymnastic exercises are in pro¬ cess of correcting the evils and extending the benefits of physical edu¬ cation. Their best service is to be along the line of enlightening the student who is on the verge (or beyond the verge) of nervous prostra¬ tion how to build anew his nerves. For they will teach him the func¬ tion of sleep and amusement; of rest before and after meals; of the danger of following a mental strain of the will by another strain of the will directed to the muscles; of the danger of exercise late at night; of the danger of tobacco and alcoholic liquors. We shall have science instead of quackery. These good things belong mostly to the physical education of the future. THE AGE OF WITHDRAWAL FROM THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. In Chapter XVI I print a valuable essay of Prof. 0. M. Woodward, of St. Louis, on the method of ascertaining the average age of with¬ drawal from public schools. CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. At the present time there is much inquiry for literature on the sub¬ ject of grading in city schools and the proper length of class intervals. I have brought together in Chapter XV several discussions written on the advantages and defects of the graded system, and especially concerning the importance of classifying with short intervals between classes in order to render possible frequent promotions of those pupils making the most rapid progress. ' XXVIII REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. SUMMER SCHOOLS, ETC. In Chapter XXIX I have printed a history of summer schools in the United States prepared especially for this Bureau by Dr. W. W. Willoughby. In recent years the summer school has become a very important means of extending school and university advantages to adult persons. State university organization. — In Chapter XXII I have presented an important suggestion of Dr. S. S. Laws, formerly president of the State University of Missouri, looking toward the federation of the colleges or universities of a State under the leadership of a State uni¬ versity. It seems possible that this idea may be adopted in some of our States to great advantage. West Point Military School. — An excellent article on our national Military School at West Point is found in Chapter XXIV. It was pre¬ pared by Prof. E. S. Holden, of Lick Observatory. Truants and incorrigibles. — In Chapter XXV I print one of the most thoughtful and wise articles yet written on the care of truants and incorrigibles, prepared by the superin ten dent of city schools, Boston, Mass. Education in Alaska. — In Chapter XXVIII Dr. Sheldon Jackson, the United States general agent for education in Alaska, reports the work of the year for that Territory. He gives an account of the first trip to Siberia for the purchase of reindeer. Wm. T. Harris, Commissioner . Hon. Hoke Smith, Secretary of the Interior . PART I. CHAPTER I. GENERAL CLASSIFIED SUMMARY OF PUPILS OF ALL GRADES, IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND INSTITUTIONS. General table — Per tent 0/ the population under instruction — Also of the school popula¬ tion — Proportion of each grade of instruction, and of public and private instruction — Higher students and population compared — Distribution of students in professional schools — Sex of secondary pupils and of college students — Female college students compared with the population — Proportion in each class of institutions — Normal school pupils. The following table (Table 1) gives the number of pupils of all grades in the United States,* classified according to grade of instruction im¬ parted, instead of according to the character of institution attended. Thus, all secondary pupils in colleges have been classed as secondary; and all elementary pupils as elementary, even though attending (in the u preparatory v department) an institution of secondary grade. The statistics of private elementary education have never been com¬ pletely gathered, and the figures in Column 3 are, therefore, largely estimated; they are known to be much less than the facts would war¬ rant, and should possibly be increased as much as 50 per cent. The returns of pupils receiving secondary instruction, both public and pri¬ vate, are also incomplete. * Excluding in general evening schools; art, industrial training, trades, and pri¬ vate business schools ; schools for the defective, dependent, and delinquent classes, and Indian schools. These collectively enroll a considerable number of pupils. ED 92- 1 1 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. m -2 I *£ 'tS s e .2 1 1 .§ 4 c I ■Sf .g!’&| '§ ft,® «c-s l ‘si * 5 a'£ jj'SM: • | t> 1 CO 1 T— 1 1 IsffS | 2 cf 1 io » -^r eo u- CO lO I oooo'oh ‘3 Ph 1 > 'S d o o glass e 3 © s' P4 Pupils receiving sec¬ ondary instruction (“high school” grade), a Private (in prepar¬ atory schools, academies, semina¬ ries. etc.). K3 154, 429 Ilgal saas“ rO © 2 £ * 247,600 IlsSII CO~ CO~ lO j-7 Pupils receiving ele¬ mentary instruction ('•primary” and “grammar” grades). Private (largely estimated). 1, 198, 861 ssgss iasP Public. 12, 960, 321 liSSIS ill'll m r-T rf id The United States . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . North Central Division . Western Division . Total number of pupils or students of each grade, in both public and private schools — Continued. GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 3 Grant! total. 1 i s Tf lO T-I Tf sl!|S eo r-T cd in Summary — public and private. U * « A 1 r-T IllSI sssss «S> rH H Tf d § . a i CO ISilS litis co r-T io d 5 fci) >i 6 03 'P, & a 3 m s "§) 1 a i © *=1 j_ t> Tf< inn S3 533“ O o m (20 1 f mss gssss u i=l a o w PH 8 s 3, 630, 791 1, 930, 575 2, 590, 740 5, 352, 054 661,022' a .2 o o h 2 2 _CJ0 d *oS *G PH e g lilt! 3 pH 1 of GO SlsSS 1 r-l Cl - The United States . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . . North Central Division . Western Division . . . . . . j 4 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. WHERE THE SECONDARY PUPILS ARE FOUND. In the following table (Table 2) tlie secondar y pupils are classified according to the character of the institution attended. It will be seen from the table that there are comparatively few public secondary pupils outside of the common schools (i. e., in public univer¬ sities, etc.), the proportion of such being only about 3 per cent of the public secondary pupils. In fact, a large number of the State univer¬ sities have no preparatory departments, but confine themselves exclu¬ sively to collegiate instruction. On the other hand, of the 154,429 private secondary pupils, over one- third are found in higher institutions. In the North Central Division, indeed, more than one-half of the private secondary pupils are found in institutions classed as collegiate, while in the North Atlantic Division only about one-sixth, — a good evidence of the higher degree of develop¬ ment of the colleges of the latter section. The 239,556 high-school pupils of Column 2, combined with the 12,966,321 public elementary pupils of Column 2, Table 1, form the common-school enrollment, the statistics of which are given in detail in Chapter ii (“ Statistics of State common-school systems”). The statistics of public high schools and private secondary schools (Columns 2 and 6 of the following table) are also given more particu¬ larly by States and by schools in subsequent chapters. Table 2. — Shoiving distribution of pupils receiving secondary instruction. ♦ Public. Private. In puhlic high schools. In preparatory depart¬ ments of public uni¬ versities and colleges. Nonprofessional pupils in public normal schools. Total public secondary. In private secondary schools. In preparatory depart¬ ments of private uni¬ versities and colleges. In preparatory depart¬ ments of colleges for women. Nonprofessional pupils in private normal schools. In manual- training schools. Total private secondary. 1 2 ! 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 io 11 Tlie United States 239, 556 3,457 4,647 247, 660 100, 739 40, 534 6, 891 4, 315 1,950 154, 429 N orth Atlan tic Division . 85, 628 615 1, 827 88, 070 38, 585 4,652 1,493 17 891 45, 638 South Atlantic Division. 12. 556 232 789 13, 577 15, 847 3,992 1,906 700 376 22, 821 Soutli Central Division . . 13, 720 659 1,132 15, 511 19, 553 6, 800 1, 940 1,341 163 29, 797 North Central Division. 117, 289 1,351 793 119, 433 21,101 22, 065 1,293 2, 172 492 47, 123 Western Division . 10, 363 600 106 11, 069 5, 653 ' 3, 025 259 85 28 9, 050 WHAT PER CENT OF THE TOTAL POPULATION IS UNDER INSTRUCTION. Table 3 gives the per cent of the population receiving instruction in the different grades in public and in private schools. The same is also shown more clearly to the eye in Diagram 1. Out of every 100 persons 22*69 are receiving school education ; of these, 20*46 are in public schools and 2*23 in private schools. GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 5 Of the 22-69 pupils, moreover, 21-84, or somewhat more than one-fiftli of the population, are under elementary instruction ; 0-62, or 1 person in every 160, is under secondary instruction ; and 0-23, or 1 person in every 439, is under higher instruction. Of the 21-84 elementary pupils, 20, or precisely one-fifth of the population, are found in public schools. A smaller proportion of the secondary pupils are public, and in the higher grade the private students are in the majority. Table 3. — Per cent of the total population enrolled in the different grades. Grade. In public schools and colleges. In private schools and colleges. In public and private. Elementary . . . Per cent. 20. 00 •38 •08 Per cent. 1-84 •24 •15 Per cent. 21 -84 •62 •23 Secondary . Higher . Total . . 20-46 } 2-23 22-60 Diagram 1. — The outer square represents 100 persons of the population. The inner squares show how many of these 100 are receiving school or collegiate instruction . 100 Public. 20.00 Private/. 1,84 Element wry. 'Element¬ ary. 0^24r ^econdary. 0.38 Sec ondary. j j 0.15 j | Higher. 0.08 Higher. [^] 6 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. WHAT PART OF THE SCHOOL POPULATION IS ATTENDING SCHOOL. Iii Table 4 a comparison is made between tbe school population (i. e., the whole number of children 5 to 18 years of age) and the number of pupils actually receiving elementary and secondary instruction. The results are also shown graphically, in part, in Diagram 2. It will be seen that in each grade of instruction, in both public and private schools, the North and West have a greater iiercentage of their school population enrolled than the South, except that the North Central Division falls behind the South in regard to private secondary pupils. In most of the States of the North Central Division, however, the condi¬ tions have been such that they have not encouraged the establishment of private secondary schools, inasmuch as public high schools have almost from the beginning been a part of their public- school systems. Secondary education especially lacks development in the South. Taking the public and private together (Column 7 of the table), it will be seen that there are less than half as many secondary pupils in propor¬ tion to the school population as there are in the North. The North Atlantic Division, for instance, has 2-94 secondary pupils to the 100 children of school age, against 1T4 in the South Central Division. If public secondary education alone is considered (Column 5), the con¬ trast is still stronger. The figures of Column 5 reflect the opposition that still exists in some parts of the South to the establishment of public high schools. For every 100 children 5 to 18 years of age in the United States there are 73-82 pupils receiving elementary instruction, and 2-09 receiving secondary instruction 5 the remaining 24-09 are classed on Diagram 2 as “nonattendants,” though as a small portion of the 75-91 ( = 73-82 4- 2-09) pupils have passed the age of 18 years, the number of nonattend¬ ants between the ages of 5 and 18 years should be slightly larger than 24-09 to the 100. The number of nonattendants shown on the diagram may therefore be considered as representing the minimum values. It is not to be understood, however, that all these nonattendants are growing up in ignorance. Some arc too young to attend, others have passed through the elementary grades, perhaps have received some secondary education, and have left school for other occupations. Table 4. — Shoiving what per cent of the school population (5 to IS gears) is receiving ele- mentanj and secondary instruction, in public and in private schools and institutions. Elementary instruction. Secondary instruction. Total of all. Public. Private. Total elemen¬ tary. Public. Private. Total second¬ ary. 1 2 3 •' ' - 4 5 6 7 8 Tbe United States . 67 -57 6-25 73 -82 1-29 0-80 2-09 . 75 -91 North Atlantic Division . 68 TO 11 -84 79-94 1-94 1-00 2-94 82-88 South Atlantic Division . 58 -44 3-66 62-10 •44 •73 1-17 63 -27 South Central Division . 61 -53 3 -82 65 -35 ■39 •75 1 14 66 -49 North Central Division . 74 T2 5 -01 79 -13 1 -77 •70 2-47 81 -60 Western Division . 74 -27 6-97 81 -24 1-36 111 2-47 83 -71 GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 7 8 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. PROPORTION OF ELEMENTARY, SECONDARY, AND HIGHER PUPILS. Table 5 has been computed to show explicitly tlie relative number of pupils in the different grades. In tlie public schools and colleges 97*73 per cent of all pupils are found in the elementary grades; 1*87 per cent, or about 1 pupil in 53, in the secondary grades; and only 0.40 per cent, or 1 in 250, is receiving the higher education. In private teaching the proportion of elementary pupils is somewhat less, being only 82*76 per cent, or about five- sixths of the whole number of private pupils; secondary pupils, 10*66 per cent, or a little more than 1 private pupil in 10; higher pupils, 6*58 per cent, or about 1 in 15. How overwhelming the majority of elementary pupils is, may be seen at a glance by comparing the relative lengths of the two groups of lines in Diagram 2, on the left and on the right. Table 5. — Per cent of pupils in each grade in public and private schools and colleges. In public schools and colleges. In private schools and colleges. Public and private together. Ele¬ men¬ tary. Second¬ ary. High- r Ele¬ men¬ tary. Second¬ ary. High¬ er. Ele¬ men¬ tary. Second¬ ary. High¬ er. The United States . 97 -73 1-87 •40 82 -76 10-66 6-58 96-27 2 -73 1-00 North Atlantic Division . 96-71 2-75 •54 87 T3 7-39 5-48 95-16 3-50 1-34 South Atlantic Division . 99 -00 •74 •26 75 -75 15T8 9-07 97 -24 1-83 •93 South Central Division . 99-16 •63 •21 77 -C3 15T7 7-80 97 -52 1-71 •77 North Central Division . 97 -26 2-32 •42 81 -49 11 -32 7-19 96-09 2-99 •92 Western Division . 97-63 1-79 •58 82 -88 13-21 3-91 96-16 2-93 •91 PROPORTION OF PUBLIC AND OF PRIVATE INSTRUCTION. Table 6 and Diagram 3 show the relative proportion of public and of private instruction in each grade. It may be repeated here that some of the data upon which this and the accompanying tables are based are incomplete, especially as relates to private elementary schools and public high schools. Taking the figures as they stand, public schools give 91*54 per cent of all elementary instruction ; 61*59 per cent of all secondary instruction ; and 35*39 per cent of all higher instruction. Normal schools are included in the institutions of higher instruction. These are for the most part public. Omitting them, the proportion of higher instruction given in public institutions, as compared with pri¬ vate, is somewhat less. ( See Table 9.) In the elementary grades the proportion of public instruction as com¬ pared with private is greater in the South than in the North. This may be ascribed to the predominance of the colored element in the South, who attend mainly the public elementary schools. GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 9 Diagram 3.— Showing ihe relative amounts of public and of private instruction in the dif¬ ferent grades; being a graphic representation in part of Table 6. Public. ELEMENTARY. Private. JT.S. 91.54 , 8.46 N.A.TKv. 85.19 14.81 S.A.TKv. 94.10 5.90 jS. C.TKv. 94.16 5.84 N C.Div. 93.67 6.33 w.mv. 9142 8.58 SECONDARY. JT.S. 61.59 38.41 1T.A.IKv. 65.87 34.13 S.A.TKv. 37.30 62. 70 S.CJKv, 34.23 65.77 N. C.Dvv. 71.71 26.29 JV.Div. 55.02 44.3 HIGHER. v.s. 35.39 64.61 2T.Al.IKu. 33.62 66.38 S.A.TKv. 26.15 73.85 S. C.IKu. 25.13 74.87 IT. C.Div. 41.89 58.11 TV.JKv. 57.18 42.82 10 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Of secondary education about twice as large a share is furnished by the public in the North as in the South. The lack of public high schools in some portions of the South, already referred to, is the cause of this showing. Although the North Atlantic Division only gives 34T3 per cent of its secondary instruction in private schools, as compared with 62*70 per cent in the South Atlantic Division, yet the former division actually has more private secondary pupils, compared with its school population, than the latter, as will be seen by reference to Table 4. Table 6. — Per cent' of public and p ri vale p up i l s in each grade. Elementary. Secondary. Higher. All grades combined. Public. Private. Public. Private. Public. Private. Public. Private. The United States . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . North Central Division . Western Division . . . - 91 -54 . 8-46 Gl-59 38 -41 35*39 64-61 90-15 9-85 85-19 94-10 91 -1G 93-67 91-42 14-81 5 90 5- 84 6- 33 8-58 65-87 37 -30 34-23 71-71 55 -02 34 -13 62 -70 65 -77 28 -29 44 -98 33 -62 26 15 25-13 41-89 57-18 66 -38 73 -85 74 -87 58-11 42 -82 1 83 -82 92 -43 92 -60 92-53 90 -04 16-18 7-57 7-40 7-47 9-96 Higher Instruction Specially Considered. (Tables 7 to 10.) HIGHER STUDENTS AND POPULATION COMPARED. In Table 4 data were given to show the extent of the diffusion of elementary and secondary instruction, as compared with the school population. In Table 7 corresponding data are given for higher instruction, but on a different basis, namely, on the basis of number of college students to each 100,000 persons of the population. This table is further illustrated by Diagram 4. Themumber of college students relative to the population has been frequently made a subject of inquiry. The present number is shown by Column 2 of Table 7 to be 111*8 per 100,000 of the population j in other words, one person in 895 is receiving the higher education, taking into account only strictly collegiate and post graduate students. If, to this, the 55*7 medical, law, and theological students are added, there results 167*5 collegiate and professional students per 109,000, or 1 person in 597. By adding the normal students (60*4), we get a total of 227*9 students per 100,000, or 1 person in 439 receiving some form of higher instruction. It does not appear that there is any very great difference in the relative number of college students proper in the different sections of the country. The North Atlantic Division is somewhat in excess, having 125*3 per 100,000, or 1 person in 798; and the Western Division the least, viz, 88*6 per 100,000, or 1 person in 1,129. GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 11 The maxima and minima of professional students are found in the same two divisions, 71-4 for the North Atlantic and 26-9 for the Western. In normal instruction the South is distinctly in the rear ; in each of the Southern divisions the number of normal students per 100,000 of the imputation is only slightly over one-half the average of the United States. It might be stated, in addition, that many of the normal schools in the South, especially those for the colored race, are of a compara¬ tively low grade, hardly coming up to the standard of higher instruction in any rigid interpretation of the term. Table 7. — Number of students under higher instruction to each 100,000 persons of the total population . In uni¬ versities and col¬ leges. a In schools and depart¬ ments of medicine, lav-, and theology. In novmal schools. ! Total. 1 3 4 j 5 The United States . 111 -8 55 *7 60 -4 | 227 -9 Tlorth Atlantic Division . . . . . . 125 -3 71 ‘4 88’4 | 285 -1 South Atlantic Division . . . 111 -8 57-2 33 -0 202 -0 South -Central Division . 106 -6 37-0 35-6 ! 179 -2 North Central Division . . . . 107 -2 56-1 60-1 i 223-4 Western Division . . 88 -6 1 26-0 71-6 187-1 a Collegiate and post-graduate students only. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HIGHER INSTRUCTION. In order to give some precise idea as to what extent in general the state has assumed the office of higher instruction in this country Table 8 has been computed, showing the number of public and private stu¬ dents, respectively, to each 100,000 persons of the population. Dia¬ gram 5 contains the same data graphically exhibited; and Table 9 gives the relative proportions, or percentage, of public and private higher students. Of the 111*8 collegiate students proper in the United States to each 100,000 persons, 21*7, or 19*4 per cent of the whole, are in public insti¬ tutions and 90*1 are in private institutions. Four-fifths of the higher education in this country is therefore conducted under private auspices. Public higher education is confined almost exclusively to the State universities and the agricultural and mechanical colleges. It is in the North Atlantic Division that the state has been the most backward in assuming the work of higher education. The States of that division have the highest number of collegiate students in propor¬ tion to population, viz, 125*3 per 100,000; yet of these only 9*8, or about 8 per cent, are in institutions that can be said to be under pub¬ lic management. Further westward the percentage of public collegi¬ ate students is largely augmented; in the North Central States it is 31*5 per cent of the whole; while in the States of the Western Division it reaches up to 49*5 tier cent, or about one-half of the whole number. Diagram 4. — Showing the number of students under higher instruction to eac sons of the population; being a graphic representation of the data contained In all higher institutions. 227.9 202.0 5ESZ3S 179.2 187.1 These may he classified as follows: I. — In universities and colleges. U.S. H1.8 222.4 N..A .Div. S.A.Dvo. 125.2 111.8 1 S. C.Div. 106.6 lisr.c.Div. 107.2 21. A. Div. TV Div. 88.6 II. — In schools of medicine, law, and theology. U.S. 55.7 71.4 III. — In normal schools. U.S. 60.4 88.4 1 100,000 per- in Table 7. 285.1 12 GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 13 Professional instruction is still more largely under private manage¬ ment. Of the 55-7 medical, law, and theological students per 100,000 persons, only 7-4, or 13*2 per cent of the whole, are in public institu¬ tions, mostly departments of State universities. The proportion of public students of this class also largely increases westward. There is no professional instruction given by the state in the North Atlantic States, while in the Western Division the proportion slightly exceeds one-half (51*6 per cent), though the whole amount in this division is small. As regards normal instruction, the geographical distribution of the percentage of public students is curiously reversed. The North Atlan¬ tic States have taken the lead in the matter of public normal schools. These States not only have the highest number of normal students (88-4 per 100,000), but educate 97*4 per cent of them, all but a trifling portion, in public schools. Private normal schools in that section that merit the name are almost nonexistent. The number of private nor¬ mal-school pupils per 100,000 persons increases westward, it being 22*3 in the Western Division, or 31*2 per cent of the whole number. Table 8. — Number of higher students to each 100,000 of the population, classified as public and private. In universities and colleges, a In schools of medicine, law, and theology. In normal schools. Public. Private. Public. Private. Public. Private. The United States . 21 -7 90 -1 7-4 48 -3 51 -6 8-8 North Atlantic Division . 9-8 115 -5 0 71 -4 8 C.Pxly. . 44.5 55.5 . 39.1 60.9 W.PKv. 40.3 59.7 In Private Sec ondary Schools. IPS. 55.0 45.0 N.A.DPv. 58.0 42.0 S.A.JDpv. 52.3 47. 7 S. C'DPv. 49.9 5ffl N. C. JDisv. 57.1 42.9 W.Disv. 52.5 47.5 In Public and Private Schools. zr.s. 46.1 53.9 N.A .Ply. _ 47.2 52.8 S.A .Pxjj. 48.5 51.5 S.CDPv. 48.0 52.0 N.C.DPv, 44.2 55.8 W- Diju. 45,8 54.2 GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 17 while 59.4 per cent are girls, so that there are about 3 girls to every 2 boys. This excess of girls receiving public secondary instruction is confined to no particular section of the Union, but characterizes each of the geographical divisions. On the other hand, 55 per cent of the private secondary pupils are boys, and only 45 per cent girls. The excess of boys occurs in all the geographical divisions except the South Central, where the boys and girls are about evenly balanced. In attempting to assign a reason for this contrast of sex of secondary pupils in public and private schools, it will probably be found that the public high schools fail to receive a due proportion of boys because so many of them are obliged or prefer to go to work after finishing their elementary school course; the more ambitious of them enter mercantile establishments or the offices of business men, or continue their educa¬ tion in commercial colleges, instead of going to public high schools. With the girls, especially those of the more well-to-do families, the case is different; fewer of them are pressed to engage in active employ¬ ment at an early age, and more are left free to pursue the course of liberal culture that the public high school affords, or if they desire to prepare themselves to become teachers, the high school is right in the line to second their efforts. Private secondary pupils, on the other hand, are largely found in schools especially designed to prepare for college, or in the prepara¬ tory departments of colleges themselves ; and the fact that collegiate education is still principally confined to men would seem to be instru¬ mental in determining the sex of the pupils preparing for it. It may be that the present tendency to organize business and manual¬ training courses in high schools, as well as to establish high schools specifically designed to make business instruction or manual training predominating features, will be instrumental in inducing more boys to pursue a course of public secondary instruction. Table 11.. — Sex of pupils receiving secondary instruction, (a) In public schools. In private schools. In public and pri¬ vate schools. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. I Females. The United States . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . North Central Division . Western Division. . . 100, 498 147, 162 84, 933 69, 496 185,431 216, 658 36, 683 5, 711 6, 897 46, 741 4. 466 51, 387 7, 866 8, 614 72, 692 6, 603 26, 477 11.943 14,868 26,890 4, 755 19, 161 10, 878 14, 929 20, 233 4,295 63, 160 17, 654 21, 765 73, 631 9, 221 70, 548 18,744 23, 543 92, 925 10, 898 ED 92- a See notes a and b, p. 2. 18 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 12. — Per cent of male and of female secondary pupils, public and private. In public schools. In private schools. In public and pri¬ vate schools. Per cent of males. Per cent of • females. Per cent of males. Per cent of females. | Per cent of males. Per cent of females. The United States . . 40 -6 59 -4 55 0 45 ‘0 46 -1 53-9 North Atlantic Division . 41-7 58 -3 58 -0 42 -0 47-2 52 -8 South Atlantic Division . 42-1 57 -9 52 -3 47-7 48 -5 51 ;5 South Central Division . . . 44 -5 55 -5 49-9 50-1 48 -0 52 *0 North Central Division . . 39-1 60-9 57-1 42 -9 44-2 55 ‘8 W estern Division . . 40 -3 59 -7 52-5 47-5 45-8 54 -2 II. — SEX OF COLLEGE STUDENTS. Table 13 gives the sex of students in universities and colleges (con¬ sidering only collegiate and post-graduate students). Table 14 gives the proportion or percentage of each sex, which is also shown graphi¬ cally in Diagram 7. It appears that of the 72,460 college students in the United States 49,100, or 67-8 per cent, are males, and 23,360, or 32*2 per cent, are females. There are, therefore, nearly half as many females receiving a collegiate education as there are males. Taking the public universities and colleges alone the proportion of male students is greater, being 81 per cent of the total, or more than four-fifths. In fact, the number of female students in public universi. ties and colleges is insignificant in all except the North Central and Western States. The North Central States count 2,000 female students in public institutions, and the States of the Western Division 459 out of a total of 1,468, or 31*3 per cent. In private collegiate institutions the proportion of female students is considerably greater, being 35-4 per cent. In the two Southern divisions, indeed, the women outnumber the men. A great many of the so-called female colleges, however, especially in the South and West, are not strictly collegiate institutions, but belong rather to the grade of second¬ ary schools. Table 13. — Sex of students receiving higher instruction in universities and colleges. ( a ) Public. Private. Public and private combined. 1 Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. The United States . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . North Central Division . Western Division . 11,394 2,676 37, 706 20, 684 49, 100 23, 360 1,702 49 1,425 27 1,47*3 1 141 5,785 | 2,000 1,009 j 459 1 16,172 4, 343 4,968 ' 11,119 1,104 4, 480 4,418 5, 591 5, 801 394 17, 874 5, 768 6,441 16, 904 2,113 J 4, 529 4, 445 5, 732 7, 801 853 a See notes c and d on page 2. Only collegiate and post-graduate students are included in this table. - GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 19 Diagram 7. — Percentage of male and female students in universities and colleges; being a graphic representation of the data contained in Table 14. Public universities and coll eges. Males. Females. U.S. 50% 81.0 19.0 isr.A.niw. 97.22.6 S.-A .Div. 98 3. is S.C.Div. 91.3 8.7 N.BJKv. 74.3 25. 7 IV. Div. 68.7 31.3 Private univen u.s. nties and colleges. • 64.6 35.4 NM.Diu. 78.3 21.7 S.A.Biv. 49.6 50.4 S. C.Div. 47.0 53.0 M.CJMv. 65.7 34.3 WiDva. 73.7 26.3 Public and p: U.S. rivate combined. 67.8 . 32.2 N.A.Div. 79.8 20.2 S.A.Dvv. 56.5 43.5 S.C.Biv. _ 52. 9 47.1 \ N.C.Dvv. 68.4 31.6 W.Div. 71.2 28.8 20 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 14. — Per cent of male and of female students in universities and colleges. Public. Private. Public and private. Per cent of males. Per cent of females. Per cent of males. Per cent of females. Per cent of males. Per cent of females. The United. States . . 81 -0 19.0 64-6 35-4 67 -8 32 -2 North Atlantic Division . 97 -2 2-8 78 -3 21 -7 79 -8 20 -2 South Atlantic Division . . . 98 T 1 -9 49 6 50-4 56 -5 43 5 South Central Division . 91 -3 8-7 47 -0 53 -0 52 -9 47 -1 North Central Division _ _ ...... _ ... 74-3 25 -7 65 -7 34 -3 68 -4 31 6 Western Division . 68 -7 31 -3 73 -7 26 -3 71 -2 28 -8 NUMBER OF FEMALE COLLEGE STUDENTS AS COMPARED WITH THE POPULATION — PROPORTION IN EACH CLASS OF INSTITUTIONS. Table 15 (p. 23) divides the whole number of female college students into three classes, according to the character of institution attended, viz, (1) public coeducational colleges, (2) private coeducational colleges, and (3) colleges for women only. Table 16 compares the number of female college students with the population, giving the number to each 100,000 inhabitants, classified as before. The same is also shown graphically in Diagram 8. Diagram 8. — Number of female college students to each 100,000 persons of the population; being a graphic representation of the data contained in Table 16. In coeducational universities and colleges. In colleges for women only. Prtvcutc . Total female college students per 100,000 inhabitants. us. _ 36.0 N.A.DPv. 25.3 S-A . Dlbv. 48.7 S. 0. Tf > 1Z^T—r 50. 2 NC. I) Tv. 33.9 WBPv. 25.5 GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 21 Table 17 and Diagram9 give the proportion or percentage attending each class of institutions. Diagram 9. — Percent of the whole number of female college students in each class of institutions attended hg them; being a graphic representation of Table 17 . Per cent of female college students in — I. — Public coeducational institutions 17 5 50°/o 100°/o\ ra N.A.DPV' Ps.A.Xiv. ^^5. C. Dtjv. 25 7 N.CJJPv. 53.8 W.Dtv. II. — Private coeduci 17. S. 35.0 xtional institutions. iV.A.BPv. 31.2 S.A.DPv. BfctontapreBB ±0.7 S. C. I) Tv. 24.3 N.C.BPv. 57.9 W. DPv. 42. 8 • III. — Colleges j 17. S. 53. 5 for women only. 77.A.B-L-V. 67.7 • S.A . BPv. 88.7 S. C.Bisv 73.2 N.C.BPv. W.BPv. 22 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. It appears that in the United States 36 women attend college for every 100,000 persons, which is in the ratio of 1 to 2,800 of the popula¬ tion. Of these 36 there are 4-1 attending public coeducational institu¬ tions, 12*6 attending private coeducational institutions, and 19-3 attend¬ ing colleges for women only; 11-5 per cent of the whole number attend public coeducational institutions, or 1 in 9; 35 per cent attend private coeducational institutions, making a total of 46*5 per cent, or nearly one- lialf, in coeducational institutions; 53-5 per cent attend colleges for women only. By inspecting the geographical classification the status of female college education is seen to present striking contrasts in the different sections of the country. In the first place, it is developed by far to the greatest extent in the South, the two Southern divisions having 48-7 and 50-2 students per- 100,000 persons, respectively (see Diagram 8), or nearly twice the average of the rest of the Union. In the next place, this large attendance is found almost exclusively in colleges for women only, in the South Atlantic Division 88-7 per cent and in the South Central Division 73*2 per cent of the whole attending that class of institutions. (Diagram 9.) The North Atlantic Division is distinguished by having a less num¬ ber of female college students in proportion to population than any other section of the Union, viz, 25-3 per 100,000 persons; and this in spite of the fact that all the female colleges of a higher grade (included under Division A in the detailed female college tables of thisBeport), with three exceptions only, are found in the North Atlantic Division. The female college students in that section, therefore, while fewer in number, are pursuing more strictly collegiate courses, according to the generally recognized standards; in the South, on the other hand, female colleges frequently do not rise above the type of the secondary school. There is danger here as elsewhere of being led astray by names. The North Atlantic States resemble the South, however, in their slow acceptance of the coeducational idea. Of all the female college stu¬ dents in those States 67-7 per cent, or more than two-thirds,, are found in exclusively female colleges. In this resj)ect the West offers a strong contrast to the East and South. In the North Central States only 16.4 per cent, or less than a sixth of the female students, are met with in colleges for women onlyrwhile in the Western Division all but 3-4 per cent, or more than 29 out of 30, attend coeducational institutions. Coeducation is a distinguishing feature of the public as well as the private colleges in the North Central and Western States. Of the 33-9 female college students per 100,000 inhabitants in the North Central States 8-7, or more than one-fourth, attend public universities and col¬ leges, while of the 25-5 students per 100,000 in the Western Division 13-7, or more than one-half, attend irablic institutions. Public female college students in the East and South are almost nonexistent. What GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS. 23 coeducational students there aie in those sections are found almost wholly in jirivate institutions. Table 15. — Classification of female college students according to character of institu¬ tion attended, a . In coeducational universities and colleges. In col¬ leges for women only (all private) . Public. Private. Total in coeduca¬ tional insti¬ tutions. Total of all. The United States . i 2, C76 8, 170 10, 846 12, 514 23, 360 North Atlantic Division . 49 1,415 475 1, 464 502 3, 065 3, 943 4, 529 South Atlantic Division . 27 4, 445 5, 732 7, 801 South Central Division . . . 141 1, 395 1, 536 4, 196 1,281 29 Uorth Central Division . . . . . 2, OGO 459 4, 520 6, 520 824 Western Division . . - 365 853 a In this table, as in the others relating to higher education, all secondary or preparatory students are excluded; only those in collegiate and post-graduate departments are considered. Table 16. — Number of female college students to each 100,000 persons of the population. J In coeducational universities and colleges. * In col¬ Public. Private. Total in coeduca¬ tional insti¬ tutions. leges for women only. Total of aU. The United States . 4 T 12-6 16-7 19 -3 36.0 Uorth Atlantic Division . . •3 7-9 8-2 17 T 25-3 South Atlantic Division .... _ •3 5-2 5*5 43 -2 48 -7 South Central Division _ _ _ _ :.... 1-2 12 -2 13 -4 36 -8 50 -2 Uorth Central Division . . . 8-7 19 -6 28-3 5-6 33 -9 Western Division . 13 -7 10 -9 24 -6 •9 25-5 Table 17. — Showing percentage of the whole number of female college students in each class of institutions . Per cent in public coeduca¬ tional in¬ stitutions. Per cent in private coeduca¬ tional in¬ stitutions. Per cent iD colleges for women only. The United States . 11*5 35 -0 53 -5 North Atlantic Division . . . . . x . IT 31 *2 67 -7 South Atlantic Division . . . . 0 6 10-7 88 -7 South Central Division . 2-5 24 -3 73 -2 Uorth Central Division . . . . . . 25 -7 57 9 16-4 W estern Division . 53-8 42 -8 3-4 Sex of normal students. Table 18 gives the number of normal students of each sex in public and private normal schools, all nonprofessional students being excluded. Table 19 and Diagram 10 give the proportion, or percentage, of each sex. 24 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Of the 39,137 professional students in normal schools, 12,412, or 31-7 per cent, are males, and 26,725, or 68*3 per cent, are females. The smallest percentage of males is found in the public normal schools of the North Atlantic States and the extreme West. In private normal schools the male students are slightly in excess, being 50*3 per cent of the whole. Only about one- seventh (14‘6 per cent) of the whole number of normal students, however, are found in private normal schools, as was shown in Tabid 9. The Western Division is strongly emphasized here as elsewhere, having the least proportion of males in public normal schools and the greatest in private. Public normal students are divided as to sex in nearly the same pro¬ portions as the whole body of common-school teachers, as will appear from the following : Per cent of male nor¬ mal stu¬ dents. Per cent of male teachers. The United States . . . . . . . . 31.7 32.5 North Atlantic Division . . . . . . 21 -2 18 -9 South Atlantic Division . 46 -4 46 -4 South Central Division . 43 T 55 -3 North Central Division . 37-7 29 -7 Western Division . 28 -6 30 T Table 18. — Sex of professional students in normal schools. In public normals. In private normals. Public and private. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. The United States . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . North Central Division . Western Division . 9,538 23, 889 2, 874 2,836 12, 412 ' 26, 725 3, 239 1, 255 1,216 3, 569 259 12, 153 1, 449 1,730 7,167 1,390 110 145 534 1, 659 426 308 167 584 1,455 322 3, 349 1,400 1, 750 5,228 685 12, 461 1, 616 2, 314 8, 622 1,712 Table 19. — Per cent of male and female prof essional students in normal schools. Public. Private. Public and private. Percent of males. Per cent of females. Percent of males. Per cent of females. Per cent of males. Per cent of females. The United States . 28-5 71-5 50-3 j 49-7 31-7 68 -3 North Atlantic Division . 21.0 79.0 26 -3 73.7 21-2 78-8 South Atlantic Division . 46-4 53-6 46-5 53.5 46 -4 53-6 South Central Division . 41-3 58-7 47 -8 52.2 43 T 56-9 North Central Division . 33-3 66 -7 53 -3 46.7 37 -7 62 3 Western Division . 15-7 84 -3 57.0 43.0 28 -6 71 -4 GENERAL SUMMARY OF PUPILS, 25 Diagram 10. — Per cent of male and female professional students; being a graphic exhi¬ bition of Table 19. In public normal schools. Males. ■ Females. u.s. 28.5 50% 71.5 N.A.Dtv. 21.0 79.0 s.A.mv . 46.4 53.6 <9. C. Dxxj, 41.3 58.7 N.C.DPv. 33.3 66. 7 W. Diu, 15.7 84.3 In private no rmal schools. u. s. 50.3 49.7 N.A.Div. 26.3 73. 7 S.A .DiJv. 46.5 53.5 S. C.lUv. 47.8. 52.2 N.C, JDisv. 53.3 46.7 W.DFv. 57. 0 53. 0J Public and pri rate combined. zr.s. 31.7 68.3 W. A . JD-uv. 21.2 78.8 , S. A . 2)uv . 46.4 53.6 S ■ C. Djij . 43.1 56.9 N.C.Piju. 37.7 62.3 W. Dixj. 28.6 71.4 CHAPTER II STATISTICS OP STATE COMMON SCHOOL SYSTEMS.1 Hote. — This chapter relates to public clay schools of elementary and secondary grado (primary, grammar, and high schools). SUMMARY. The following statement is made up from returns for 1891-’92 from all the States except two, viz, Alabama and Delaware, for which the figures of 18S9-:’90 are usM. Some slight correction will therefore be required when the returns from those States shall have been received. • GENERAL STATISTICS. Population of the United States (estimated) . 64, 834, 561 Humber of persons 5 to 18 years of age (estimated) . 19. 192, 894 Per cent of the total population . 29 -61 Humber of pupils enrolled in the common schools . . 13, 205, 877 Increase . . 203, 208 Percentage of increase ..- . 1-56 Per cent of persons 5-18 years of age enrolled . 1 . G3 8 3 Average daily attendance . . . . 8, 547, 551 Increase . 142,539 Percentage of increase . . 1 -70 Ratio to enrollment (per cent) . .-. . . . 64-73 Aggregate number of days’ attendance . . 1, 172, 2G1, 842 Average number of days the schools were kept . 137 -1 Increase, in days . . . 1-9 Averago number of days attended by each pupil enrolled . . . 88-8 Humber of public schoolhouses . . . 229, 118 Increase . . . . . . 4, G56 Value of all public school property . . . $382, 457, 1G7 Whole number of teachers employed : Males.. . . . . . : . 121,638 Females . . . . . . . . 252, 822 Total . . 374, 460 Per cent of male teachers . . 32 -5 Average salary of male teachers . . . . . . $45. 48 Increase . . . . . . 1. 17 Averago salary of female teachers . 37. 5G Increase . .64 1 Classification "by race, as far as possible, will be given in tlio chapter on the “Education of the Colored Race.” 27 ft 28 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92 FINANCES. Receipts : From permanent funds ( income) and rents . $8, 084, 582 From State taxes . 29, 698, 487 From local taxes . I . . 105, 551, 726 From otlier sources . 13, 448, 956 Total revenue . 156,778,751 Increase of State taxes . 1, 586,403 Increase of local taxes . - . 5, 094, 726 Per cent of the total revenue derived from — Permanent funds and rents . 5-2 State taxes . 13 '9 Local taxes . . . 67 ‘3 Other sources . 8‘6 Expenditures : For sites, buildings, furniture, libraries, and apparatus . $29, 504, 414 For salaries of teachers and superintendents . . 100, 333, 071 For other purposes . 26, 153, 788 Total amount expended . . 155, 991,273 . Amount. Per cent. Increase for sites, buildings, etc . Increase for salaries . Increase for total . $3,198,111 4, 240, 899 8, 812, 569 12-15 . 4-41 . 5:99 Per cent of total expended for — Sites, buildings, etc . Salaries . . Other purposes . Average expenditure per pupil — For sites, buildings, etc . For salaries . For other purposes . . 18 -9 64-3 16 -8 $3-45 11 -74 3:06 Total . 18-25 Cost per day for each pupil — For salaries only . cents . . 8. 6 Total cost per day . . . do _ 13. 3 GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE TABLES. The following tables give the statistics of 1891-’92 for each of the States except Delaware and Alabama ; in the case of these two -States the figures of 1889-’90 are the latest obtainable. In several instances State superintendents have not included reports from all of their counties, so that the totals for the State show an abrupt falling off of school attendance, expenditure, etc., which really did not exist. Whenever practicable the figures for these missing counties have been supplied by the Bureau, using the latest reports available or some reliable estimate. Though the results obtained thereby are not accurate, they are considerably nearer the truth than if the missing counties were given 0, which is what is virtually done when they are omitted altogether. It is a matter of much satisfaction that the practice of reporting a part of a State for the whole is much less common than in former years, STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 29 when it was a source of much misconception and caused many of the apparent anomalies familiar to those who make a study of educational statistics. The observations upon statistical methods made in connection with the tables are commended to the attention of those who have to do with such matters. Table 1. — The total population, the school population, and the adult made population. School population. Estimated adult male population, 1892. State or Territory. Estimated total popu¬ lation, 1892. Estimated number of children 5 to 18 years of age, 1892. Per cent of males. Males. Eemales, Total. 1 3 3 4 5 6 ! * V nited States . 64, 834, 561 9, 685, 973 9, 506, 921 19, 192, 894 50 -47 17, 565, 881 North Atlantic Division . 17, 876, 400 2, 278, 240 1, 567, 331 2, 264, 062 4,542,302 50 T5 5, 190, 880 South Atlantic Division . 9, 135. 524 1, 540, 960 1, 956, 504 3, 108, 291 50-43 2, 079, 919 South Central Division . 11,413,817 2, 008, 442 3, 964, 946 50-65 2, 618, 252 North Central Division . 23, 061, 400 3, 419, 450 3, 344, 330 6, 763, 780 50 -56 6, 398, 120 1, 278, 710 Western Division . 3, 347, 420 412, 510 401, 065 813,. 575 50-70 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 657, 700 ' 81,760 80, 040 161, 800 50 -53 200, 200 N ew Hampshire . 382, 700 42, 700 41, 450 42, 600 85, 300 50-06 120, 100 Vermont . 326. 100 38, 960 80, 410 51 -55 99, 780 Massachusetts . 2, 310, 800 263, 300 265, 100 528, 400 49-83 686, 4C0 Rhode Island . 367, 000 44, 540 44, 930 89. 470 49 -78 106, 200 Connecticut . 772, 100 91, 300 90, 400 181, 700 50 -24 231, 800 New York . 6, 026, 000 739, 700 741, 300 1, 481, 000 49 -95 1, 778, 000 New Jersey . 1, 556, 000 a 202, 990 a 202, 232 a 405, 222 1, 529, 000 50 -09 445, 400 Pennsylvania . 5, 478, 000 770, 500 758, 500 50 ;38 ■ 1, 523, 000 South Atlantic Division : Delaware b . 168, 493 24, 071 23, 420 47, 491 50-69 47, 559 Maryland . 1, 065, 000 156, 500 155,500 312, 000 50-18 276, 700 District of Columbia . . c 258, 431 31,850 292,800 33, 750 288, 000 65, 600 48 "55 72, 360 388, 900 Virginia . 1, 700, 000 791, 800 580, 800 50 -41 West Virginia . 134,600 131, 600 266,200 50 -56 188, 300 North Carolina . 1, 650, 000 294, 800 288, 500 583, 300 50 -54 349, 400 South Carolina . 1, 185, 000 222, 200 217, 900 440, 100 50 -48 242, 500 Georgia . 1, 895, 000 340, 200 332, 500 672, 700 50 -57 410, 500 Plorida . 421, 800 70, 310 69, 790 140, 100 50 T7 103, 700 South Central Division : Kentucky . . 1, 916, 000 317,200 310, 500 627, 700 50-53 464, 710 Tennessee . . . . . 1, 828, 000 318, 300 307, 200 625, 500 50 -89 416, 200 Alabama b . 1, 513, 017 273,812 266, 414 540, 226 50-69 324, 822 Mississippi . . . 1, 324, 000 246, 600 239, 100 485, 700 50 -78 278, 000 Louisiana . 1,158, 000 . 198, 000 196, 300 394, 300 50 -22 259, 400 Texas . 2, 397, 000 . 425. 700 415, 500 841, 200 50 -61 574, 600 Arkansas . 1, 177, 000 213, 100 206, 800 419, 900 50 -75 269,000 Oklahoma . 100, 800 15,730 14, 690 30, 420 51 -73 31, 230 North Central Division : Ohio . 3, 714, 000 532, 900 521, 100 1, 054, 000 50 -57 1, 028, 000 Indiana . 2, 210, 000 329, 350 323, 450 652, 800 50 -45 599, 900 Hlinois . 4, 018, 000 2, 157, 000 571, 700 564, 300 1, 136, 000 50 -34 1, 126, 000 Michigan . 302, 000 297, 000 599, 000 50 -42 636, 100 Wisconsin . 1, 761, 000 265, 100 261, 200 526, 300 50 -37 482, 100 Minnesota . . 1, 392, 000 203. 300 199, 400 402, 700 50 -48 402, 000 Iowa . . 1, 954, 000 299^ 400 290, 100 . 589, 500 50 -79 531, 800 Missouri . 2, 795, 000 438,600 430, 800 869, 400 50 -45 736, 200 North Dakota . 190, 800 26, 910 25, 170 52, 080 51 -67 58, 420 South Dakota . 335, 600 50, 290 48, 010 98, 300 51-16 98, 700 Nebraska . 1, 137, 000 174, 900 167, 500 342, 400 51 -08 323, 800 Kansas . 1, 397, 000 225,000 216, 300 441, 300 50 -98 375, 100 W estern Division : Montana . 162, 000 14, 780 14, 470 29, 250 50 -52 80, 170 Wyoming . 75, 100 8, 310 7, 740 16, 050 51 -78 33, 510 Colorado . 459, 800 51, 150 50,050 101, 200 50 -56 183, 900 New Mexico . . . 160, 500 23, 000 22, 030 45, 030 51 -07 40, 960 Arizona . . 67, 290 8, 641 8,459 17, 100 50 -52 26, 750 Utah . 236, 600 38, 830 37, 930 76, 760 50 -59 61, 980 Nevada . 44, 230 4, 909 4, 766 9, 675 50 -73 20, 250 Idaho . 102, 300 14, 250 13, 450 27, 700 51 -43 38, 190 Washington . 422, 300 352, 300 49, 060 46, 770 95, 830 51 -20 177, 600 Oregon . 47, 980 47, 000 94, 980 50 -52 125, 500 483, 900 California . ; 1, 265, 000 151, 600 148, 400 300, 000 50 -54 a State school census. b 1890 (U. S. Census). c District police census. 30 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 2. — Relation of the school population to the total population and to the adult male population; proportion of the white school population of foreign birth or extraction; percentage of foreign born of total population. State or Territory. United States . Korth Atlantic Division- South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . . Horth Central Division. . Western Division . North Atlantic Division : Maine . . . new Hampshire . . . Vermont . Massachusetts. . Phode Island . Connecticut. . . - Hew York . . new Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . . Maryland . District of Columbia. . Virginia . West Virginia . north Carolina . South Carolina _ Georgia . . . Florida . South Central Division: Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . . . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma _ _ north Central Division: Ohio . Indiana . . Illinois . . . Michigan . . Wisconsin . Minnesota . Iowa. . . Missouri . . north Dakota . South Dakota . nebraska . . . Kansas . Western Division : Montana . . Wyoming . Colorado . Kew Mexico . . Arizona . Utah . nevada . Idaho . Washington . Oregon - - - California . number of children 5 to 18 years of age Co every 100 persons of number Percent¬ age of white Percentage of born of total the total population. of adult children tlUJLl. males to every 100 5 to 18 years of children age that 5 to 18 were of 1870. 18S0. 1890. years of age, in foreign birth or 1870. 1880. 1890. parent¬ age in 1890. 3 4 5 6 | 7 S Perct. Perct. Per ct. 31-27 30 -04 29-61 91-4 33-5 1 14 -44 13 -32 28 -30 26-87 25 -39 114-4 45 -8 20 -49 19 -40 33 -02 32-24 34 -04 66-8 6-6 2-85 2-29 33 -92 33-13 34 -76 65-9 8-6 3-62 3-08 32 .-40 30 -63 29-33 94-6 41-5 17 -97 16-80 25 -57 25 -13 24-33 156-7 44-7 31 -64 28 -29 28-01 25 -71 24-60 123-7 25-0 7-80 9-07 24 -75 22 -80 22 -29 140-8 38 -4 9-30 13 -34 27-18 25 -96 24-65 124 T 33 -4 14 -27 12-33 25 -51 23 -98 22-87 129-9 60-5 24 -24 24 -87 25-66 24-64 24-38 118-7 62 -4 25 -49 26 -76 25 -80 24 -97 23 -54 127-6 54-6 21 *14 20 -88 28 -09 26 -32 24-57 120-1 54-8 25 -97 23 -83 29-01 27-98 26 -04 109 -9 48 -3 20-85 19 -60 30 -55 29 -43 27 -92 99-6 32 -3 15-48 13 '73- 31 -84 29-11 28 -19 100 T 17-3 7 31 6-46 31-30 29-89 29 -28 88 -7 24 -4 10 -68 8-86 27 -01 -26 -87 25 -38 110-3 26 -3 12 -34 9-64 32 .‘39 32 -43 34 -16 67 -0 2-8 1-12 •97 34 13 33-37 33 -62 70 -7 5-9 3-87 2-95 33 -60 32 -30 35 -35 59 -9 •7 •28 •27 33-15 33 -21 37-14 55-1 2-3 1-14 •77 34 -42 33-17 35-50 61 -0 2-1 •94 •69 34-03 32 -82 33-23 74 -0 11-5 2-C5 3-68 34 -41 33-14 32-76 74-0 8-7 4-80 3-61 34-13 33 -44 34-22 66 -5 2-9 1-53 1-08 34 -40 33 -37 35 -70 60-1 3-2 1-00 •77 33-70 34 -12 36-69 57 -3 3-1 1-35 •81 31-11 31-93 34 -04 65 -8 17-8 8-51 5-76 34 -80 32 -60 35-10 68-3 16 -9 7-62 7-20 34-16 33 -15 35 -68 64 -0 3-5 1-04 1-29 CO -18 102 -7 9-6 31-74 29-75 28 -37 97-6 30 -4 13-98 12-35 33 *75 31 -37 29 -54 91 -9 17 -8 8-42 7-29 32 -24 30 -66 28 -26 99 -2 47 -0 20 -28 18 -96 30-28 28 -37 27 -77 106 -2 56-1 22-63 23 -73. ' 33 -57 30 -85 29-88 91 -6 72-4 34 -56 30 -82 32 -45 30 -43 28-93 99 -8 76 -4 36-55 34 -28 33 -06 31 -40 30 T7 90 -2 42-6 17-14 16 -11 33-57 32 -35 31T1 84 -7 22 -5 12-91 9-76 ^ 23 -74 24. 34 5 27-30 } 29-29 112-2 100 -5 80 -3 61 -2 ^ 33 -95 38 -32 28 -07 29 -88 30-12 94 -5 42-1 ’ 25-00 21-53 29 -83 31 -73 31 -59 85 -0 26-4 13 -28 11-05 10-20 17-10 18 -06 274-0 49 -4 38 -74 29-42 9-39 18-06 21-33 208 -8 47-2 38-53 28 -14 22 -47 18-72 22 -00 181-8 36 -3 16 -55 20 -48 31-90 29 -85 28-07 104 -3 13 -2 6-12 6-73 16-78 19 -59 25 -42 156 -4 57 -1 60-15 39-69 35-05 33-39 32 -45 80 -7 66 -6 35 -38 30 -56 12-56 18 -22 21-87 209 -3 60 -8 44-25 41-20 11 -30 22 -98 27 -07 137 -9 41 -1 52-57 30 -59 26-90 27-19 22-69 185 -3 39 -3 20 -97 21-04 32-34 28-63 26-96 132 1 27 -9 12-76 17-45 24-48 25 -03 23 -72 161 -3 51 -8 37-45 33 -87 Per ct. 14 -77 22-34 2-35 2-93 18-16 25 -46 11 -94 19 -21 13-26 29- 35 30 -77 24- 60 26 19 22 -77 16 -08 7- 81 9-05 8- 15 1-11 2- 48 •23 •54 •66 5- 86 3- 19 1T3 •98 •62 4- 45 6- 84 1-26 4-43 12 -51 6- 67 22 -01 25 *97 30- 78 35 -90 16-95 8-77 44. 58 27-69 19-13 10 -36 32-61 24 -57 20 -38 7- 33 31- 52 25- 52 32 -14 20 -69 25-76 18 -27 30 -32 STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 31 POPULATION. (Tables 1 and 2.) -Table 1 gives (1) tlie total population of each State, (2) the school population, or number of possible pupils, and (3) the adult male popu¬ lation, or number of taxpayers or school supporters. These are all estimated for 1892 upon the basis of the U. S. Census of 1890. The slow diminution in the relative number of children in the popu¬ lation since 1870, and the differences which characterize the different States as regards their relative number of children, are shown in Col umns 2 to 4 of Table 2. This is an important matter in considering actual school attendance and one which has already been emphasized in previous reports of this office. Column 5 of the same table exhibits the relation which the number of adult males bears to that of children. When it is considered that in Montana, for instance, there are five times as many male adults to the hundred children as in South Carolina, which is one of the surprising facts developed by the U. S. Census of 1890, an idea may be had of the adverse conditions the latter State, as well as the entire South in a greater or less degree, has to contend with in this regard alone in sus¬ taining a public-school system. In Diagram 1 the inequalities in the ratios of adult to school population are rendered more striking to the eye. The proportion of white children of foreign birth or parentage is given in Column 6 of Table 2, while Columns 7 to 9 give the percentage of foreign-born population since 1870. The foreign born number 14.77 per cent, or about one-seventh, of the total population, which is a slight increase over the percentage of 1870. The foreign element is almost wanting in the South, while in the North and West persons of foreign birth form about one-fifth of the population. 32 Diagram 1. — Showing for each State the number of adult males to every 100 children of school age in 1890. ( Table 2, Column 5.) Mont., - 274.0 Nev., - - 209.3 Wyo., - 208.8 "Wash., - 185.3 Colo., - - 181.8 Cal., - - 161.3 Ariz., 156.4 1ST. pi., - 140.8 Idaho, - 137.9 Oregon, - 131.1 Mass., 129.9 Conn., 127.6 Vt., - - 124.1 Me., - - 123.7 51. Y.,- - 120.1 B, I., - - 118.7 1ST. Dak., 112.2 D. C., - - 110.3 N. J., - - 109.9 Mich., - 106.2 1ST. Mex., 104.3 Ok., - - 102.7 S. Dak., - 100.5 Del., - - 100.1 Minn., - 99.8 Pa., - - 99.6 Ill., - - 99.2 Ohio, - - 97.6 Neh., - - 94.5 Ind., - - 91.9 Wis., - - 91.6 Iowa, - - 90.2 Md., - 88.7 Kans., 85.0 Mo., - - 84.7 Utah, - - 80.7 Pla., - - 74.0 Ky., - - 74.0 W. Va., - 70.7 Texas, - 68.3 Va., - - 67.0 Tenn., - 66.5 Da., - - 65.8 Ark., - - 64.0 Oa., - - 61.0 Ala., - - 60.1 N. C., - - 59.9 Miss., - - 57.3 S. C., - - 55.1 W. Div., 156.7 2ST. A. Div. , 114.4 1ST. 0. Div. , 94.6 S. A. Div., , 66.8 S. C. Div., 65.9 U. S., - ■ - 91.4 STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 33 Table 3. — Number of pupils enrolled at various periods, and relation of the enrollment to the school population. State or Territory. United States . North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division . . North Central Division. . W estern Division . North Atlantic Division : Maine . . New Hampshire 6 . . . . Vermont . . . Massachusetts _ Rhode Island . . Connecticut . New York . . . New Jersey d . . Penn sylvania e . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . . . Maryland . District of Columbia. Virginia . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Douisiana . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma . . North Central Division : Ohio . Indiana..- . Illinois . . Michigan . . ... . Wisconsin . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . North Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . Kansas . W estern Division : Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . New Mexico . Arizona . . . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . Washington . Oregon . California . Whole number of pupils enrolled on the school registers during the school year, excluding duplicates. Number of pupils enrolled fof every 100 children 5 to 18 years of age. 1870-71. 1879-80. 1889-’90. 1891-’92. 1870- •’71.1 1879-’80. 1889- ’90.ll891-'92. 2 .*1 4 5 6 7 8 9 7, 561, 582 9, 867, 505 12, , 722, 581 13, 205, 877 61 •45 | 65 •50 68 -61 68-82 2, 743. 344 2, 930, 345 3, 112, 622 3, 178, 604 77 •95 75 17 70 •45 69 -97 603, 619 1, 242, 811 1, 785, 486 1, 829, 278 30 •51 50 74 59 -22 58 -84 767, 839 1, 371, 975 2, 293, 579 2, 453, 113 34 T7 46 43 60 T4 61 -87 3, 300, 660 4, 033, 828 5. 015, 217 5. 130, 244 76-87 75 84 76 -46 75-84 146, 120 288, 546 515, 677 614, 638 54 •77 64 96 70 -01 75-55 a 152, 600 149, 827 139, 676 136, 634 87 35 89 80 85 88 84 -45 71, 957 64, 341 59, 813 61, 271 91 31 81 32 71 28- 71 -85 75, 238 306, 777 d 65, 608 c65, 314 383, 217 87 71 21 273, 661 371, 492 72 34 76 72 56 72 -52 a 34, 000 40, 604 52, 774 52, 737 59 24 59 59 62 66 58-94 113, 588 119, 694 126. 505 130, 971 80 83 76 97 72 03 72 -08 1, 028, 110 1, 031, 593 1, , 042, 160 1, 073, 093 82 98 77 10 70 71 72 -47 169, 430 204, 961 234, 072 243, 254 63 20 64 77 62 21 60 -03 834, 614 937, 310 1, , 020, 522 1,032, 113 76 35 74 37 69 53 67-48 20, 058 27, 823 31, 434 / 31, 434 50 04 65 20 66 19 /66 T9 115, 683 15, 157 162, 431 184, 251 189, 129 46 70 58 13 60 37 60 -64 26, 439 36, 906 39, 678 41 60 55 40 63 10 60 -49 131, 088 220, 736 342, 269 335, 646 32 34 45 00 60 51 57 -79 76, 999 142, 850 193, 064 200, 789 49 47 69 21 75 27 75 -42 a 115, 000 252, 612 322, 533 . 335, 358 31 23 55 87 56 39 57 -47 66, 056 134, 072 201, 260 205. 649 27 28 40 56 47 08 46-74 49, 578 236, 533 381, 297 397, 815 11 89' 46 24 58 46 59 T4 14. 000 39, 315 92, 472 93, 780 21 21 44 16 71 10 66 -93 — 1 O 0° O o o* O -3 p276, 000 300, 217 399, 660 389, 860 65 64 • 62 T1 447, 950 487, 507 32 00 58 21 74 06 77-95 141, 312 179, 490 236, 654 301, 615 / 301, 615 40 36 42 60 55 83 / 55 -83 117, 000 334, 158 340, 927 40 60 61 29 70 62 70 -20 57, 639 77, 642 120, 253 140, 233 24 78 25 87 31 58 35 -57 63, 504 a 220, 000 466, 872 528, 314 21 00 42 40 59 50 62-80 69,927 81,972 223, 071 251, 452 40 29 30 81 55 41 59 -89 13, 205 43 -40 719,372 * 729, 499 797, 439 800, 356 84 04 76 69 76 54 75 -97 450, 057 511, 283 512, 955 511, 823 78 64 82 39 79 21 78 -42 672, 787 704, 041 778. 319 809, 452 81 01 74 61 71 97 71 -27 292, 466 362, 556 427, 032 447, 467 79 66 78 08 73 44 74-72 265, 285 299. 457 351, 723 362, 064 73 92 73 78 69 77 68 -80 113, 983 180,248 280, 960 300, 333 75 92 75 87 74 59 74 -60 341, 938 426,057 493, 267 509, 830 84 44 83 52 85 51 86 -50 330, 070 482, 986 620, 314 640, 799 56 03 68 85 74 43 73 -72 | 1, 660 13, 718 35, 543 78, 043 37, 916 74, 070 l 39 26 41 68 5 71 \l 81 26 04 72 -81 75 *35 23, 265 92, 549 240, 300 253, 909 * 58 79 68 48 75 36 74 T3 89, 777 231, 434 399, 322 382, 225 74 22 73 23 ! 88 56 86 -64 a 450 4, 270 16, 980 21, 768 70 24 63 77 71 14 74 *42 1,657 4, 357 2, 907 7, 052 65, 490 9, 426 45 34 77 44 54 46 58 -75 22, 119 76, 647 42 28 6C 82 72 20 75 -77 a 1, 320 4, 755 * 18, 215 24, 297 4 42 13 32 42 26 53 -95 4, 212 7, 989 37, 279 a 10, 080 55, 448 53 16 52 72 58 -94 16, 992 24, 326 53 36 50 61 55 26 72 -25 3, 106 9, 045 7, 387 14, 311 7,161 53 97 79 73 73 80 74-02 906 5, 834 a 17, 360 46 06 77 85 62 66 a 62 -66 a 5, 000 14, 780 55, 964 78, 819 69 00 72 36 70 58 82 -24 21, 000 91, 332 37, 533 158, 765 63, 254 75, 526 67 73 75 02 74 78 79 -52 221, 756 238, 106 63 63 73 37 77 38 79 -38 a Estimated. b Number of pupils attending two weeks or more. , c Includes only pupils of legal school age (5to20). d Same (5 to 18). e Enrollment of Philadelphia estimated. /In 1889-’90. g Highest number enrolled. ED & -3 34 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 4. — The school enrollment of 1891-92 classified by sex , and compared with the enrollment of the preceding year. Per cent of the male and of the female school popula¬ tion enrolled . State or Territory. Whole number of pupils en¬ rolled, excluding duplicates. Increase or decrease since the preceding year. Per cent of in¬ crease or decrease. Number of pupils enrolled for every 100 children 5 to 18 years of age . Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. 1 S3 3 4 5 | G 7 S 1 Per cent. United States . 13, 205, 877 I. .203, 238 I1' .. 1-56 *68 -42 *67 -48 3, 178, 604 I. . a36, 078 1 I- .al T7 *68 -31 *67 -48 1, 829, 278 I. . 12, 994 I- •72 *59 -99 *58 -41 2, 453, 113 I. . 45, 928 1 1 . 1-91 *61 -67 *61 -24 5, 130, 244 I. . 67, 799 I. . 1 -34 *76-32 *74 -78 Western Division . 614, 638 I. . 40,439 1. . 7-04 *77 -77 *76 -10 North Atlantic Division: 136, 634 D. . . 4, 799 D . . 3-39 New Hampshire b . 31, 223 30, 048 61, 271 1 . . 1, 076 I ■ .. 1-79 73 -13 70-53 33, S93 31,321 65, 314 81 -88 80 -38 383, 217 I . . 6, 231 1 1 . . 1*65 Rhode Island . 26, 645 26, 092 52, 737 I . . 1,255 I .. 2-44 59-83 58 -07 130, 971 I . . 2, 066 I . . 1-60 1, 073, 093 I . . 19,049 I . .. 1-81 243, 254 I . . 5, 754 I . .. 2-42 Pennsylvania e . 522, 443 . 509, 670 1, 032, 113 I . . 5, 446 I . .. -53 67 -81 67 -20 South Atlantic Division : 31, 434 D. 559 D . . 1-72 Maryland . 189, 129 D. 85 D. . . -04 District of Columbia... 18,890 20, .788 39, 678 I . . 1, 292 I . .. 3-37 59 -30 61 -60 Virginia . 169, 441 166, 205 335, 646 V) . 7, 074 D. .. 2-06 | 57 -87 57-70 West Virginia . -. 104, 563 96, 226 200, 789 I . . 2, 413 I . . 1 -22 77 -60 73-12 North Carolina . 171, 125 164, 233 335, 358 I . . 4, 638 I . .. 1-40 58-05 56-94 South Carolina . 102, 000 103, 649 205, 649 D. . 3, 910 D. .. 1-87 45 -91 47 -59 Georgia . 200, 103 197, 712 397, 815 I . . 16,518 I . .. 4-33 58.81 59 -47 Elorida . . 46, 918 46, 862 93, 780 D. 239 D. .. -25 66-74 67 -14 South Central Division : Kentucky . 389, 860 D 36, 627 D .. 5-59 Tennessee . 250, 788 236, 719 487, 507 I . . 4, 170 I . .. -86 78 -80 77 '05 Alabama/ . 301, 615 I . . 31,411 I . . .11 -62 Mississippi . 340, 927 I . . 13,072 I . .. 3-99 Louisiana . 70, 652 69, 581 140, 233 I . . 9, 524 I . .. 7-29 35 -68 35 -44 Texas . 262, 984 265, 330 528, 314 I . . 12,235 I . .. 2-37 61-79 63 -87 Arkansas . 130, 939 120, 513 251, 452 I . . 9, 333 I . .. 3-85 61-44 58 -26 Oklahoma . . , 6, 872 6, 333 13, 205 I . . 2, 810 1 . .27 -03 43-67 43-11 North Central Division : Ohio . 411, 641 388, 715 800, 356 II- . 45,487 I . .. 6-03 77 -25 74-60 Indiana . 260, 130 251, 693 511, 823 D. . 10,018 D. .. 1-92 78-98 77 -82 Illinois . 411, 158 398, 294 809, 452 I . . 10,394 I . .. 1-30 71 -92 70 -58 Michigan . 447,467 I . . 1, 443 I . .. -32 Wisconsin . 362, 064 I . . 4, 247 I . .. 1 T9 Minnesota . 300, 333 I . . 9, 691 I . .. 3-33 Iowa . 509, 830 I 6, 075 I . . . 1-21 Missouri . 324, 956 315, 843 640, 799 I . . 1, 070 I . .. T7 74-08 73 -32 North Dakota . 20, 175 17, 741 37. 916 I . . 2, 373 I . .. 6-68 , 74 -97 70 -48 South Dakota . 38, 956 35, 114 74, 070 D. . 2, 207 D. .. 2-89 77-47 73T5 Nebraska . 130, 083 123, 826 253, 909 I . . 6, 589 I . .. 2-66 74-35 73 -93 Kansas . . 196, 043 186, 182 382, 225 D. . 7, 345 D. .. 1-89 87-14 86 06 Western Division: Montana . 21, 768 I . 2, 717 I . . 14-26 Wyoming . 4, 808 4, 618 9, 426 I . 698 I . .. 8-00 57 "86 59 -66 Colorado . 38, 814 37, 833 76, 647 I . . 3, 256 I . .. 4-44 75-88 75 -60 New Mexico . 14, 391 9,906 24, 297 I . . 1, 698 I . . 7-51 62 -57 44 -97 A T 1 Z OD H (J rnmmwrm-mummmmmmm. 10, 080 I . . 1, 110 I . , . 12 -37 Utah . 55, 448 I . . 8, 654 I . ,.18-50 Nevada . 3, 610 3, 551 7,161 D. 407 D. .. 5-38 73 53 74-50 Idaho g . . . . ’. . 17, 360 I . 2, 180 I . .14-36 Washington . 39, 947 38, 872 78, 819 I . . 9, 209 I . .13-23 81 -43 83-12 Oregon . 37, 605 37, 921 75, 526 I . . 3, 204 I . . 4-43 78 -38 80-67 California . 122, 141 115, 965 238, 106 I . . 8, 120 I . . 3-53 80 -56 78-16 * This summary includes only the States belonging c Includes only pupils of legal school age (5-20) . to the group that are tabulated in the same d Includes only pupils of legal school age (5-18. ) column loelow. c Enrollment of Philadelphia estimated. a Excluding Vermont. f In 18S9-’90. b Number of ptipils attending two weeks or g Estimated, more. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 35 ENROLLMENT. Tables 3 and 4 give various facts relating to tlie common school enrollment, past and present. It appears that the total number of pupils enrolled on the school registers during the school year 1891-D2, so far as can now be deter¬ mined, was 13,205,877, or an average of 6S*82 pupils for each 100 children of school age (5 to 18 years), as against 69*03 in 1890-’91. A consolidation of the gains and losses of one year shows a net increase of 203,238 pupils over the last preceding reports (in the case of most of the States over those of 1S90-’91). This indicates a gain of: 1*56 per cent, which is less than for several years past; the gain of 1890-’91 over 1889-’90, indeed, was 2*57 per cent. These figures seem to show that the increase in enrollment has not kept pace during the past year with the growth of the school popula¬ tion. Some of the State reports of enrollment are imperfect, however, and this loss of pupils as compared with the total number of children may be only apparent. Kentucky, for instance, shows (Table 4, Col¬ umn 5) a loss of 36,627 pupils since 1890-’91; but Supt. Thompson, of that State, attributes this seeming loss to imperfect reports, and informs the Bureau«that it is doubtful if there has been any real loss. The decrease of 10,018 pupils in Indiana may probably be explained in the same way. The increase in some of the States of the Western Division is phe¬ nomenal; Montana, Idaho, and Washington each increased their school enrollment by about one-seventh, and Utah by nearly one-fifth (18*50 per cent). Sex. — The attempt has been made in the present Keport to classify the common school enrollment by sex. The result shows that in each sec¬ tion of the Union, as a rule, more boys are enrolled in the common schools than girls. This might have been expected from the fact that there is an excess of boys in the school population, 50*47 per cent of all the children from 5 to 18 years of age being boys (Table 1, Columns 3, 4, and 6). But it is further shown (Table 4, Columns 7 and 8) that in proportion to the total numbers of each sex more boys than girls are enrolled. Out of every 100 boys of school age in 31 States 68*42 are enrolled; girls, 67*48. The difference is slight, and may be due to the reluctance of parents to intrust their girls to the public schools at so early an age as their boys. Classification of pupils by aye. — A knowledge of the ages of common- school pupils is a great desideratum. Only three States, viz, Vermont, New Jersey, and North Carolina, furnish complete information upon this point. Several other States report the number of pupils above and below certain age limits. Using this information as a basis, an estimate has been made of the number of pupils of each year of age from 5 to 18, which is probably not grossly in error, and may serve for most purposes in lieu of more accurate figures. A corresponding esti- 36 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. mate was made of tlie wliole number of children of each year of age. The results appear in the following table (Table 5), and are plotted in part in Diagram 2. Diagram 2. — Showing for each year of age from 5 to 18 the whole number of children and the number enrolled in the common schools. ( See Table 5.) STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 37 Table 5. — Showing for each year of aye from 5 to 18 the whole number of children and the number enrolled in the common schools. School population. I Enrollment. Years of age. Whole Dum¬ ber of 6hildren. Per cent of the school pop illa¬ tion. Per cent of the total popula¬ tion. N umber enrolled in the common schools. Per cent of the total 1 enroll¬ ment. Per cent of the school popula¬ tion. From 5 to 6 . 1, 698, 300 a-85 2-62 627, 200 4 15 36-9 6 to 7 . 1, 646, 300 1, 601, 000 1, 555, 700 1, 510, 300 1,471,400 1, 439, 000 8 -58 2 -54 - 1, 163, 000 8-80 70 -6 7 to 8 . 8-34 2 -47 1, 253. 100 9 -49 78-3 8 to 9 8 -10 2-40 1,317, 800 1, 331, 100 1, 332, 500 1,262,500 1, 244, 000 1, 077, 600 901. 400 9-98 84 -7 9 to 10 . , 7-87 2-33 10-08 88-1 10 to 11 . 7 -66 2-27 10 -09 90 -e 11 to 12 . . . 7-50 2-22 9-56 87 -7 12 to 13 . 1,419, 400 1, 400, 300 1, 387, 100 1, 367, 700 1, 354, 700 1, 341, 694 7-40 2 T9 9 -42 87 -6 13 to 14 . 7 -30 2T6 8-16 77 -0 14 to 15 . 7 -23 2 14 6 '85 65-2 15 to 16 . 7-13 2 11 668, 200 5-06 48 -9 16 to 17 . 7-06 2-09 488, 600 339, 300 3 -70 36 -i 17 to 18 . . . 6-98 2-07 2-57 25 -3 Over IS 196, 577 1-49 Total _ 19, 192, 894 100 -oo 29 -61 13, 205, 877 100 -00 68-8 According to the above table, of the 13,205,877 common-school pupils in the United States, 10,608,800, or 80*33 per cent, are under 14 years of age. Indeed, it will appear from the diagram that the pupils begin to thin out very rapidly after reaching the thirteenth year. The maximum attendance is from 9 to 11 years of age. It is worthy of note that, according to this table, 90*6 per cent of the children from 10 to 11 years of age are enrolled in the common schools. As all persons who reach maturity pass through this age period, it is evident that, if this percentage remained constant from year to year, more than nine-tenths of the adult population of the United States (dis¬ regarding immigrants) would have received some degree of education in the common schools, the more so, in that many between 10 and 11 not in school now have attended school at an earlier age or will attend hereafter. Add to this number those who h ave received their education in private schools only, and making due allowance for duplicate registrations, there would remain only an inconsidera ble fraction of persons raised in this country who had never attended school at all. This well-nigh universal education is almost wholly voluntary. Prob¬ ably not one child in a hundred is sent to school under compulsion of the law. Percentage of school population enrolled. — The number of pupils en¬ rolled in each State at four differen t dates or epochs is given in Columns 2 to 5 of Table 3 j and in Column s 6 to 9 is given for the same dates the percentage of school population enrolled. The number of pupils enrolled for every 100 children of school age has increased from 68*61 in 1889-’90 to 68*82 in 1891 -’92. Diagram 3 shows graphically for each State the percentage of school population enrolled at the present time, the arrangement of States being in the order of magnitude in this particular.* Four have enrolled * This diagram, considers only the number of pupils whose names were entered on the school registers, without regard to the number of days they attended. 38 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Diagram 3. — Showing graphically the percentage of the school population (5 to 18 years) enrolled in the common schools in 1891-93. ( See Table 3, Column 9.) 27ote. — This diagram has only to do with the number of pupils enrolled, without regard to their regularity of attendance or the length of the school term. PER CENT. Kans., - 86.64 Oregon, - 79.52 Ohio, - - 75.97 Colo., - - 75.77 W. Va., - 75.42 S. Dak., - 75.35 Mich., - 74.72 Mont., - 74.42 27ev., - - 74.02 Mo., - - 73.72. 27. Dak., 72.81 Mass,, - 72.52 1ST. Y., - 72.47 XT 1* n In n Q qk U belli, — (Z.JD Conn., - 72,08 27. H , - 71.85 Ill., - - 71.27' Miss., - 70.20 Wis., - - 68.80 ■po _ _ an aq * -Td/., — — O ( .ttO TT1 n - - A A Q Q T id., ODii/O Del., - - 66.19 -L t/Aclo, O^iOu Idaho, - 62.66 Ky,, - - 62.11 Md., - - 60.64 D. C., - - 60.49 27. J., - - 60.03 A rdr — - i=CQ 9Q hi a.., — uy.oy VJTcl., ~ ~ O J.l t p T pcq oi J-V. JL., OO.Udt A'T»i7 _ _ KQ 04. jTxl ±Zj , , — tJ O • ts -£ Wyo., - 58.75 o _ Kn no V cl. , — — Ol . jy 27. C., - - 57.47 Ala., - - 55.83 27] Mex., 53.95 , - i_ „ . , -■ - S. C., - - 46.74 Ok., - - 43.40 La., - - 35.57 • SCHOOL ENROLLMENT COMPARED WITH THE SCHOOL POPULATION. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. ay more than 80 per cent of all persons from 5 to 18 years of age. It is probable that a rigorous exclusion of duplicate enrollments, such as is practiced in Massachusetts and Bhode Island, would somewhat alter this showing. In addition to what has been already said upon this sub¬ ject in previous reports of this office, reference may be made to certain wholesale duplications to which State Superintendent Knoepfler, of Iowa, calls attention. In his report for 1892-’93 (p. 133) he says: Experience shows that many young teachers do not understand how properly to keep a daily register and make a term report therefrom. * * * Frequently the enrollment for three separate terms is added to get the enrollment for the year, when in fact the majority of the names have thus been counted three times, thus giving a greatly exaggerated enrollment. Iowa, it will be observed, stands next to the highest in Diagram 3. The relation of enrollment to school population is given in the fol¬ lowing table for each year since 1870-71, and illustrated further by Diagram 4 : Table 6. — Showing school population of the United States and number of pupils enrolled each year since 1870-71; also per cent of school population enrolled in each geographic division. Years. Estimated, school pop¬ ulation (per¬ sons 5 to 18 years of age) of the United States. Per cent of the school population enrolled. Pupils enrolled. United States. 1 1 North j Atlantic (Division. South Atlantic Division. i South ; Central Division. North Central Division . 1 Western Division. 1870-’71 _ 12, 305, 600 7, 561, 582 61-45 77 -95 30 -51 34-17 76-87 54 -11 1871- ’72.... 12, 565, 600 7, 815, 306 62 -20 77-33 32 -27 1 37 -94 77-04 54-43 1872-73 .... 12, 833, 700 8, 003, 614 62 -36 76 -79 35 -86 38 -67 75-97 57-52 1873-74.... 13, 112, 900 8, 444, 251 64 -40 77-77 42 -10 40 -82 76-98 61 -04 1874-75.... 13, 405, 200 8, 785, 678 65 -54 78 -59 44 -61 42 -47 77 -54 64-39 1875-76.... 13, 708, 000 8, 869. 115 64-70 78 ‘55 46-72 37-36 77 -05 66 -37 1876-77.... 14, 025, 800 8, 965, 006 63 -92 76-83 47 -02 38 "51 75 -60 66-12 1877-78 .... 14, 356, 000 9. 438, 883 65 -75 77-09 48 -85 43-50 77-38 66-26 1878-79.... 14, 702, 800 9,504,458 64-64 76-18 46 -72 44-71 75-28 65 -63 1879-80 .... a 15, 065, 767 9, 867, 505 65 -50 75 -17 50 -74 46 -43 75-84 64-96 1S80-’81 - 15, 379, 290 10, 000, 896 65 -03 74 -28 51 -49 47-03 74-59 64 -82 1881 ’82.... 15, 704, 660 10. 211,578 65 -03 74-56 51 -90 47-02 74-15 65 -93 1882-’33 .... 16, 044, 410 10, 651, 828 66-39 74-15 54-30 50 -68 75-13 67-05 1883- '84 ... . 16, 401,280 10, 982, 364 66 -96 72 -83 56 -25 53 "59 75-06 G8-01 1884-85.... 16, 773, 190 11, 398, 024 67 -96 73 -23 57-17 56 ’57 75 ‘46 68-53 1885-’86 .... 17, 122, 060 11, 664, 460 68 -14 72 -63 57 -68 56 -82 76 -08 68 -03 1886-87 .... 17. 482, 020 11,884, 944 67-98 72 -23 58-98 56 -21 75 'll 67 -97 1S87- 88.... 17, 827. 310 12, 182, 600 68 -33 71 -60 58 -68 58-67 75 -96 68. 53 18SS-89.... 18, 168, 580 12, 392, 260 68 -20 70 -60 58 -40 58 -28 76 -63 69 -39 1889- 90 _ a 18, 543, 201 12, 722, 581 68-61 70 -45 59 -22 60 -14 76 -46 70 -01 1890-’9L - 18, 906, 950 13, 050, 132 69 -03 69 -85 59 -80 62 -51 76 -CO 73 -28 1891-’S2 b . . 19, 192, 894 13, 205, 877 1 68-82 69 -97 58 -84 61 -87 75 -84 75 -55 a U. S. Census. & Subject to correction. The strong upward trend of the lines of the two Southern divisions in the diagram records a growth in public school attendance during the past two decades of epoch-making proportions. The close coincidence of these two lines throughout their length indicates a similarity of con¬ ditions obtaining simultaneously over a wide extent of territory. Diagram 4. — Showing the per cent of the school population enrolled in the common schools since 1871. {See Table 4.) STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 41 There are grounds for apprehending that these two Southern lines will not rise much higher than at present. The small proportion of adults in the South compared with the number of children to be edu¬ cated ( see Diagram 1), and the fact that of this small proportion fully one-third are negroes who contribute a minimum to the support of the schools, are circumstances adverse to the highest development of a public-school system. Those who are familiar with the educational history of the North are aware of the widespread repugnance that has been exhibited of one class of people to support schools for the benefit of another 5 of the rich for the benefit of the poor; of those having no children for the benefit of those having them; of the people of one locality to be taxed for the benefit of those of another. Instances have occurred of lawsuits being instituted over the petty question of whether a child should be educated in this or that district school. It is inevitable that these antagonisms should be intensified in the South, with its sharply defined race contrasts; one race with little property being de¬ pendent for education largely upon the financial resources of another. That the lines of the Southern divisions have approached so near the Northern, as is the case in the diagram, is a testimonial to the existence in that section of a widespread determination to secure the benefits of education to all the people, and shows that it has in a large measure been effective in bringing the children into the schools. The chief drawback is the short school term. (See Diagram G.) The line of the Western States also bears strongly upward. The twenty years covered by the diagram have witnessed the change of many of these States from frontier communities to more settled con¬ ditions. Here the great preponderance of adults and sparsity of children render the financial burden of providing education for all youth peculiarly light. The North Central States have about held their own in the last two decades as regards proportion of school population enrolled. In the North Atlantic States there has been a marked loss. When it is con¬ sidered, however, to what extent enrollment statistics were formerly inflated through duplicate registrations, there is reason for supposing that the loss in the North Atlantic States is more apparent than real. A complete eradication of duplicate enrollments would probably bring both the northern divisions down still lower in the scale. The low position of Ehode Island in Diagram 3 must be attributed, at least in part, to rigidly correct reports of enrollment, each pupil being reported only once, no matter in how many schools enrolled. 42 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 7. — Average daily 'attendance at various periods, and its present relation to the average attendance of the preceding year , to the enrollment, and to the school population. Average number of pupils in attend¬ ance each day. |g 1 h © OQ C3 © . ^ >>> rt & © % ■ State or Territory. 1870-71. 1879-’80. 1889- ’90. 1891-’92. Increase or dec since last yes ported. Per cent of inc or decrease Average numb* t end i tip' for t 100 enrolled. Average numb tending for e 100 children 5 years of age. i 3 3 4 5 6 ! 7 £ ! 9 United States - . 4, 545,317 6, 144, 143 8, 153, 635 8, 547, 551 I ..142, 539 Per cent. j I . . 1-70 64 ■73 44 -54 North Atlantic Divi- i sion . 1, C27. 208 1, 824, 487 2, 036, 459 2, 109, 154 |l ... 23,927 I .. 1T5 66 -36 - 46 -43 South Atlantic Divi- sion . 368, 111 776, 7S8 1, 126, 683 1,112, 509 D.. 13,856 D.. 1-23 60 •81 35 -78 South Central Divi- sion . 533, 632 902, 767 1, 467, 649 1, 553, 104 I .. 59, 075 I .. 3-95 63 •31 39 -17 North Central Divi- 1, 911, 720 2, 451, 167 3, 188, 732 3, 370, 869 I . . 37, 534 I .. 1-13 65 •70 49 -83 Western Division. . . . 102, 646 188, 924 334, 112 401,915 I .. 35, 789 I -. 9-78 65 •39 49 -40 North Atlantic Divi¬ sion : Maine . 100, 392 103,115 98, 364 90, 191 !d.. 12,871 D. .12 '49 66 •00 55 -73 New Hampshire . 48, 150 48, 966 41.526 43, 508 I .. 1,412 D.. 418 I .. 3 -35 71 •00 51-01 Vermont . a 44, 100 201, 750 48, 606 45, 887 45, 057 283, 648 D.. 0-92 68 •98 58 -02 Massachusetts... 233, 127 273, 910 1 1 .. 5, 046 I . . 1-81 74 •03 53-67 Rhode Island .... 22, 485 27, 217 33, 905 37, 001 II.. 2. 100 I . . 6-02 70 •17 41 -35 Connecticut . 62, 683 73, 546 83, 656 84, 887 II.. 583 I . . 0-69 64 •80 46-71 New York . 493, 648 573, 089 642, 984 665, 574 I .. 15,557 I . . 2-39 62 •03 44 -95 New Jersey - 86, 812 115, 194 133, 286 150, 569 !l.. 3,806 I .. 2-59 61 ■89 37 T5 Pennsylvania. . . . 567, 188 601. 627 682, 941 708, 719 I . . 8, 782 I .. 1-25 68.66 46-33 South Atlantic Divi¬ sion : i Delaware . . . & to - 1 o o 17, 439 19, 649 b 19, 649 D.. 851 D.. 4-15 b 62 -51 41 -38 Maryland. . . 56, 435 85, 778 102, 351 105, 063 D.. 1,107 1 D.. 1-04 55 •55 33 -69 Dist. of Columbia 10, 261 20, 637 28, 184 29, 762 I . - 752 I .. 2-59 75 •00 45 -37 Virginia . West Virginia ... 77,402 128, 404 198, 2S0 186, 026 D.. 7.510 D.. 3-88 55 •44 32. 04 51, 336 91, 604 121, 700 128, 044 I . . 4, 057 I .. 3-27 63 •76 48 -09 North Carolina .. a 73, 000 170, 100 203, 100 198, 747 D.. 3,016 D.. 1-49 59 •27 34-07 South Carolina . . a 44, 700 a 90, 600 147, 799 148, 761 I .. 158 I .. 0-11 72 -33 33-81 Georgia . 31, 377 a 10, GOO 145, 190 240, 791 234, 231 D.. 6,560 D.. 2-72 58 -89 34-82 Florida . 27, 046 64, 819 62, 226 I .. 221 I .. 0-36 66 •36 44 -41 South Central Divi¬ sion : Kentucky . 120, 866 178, 000 225, 739 243, 192 D. . 2,217 D.. 0 9J 62 39 38 -75 Tennessee . a 89, 000 208, 528 323, 548 349, 483 I . . 11, 665 I .. 3-45 71 68 55 -87 Alabama . 107, 666 117, 978 182, 467 b 182, 467 I .. 10, 366 I .. 6-02 b 60 50 33-78 Mississippi . 90, 000 156, 761 207, 704 197, 275 D.. 305 D.. 0-15 57 86 40-62 Louisiana . a 40, 500 a 54, 800 j 87, 536 96, 475 336, 257 I . . 4, 655 I .. 16, 757 I . . 5-07 68 80 24 -47 Texas . a 41, 000 a 132, 000 1 a 291, 941 I . . 5 -24 63 63 39 -96 Arkansas . a 46, 600 a 54, 700 a 148, 714 140, 445 I .. 16, 820 il ..13-60 55 85 33 -45 Oklahoma . 1 . 7,510 I . . 1, 334 1 1 . .21 -60 56 87 24-68 North Central Divi¬ sion : | 1 Ohio . 432, 452 476, 279 321, 659 549, 269 563, 481 I . . 3, 188 ! I . . 0-57 70 40 53 -48 Indiana . 295, 071 342, 275 360, 664 D . . 8, 396 ID.. 2-28 70 45 55 -25 Illinois . 341,686 431, 638 538,310 574, 738 I .. 14,679 I .. 2-62 71 00 50 -eo Michigan . a 193, 000 a 240, 000 a 282, 000 296, 671 D. . 1,719 D . . 0-58 66 30 49 -53 W isconsin . a 132, 000 a 156, 000 200, 457 a 217, 200 141, 472 1 . . 2, 500- I . . 1-16 a 59 99 41-27 Minnesota . 50, 694 a 78, 400 127, 025 I .. 390 I . . 0-28 47 11 35-14 Iowa . 211, 562 259, 836 306, 309 321, 708 I .. 4, 441 I . . 1-40 63 10 54-57 Missouri . 187, 024 a 281, 000 384, 627 433, 951 I .. 21,818 I . . 5-30 67 72 49 -92 North Dakota . . o o 8, 530 5 20, 694 21, 413 I.. 719 I .. 347 56 49 41-13 South Dakota - ) 48, 327 45, 870 D.. 1.370 D.. 2-90 61 93 46 -67 Nebraska - - - - .! a 14, 300 60, 156 146, 139 154, 402 I .... 8, 087 I . . 5 -53 60 81 45 -08 Kansas . 52, 891 137, 669 243, 300 239, 299 D.. 6.803 D.. 2-76 62 59 54 -22 Western Division: Montana . a 1, 100 a 3, 000 10, 596 14, 940 I.. 2,847 I ..23-54 68 63 51 -07 Wyoming . a 250 1, 920 a 4, 700 a 6, 110 I.. 310 I . . 5 -35 a 64 82 38-08 Colorado . 2,611 12,618 38, 715 47, 946 I.. 4,240 I .. 9-70 62 54 47 -39 New Mexico . a 880 3, 150 a 13, 000 ' 16, 720 I . . 2, 285 I ..15-83 68 82 37 T3 Arizona . Utah . 12, 819 2, 847 17, 178 4, 702 20, 967 a 6, 080 31, 632 I.. 730 I .. 5, 275 D.. 181 I ..13-64 I ..20-01 a 60 57 31 06 35-55 41 -22 Nevada . a 1, 800 5, 401 5, 064 5, 152 D.. 3-39 71 95 53-25 Idaho . a 600 3,863 10, 546 a 9, 500 all, 020 I .. 1,380 I ..14-31 a 63 49 39 -78 Washington . a 3, 300 36, 946 50,716 I .. 6, 304 I ..14-19 64 34 52 -91 Oregon . a 15, 000 27, 435 43.333 52, 724 I .. 7, 329 I ..16-13 69 80 55 -51 California . 64, 286 100, 966 146, 589 158, 875 I .. 5, 276 I . . 3-43 66 73 52 -96 a Estimated. b In 1889-’ 90. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 43 AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE. The average number of pupils in attendance upon the schools of the United States each day, according, to the most recent reports (mainly 1891-,92), was 8,547,551. By comparing the reports of each State for the next preceding year, the aggregate increase is found to be 142,539, or a gain of 1*70 per cent, against a gain in enrollment of only 1-56 per cent. This indicates, if the reports are correct, a more regular attendance of enrolled pupils. The average attendance forms 64-73 per cent of the enrollment ; that is, 64*73 pupils attended school each day for every 100 enrolled; or, viewing the matter in another light, each enrolled pupil attended school on an average, 64*73 days out of every 100 the schools were in session. This percentage indicating regularity of attendance, being the rela¬ tion of the average attendance to the enrollment, is affected by any error in either of these quantities. If the enrollment, which is the divisor, is too large, through containing duplicates or other cause, the resulting percentage will be too small. On this ground it is probable that the percentage, 64*73, is less than it should be. Massachusetts andBhode Island, which are known to exclude duplicates, show a high regularity of attendance, the former State over 74 per cent. A high regularity of attendance may, however, and probably does in some cases erroneously appear, through inflating the average attend¬ ance, i. e., increasing the dividend. This may occur in the case of com¬ puting the average attendance of any single school, for instance, through adding together the three reports of the average attendance of the school for three consecutive terms, instead of taking the average of them. The phenomenally low regularity of attendance in Minnesota (47*11) probably results from some method of ascertaining average attendance in that State not in uniformity with the general practice in that regard. The following table shows the per cent of regularity of attendance by five-year periods since 1870-’71. Ratio of average dailg attendance to enrollment since 1870-71. 1870-71. 1874-75. 1879-’80. 18S4-’85. 1889-’90. 1891-’92. 1 The United States . 60-1 59 7 62 -3 64-0 64-1 64 7 North Atlantic Division . 59 -3 58 -4 62 -3 64 7 65 '4 66 -4 South Atlantic Division . 61 -0 61 -4 62-5 63 -2 63 -1 60 -8 South Central Division . 69 -8 68 -1 65 -8 63 -4 64 0 63 -3 North Central Division . . 57 -9 57 7 60 -8 64 1 63-6 65 7 Western Division . 70 -3 62 -8 65 -5 64*6 64 -8 65 -4 The increase in the North Atlantic Division from 59*3 to 66*4 is prob¬ ably due in part to more correct records of enrollment in recent years. Where the same pupil is registered twice during the school year, he 44 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. appears in the statistics as two pupils, each attending only a portion of the year, and the u regularity of attendance” appears too small, as already noted. What increase in the regularity of attendance there actually is may be ascribed in some measure to the greater proportion of urban schools existing at present. In cities attendance is more regular than in the country. The District of Columbia, which is a pure urban system, stands first in point of regularity, viz, 75 per cent. The South Central Division has decreased in the 21 years from 69-8 to 63*3. Here the course of events apparently has been reversed. At the earlier date common schools had not spread beyond the cities to auy great extent in some of the States of that division, so that their school systems were of a general urban character. Then there were largely exaggerated reports of average attendance in Mississippi for a number of years, which made the regularity of attendance in that sec¬ tion appear greater than was actually the case. Teachers were paid in that State according to the number of pupils in average attendance, and the accuracy of their statistics was allowed to suffer in behalf of their pecuniary interests, as appears from the State school reports. School population and school attendance. — Diagram 5 shows the rela¬ tion between the number of children of school age and the number of pupils in daily attendance on the schools, for each State. States in this diagram are higher or lower in rank than in Diagram 4 according to the greater or less regularity of attendance of the pupils enrolled. Diagram 5. — Showing the percentage of the school population in attendance at school, in 1891-92; or, the number of pupils in daily attendance for every 100 children of school age ( 5 to 18 years). ( See Table 7, Column 9.) PER CENT. Vt., - - 56.02 Tenn., - 55.87 Me., - - 55.78 Oregon, - 55.51 Ind., - - 55.25 Iowa,- - 54.57 Kans., - 54.22 Mass., - 53.67 Ohio, - - 53.48 Nev., - - 53.25 Cal., - -.52.96 Wash., - 52.91 Mont., - 51.07 N. H., - 51.01 Ill., - - 50.60 Mo., - - 49.92 Mich., - 49.53 W. Ya., - 48.09 Colo.,- - 47.39 Conn., - 46.71 S. Dak., - 46.67 Pa., - - 46.33 D. C., - - 45.37 Neb., - - 45.08 1ST. Y., - 44.95 Fla., - - 44.41 Del., - - 41.38 R. I., - - 41.35 Wis., - - 41.27 Utah,- - 41.22 N. Dak., 41.13 Miss., - 40.62 Texas, - 39.96 Idaho, - 39.78 Ky., - - 38.75 Wyo., - 38.08 N.J., - - 37.15 N. Mex., 37.13 Ariz., - 35.55 Minn., - 35.14 G-a., - - 34.82 N. C., - - 34.07 S. C., - - 33.81 Ala., - - 33.78 Md., - - 33.69 Ark., - - 33.45 Va., - - 32.04 Ok., - - 24.68 La., - - 24.47 N. C. Div., 49.83 W. Div., 49.40 1ST. A. Div., 46.43 S. C. Div., 39.17 S. A. Div., 35.78 THE SCHOOL ATTENDANCE COMPARED WITH THE SCHOOL POPULATION. U. S., - - 44.54 45 46 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92, Table 8. — Aggregate number of clays schooling given to all pupils, compared with the population 5 to IS and ivith the enrollment. — Length of school term. State or Territory. Average length of school term in days. Increase or decrease since 1890— ’91. Aggregate number of days schooling given. Average number of days schooling given for each child 5 to 18 years of age. Average number of days, attended by each pupil enrolled. 1870-71. 1879-’80. 1889-’90. 1891-' 92. 1 Did o < 145 100 -7 D . 1*8 4, 617, 000 47 -0 62 -3 Nebraska . 72 82 140 135 D . 4 20, 844, 270 60 -9 82-1 Kansas . 116 120 135 127 D •5 30, 390, 973 68 -9 79-5 Western Division: Montana . 6 89 96 142 -7 148 2, 211, 120 75 -6 101 -6 Wyoming . 6 200 119 6 120 6 120 6 732, 960 6 45 -7 6 77 '8 Colorado . 92 6132 144 -4 150 T I. . *4 7, 196, 695 71 -1 93 -9 New Mexico . 6111 111 6 67 90 I. .20 1, 504, 800 33 -4 61 -9 Arizona . 0 109 126 6 172 I. .23 6 1, 045, 760 6 61 -1 6 103 -7 Utah . 152 128 133 153 I. .23 4, 839, 696 63 -1 87 -3 Nevada . 142 143 140 154-4 I. .10 -6 795, 469 82 -2 111-1 Idaho . 6 45 94 6 69 -8 86 -4 I. . 2-4 6 952, 128 6 34 -4 6 54 -8 Washington . 6 80 6 91 97 -2 106-6 I I. . 6-4 5, 406, 326 56 -4 68-6 Oregon . 6 90 90 118 -2 112-8 I. . 2-6 5, 947, 627 62-6 78-7 California . 123 146 -6 157-6 159 D . 2 1 25, 261, 125 84 -2 106 -1 a In 1889-90. 6 Estimated. c Rough estimate of State Superintendent Russell for 1889-90. A later estimate by Superintendent Sheats, received too late to incorporate in the tables, places the present school term of Elorida at 100 days. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 47 LENGTH OF SCHOOL TERM, ETC. The average school term of the United States in 1891-’92 was 137-1 days, as against 130-3 in 1879-?80, and 134-7 in 1889-90. There has thus been an increase of G-8 days in 12 years. The length in days of the school term of each State in 1891-’92 is given in Column 5 of Table 8, and the same is also shown graphically in Diagram 0, where the several States are arranged according to their length of school term. It will be noticed that New Jersey has the longest school term, viz, 190 days, while North Carolina has the shortest, 62-4 days, or some¬ what less than a third of that of New Jersey. Whole amount of instruction given. — The total number of days attended by all pupils, or, what is the same thing, the total number of days schooling given, in 1891-’92 was 1,172,261,842, which allows an average of 61-1 days for every child 5 to 18 years of age. (Columns 7 and 8 of Table 8.) This average number of days schooling given for every child 5 to 18 years of age is in fact the result of a comparison of the amount of instruction given with the number of children of school age, and is the best single quantity for determining the extent and prevalence of school education in one community as compared with another. A State may have a good attendance at school, but only for a brief period; or, on the other hand, it may have a long school term but comparatively few pupils in attendance. The quantity under consideration takes into account both the attendance of pupils and the length of school term, and compares the total amount of instruction given with total number of children who are subjects for instruction. In Column 8 of Table 8, and in Diagram 7 (p. 50), is shown this average number of days schooling given for every child of school age for each State. The order of States in Diagram 7 differs from that of either Diagram 5 or 6; in fact the former diagram is in a sense compounded of the two latter. Massachusetts stands at the head of Diagram 7, and so gives the most school instruction as compared with its school population, though it does not rank the highest in either number of pupils or length of school term taken singly. Where a State has both a low attendance (Table 7, Column 9) and a short school term it makes a very poor showing on Diagram 7, so that the contrasts exhibited in it are stronger than in either 5 or 6. Massachusetts, for instance, is seen to give more than four times as much school instruction as North Caro¬ lina, considering their relative numbers of children of school age, the numbers being 91-8 and 21-3 days, respectively, per child of school age. The summaries by divisions at the foot of Diagram 7 bring into sharp relief the small amount of school instruction in the South as a whole when considered in reference to the number of children of school age — about one-half of what is given in the North and West. This is an unquestionable conclusion, despite inaccuracies here and there in the statistics. k—Av To¬ days. 190 188 185 185 184 182.3 172 171 166 165.5 159' 158.6 158 156 155.4 155.4 155.2 154.4 153 150.1 148 138 135 132 127 123 122.3 121.6 120 12a 118 117 112.8 110 106.6 105.9 104.4 100.7 100 100 96 95 90 90 86.4 74 73.5 73.4 62.4 , 169.1 146.8 139.1 106.5 94.5 137.1 rage length of school term in days, in 1891-92. ( See Table 8, Column 5.) — The school terra of the States printed in italics is uncertain. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 49 But there is another face to the matter. The South teems with children, but has comparatively few adults; conversely the North, and especially the far W est, have few children and a large ratio of adults. (See Diagram 1, p. 32.) It is the male adults in general who provide and pay for the schools. It will be in order to inquire, then, What is the relation between the total amount of instruction given and the number of male adults? or, How many days’ schooling does each male adult provide and pay for? The answer to this question is given in the following table : Average number .of days’ schooling provided for by each male adult. Days. North Atlantic Division . 68-69 South Atlantic Division. . 56-90 South Central Division . 56-05 North Central Division . 77-30 Western Division . .’ . 43-70 The United States . 66-73 Here the South is well up to the North and considerably in advance of the West. The facts in the case, then, may be summed up as follows : The average male adult in the South provides nearly as many days’ schooling as in the North and more than in the West. But, on account of the excess of children in the South to be provided for and the few adults, the total amount of schooling provided is only sufficient to furnish each child in the South with about half as many days on the average as falls to the Northern or Western child. Observations on ascertaining the average length of school term. — The aggregate num¬ ber of days’ attendance given in Table 8, when not reported direct by State super¬ intendents, has been obtained by multiplying the average daily attendance of pupils by the average length of school term in days. Either of these three quantities is thus made a simple function of the otlier two, and can be readily obtained when the other two are given. This relation between these three quantities does not rigidly subsist in the statistical systems of some of the States, owing to the diverse methods of computing average attendance and average length of school term. It is believed, however, that it would conduce to the accuracy and uniformity of school statistics if such were the case. A practical application is made of this principle in finding the average length of school term of a number of States, as recorded in the summaries of Column 5, where the aggregate attendance in days in each division and in the United States is divided by the corresponding average daily attendance to get the average length of school term in days of each group of States. By this method the school term of each State in taking the average is in fact given a weight proportioned tpths school attendance of the State, as should be done under a correct interpretation of ;tbd expression ./‘ average length of school term.” The result might more .properly be called “aveiage length of attendance,” which is essentially whatit is desired to know. Diagram 7. — Showing for 1891-92 the average number of dags schooling given for every child 5 to 18 years of age; or the amount of instruction given (in dags ) compared with the school population. (See, Table 8, Column 8.) Note. — The position of the States printed in italics is uncertain. DAYS. Mass., - - 91.8 Ohio, - - 88.5 Iowa, - - 86.2 Conn., - - 85.2 Cal., - - 84.2 D. C., - - 83.9 2sT. Y., - - 83.8 Uev., - - 82.2 EL, - - 79.9 Ill., - - - 78.7 Mich., - - 77.3 Vt., - - - 77.3 Mont., - 75.6 Ind., - - 72.9 Pa., - - - 72.0 Colo., - - 71.1 1ST. J., - - 70.6 Kans., - - 68.9 Del., - - 68.7 Me.,- - - 68.5 Wis.,- - - 65.5 Utah, - - 63.1 Oregon, - 62.6 Md., - - 62.0 N. IT., - - 62.0 Arizona , - 61.1 Mo., - - - 61.1 Ueh., - - 60.9 Wash., - 56.4 Tenn., - - 53.6 Minn.,- - 53.4 Fla., - - - 53.3 W. Va., - 52.9 N. Dak., - 48.2 S. Dak., - 47.0 Wyo., - - 45.7 _ This diaarram furnishes the heat measure of the relative amount ,i - of school instruction given in each ^BBniaBHaaEBBEaBaaBi^maBaDaBBBaaaBBi StcitO, clS COmpOTCd. Wltill itS SCllOOl Texas, - - 42.3 Ky., - - 38.8 Miss., - - 38.6 . Donulation. Both the number of pupils in attendance and the number faVHTI ) GlltCr illtO it. TllC clgC pGriod (5 to Va., — - - 37.8 G-a., - - - 34.8 18 years) is arbitrary, hence the absolute values (days) tabulated possess no special lClClUO , — — IST. Mex., 33.4 Da., - - - 25.5 Ala., - - 24.8 S. C., - - 24.8 A 0/1 *7 '■ ■■■iimi— — significance ; if the amount of instruction 6 to 16 years, or 4 to 21 years, the resulting values would all have been raised or lowered • — — equal degree, without altering perceptibly . . to ascertaifi. The diagram is not affected by 7. O O O errors of duplicate registration, but dej)ends - - — 44.4 N. C., - - 21.3 N. A. Div., 78.5 1ST. C. Div., 73.1 W. Div., - 68.7 S. A. Div., 38.1 S. C. Div., 37.0 U. S., - - 61.1 ' for its accuracy upon correct reports of average attendance and length nf sc.hnnl term STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 51 A method in use in soino States for finding the average school term, of a county, for instance, is to weight the different school terms of the towns or districts the county is composed of by the number of schools in each ; in other words, the total number of days (or months) all the schools of a county were kept is divided by the total number of schools to get the average time each one was kept. So, in finding the average term for the State, the school is taken as the unit instead of the pupil, as in the Bureau’s method. When the schools differ much in size (number of pupils), as they do in all mixed urban and rural systems, varying from some half dozen to 500 or more pupils each, the average term obtained by this method varies con¬ siderably from that obtained by the foregoing. The long terms of the large city schools not being given their proper weight, the resulting average is too small. The same objection applies still more forcibly to Aveighting the school terms of the different counties or towns by the number of school districts in each. Still another method is to add together the school terms of the different counties or towns and divide by the number of such counties or towns; i. e., the simple arithmetical mean is taken. Smith ville, for instance, with its 100 pupils, counts for as much in forming the average as the metrcqmlis, with its 100,000. Smithville, 60 days; metropolis, 180 days; average term of tho two, 120 days. This method, if it can be so called, gives altogether too short an average term, and nothing can be said in defense of it. It is as if, wishing to get the population per square mile of Minnesota and Dakota combined, we said, Minnesota, 9*86; Dakota, 0-92; average number of persons per square mile in the combined territory (0-92-j-9-86)-f-2 = 5*39, instead of dividing the total population of the two States together by the combined area in square miles. The “aggregate number of days attendance” is a statistical item of the utmost simplicity and of great value, about the meaning of which there can be little or no difference of opinion. Every teacher’s register that records the number of pupils present each day in any schools, as they all presumably do, contains the data for ascertaining it for that school for tho school year by the simple process of addition or summing up. Progress. — Table 9 gives the length of school term in days for each section of the country since 187CM71; also the average number of days schooling given for each child of school age. The same is also graph¬ ically exhibited in Diagram 8. The amount of instruction given as compared with the school popu¬ lation, shown in the lower part of the diagram, exhibits a decided increase in every section of the Union. This increase has been effected in the North Atlantic Division mainly through lengthening the school term; in the two Southern Divisions, until about 1880, however, there was a decrease in the average school term, the multiplication of short¬ term schools outside the cities bringing down the general average term length. Still, owing to the continued accessions of pupils, the total amount of instruction per child of school age has been almost uninter¬ ruptedly increasing in the South, and is now about double what it was in 1870-’<1. Diagram 8. — Upper section: Average length of school term. Lower section: Average num- STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 53 Table 9. — Length of school terra — The member of days’ schooling given compared with the school population. Average length of school term in days, j AveraSe number of days’ schooling given ® J lor every child 5 to 18 years. Years. The "United States. | North Atlantic Di- d 3 0 South Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Central Di¬ vision. North Central Di¬ vision. d .2 G0 V s s <0 P The United States. North Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Atlantic Di¬ vision. South Central Di¬ vision. North Central Di¬ vision. "Western Divisiqn. j 1870-71 . 132 7 152 •0 97 -4 91 •6 133 9 119 2 48 7 70 •2 18 •1 21 -8 59 •6 45 9 1871-72 . 133 -4 151 •9 103 -4 97 •7 136 1 121 8 49 5 68 •9 20 ■3 25 -8 59 ■8 46 0 1872-73 . 129 7 154 •6 97 -4 89 •1 129 6 118 3 47 8- 07 •9 21 "7 23 -4 56 •8 45 0 1873-74 . 128 -8 154 •8 95-6 81 •1 132 6 119 0 49 6 70 •4 24 •5 21-9 59 ■8 46 1 1874-75 . 130 -4 158 •7 95 -2 81 •0 134 6 132 5 51 0 72 •9 26 •1 23 -5 60 "2 53 6 1875-76...-:.. 133 -1 158 •0 95 -6 82 "5 139 1 130 3 51 4 73 •7 26 •8 20 -1 62 ■2 54 4 1876-77 . 132-1 157 •2 91 -4 80 •3 139 8 130 1 51 1 73 •6 26 ■3 19 -8 62 •3 54 3 1877-78 . 132 -0 157 •6 89 7 86 •7 140 1 129 9 53 2 75 •6 26 •8 24 3 64 •3 54 5 1878-79 . 130 -2 160 •1 88 -6 81 •9 136 4 132 0 52 0 75 •o 25 "7 23-9 62 •3 56 7 1879-’80 . 130-3 159 •2 92 -4 79 "2 139 8 129 2 53 1 74 •5 29 •3 24 -2 64 •4 54 9 1880-’81 . 130 -1 158 •7 92 -4 82 •1 138 8 133 8 52 0 72 •2 28 •5 25-0 62 •7 56 9 1881-82 . 131 -2 160 •6 95 -9 82 "5 ! 137 1 136 2 52 9 73 •3 30 •6 25 -6 63 "2 58 0 1882- ’83 . 129 -8 161 ■0 95 -9 82 •5 137 1 132 6 53 8 74 •4 32 •0 26-8 63 •9 57 3 1883 ’84 . 129 -1 156 •0 95 -6 85 ■9 138 6 .133 8 55 5 72 •5 32 "7 30-0 67 •7 61 6 1884-’85 . 130-7 163 •1 93 -4 87 •5 j 139 1 131 8 56 8 77 •2 33 •7 31 -4 67 •3 58 3 1885-’86 . 130 -4 161 •6 93 -4 86 ■9 1 140 4 130 8 57 3 76 •7 33 •7 32 -0 68 "7 ■ 59 6 1886-’87 . 131 -3 165 ■9 95-3 87 ■5 139 5 131 6 57 7 77 •8 34 ■8 32 -1 68 "7 59 1 1887-’88 . 132 -3 164 •4 95 7 87 •6 144 0 130 7 58 7 76 •8 35 •5 33 -6 71 •3 57 3 1888-’89 . 133 7 164 •1 95-0 88 ■9 ! 147 5 135 7 58 9 76 ■7 35 •4 34-0 71 •6 61 7 1889-’90 . 134 7 166 •6 99-9 i 88 *2 1 148 0 135 0 59 2 76 ■8 37 ■3 33 -9 71 •9 61 2 1890- 91 . 135-7 168 •3 103 -8 ! 92 •0 ! 145 8 136 9 60 4 77 •9 "37 •9 35-5 73 •0 64 0 1891-’92 a.... 137-1 169 •1 106-5 j 94 1 "5 146 8 139 1 61 1 78 ‘5 38 •1 37-0 73 | •1 68 7 a Subject to correction. 54 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 10. — Number and sex of teachers. State or Territory. 1 . 1 Whole number of different j teachers employed. ■! Per cent of male teachers. Males. 1 Females. Total. 1870-71.! | 1879— ’80.! 1839-’90. 1891-92. ! 1 r> 3 4 5 <5 7 j s United States .... 121,638 252, 822 374, 460 41 -0 42 -8 34-5 32-5 In orth Atlantic Division 17. 810 76, 261 94, 071 26-2 28 -8 20-0 18.9 South Atlantic Division 19, 194 22, 218 41, 412 52,963 63 -8 62 -5 49-1 46-4 South Central Division . 29, 283 23, 680 67 -5 67-2 57 "5 55-3 Horth Central Division . 49, 990 118, 182 168, 172 43 -2 41-7 32 -4 29-7 Western Division . 5, 361 12, 481 17, 842 45 -1 40 -3 31 T 30-1 Horth Atlantic Divi- 1 i sion : Maine . b 1, 116 6 6, 570 7, 686 6 24 -4 6 27 -2 616-0 6 14 -5 Hew Hampshire . . . 290 2, 814 1 3,104 15 -0 16 -8 9-8 9-3 Vermont . 538 3.813 4, 351 10, 965 16-5 16-8 12-0 -12 -4 Massachusetts . 992 9, 973 12-7 13 -2 9-8 9-0 Rhode Island . 156 1,276 1, 432 6 20 -4 20 -2 12-6 10-9 Connecticut . 6 498 6 3, 754 6 4, 252 6 22-1 6 22 -8 613 -4 611 -7 Hew York . . . 5,292 26, 869 32, 161 22 -9 26-0 16-9 16-5 Hew Jersey . 766 4, 015 4, 781 32 -5 28-5 18 -4 16.0 Pennsylvania . 8, 162 17, 177 25, 339 42-8 45 -5 34-2 32-2 South Atlantic D i v i - sion: Delaware . . . clfil e 541 732 6 29.9 6 46-6 6 31-0 c26-l Maryland . 1,040 3,011 4, 051 45 -0 42-6 27 -8 25-7 District of Columbia 111 734 845 6 8-2 7-8 13-0 13-1 Virginia . 3,017 4, 776 7, 793 64-5 61-8 41-5 38-7 West Virginia . 3, 463 2,284 5, 747 79 -0 75-2 63 -4 GO -3 Horth Carolina . 3,849 3,101 6, 950 6 73-2 6 71 -3 * 59 -1 55 -4 South Carolina . 2, 043 2, 355 4, 398 62 -4 59 -5 49 -6 46 -4 Georgia . 4,144 6 1, 336 1 3,970 8, 114 71 -4 6 65 -2 53 -3 51 -1 Florida . South Central Division : 6 1 , 446 2,782 6 65-7 61-6 48 -0 6 48-0 Kentucky . . 4,573 4, 929 9, 502 6 66 -0 64 -6 49-8 48-1 Tennessee . 5, 176 3,436 8, 612 6 75-0 74 -4 61-8 60-1 Alabama . c 4, 168 c 2, 440 6, 608 66 -8 63 -8 62-9 c63T Mississippi . 3, 780 4, 142 7,922 6 60-8 61 -2 49-6 c62-9 Louisiana . 1,354 1,831 3,185 50-9 46-1 44-7 42 -5 Texas . 6, 037 4,984 *11,021 6 77 -3 6 75 -0 61-1 54 -8 Arkansas . Oklahoma .... 3,990 205 1,651 267 5,641 472 6 75-6 78 -4 C8-5 70-7 43 -4 Horth Central Division : Ohio . . . . 10, 560 15, 060 25,620 43-2 47-8 43-1 41 -2 Indiana . 6. 577 6, 972 13, 549 60 -5 57-5 51 T 48-5 Illinois . . 6, 170 16, 176 22, 346 43-5 39 -7 32-5 '27 -6 Michigan . . . . 3, 359 12, 741 16, 100 26 -3 29 -2 22 -3 20 -9 Wisconsin . 2, 207 10, 148 12, 355 6 28 -8 28-9 19-8 17 -9 Minnesota . 1,978 7, 287 9, 265 33-7 35 -9 23 -9 21 -4 Io’wa . . 4, 978 22, 275 27, 253 | 39-0 33 -6 20-6 18 -3 Missouri . 5,918 8,427 14, 345 65 -3 58/ 1 44-4 41 -3 Horth Dakota . 613 1,625 2, 238 ) 6 24-7 40 -8 K 28 -3 27 -4 South Dakota . 1,056 3, 072 4, 128^ \l 29-0 25 -G Hebraska . 2, 335 6, 750 9, 085 51 -9 40 -7 27-1 25 -7 Kansas . 4, 239 7, 649 11, 888 47-2 45-1 40-8 35 7 V estern Division : Montana . 157 597 754 6 60-3 38 -5 22 -9 20-8 Wyoming . 79 2S8 367 6 28-6 44-3 22 -4 21-5 Colorado . 665 2, 088 2, 753 48 -8 36 -4 26 -2 24-2 Hew Mexico . 377 224 601 6 91-7 78 -0 6 62 -2 62 -7 Arizona . 6 89 6 180 6 269 47 "5 38 -8 6 33 -1 Utah . 401 532 933 55 -0 54 -5 46 -6 43 -0 Hevada . 36 223 259 32-4 46 -7 16 -3 13-9 Idaho . 6 277 6 281 d 558 6 64 -3 57 -4 6 33 -4 6 49-6 Washington . 1,014 1,749 2, 763 6 46 -5 37 -4 40 -6 36 -7 Oregon . . . 1, 044 1,650 2, 694 6 51-7 48 -3 43 -3 38-8 California . 1,222 4, 669 5, 891 40-0 33-6 21 -4 20 -7 9,486 1,267 24, 884 20, 386 11, 363 7, 877 11, 151 2, 050 1® a 124. 4 115 -6 113 *0 129-2 i 125 -7 | 141 -7 115-3 106 -6 134 -8 a In the eight States tabulated below. b Estimated. c In 1890-’91. d Number of schools. Diagram 9. — Showing the whole number of teachers in the United States, also the num¬ ber of each sex, for each year since 1870-71. 55 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 56 NUMBER AND SEX OF TEACHERS. The whole number of teachers employed during the school year 1891-?92, as shown by Table 10, was 374,460. Of these 121,638, or 32-5 per cent, were males $ 252,822, or 67*5 per cent, were females. About one-third of all the teachers in the United States are there¬ fore males. In two States, Massachusetts and New Hampshire, less than one- tenth of the teachers are males (Column 8). In each of the other North Atlantic States except Pennsylvania more than five-sixths of the teach¬ ers are women. Arkansas has the highest proportion of male teachers, viz, 70-7 per cent. In Diagram 9 the total number of teachers, and the number of each sex, are plotted for each year since 1870-’71. It will be noted that there has been no perceptible increase in the number of male teachers since about the year 1880. The total number of teachers has continued to increase uninterruptedly, but the gain comes entirely from accessions to the ranks of the female teachers. The year 1880 marks an epoch where the lines of the male and the female teachers, which had been ascending at a uniform grade, begin to diverge widely. The following table shows the per cent of male, teachers in each geographical division each year since 1870-’ 71. In Diagram 10 the same is graphically reproduced. Table 11. — Showing what per cent of the whole number of teachers are males. Year. United States. North A tlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Division. 1870-’ 71 . 41-0 26-2 63 -8 67 m5 43-2 45 -0 1871 ’72 . 41-3 26-1 63 -4 68-3 43 -4 43 -5 1872 ’73 . 41-2 26-1 63 -3 68 -9 42-8 43 0 1873-’74 . 41-6 26-8 62 -9 69-4 42-5 44-5 1874-’75 . 42-2 26 -7 63-3 69-1 42 -5 44-1 1875-’76 . 42 3 27 -9 63 -1 68-0 42 -4 45 3 1876-’77 . 42-8 28-2 62 7 67 -8 43-0 44 -4 1877-’78 . z . 43-1 28-5 62 -6 67 -7 42-8 43-0 1878-’79 . 43 -3 29-1 62-8 67 8 42 -7 42-3 1879-’80 . 42 -8 28 -8 62-5 67-2 41-7 40 -3 1880-’81 . 41-7 27 -4 61 -4 67 0 39-9 37 -3 1881- 82 . 39 ’7 25-7 59 -4 65 -8 37-7 37 1 1882-’83 . 38 -2 23 -9 57 -3 63-5 35-9 35-9 1883-’84 . 37 -9 23 -4 56-5 63 -2 35 -3 34-5 1884-’85 . 37 -4 22 -5 55 6 62 9 34 -8 34 6 1885-’86 . 37 -4 22 -4 54 -5 62 -2 35 2 34-2 1886-’87 . 37 -4 22 -6 53 -4 63 -5 34 -8 34-5 1887-’88 . 36-4 21 -6 53 -2 60-7 34 -0 30 -8 1888-’89 . 34 -9 20-2 51 -7 58 -8 32 -3 31-2 1889-'90 . 34-5 20-0 49-1 57 '5 32 -4 31 1 1890-’91 . 33 -5 19-4 47-0 56 -4 31 -4 30;4 1891 -’92* . 32 -5 18-9 46-4 55 -3 29-7 30-1 Subject to correction. Diagram 10. — Showing the ratio of mate teachers to whole number of teachers each year since 1870-71. {See Table 11.) 57 58 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The trend of the lines in the diagram shows that in every section of the country the proportion of male teachers, which for toil years had been either constant or actually increasing, commenced to diminish rapidly about 1880. To wliat cause should be ascribed so decided and wide¬ spread a change at that particular period is not immediately apparent. It may be that a long course of discussion on the avenues open for the support of women and the active steps taken in the direction of their higher education had gradually familiarized the public mind with their needs, capabilities, and aptitudes, and paved the way for more advanced ideas; so that when once inaugurated in favorable centers here and there, the movement toward the more extended employment of women spread rapidly far and wide, the time being ripe for it and only a suffi¬ cient impetus being necessary. CHANGES IN THE TEACHING FORCE DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR. Eight States, in addition to reporting the whole number of different teachers employed, report the number of teachers7 places or positions; or, what is equivalent, the number of teachers necessary to supply the schools (Table 10, Column 9). If there is no change in the teaching force of a system during the school year, if each teacher occupies, to the end of the year, the place he held at the beginning, then the two numbers just referred to will be identical. But in the eight States which report the number of positions, there were in all 88,464 positions in 1891-792, and 110,014 different teachers; in other words, there were 124*4 teachers to every 100 posi¬ tions, so that an average of 24*4 positions out of every 100 show a change of teachers during the year in the eight States. This average should, probably, be larger, as there are, doubtless, cases where a teacher is transferred from one school to another and not counted as a different teacher, though a change has been effected. The. number of teachers to 100 positions varies from 106*6 in Kansas to 141*7 in Michigan (Column 10). It is probable that the number of teachers, as reported in several, perhaps many, of the States outside of the eight referred to, is made up in Whole or in part (espe¬ cially in the reports of cities), of the number of teachers necessary, instead of the whole number of different teachers, and in so far the statistics of teachers are not uniform. The headings of the tables or columns in school reports are often not suffi¬ ciently explicit to determine which one of the two quantities it is designed to give, the number of places or the whole number of different teachers. The significant quantity of the two is the number of teachers necessary or required by the schools. This, from a statistical point of view, is what should be understood by the u number of teachers/’ The whole number of different teachers, including in the count all who taught for any period of time, however brief, affords some collateral information, that is of value principally when considering the changes in the teaching force during the school year. A table giving the number of teachers in each State required by the schools as conducted, with sex and race classifications, would admit of various useful applica- STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 59 tions that the present Table 10 does not, and would not eveu if it showed uniformly the whole number of different teachers in each State. Such a table is still a desider¬ atum . Teachers’ examinations , etc. — The following table gives some informa¬ tion relating to teachers’ examinations and appointments: Table 12. — Teachers’ examinations and certificates. State. United States (15 States) . . North Atlantic Division (3 States) . South. Central Division (3 States) . North Central Division (7 States) . . "Western Divisidti (2 States). North Atlantic Division : Vermont... . . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Central Division : Kentucky (1890-’91) _ Tennessee . Texas . North Central Division : Ohio . . Michigan . . Wisconsin . . _ Towa . North Dakota . . • Nebraska . Kansas _ .• . . Western Division : Washington . . Oregon . Whole number of different teachers from Table 10). Number of applicants for ex¬ amination. Failed to pass and rejected. Per cent of failures. 4, 351 4,781 25, 339 9, 161 8,612 11, 021 25, 620 16, 100 12, 355 27. 253 2. 238 9, 085 11, 888 2,763 2, 694 3, 243 2, 362 22, 035 7, 830 10, 033 8,511 39, 202 17, 601 16. 315 29, 754 1, 414 9, 323 14, 117 2, 234 1, 729 674 876 4,681 1, 349 600 1, 558 18, 802 6, 220 4, 607 4,274 263 1,024 3, 249 320 432 26 -4 Av hole number of. certificates issued. Number of I different I persons who j received certificates. 22 -5 13-3 30 T 19 -0 20-9 37 T 21 2, 569 1,486 17, 354 6,481 9,433 6, 953 20, 400 11,381 11,708 25,480 1, 151 8,299 10,868 1,914 1,297 9,283. IS, 167 21, 397 The ratio of failures to the whole number examined Avould seem to indicate to some extent the degree of severity of the examination and the standard of proficiency required in order to successfully pass it. In Ohio, where, it may be noted, there were more than half as many again examined as there were teachers employed during the year, 48 per cent, or nearly one-half, failed to pass the examination ; from which may be argued au excess of candidates for teachers’ positions, and a rigid examination. In New Jersey 37 J per cent, or about 3 out of every 8, failed, and in Michigan 35-3 per cent, more than one-third. On the other hand, in Tennessee only G per cent of those examined were refused certificates, and in Nebraska 11 per cent. The average of 15 States, of which only 3 are Southern, is 26-4 per cent of failures. Evidently in these States considerable discrimination is exercised in the selection of teachers. A comparison of the whole number of certificates issued willi the number of different persons who received certificates, in Tennessee, Ohio, and Iowa, shows numbers of persons who received more than one certificate; this is especially noticeable in Iowa. so EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 13. — Facts relating to the education, previous experience, and continuous service of teachers. Whole number of different teachers (from Table 10). Teachers graduates of institutions. higher Teachers with¬ out previous Continued in the same position throughout the year. State. Of normal schools. Of colleges or universities. experience (beginners). Num¬ ber. Per cent. Num¬ ber. Per cent, j Num¬ ber. Per cent. N um - her. Per cent. 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 § 9 29 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 7,686 756 9 -8 1, 398 506 18 ‘2 2, 123 27 -6 Few U amp shire . 3, 104 16-3 Vermont . 4, 351 482 11 T Massachusetts . 10,965 3 267 29 -8 Rhode Island . 1,432 458 32-0 80 5 -6 142 9-9 New Jersey . 4, 781 «426 a 8 -9 660 b 14-2 Pennsylvania . . 25, 339 2, 870 11-3 284 IT 3, 878 15-3 South Atlantic Division : AVest ATirginia. . 5, 747 1,462 25*4 South Central Division : Kentucky (1890-91) . . North Centra] Division : Michigan . 9, 161 16, 100 1, 671 18. -2 2,515 15 -6 * AVisconsin . 12,355 620 5 -0 Minnesota . 9,265 1, 065 11 -5 545 5 -9 4, 459 48-1 Iowa . 27,253 1 14,345 a 277 ol-0 cl, 249 4-6 d 3, 562 1, 645 j d 12 -0 Missouri . 11 -5 Kansas . 11,888 754 3,127 26 -3 W estern Division : Montana . . 135 17 -9 California . 5,891 1, 516 25-7 1 a From the State IS ormal school only. b Of those reported. c Including graduates of private normal and denominational schools classed in the State report as “ higher.” d Of the applicants for certificates (29,754). In Table 13 certain facts relating to the education, previous experi¬ ence, and continuity of service of teachers have been collected. Much of the information given on these subjects in the different State reports lacks uniformity and can not be collected in any one table. So far as the information extends, however, the percentage of normal graduates (Column 4) ranges from 32 per cent in Ehode Island and 29*8 in Massachusetts to 5 per cent in Wisconsin. In Iowa, as in New Jersey, only the graduates of the State normal school are given. Three States show a percentage of college graduates (Column 6) of 5*6, 5-9, and 4-6, respectively, while Pennsylvania has only IT per cent. Probably there is some diversity of standards lurking here. Rhode Island reports the number who have received a u college educa- cation,” which in the absence of any explanation may be inferred to mean the number who have graduated; otherwise the term is an indefi¬ nite one and might embrace those who have attended college only a brief period. Experience. — The number of beginners, or wholly inexperienced teach¬ ers, is an important item to know. This is given for 11 States in col- imn 7. It ranges from 9*9 per cent in Ehode Island to 26*3 per cent n Kansas. This percentage may be taken as some indication of the efficiency and standing of the schools. Inexperience generally implies >oor teaching, Avliatever may be the native undeveloped talent of the eacher. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 61 The 660 given as “beginners” in Neiv Jersey (Column 7) are those who had been “teaching one year or less” at the close of the year. The New Jersey records of the experience and terms of service are almost the only consolidated statistics that exist upon this subject, and are, therefore, of peculiar value. Some of the results are as follows : Total experience of New Jersey teachers, including the current year (1891-92). In the State (cities in¬ cluded). Per cent of total classified. In the cities only. Percent of city total. Have taught 1 year or less . 660 14 -2 241 30 T Between 1 and. 5 years . . 1,491 32 T 640 26 -9 Between 5 and 10 years . 1,067 23 -0 594 24-9 Between 10 and 15 years . 637 13 -7 372 15 '6 Between 15 and 20 years . . 391 8 -4 263 11 -o Between 20 and 25 years . 217 •4-7 150 6 3 Over 25 years . 181 3-9 123 5 ‘2 Total classified . 4, 644 ! . 2, 383 9 yrs. 5 mos. Average time of service 7 yrs. 8mos. | . It will be seen that 30*7 per cent of all the teachers in the State reported have taught 10 years or over. In the cities 38«1 per cent have taught 10 years or over. In the country schools, taken separately, the average time of service was 5 years, 9 months. The longest time of service of any one teacher varied in the different counties from 13 to 51 years, the latter being the longest time of service of any teacher in the State. Term of service of Prussian teachers. — The term of service of teachers in the people’s schools of Prussia exceeds considerably that of teachers in the United States, as will appear from the following table, compiled from d ata given in Die Vo Ihsschulen im preussisclien Staate im J ahre 1891 : Total experience of teachers in the Volhsschulen of Prussia.1 Male teachers. Per cent of whole number of males. Female teachers. Per cent of whole number of females. Males and females. Per cent of total. Have taught 3 year or less . . . 2, 773 4-4 548 6 '5 3, 321 4-7 Between 1 and 5 years . . . 11, 190 12, 954 9, 599 6, 496 5, 333 13, 927 18 1,963 ! 23 -3 13, 153 18 -6 Between 5 and 10 years . . . 20 -8 2, 131 25 '3 15, 085 11,366 21 -3 Between 10 and 15 years . 15 4 1,767 983 21 16 T Between 15 and 20 ye$.rs . 10 '4 11 -G • 7, 479 5, 844 14, 463 10 -6 Between 20 and 25 years . 8 -6 511 6 8-3 Chrer 25 years . . 22 -4 536 6-3 20 -4 Total . 62, 272 100 8,439 100 70,711 100 1 Includes only fully employed ( vollbeschdftigte ) teachers. It may be seen from the table that 55*4 per cent of the whole number of teachers in the Prussian Volhsschulen have served ten years and upward. This is nearly twice the percentage of New Jersey. The per cent who have served twenty-five years and upwards (20*4 per cent) is more than five times that of New Jersey. The beginners, or those who have taught one year or less, form only 4-7 per cent of the whole. 62 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 14. — Superintendents’ and teachers’ salaries . State or Territory. Salary of State super¬ intend¬ ent. Salaries or compensation of county superintend¬ ents. Average monthly salaries of teachers. Maxi¬ mum. Mini- mum. j Aver¬ age. Males. Increase or decrease. Females. Increase or decrease. * 4 5 (s 7 J $ 9 $45. 48 I .. . $1.17 $37. 56 I . .$0. 64 . 57. 65 I .. . 2. 01 39.30 D. . .25 ! 31.41 I . . .83 I 30. 40 I . . .51 1 39. 00 1 .. . 04 32. 81 I . . 2.38 45. 63 I . . 1.40 36. 47 . 1.02 Western Division . 64. 52 I . . 1.61 55. 91 . .82 North AtlanticDivision : ■ I (a) 43. 95 I .. .85 25. 02 D. - . 24 . (a) 48. 02 D. . .97 26. 09 I . . . 20 $‘2, OflO (a) 1 38. 40 I .. . 04 24. 80 1 D. . 72 3 000 la) 134.22 I .. . 16.15 46. 52 D. . 1. 65 (a) 93. 23 I .. 3.69 49. 38 I . . .27 (a) 83. 69 I .. 6.58 39.48 D. . .36 (a) ! 566.11 D. . 1.86 647.32 I . . 2. 49 New Jersey . 3^ 000 $1,300 $800 $1,072 77.25 I .. .87 43. 54 D. . .86 4 000 cd 2, 000 cl, 000 42. 15 ! I .. 1. 56 31.41 I . . . 51 South Atlantic Division : ........ 6e36. CO be 34. 08 . 1, 500 398 1,059 j 649. 80 I .. .78 6 40. 04 I . . .62 District of Columbia . 3, 300 6110. 70 I / 4. 40 6 68. 40 I . / 2.70 Virginia . 2, 000 740 200 | 418 31.93 I .. . .53 26. 83 I . .20 West Virginia 1,500 300 150 248 North Carolina. _ _ _ 933 5 199 25.21 I .. . 1.21 21. 80 I . . .37 South Carolina . 2, 100 624 450 587 28. 05 I .. . .43 23. 92 I . . .51 Georgia 2, 000 900 24 296 Florida 1,200 52 599 , South Central Division : Kentucky . . 2, 500 1, 500 92 557 j 37. 72 23. 86 Tennessee . - j 2, 000 3, 800 35 333 i 632.83 D. . .48 6 27. 82 D. . .46 Alabama ...... _ ... 1 2, 250 Mississippi . 2, 000 c 800 c 150 1 6(730. 05 I . . 1.05 6 g21. 23 ; D . 54 Louisiana . 2, 000 2.600 50 252 p 35. 03 I . . .68 731.61 I . . .64 Texas . 3, 750 c 1, 000 53. 25 D. . .93 45.10 I . . 7.98 Arkansas . (a) 36.27 I . . 1. 15 32. 80 I . . . 62 Oklahoma . . [ 1, 200 h 500 34. 20 D. 1. 10 32.90 I . . . 60 North Central Division: j . Ohio (a) 42. 19 I . 1. 81 35. 69 I . 3. 07 Indiana . 46. 00 I . . 2.20 40.20 I . . 2.20 Illinois . 5. 744 701 1, 290 56. 92 I . . 1. 37 46. 06 I . . 75 Michigan . 2, 000 l’ 500 150 756 47.72 I . . .49 34. 15 I . . .88 Wisconsin _ _ ...... 1, 200 50. 36 I . . 1. 11 32. 28 I . . 72 Minnesota . 2, 500 2, 000 20 816 48. 28 I . . 2.66 34.58 I . .41 Iowa . 1,500 342 1, 177 37. 76 1 . . 22 30. 78 I . .26 Missouri .. cl, 000 c 200 45. 2S 40. 72 North Dakota . 2, 000 1, 200 100 646 43.31 I .. . .98 34. 26 D. . .08 South Dakota. . . , c i 1. 500 Nebraska . i 1,800 i 50 j i 862 45. 20 I .. .39 39. 20 | D. . 10 Kansas . .... c 1, 200 42. 15 I .. 1. 47 35. 42 ! 1 . 1. 17 Western Division : Montana . 1,200 1 Wyoming . Colorado . . 3, 000 ! 64. 70 I . . . 2.07 53. 51 1 . . 1.10 New Mexico . 2, 000 Arizona . 1,200 p300 6 85. 82 6 73. 15 Utah . . 1, 500 68. 13 I . . 12.08 42. 95 I . . 5. 22 Nevada . 2, 000 103. 38 D. . 81 64. 79 1 . . . 19 Idaho . Washington . 2, 500 i 3, 149 i 79 i 1, 014 52.17 D. . .12 45. 78 I . . 3.62 Oregon . 1,800 1,800 100 542 50. 04 D . .04 41.91 D. . .52 California . 3, 0C0 4, 500 100 1,497 82. 96 I .. . .85 66. 12 D. . .36 *Tkeso summaries include only the States tab¬ ulated in the same columns below , a No county supervision. 6 Estimated. c Statutory limit: actual amounts paid are not reported. d School hoards may vote a higher salarv. cln 1889-90. /Average for two years. g In 1890-91 . h Uniform in all counties. i Total compensation. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 63 Table XV. — Schoolhouses and value of school property. State or Territory. United States - North Atlantic Division South Atlantic Division.. South Central Division. . North Central Division ... Western Division . North Atlantic Division : Maine . . New Hampshire . . Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New York.. . New Jersey . . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division: Delaware (6) . Maryland . District of Columbia Virginia.. . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . . Georgia . Elorida . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama (b) . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . . . ... Arkansas . . — Oklahoma . North Central Division : Ohio . . Indiana . — Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . Minnesota... . Iowa . Missouri . North Dakota . South Dakota . . Nebraska . Kansas . Western Division : Montana . Wyoming . Colorado. . New Mexico . . — Arizona (c) . . . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . Washington . . Oregon . . . California . ! Number of school- houses. Increase or decrease. Number built during the year. Value of same. j Average value of same. Value of all school ; property. o 3 I 5 G 7 229, 118 I. 4, G5G $382, 457, 1G7 1 . 4G, 276 I. 31G 144, 743, 112 1 33,' 815 I. 905 18, 609, 574 i 40,110 I. 1, 377 17, 496, 879 98, 503 I. 1, 204 169, 510, 683 [ 10,414 I. 854 32, 096, 919 4, 348 I. 30 I 53 $62,302 $1, 074 3, 803, 970 2,073 D 2 1 2, 960. 693 a 2, 524 I. 100 i 1, 298, 005 a 7, 336 I. 97 28, 500, 000 490 D 1 3,-271, 186 1, 633 D 17 6 7, 237. 001 12, 017 D 55 47, 064, 407 L 688 I. 19 10, 004, 236 14, 167 I. 145 40,603,614 I. c 2 836, 749 a 2, 263 I. 27 c 5, 230, 000 105 I. 7 c2, 713, 0C0 G, 595 I. . 86 2, 763, 637 5,004 I. . 105 192 2, 741, 234 6, 160 I. . 347 892, 364 3, 614 1 I- . 104 cZ95 41, 861 441 485,534 al, 254 ! I.. . 207 c 2, 310, OOo a 2, 368 ! I 20 637, 056 el, 703 I., . 218 / 4, 094, 504 6, 885 i I I. 256 I 3, 211, 00o a G, 495 I. . 318 c 1, 120, 000 G, 201 I. . 130 1, 400, 490 a 2, 641 I. . 140 c 6S0, OOO G, 941 396 294,215 743 5, 439, 618 2, 98G I. . 250 d 172 97, 347 566 . 1,485,071 258 I. 65 66, 196 12, 825 I. 11 354 1, 645, 412 4, G48 34, 527, 816 9, 873 I. . 72 243 513, 577 2,113 16, 777, 504 12, 372 I. . 59 244 3, 148 30, 679, 868 7, 666 I. 50 15, 248, 703 6, 570 I. . 362 10, 224, 926 G, 265 I. . 230 249 784, 077 10, 728, 633 1 3, 275 I. . 146 13, 800, 152 a 9, 465 D . 24G ] 13, 774, 860 1. 584 I. . 101 i 2, 423; 286 3^ 253 I. 53 1 2, 562, 600 G, 234 I. . 349 8, 058, 627 9, 121 I. . 17 179 151, 620 847 10, 703, 708 422 I. 37 1 , 569, 356 226 I. c 316, 000 1, 378 I. 93 5, 441, 908 a 548 I. 96 c 195, 000 130 i . 361, 600 ag 618 I. . 104 1 1. 457, 966 153 I. 5 . 1 ' 292,214 491 I. . 101 c 686, 000 1 , 515 I. . 269 4, 088, 645 1,701 I. 88 154 2, 494. 234 3, 232 I. . 58 141 15, 193, 996 ({Number of schools. b In 1890. c Estimated. d Report incomplete. e Also about 200 churches and halls used for schools. /Houses and furniture. g In 1891. 64 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table XYI. — Public secondary education — Private schools. Public secondary education . Private schools . State or Territory. Number of pupils in public high schools or studying secondary branches. Per cent of the whole public school en¬ rollment. Same per¬ centage in 1889-90. i Number of pupils. Total num¬ ber of pupils in both pub¬ lic and private schools. Per cent of pupils in private schools. 1 2 | 3 4 5 6 7 1 1, 299, 600 14, 505, 477 8-96 576, 400 129, 700 170, 900 360, 200 62, 400 3, 755. 004 1, 958, 978 2, 624, 013 5, 490, 444 677, 038 15 -35 6-62 6-51 6-56 9-22 South Central Division* . North Central Division* . North Atlantic Division : 15, 884 7,321 2, 425 27. 482 1,962 a 4, 450 11-62 11 -95 3-71 7T7 3-72 a 3-45 10 -95 11-84 3-71 8-82 3-32 8, 181 7, 857 60, 605 10, 669 21, 477 208, 816 47, 157 69, 452 73, 171 443, 822 63, 406 152, 448 1, 281,909 290, 411 11 -78 10 -74 13 -66 16 -83 14-09 16-28 16 -24 New York . South Atlantic Division: Delaware . [Maryland 5, 052 2,192 8, 545 2-67 5-52 2 ’55 2-43 4-79 2-67 District of ( iolnmbin, 63, 119 6 40, 025 6 7-80 Viro’inia West Virginia . 1 North Carolina . c 26, 198 361, 556 7-25 South Carolina 8,435 4 TO 3-58 Georgia . . . i 25, 243 ' 423, 058 5-97 Florida South Central Division : [Kentucky. . d 5, 600 15, 502 1-44 3-18 d 15. 000 c 45, 428 404, 860 532, 935 3-70 8-53 Tennessee . Alabama Mississippi . . . 23, 688 10, 665 364, 615 150, 898 6 -50 7-07 Louisiana . Texas e 37, 758 4, 545 7T5 1*1 1 6-89 Arkansas . . Oklahoma . . North Central Division: Ohio 38, 581 4-82 4 -58 Indiana Illinois . 21. 836 14, 180 11,022 / 4, 290 2- 70 j 3T7 3- 04 /1-43 2- 25 1 3- 96 3-01 1-30 j 90. 444 26,614 899, 896 474, 081 10 -05 5-61 Michigan . Wisconsin Minnesota : . Iowa . 30,408 23,181 826 540. 238 663, 980 38, 742 5-63 3 -49 2-13 Missouri . North Dakota . . d 1, 500 3-96 j South Dakota . Nebraska 5,779 5, 675 2-28 ! 1-49 2-57 1 Tt Kansas Western Division : Montana . 1, 014 22, 782 4-45 Wvoming . Colorado . 2, 393 3 T2 2-65 New Mexico . 3, 982 28, 279 14-08 Arizona . (J 60 •60 Utah . 10, 934 471 66, 382 7, 632 16-47 6-17 Nevada . Idaho . Washington . 3,419 c 10, 083 21, 001 82, 238 85, 609 259, 107 4-34 11-78 8-10 Oregon . California . 6, 021 2-53 1 -60 * These summaries are estimates embracing all d Estimated by State superintendent, the States composing the divisions respectively. e Number studying either algebra or geometry, a In 1890-91. " " /Includes only pupils in schools under State b In 1889-90. supervision, c Including some students in higher institutions, g Approximately. Table 17. — Receipts of school moneys. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 65 5 b In 1889-90. c Appropriation for colored schools. d United States appropriation. e Expenditure. /In 1890-’ 91. # Report incomplete. Table 17. — Receipts of school moneys — Continued. 66 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. .*>■§§ • 3tll| 1 S S 8*g'g « c5 S31SB8&3S81 83388383SE8 is glllsglllll r oT C"f r* <*S 00 O ! § CN t> ® O 5 < irs co ifi rti* Tt t> in I! IllsSssillls lllliflWll l0»s0lsllll S3 g?g 3 "sgs Total raised by taxation . S88iS88ES3S8 §8818838338 llSiilaSlIll lllSsSSlilg oV C^irT^'co'o'rf t-TofcO rH rH rjT -ee- ^ III! Illl p " SS338s8eS§88 83313831838 © a 1 1 1 1‘» g s g | g " g s s •- a § “ s §f s a I . D. I . I . D. I . I . 1 . I . I . I . I . I . I . I . I . I . D. I . I . I . I . . § 3SSaS33833S8 §3811888338 1 *3 gs'lliWiiiii ifissiiisis I co c4Vh -^T co" CO CO co" rtHB H« -T > sis I? 5-5 s808110iS08_° io 05 irT oo c3 c)Sn 00002§r° = PhQ HH fln. illfW 11 f o oooocos-. ^-iooo HH.O © S- 3 § e . a K * § « a II £ sssslfflllll 00|0003llll | gSSgg piilssi"'f§i 5 :::::: : iff i :.§ : : i g : . 5 Idtt* J *>-•#* I jigllf rlHlJlifil! Ujfij c.s|.i|j g jjiii i si Is sl-a s|i la i i STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 67 Table 18. — The school revenue compared ( 1 ) with the adult male population ( taxpayers ), and (2) ivitli the school population. Percentage analysis of the school revenue. State or Territory North Atlantic Division . . South Atlantic Division . . South Central Division. . . . North Central Division. . . W estern Division . North Atlantic Division : Maine . New Hampshire . Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . . Connecticut . . New York . New Jersey . . . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Delaware (1889- 90) a . Maryland . District of Columbia _ Virginia . West Virginia . North Carolina .... South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama (1889— ’90) Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma . North Central Division Ohio.. . . Indiana . Illinois . . Michigan . Wisconsin . . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . . North Dakota . . South Dakota - - Nebraska . '. . Kansas . . W estern Division : Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . New Mexico . Arizona (1889 Utah . Nevada . Idaho . Washington . Oregon . ’90) Amount raised per taxpayer. Amount raised per 1 capita 1 of the i school popula¬ tion, (5-18 years). Per cent of the total revenue derived from — From perma¬ nent funds and rents. From State taxes. From local taxes. From other sour¬ ces. Total. [Perma¬ nent j funds and rents. State taxes. Local taxes. Other sour¬ ces. 2 3 4 5 6 r 8 9 10 H $0. 46 $1.69 $6.01 $0. 77 $8. 93 $8.17 5-2 18-9 67 -3 8-6 .20' .19 . 59 .70 . 51 1.66 2.09 2. 50 1. 15 2. 20 7.44 2.19 1.33 7.96 6.21 1.00 .23 .34. .86 1.07 10. 30 4. 70 4. 76 10. 67 9. 99 1 -9 41 12-3 6 "5 51 16 T 44-5 1 52-5 10-7 22 -1 72 -2 46-5 27-9 74 -6 62-1 1 9-8 4-9 7- 3 8- 2 10 -7 u.49 2. 10 4. 52 0 7. 11 a 6 "9 29 -6 63 '5 - “ o . 11 . 64 6. 05 .16 6. 96 1 -6 9 -2 86 -9 2 -3 a . 69 .89 5. 42 . 30 7. 30 a 9 -4 12 2 74 -3 4 T .37 0 13. 19 .01 i 13.57 2-7 0 97-2 0-1 . 18 1.04 8. 66 2. 95 J 12.83 1 -4 8-1 67-5 23 -0 .72 1.06 7.05 .94 9.77 7 3 10-9 72 -2 9-6 .15 2. 06 6. 92 1.11 | 10.24 . 1-5 20 T 67 -6 10-8 .32 4. 61 3. 53 0 j 8. 46 3-8 54-5 41-7 0 0 1. 31 7. 21 1. 73 10. 25 0 12-7 70 -4 16 -9 1.26 6. 13 4. 39 0 5.78 21 -8 62 -2 76.0 0 .20 2. 09 : 4.07 .58 6. 94 2 8 30-1 58 -6 8 5 0 c 6. 66 i 6.66 0 13. 32 0 c 50 -0 50 -0 0 .11 2. 21 1.95 .07 4. 34 2 5 50 -8 44-8 1 -9 a. 16 a 1.69 : 5.52 . 65 8. 02 a 2 ‘0 «21-0 68-9 8-1 0 1.83 5 a . 10 .36 2. 29 0 79 -8 a 4 -6 15-6 0 1.88 .24 .02 2. 14 0 87 -5 11-0 1 -5 .44 2. 26 i d. 80 .05 3. 55 12-5 63 -5 d 22 -6 1 -4 .33 .82 4.95 . 06 6.16 1 5-4 13-3 | 80 -3 1-0 .24 ^ 2.82 1 1.87 e . 30 5. 23 4-6 53-9 35-8 c5-7 A0 3. 39 /•7 2 .12 4. 63 8 "5 73*3 /15 -6 2-6 .44 1.43 a . 89 ..01 2. 77 16-0 51-8 a 32 -2 .26 ; 2. 07 1.62 . 54 4. 49 5-9 46-0 36-2 11-9 .19 : 1.09 1. 27 1. 17 3.72 5-1 29-3 34-2 31 4 al.73 a 3. 47 1. 10 .39 6. 69 a 25 *9 a 51 -8 j 16-4 5-9 0 j 1.89 2. 13 .06 4. 08 0 46 ‘4 ! 52-3 1 -3 .15 c. 12 1. 23 .27 1. 77 8-4 c6-7 ! 69 -8 15-1 ;24 s 1.64 8. 52 .40 10.80 2-2 15-3 I 78 -9 3-6 1.06 ; 2.73 4. 79 .77 9.35 11-3 29-2 1 51-2 8-3 .61 j .89 9. 88 .38 11.76 5-2 7-5 84 0 3-3 .49 . 95 7. 06 .54 9.04 5-4 10-5 78 -2 5-9 a. 39 al. 50 6. 92 1.13 9.94 a3-9 a 15-1 69-6 11 -4 a. 95 al. 64 7. 58 1.07 11.24 a 8 -4 a 14 *6 1 67 -4 9-6 .44 0 11. 73 1. 76 13. 93 3 -2 0 84 -2 12-6 1.20 .94 4. 82 .71 7. 67 15 6 12-2 63 -0 9-2 .67 3.26 9. 76 .59 14. 28 4-7 22 -9 68 -3 4-1 a. 77 0 15.21 .40 16. 38 a4 *7 0 92 -9 2-4 a 1.42 .42 5. 86 3.13 10. 83 a 13 -0 3-9 54 -1 29 -0 a. 88 0 9. 43 .92 11.23 a 7 -8 0 84-0 8-2 0 0 6.53 .35 6. 88 0 0 94-9 5 -1 0 0 6. 46 0 6.46 0 0 100 -o 0 .59 0 7. 95 4. 09 12. 63 4-7 0 62 -9 32 -4 0 0 a 2. 39 a 1.54 3. 93 0 0 a 60 -9 a39T 0 ■ .07 6. 36 0 6. 43 0 1-0 j 99 -0 0 0 5. 67 5. 86 .58 12. 11 0 46-8 48 -4 4-8 3.92 .77 5.18 .01 9. 88 39 -7 7-8 52 -4 o-i .39 0 6. 83 .17 7. 39 5-3 0 92 -3 2-4 .26 | 0 7. 39 .18 7. 83 3-3 0 94 -4 2-3 j 1.29 0 6. 89 1. 37 9. 55 13-5 0 72 -1 14 -4 a. 49 5. 06 5.26 . 55 11. 36 a 4 -3 44-6 j 46 -3 4-8 a Estimated. & Appropriations for colored schools, c From U S. Treasury. d In 1889- 90. e In 1890-91. /Report incomplete. 68 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 19. — Progress of school expenditure. State or Territory. United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division.. North Central Division.. Western Division . . North Atlantic Division : Maine . . _ New Hampshire . Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New York . New Jersery . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division : Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia. V irgmia . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . Oklahoma . North Central Division: Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . Minnesota . Iowa . Missouri . North Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . Kansas . Western Division: Montana . Wyoming . Colorado . New Mexico . Arizona . Utah . Nevada . Idaho . Washington . Oregon . California . Total expenditure for common schools. Expended per capita of population. 1870-71. 1879-’80. 1889-’90. 1891-’92. 1870- ’71. 1879- ’80. 1889- ’90. 1891- ’92. 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 $69, 107, 612 $78, 094, 687 $140,506,715 $155, 991, 273 $1. 75 1 $1. 56 $2. 24 $2. 41 29, 796, 835 28, 538, 058 48, 023, 492 52, 496, 544 2. 38 1.97 2. 76 2. 94 3, 781, 581 5, 130, 492 8, 767, 165 10, 678, 680 9, 716, 742 .63 .68 .99 1.06 4, 854, 834 4, 872, 829 12, 370, 243 .73 .55 .97 1.08 28. 430,033 35, 285, 635 62, 823, 563 67, 864, 408 2. 14 2. 03 2. 81 2. 95 2, 244, 329 4,267, 673 •10, 213, 815 13, 543, 336 2. 15 2. 41 3. 37 4. 05 950, 662 1, 067, 991 1, 327, 553 1, 393, 833 1.51 1. 65 2. 01 2.12 418, 545 565, 339 844. 333 • 850, 886 1.30 1.63 2. 24 2. 22 499, 961 446, 217 711,072 738, 058 1.51 1.34 2. 14 2.26 5, 579, 363 4, 983. 900 8, 286, 062 9,315,557 3.73 2. 80 3. 70 4. 03 461, 160 526,112 884, 966 1, 267, 369 2. 05 1. 90 2. 56 3.45 1, 496, 981 1, 408, 375 2, 157, 014 2, 269, 260 2. 74 2. 26 2, 89 2. 94 9, 607, 904 10, 296, 977 17, 543, 880 18, 365, 562 2.17 2. 03 2. 92 3. 05 2, 302, 341 1, 873, 465 3, 340, 190 12, 928, 422 3, 966, 879 2, 48 1. 66 2. 31 2.55 8, 479, 918 7, 369, 682 14, 329, 140 2.36 1.72 2. 46 2. 62 153, 509 207, 281 a 275, 000 a 6275, 000 1 1.21 1.41 1. 63 abl. 63 1, 214, 729 1, 544, 367 1, 910, 663 2, 149, 972 l 1.53 1.65 1. 83 2. 02 373, 535 438, 567 905, 777 964, 070 , 2.77 2. 47 3. 93 3. 73 587, 472 946, 109 1, 604, 509 1, 690. 465 ! .47 .63 .97 .99 577, 719 707, 553 1, 198, 493 1, 408, 065 ( 1.26 1.14 1.57 1.78 177, 498 376. 062 714, 900 760, 991 .16 .27 .44 . 46 275, 688 324j 629 450, 936 483, 698 .38 .33 .39 .41 292, 000 471, 029 1, 190, 354 1, 447, 245 .24 .31 .65 .76 129, 431 114, 895 516, 533 537, 236 .66 .43 1.32 1. 27 a 1, 075, 000 1, 069, 030 2, 140, 678 2, 490, 712 .80 .65 1. 15 1. 30 a 758, 000 744, 180 1,526, 241 1, 687, 058 .59 .48 .86 .92 a 370, 000 a 500, 000 a 890, 000 a6890, 0G0 .36 .40 .59 a&. 59 950, 000 830, 705 1, 109, 575 1, 266, 865 1. 11 .73 .86 .96 531, 834 411, 858 817, 110 1, 004, 741 .71 .44 .73 .87 a 650, 000 a 1,030, 000 3, 178, 300 3, 799, 459 1 . 65 1. 42 1. 59 a 520, 000 287, 056 1, 016, 776 1, 159, 653 ! 1.02 .36 .90 .99 a71, 755 11, 839, 998 a. 71 6, 831, 035 7, 166, 963 10, 602, 238 | 2. 52 i 2. 24 2. 89 3. 19 a 2, 897, 537 6, 656, 542 4, 491,850 5, 245, 218 5, 609, 655 1.70 2. 27 2.39 2. 54 7, 014. 092 11,645, 126 13, 121, 708 2. 57 2. 28 3.04 3.27 2, 840. 740 2, 775, 917 5, 349, 366 3, 801,212 5, 746, 161 2. 33 1.70 2. 55 2. 66 1, 932, 539 2, 177, 023 4, 259, 321 1.79 1.65 2. 25 2. 42 960, 558 1, 328, 429 4, 187, 310 4, 384, 413 2. 06 1.70 3.22 3. 15 3, 269, 190 4, 484, 043 6, 382, 953 7, 056, 222 2. 70 2. 76 3.34 3.61 1, 749, 049 2, 675, 364 5, 434, 262 5, 792, 032 .99 1. 23 2. 03 2. 07 | a,23 , 000 245, 000$ 626, 949 1, 199, 630 3,376,332 803, 253 1, 380, 727 |l. 29 1. 81^ 3.43 3. 65 4. 21 4.11 365, 520 1, 108. 617( 3, 524, 151 2. 61 2. 45( 3. 19 3. 10 904, 323 1, 818, 337 4, 972, 967 4, 346, 767 2.24 1. 83 3. 48 3. 11 a 35, 600 78, 730 364, 084 679, 394 1.62 2.01 2. 76 4. 20 a 7, 000 28, 504 225, 000 216, 555 .71 1.37 3.71 2. 88 67, 395 395, 227 1, 681, 379 1, 981, 635 1.44 2. 03 4.08 4.31 a 4, 900 28, 973 a85, 000 205, 100 . 05 .24 .55 1.28 61, 172 132, 194 181,914 394, 685 a 204, 000 911,010 1.51 3. 05 a 3. 03 all7,t!00 1.28 .92 1.90 3. 85 a 85, 000 220, 245 161, 481 185, 223 1.93 3. 54 3. 53 4. 19 19, 003 38, 411 169, 020 223, 278 1. 17 1.18 2. 00 2. 27 «35, 000 112, 615 307, 031 958, 111 2,391,093 1.30 1. 50 2. 74 5.66 a 160, 000 805, 979 1, 102, 832 1.65 1.76 2. 57 3. 13 1,713,431 2, 864, 571 5, 187, 162 5,443,216 2.93 3.31 4. 29 4. 30 a Approximately. b In 1889-’90. Table 20. — School expenditure. STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 69 iroximately. c In 1889-’90. e One-half the change in 2 years. g Not reported separately, ludes paymentof bonds. d City of Wilmington only. / Report incomplete. Table 20. — School expenditure — Continued. 70 ! 3 o 1 5^ !.S S 1|1 1 s * gw-® pS^Org x bc*3^ ffi 3 £ 3 b 3.11 s'! (5 r® 111 ll. ^ ^ ©.So p=~ o 0.0 ex 'TS oil .2 Sa4 52 2'C 3 Uf ss- |-9 Pi S.S. iUii lipi EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 888 § *Ot><0 05 05 in irt CO lO Tt 00 05 ^ o |PhMmP> gsiiisiiiiii i-isiwri-' IWM mPhWmPw^MHmP S33S£3 E^sfatf 111 l§l§S3§§l£s§ iSillSSEISS co~ rH in n irt tj< -^T vn i-Tco-^ r-J ofi-io sii esiiisggini l’v: s'fllWllilll *■ CQ «H r-T 8 ssss-isgas&a Sgf|5?fSSS|§g £88 M00S iS5$ikg&S383Sg& KNlO^^lXM^OMO CO ^ O iflHHHHHHHp-l ill sssiisiissii iig s§“s" gs|ss|||§ags’ S.S 838.3 ISSI51 asssss is! ii"‘ s glslllllslll r»< ssSIlilgSIS S's'glS^lIil t> eo oo oo cfei'^Teo cfco co * 338 S3S8888SS8SS S S j 05 ; ;???*?& :g88P^°° hhh mhhhmPhhhhhP m p : I . 1 - l ■ D. I . I . M III slllillllSai 1 S3|S3g|SgSSg 3 <& i i S : . 183,207 | 8, 576 19, 262 . 127, 510 71,021 59, 808 I . I . I . I . I . I . I . I . D. I . I . I . I . I . D. I . p : I . I . I . D. I . I . as! 3l3sll3ilgS3 Illllssllls $S* lllilliia'lii |s|s«iss||g » - iH- a " - cl ■ ■ ^ iip sill I! |II!l!Illl!IIIIII|llllllIll a Approximately. b Report STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. 71 Table 21. — ( 1 ) Expenditure per pupil. (2) Percentage analysis of expenditure. ( 3 ) Ex¬ penditure per pupil per day. Average expenditure per pupil (for the whole school year) Per cent of total expen¬ diture devoted to — Average daily expenditure per pupil. State or Territory. For sites, build¬ ings, etc. For sal¬ aries. For other current pur¬ poses. Total. Sites, build¬ ings, etc. Sala¬ ries. Other current pur¬ poses. For sal¬ aries. For all pur¬ poses. 1 i 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 to United States . $3. 45 $11.74 $3.06 $18. 25 Per ct. 18 -9 Per ct. 64-3 Per ct. 16 -8 1 Cents. 8.6 Cents. 13.3 North Atlantic Division .. 5. 44 14. 96 4. 50 24. 90 21 -8 60 T 18 T 8.8 14.7 South Atlantic Division . . 1.09 6.71 .93 8. 73 12 -4 76 ‘8 10 -8 6.3 8.2 South Central Division _ .91 ‘ 6.38 .67 7.96 11-5 80 T 8-4 6.8 8.4 North Central Division . . . 8. 52 12. 90 3. 71 20.13 17-5 64-1 18-4 8.8 13.7 Western Division . 8. 80 19. 77 5. 13 33. 70 26-1 58-7 15 -2 14.2 24.2 North Atlantic Division: Maine . . . 0. 69 a 9. 51 5.26 15. 46 4-4 a 61 -5 34 T a7. 7 12.6 New Hampshire . 2. 82 12. 90 3.83 19. 55 14-4 66 -0 19 6 10. 6 16. 1 Vermont . 2. 32 12. 40 1.66 16. 38 14 -1 75-7 10-2 9.0 11.9 Massachusetts . 7. 65 a 19. 04 6.14 32. 83 23 -3 a 58 -0 18 -7 all. 1 19.2 Rhode Island . 12. 80 17. 84 3.63 34. 27 37 -4 52 T 10 -5 9.2 17.7 Connecticut . 4. 17 17. 22 5.35 26. 74 15-8 64 -4 20-0 9.4 14.7 New York . 6. 55 17. 74 3.30 27. 59 23 -8 64 -3 11 -9 9.5 14.8 New Jersey . 5. 04 16. 40 4.91 26.35 19 T 62 -2 18 -7 8.6 13.9 Pennsylvania . 4. 32 10. 96 64.94 20. 22 21 -4 54 -2 i/24-4 7.1 13.0 South Atlantic Division: Delaware (1889-90) a. . . 1.21 11. 45 1. 33 13.99 8-7 81-8 9-5 6.9 8.4 Maryland . 2. 45 15.41 2. 60 20. 46 12-9 75 -3 12 -7 8.4 11.1 District of Columbia.. 7. 40 19. 70 5. 29 32. 39 22-9 60-8 16 -3 10.6 17.5 Virginia . .85 7. 29 . 95 9. 09 9-4 80-3 10-3 6.2 7.7 West Virginia . 2.16 6. 92 1.92 11.00 19 -6 62 -9 17-5 6. 3 10.0 North Carolina . .40 3.03 .40 3.83 10 -5 79 -2 10-3 4.9 6.1 South Carolina . .16 2. 90 .19 3.25 5-0 89 -4 5-6 4.0 4.4 Georgia . . . 59 5. 57 .02 6. 18 9-6 9(fT 0-3 5.6 5.9 Florida . c. 48 7. 23 .92 8. 63 c5-6 83 -8 10 -6 6.0 7.2 South Central Division : Kentucky . 1. 99 8.25 ( d ) 10. 24 19 -4 80 -6 ( d ) 8.3 10.2 Teunessee . . 54 3.96 .33 4. 83 11 T 82-0 6-9 4.1 5.0 Alabama (in 1889-90) a. .82 3.62 .44 4.88 16-9 74 T 9-0 4.9 6.6 Mississippi . ( d ) 5. 43 .99 6. 42 ( d ) 84-6 15 -4 5.7 6.8 Louisiana . .36 6. 80 3.25 10.41 3 -5 65-3 31-2 6. 5 10.0 Texas . 1.26 9. 20 .84 11. 30 11 -2 81 -4 7-4 8.7 10i7 Arkansas . .88 7. 03 .35 8.26 10-6 85 T 4-3 9.5 11.2 Oklahoma a . 2.<40 6. 43 . 72 9. 55 . 25 T 67-2 7-7 7.1 10.6 North Central Division: Ohio . 3. 23 13.20 4. 58 21.01 15 -4 62-8 2.1-8 8.0 12.7 Indiana . . . 2. 48 10. 64 2. 44 15. 56 16 -0 68-4 15 -6 8.1 11.8 Illinois . 4. 88 14. 10 3. 85 22. 83 21 -4 61 '8 16-8 9. 1 14.7 Michigan . .... 3.10 12. 10 4. 17 19. 37 16-0 62-5 21 -5 7.8 12.4 Wisconsin . 3.20 13.18 3.23 19.61 16-3 67-2 16 -5 8.3 12.4 Minnesota . . 6. 36 19.62 5. 00 30. 98 20-5 63 -3 16 -2 12.9 20.0 Iowa . . . 3.42 14. 26 4.25 i 21.93 15-6 1 65 -0 19-4 9.0 13.9 Missouri . . 2.53 | 8. 86 1.95 13.34 19 -0 66 -4 14-6 7. 2 10.9 North Dakota . 6.60 19.70 1 11.21 | 37.51 17 -6 52 -5 29 -9 16! 8 32:0 South Dakota . a 6. 05 14.97 a 9. 08 30. 10 a 20-1 49-7 a 30 -2 14.9 29.9 Nebraska . 5.59 1 14.63 2.60 22. 82 24 -5 64 -1 11 -4 10.8 16.9 Kansas . . . 1.50 1 12.79 3.87 18. 16 8-3 70 -4 21-3 10.1 ' 14.3 Western Division: Montana . 18.98 21.21 5.28 45. 47 41 -8 46-6 11 -6 14.3 30.7 Wyoming . c2. 00 1 20. 42 13.03 35. 45 c5-6 57 -6 36 -8 17.0 29.5 Colorado . 13. 76 20. 55 7. 03 41.34 33-3 49-7 17 -0 13.7 27.5 New Mexico . . . 2.39 . 7. 38 2. 50 12. 27 19-5 60-2 20 -3 8.2 13.6 Arizona a . 7. 40 22. 37 3.78 33. 55 22 -1 66 -7 11 -2 13.0 19.5 Utah . 10. 95 13. 05 4. 79 28. 79 38-0 45 -3 16-7 8.5 18.8 Nevada . 2. 66 29. 46 3.84 35. 96 7-4 81-9 10-7 19.1 23. 3 ‘ Idaho . 4. 83 14. 77 1.48 21.08 22-9 70 T 7-0 17.1 24.4 Washington . 19. 84 17.40 | 9. 91 47. 15 42 T 36 -9 21-0 16.3 44.2 Oregon . 6. 60 13. 16 1.16 20.92 31 -6 62 -9 5-5 11.7 18.5 California . 4. 57 24.90 4.73 34. 20 13 -4 72 -8 13-8 15.7 21.5 a Approximately. b Includes payments on bonded debt. c Report incomplete. d Hot imported separately. CHAPTER III. EDUCATION IN FRANCE.1 I. Brief View of the Educational Systems and Operations IN 1892. France, Republic. — Area, 204,092 square miles. Population (actual) April 12, 1891, 38,095,156; domiciled, or legal, 38,343,192. Civil divisions. — For purposes of civil government France is divided into eighty- six departments (90 if Algiers -be included), each having its local legislative assembly, which is formed by election. The departments are subdivided into arrondissements, and these into cantons. The smallest civil divisions comprised within the cantons are communes. No complete report of education in France has been published since 1888, but official statistics of recent date give the following particulars: Number of students inscribed in 1892 in the state faculties (corres¬ ponding to university students in other countries), 22,516; in the private falculties ( facultes Ubres ), 988; in the public secondary school for boys ( lycees , and colleges communaux ), 85,291; in private secondary schools for boys, 89,566; in public secondary schools for girls ( lycees , colleges , and cours secondaires ), in 1891, 11,645. The enrollment in primary schools, public and private (the latter chiefly clerical), in 1891-92 was 5,556,470 pupils (2,805,849 boys, 2,750,621 girls). The total is 37,413 less than that for the previous year. Public schools comprised 77.2 per cent of the total, as against 78.3 per cent in 1890-91. Furthermore it appears that 72 per cent of the pupils were in schools under lay as against 28 per cent under clerical teachers.2 The teaching force of the public primaries in 1892 comprised 142,660 persons. The enrollment in infant schools ( Ecoles Maternelles ages 2 to 6 years) in 1891 was 709,579 (public 465,333 ; private 244,246). To summarize, disregarding dates, the total of university students was 23,504, or one for every 1,621 inhabitants, of secondary students (boys), 174,856, or one for every 218 inhabitants. The enrollment in primary schools exclusive of infant schools, i. e., 5,556,470, was equal to 14.58 per cent of the actual population as against 14.57 per cent in 1888. The state appropriation for education in 1893 amounted to $32,899,943, about 73 per cent being for primary education. The appro¬ priation from state, departments and communes for public primary schools in 1892 was $32,424,000, an increase of 60 per cent over 1872. xBy A. Tolman Smith, specialist in English and French school systems. 2For the statistics of primary schools the office is indebted to M. E. Levasseur, chairman of the “ Commission de statistique de l’enseignement primaire.” 73 74 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The administration and control of public education and the super¬ vision of private schools are functions of the central government con¬ fided to a department, whose chief, the minister of public instruction, fine arts, and worship, is a cabinet officer.1 Scholastic institutions are grouped in three classes — superior, second¬ ary, primary — to each of which corresponds a subdivision of the depart¬ ment of education named, respectively, the department of superior instruction, the department of secondary instruction, the department of primary instruction. At the head of each of these divisions is a director, who is appointed by reason of special qualification for the duties of the position and is not, as a rule, disturbed by political changes.2 The work of administration and supervision employs a large body of officials, who are appointed by the minister, or by the Presi¬ dent of the Eepublic upon the recommendation of the minister. They belong either to the central administration or to the local divisions (academies), seventeen in number, including one in Algiers. Each academie forms a scholastic unit, whose chief ( recteur ) is the official head of all the teaching institutions located within its bounds. The possession of a doctor’s degree is an essential qualification for the rectorship. The ninety departments (districts of civil administration) are treated as subdivisions of the academies in respect to educational affairs, the prefects of departments having a measure of control over primary and normal schools. The supervision of secondary instruction is intrusted to general inspec¬ tors, at present ten in number, and that of primary instruction to a graded series of inspectors, (1) general inspectors, including nine assigned to par¬ ticular sections of the country, several assigned to the oversight of special branches of study, and general inspectresses of infant schools. These officials report directly to the minister as to the manner in which the educational law is carried out. (2) Academic inspectors (inspecteurs d? academies), one for each department, who are subordinate to the rec¬ tors. They have the general direction of primary schools, conduct exam¬ inations for teachers’ certificates, appoint all teachers on probation, and name the candidates from whom the prefects of departments may appoint full teachers. (3) Primary inspectors, at present about 450 in number, or one for every 150 primary schools. They inspect the work of individual schools, and report to the academic inspector. (4) Med¬ ical inspectors, whose duties include the examination of children with respect to their physical condition and of sites and buildings with respect to sanitary particulars. There are also inspectresses of board - 1 M. L6on Bourgeois, who assumed the office March 17, 1890, was succeeded, Jan¬ uary 11, 1893, by M. Charles Dupuy. He held the office till April 4, 1893, -at which date M. Poincar6 was appointed. 2 The present incumbents are M. Louis Liard, director of superior instruction; M. Rabier, of secondary; M. F. Buisson, of primary. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 75 ing schools for girls. Ifc should be observed that all these officials must have access also to private schools. The several classes of officials named constitute the executive branch of the ministry. The link between this and the scholastic work is fur¬ nished by the councils. These are composed of members elected by their peers from the body of professors, instructors, and teachers, and of a certain proportion of appointed members. The superior council, whose seat is at Paris, deliberates upon all projects of school law, curricula, creation of chairs, nominations to professorships, estimates of expenditure, text-books, applications for the privilege of conducting private schools, and in general upon matters submitted by the minis¬ ter, whose action is determined largely by the judgment of the council. This body has also a final jurisdiction in cases of contention and dis¬ cipline appealed from inferior councils. The members of the superior council are generally men of distinction as professors, teachers, authors, or administrators. The academic rectors have the. advice of academic councils composed of inspecteurs (P academies, professors, and teachers; finally, the prefects are assisted by departmental councils. These sev¬ eral councils save the work of public education to some degree at least, from the mechanical routine which is one danger of a highly central¬ ized system. The control of the public scholastic work i.s completed by the organi¬ zation of the teaching service and the imposition of official programmes. All professors and teachers of public institutions are employes of the state; their qualifications, tenure, and discipline are fixed by law, or by ministerial decree; their salaries are paid by the state; all pro¬ fessors must be university graduates. University professors ( profes - seurs des facultes), who" must have the doctor’s degree, are appointed by the President of the Republic ; assistant professors of faculties and professors of secondary schools, by the minister of public instruction. The appointment of primary teachers, as before stated, lies with the academic inspectors and the prefect. So far, the system would seem to be entirely removed from the sympathies and the active participation of the people. As regards primary schools, however, the people are enlisted in sev¬ eral ways. The law (1833) makes it obligatory upon every commune to establish a public school, which under the law of June 16, 1881, must be a free school and, under laws of 1882 and 1886, secular and taught by a lay teacher. A commune, it must be remembered, is the sim¬ plest civil division in France. Its local affairs are controlled by a council, and a mayor chosen from the members of the same. A com¬ mune may have less than 20 inhabitants; it may be a populous city. Paris, indeed, is a commune, although differing somewhat from others in its form off local government. Large or small, the commune must establish a free primary school, provide the site and building and a proportion of the current expenditure; not only so, but every com- 76 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. mune of more tlian 500 inhabitants must have a separate school for girls (laws of March 15, 1850, and April 10, 1867). But although the law is imperative, the Republic is wary, and since many communes are too small and too poor to obey the law, and others require stimulating, the state has been exceedingly liberal with subsi¬ dies to help in the initial steps. The subsidies and advances for this purpose only amounted in the decade 1878-1888 to $105,000,000. In order that the communes should perform their part, provision must be made for concerted action. Hence, the departmental councils ap¬ point delegates to confer with the communal authorities and with the primary inspectors as to sites, buildings, material, etc. The mayors of communes have free access to the schools at all times; their duties and those of the delegates are much like those of our district school com¬ mittees, excepting that they have no control over teachers or pro¬ grammes. It is incumbent also upon communes to maintain funds (caisses des ecoles ) for the assistance of indigent pupils. Although the law (March 28, 1882) obliges parents to secure the instruction of their children, they can make choice of the means, i. e., public schools, private schools, home tuition. As the state intends that public schools shall be nurseries of patriot¬ ism, there is a powerful motive for making them attractive. II. State Faculties. A. Proposed transformation-: Movement toward decentralization, resulting in project of law for transforming the faculties into universities — Superior institutions, i. e., special schools, not affected by the proposed law — Origin, classification, and purposes of the faculties by imperial decree, 1802 — Number and location of the original facul¬ ties — Subordination of the faculties to the university chief — The university, its antecedents and spirit — Reference to reactionary movenfents, 1815-1870 — The Repub¬ lic pledged to reform the faculties by law of 1875 — Condition of the faculties in 1875, as set forth in the debate upon the law — Delay in carrying out the order, and practi¬ cal reforms preceding legislation — Chief provisions of the proposed law — Adherence to a French type; characteristics of the same — Measures for securing. B. Development of teaching functions : Destructive work of the revolution — Special schools for medical instruction and for advanced instruction in arts and sciences; adapta¬ tion to practical demands — Absence of teaching facilities in the faculties; Paris the only exception — Spirit of freedom, active after the fall of Napoleon, develops a new ideal of a university professor — New agencies introduced for the ivork of teaching — Multiplication of special teaching professors, provision of buildings and material appliances, and increase of funds under the Republic — Effect of these measures in attracting students — Spirit of solidarity fostered by students’ associations — Citation from M. Lavisse. A. — Proposed Transformation. In the province of elementary education the communes, through their control of the school tax, have a check upon the central authority. In the two higher departments of education there is a steady movement toward decentralization. 1 1 This movement as it affects secondary schools, i. e. lycees and communal colleges, was considered in the Commissioner’s Report for 1889-’90, pp. 104-124. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 77 In the department of superior instruction the reaction against abso¬ lute control has culminated in a project of law for the transformation of the faculties into independent universities. This project, submitted in 1890 by M. Bourgeois, then minister of public instruction, is still before the Chambers. To comprehend its scope and bearings it is necessary to have in mind the form in which higher education is now maintained in France and the conditions from which this form has arisen. The institutions for higher education are faculties and special schools,1 the latter, with few exceptions, created by the Revolutionary leaders or formed after their models. The proposed law relates to the faculties only. These are groups of professors appointed by the President of the Republic in advice with tbe minister of public instruction, to maintain advanced instruction and to examine for and confer degrees. 1 The special schools which are under the exclusive control of the minister of public instruction and fine arts are the College de France , Museum d’ Histoire Naturelle, Fcole Normale Superieure, Fcole Frangaise de Rome, Fcole Frangaise d’ Athencs, Fcole Nationale des Cliartes, Fcole Spe'ciale des Langues Orienlales Vivantes, Fcole Nationale et Speciale des Beaux Arts a Pa,ris, Conservatoire Nationale de Musique et de Declamation. Fcole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. The Fcole Libre des Sciences Pplitiques, at Paris, is a private foundation, which ranks with the highest institutions. The oldest and greatest of the special institutions was founded about 1530 by- Francis the First. When this King, imbued with the spirit of the Renaissance, sought to foster the new learning in his own Kingdom his project found no favor at the University of Paris. Hence a new institution, the College de France. It was spared by the Convention and has enjoyed uninterrupted progress to the present moment. The first professorships here established were those of Greek and Hebrew ; these were soon followed by professorships of mathematics, philosophy, Latin, and rhetoric. From age to age the curriculum of the college has increased with the expan¬ sion of knowledge, and it comprises now forty-one chairs, the latest addition being chairs of the history of economic doctrines, modern philosophy, Assyrian philosophy and archeology, languages and literature of southern Europe, general anatomy, Greek epigraphy and antiquities, and esthetics. The Museum of Natural History, which is at present a school for scientific instruc¬ tion and research, had its origin in the Jardin des Plantes, founded by Louis XIII in 1626. At the request of his chief physician, the King granted letters patent for the establishment of a botanical garden, to be under the charge of the physician and his successors. It was to serve for purposes of research and demonstration. The scheme encountered opposition from the Faculty of Medicine, as the College de France had from the Faculty of Arts, but with the royal favor it prospered. The original purpose was extended little by little, and when Buffon was made intendant (1739) he immediately developed plans for the equipment of a complete scientific establishment of high order. In response to his efforts collections poured in from every part of Europe and representing equally every domain of nature. The genius of Buffon was exercised in the classification of the material and in plans for its suitable display. Before his death, which occurred in 1788, the year preceding the revolution, he had secured additional grounds and buildings and imparted scientific order to the entire work. “The revolution,” says M. Dumont, “ conceived the foundation of great inde¬ pendent institutions, each devoted to a particular branch of science and enjoying absolute freedom.” In accordance with this principle the Museum of Natural His¬ tory was enlarged and endowed with the attributes of a great teaching institution. It was organized under its present name in 1793. Two years later the school of Liv¬ ing Oriental Languages was created, and the Bureau of Longitudes, to which the 78 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-02. Origin , classification and functions; the faculties. — The faculties are of five orders, i. e., of law, medicine, theology, letters, and sciences. They were thus classified in the decree by which they were created, namely, the decree for the general organization of the Imperial University (issued by Napoleon March 17, 1808. A) Observatory of Paris was transferred. Thus, instead of the assemblage of all studies in a common center where they might support and illuminate each other, there was isolation, specialization, and a supreme regard to the practical applications of the sciences. The synthesis of the sciences was, however, provided for in the Institute of France, created in 1796, the year after the Convention was replaced by the Directory. Says M. Duruy: “ The institute appeared as a center of information, of research, of correspondence, the common asylum of the sciences, letters, and arts. Embracing in its extent all the branches of human knowledge formed by the union of all orders of knowledge, and all talents, it was certain to be in time, the crown of the scholas¬ tic edifice, the keystone of the system. ” {U instruction publique et la Revolution, p. 140.) Even here, however, the principle of separation appeared, although, properly enough, in the division into three sections, i. e., physics and mathematics, the moral and political sciences, and literature and the fine arts. The Superior Normal School (ficole Normale Superieure) was definitely organized under a statute of March 30, 1810. The decree creating the Imperial University had, however, included a pensionnat normal, which was intended to be a school for professors — that is, aspirants for appointment in the higher teaching orders. Such is the special function of the Superior Normal School at the present time. A proto¬ type was furnished by the normal school established by the Convention in 1794, but closed the following year. The tendency to separation, so strongly marked during the revolutionary period, and the disposition to extend the province of existing institutions which has char¬ acterized the Republic, are both illustrated in the organization or the Pcole Pratique des Hautes fitudes. In 1868, when M. Duruy, then minister of public instruction, wished to afford stu¬ dents facilities for the practical study of philology and history, he found it impossi¬ ble either to secure or to accommodate all the resources necessary at any one seat of learning. There resulted an institution for which the material equipment of exist¬ ing institutions could be called into servi ce, while special provisions were made for the new department of study. The purpose of the founder is indicated in a single sentence embodied in his report (submitted in 1868), in which the plan of the school is unfolded. “We must not,” he says, “give to the expression practical school its ordinary signification, which implies a school of industrial utility. It is to be taken in the most elevated sense, since the work of the eyes and hands is necessary in these studies to fix and extend the highest and most delicate conceptions of the scien¬ tific spirit. What is chemistry without manipulation? physics and physiology with¬ out experiments? botany without analysis?” In addition to the special schools here considered belonging to the province of the minister of public instruction there are important institutions under the charge of other ministers. Such are the School of Bridges and Roads ( ficole des Ponts et Chaus- se'es) under the minister of public works; the Polytechnic School (ficole Polytech¬ nique), under the minister of war. Detailed accounts of the special schools under the minister of public instruction are to be found in the successive Statistiques de V Enseignement superieur, i. e., 1865- 1876, 1878-1888. ‘The law creating the university was passed May 10, 1806, nearly two years before the organic decree. (See Recueil des lois et re'glements sur V enseignement superieur. Tome I, 1789-1847, pp. 156, 171-88). EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 79 The functions of the faculties as specified in the decree were “ the extension or deepening of science, and the conferring of degrees” (fac- ultes pour les sciences approfondies et la collation des grades). Three degrees were authorized, i. e., bachelor, licencie , and doctor ; these were to be conferred at the end of a public examination, all the conditions of candidature being carefully defined. The fact that a degree was a prerequisite for nearly all civil offices gave great importance to the prerogative of the faculties with respect to conferring these honors. According to M. Breal this was indeed the sole purpose of the faculties of sciences and arts. “Napoleon,” he says, “whose conceptions assumed inevitably a hierarchical and administrative form, would probably never have created faculties of letters and of science, but that it was necessary to have some one to confer the diplomas.”1 The teaching functions of the faculties were specifically defined in regulations issued from time to time, but they had really no practical development under the empire. As regards number there were to be as many groups of faculties as there were academies or local 'divisions of the university. The original purpose contemplated 26 of these divisions, or as many as there were courts of appeal. Only 23 academies were really constituted ; their chief cities became the seats of the faculties and gave to them their distinctive names. Various readjustments of the academic divisions have been made since the fall of Napoleon. By a law of 1854 their number was reduced to 16, subsequently increased to 17 by the addition of Algiers.2 Subordination ; teaching to official orders. — From the nature of the university organization it followed that the faculties had none of the attributes of self-governing bodies; they were subordinate parts of a machinery admirably devised for centralizing the control of education. The inferior rank assigned to the teaching as compared with the administrative orders in the university is plainly shown by a tabular scheme embodied in the organic decree. The officials are arranged in two columns, the first pertaining to administration, the second to instruc¬ tion. The teaching orders begin with the faculties at the tenth rank. A slight form of organization was given to tbe individual faculties in that each had its own dean, appointed, however, by the grand master. The deans are included among the officers of administration, occupying there the ninth rank. The faculties, as we have said, belonged to the academies. Their official chiefs, the intermediaries between them and the grand master, were the academic rectors, who occupied the seventh rank in the administration. Supreme over all is the grand master, who was appointed by the Emperor. In him was vested absolute control of education. If schools were established or instruction given outside 1 Quelques mots sur Vinstruction publiqne en France, p. 328. 2 For the present number and distribution of the faculties, see conspectus, pp. 92-95. 80 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. of the university bounds it must be done by the sanction of the chief.1 Such monopoly and centralization had not been dreamed of by the revolutionary leaders. They had emphasized the rights of man as opposed to the rights of states. Among the rights of man, education2 was included. The state existing for the service of man was to make provision for this universal right. From the subtle conception of the state as the servant of man in this particular to the simpler idea of the state as a supreme authority in the matter, the transition was easy. The revolution had indeed prepared the Way by the suppression of the old universities and colleges which had often in times past resisted the encroachment of tyranny. It is true that immediately after the passage of the decree of suppression (1793) new institutions were au¬ thorized, but time and resources were wanting to give them an abiding form. Such as were actually created, by their very specialization, pre¬ vented the sense of an independent, but common, mission in the progress of humanity. When Napoleon entered upon the scene the need of teaching agencies was pressing. He met it according to the dictates of an imperial will and with an organization which, as the subsequent history proves, was destined to take deep root in the nation. The con¬ centration of power, the hierarchy of officials, the exact prescription of functions, the official programmes, the official degrees and titles of honor which made up the university system were all well calculated to impress a people accustomed to imposing forms in both civil and eccle¬ siastical affairs. The likeness between the university organization and that of the Homan Catholic church has often been pointed out.. Dr. Bucheler says, in a critical exposition . On the one side the most striking feature of this creation of Napoleon appears m this, that to it he gave the right of teaching as a monopoly; hence, to no one else was this privilege allowed, hut every one was forced more or less to receive the in¬ struction of the Universite. Thus education and instruction w’ere made entirely an affair of the state. On the other hand, however, it is noticeable that he left to the Universite as little autonomy as possible; rather its whole constitution was such that neither independence nor individual activity was possible for the teacher hut all w ere brought under one and the same rule. To this end the whole educational sys¬ tem was forced into the net of an administration closely coordinated and welded together after the hierarchy of the Romish church. All and each, school-books and methods, personal affairs and organization were surrendered to a central authority at Paris, the Grand-master and the council of the University of France. — (Schmid’s Encyclopedia, article France, p. 580.) j Reaction against officialism. — In tbe period from tlie fall of Napoleon (1815) to the establishment of the Republic (1870) various projects rela¬ tive to higher education were entertained, but no radical changes were decree of March 17, 1808. By reference to the decree it will be seen that article 3 gave certain privileges to bishops with reference to the clerical seminaries. 2See plans of Talleyrand, Condorcet, andLakanal; also system elaborated by Mira- beau, V Instruction Publique et la Revolution by A. Duruy ; Dictionnaire de Pedagogie et d’ Instruction Primaire by F. Buisson, Part i, Vol. i, articles France, Talleyrand, etc. ; also “Proces-Verbaux du Comite d’ Instruction Publique de la Convention Nationale,” with notes by J. Guillaume. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 81 effected. As regards organization and functions the faculties were sub¬ stantially in 1870 what they had been made in 1808. In 1875, July 12, a law was passed relative to the “ liberty of superior instruction,” which in brief accorded the right of teaching to any person who should conform to very easy requirements. One article of this law provided that at the expiration of a year the Government should present a bill having for its object such reforms in higher education as were seen to be necessary. In the course of the debate M. Paul Bert made the following statement as to the conditions of the faculties with respect to equipments and internal relations : I do not know what words I could use that might give you an exact idea of the buildings in which certain of our faculties of science and of letters are installed. As to other equipments, the collections are miserable. There are no laboratories, the libraries are meager. How can it he otherwise, since even the chairs in our law faculties have on an average only 65 francs ($13) with which to purchase books and heat their halls ? Is it true even that at Paris where everything centers, at Paris, for which it is said we have sacrificed everything else, there are to he found model establishments which make up for the poverty of the provinces? Gen¬ tlemen, it is only necessary to cross to the left hank of the river and behold the condition of these institutions. The condition of the school of medicine has been depicted; the condition of the school of pharmacy has been described, but I believe no one has spoken of the Sorbonne. It suffices to say that the laboratories and col¬ lections of the Sorbonne are installed in buildings that the city purchased, but, see¬ ing their ruined condition, is about to demolish. It may be said, borrowing the severe but authoritative words of Claude Bernard, that the laboratories of Paris are the tombs of savants. Consider the faculties now in respect to organization — the same miserable state. Gentlemen, we have in France forty-three faculties of diverse orders; they are distributed in fifteen or sixteen cities and they comprise each four or five professors charged to cover the whole domain of the sciences and of letters. In the science courses there is scarcely a single student, and few in those of letters. The profes¬ sional faculties alone have followers and are inspired by the presence of interested hearers. The other faculties have no hold upon students, they have scarcely any relation with them ; they have no interest in the increase of their number and there¬ fore in encouraging their attendance. The faculties are isolated. No common pur¬ poses can be developed among the professors of the faculties of letters and of the sciences. In France, save at Paris, in France in the country of Burnouf there is not a chair of philology; in the country of Champollion there is not a chair of epigraphy and of archaeology ; in the country of Cuvier there is not a chair of paleontology. If we consider not the organization only, but the spirit of the instruction, we find even a worse state. As a consequence of the incessant surveillance of officials, every new doctrine, every original idea is proscribed. We follow, and follow to the letter, a phrase in the plan of a university traced by M. de Fontanes (first Grand Master of the university). “It ought to be,” said he, “ a guaranty against theories, pernicious and subversive of the social order.” Urgent as appeared the need of reform the project which the law of 1875 called for was not forthcoming, as we have seen, until 1890. Practical reforms. — As explained by the ministers who presented the measure to the chambers (M. Leon Bourgeois, minister of public instruction, and M. Rouvier, minister of finance) the cause of the delay was the determination of the Government to remedy the evils so ed 92 - 6 82 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. graphically depicted by M. Bert and others, and to impart the spirit and conditions of university life to the existing establishments, before attempting to give them a new form and a new name. In the years that have elapsed since the project of reform was au¬ thorized, buildings and equipments have been supplied at a cost amount¬ ing already in 1887 to $22,195,000, of which the cities bore $9,650,000, and the state the balance.1 The annual appropriations have meanwhile been more than doubled. In 1870 they amounted to no more than $1,152,773; at that time, says M. Fallieres, the faculties very nearly covered their expenses by their receipts. In 1878 the credits for superior instruction had increased by $787,000; from 1878 to 1888 they were doubled; in 1889 they rose to the exact sum of $2,797,071. If from this amount be taken the receipts of the faculties, examination, diploma, and entrance fees, there remain $1,833,500 from the public treasury. It may be added that in 1892 the appropriations for superior instruction amounted to $3,065,718, of which $2,331,999 was for the faculties. The net proceeds from the state for this year can not be given, as no report has been published of the receipts from fees. The increase of the teaching forces has kept pace with the other improvements, as will be shown later. While the internal life of the faculties has thus been enriched and expanded, measures have been maturing for giving them organic unity, civil personality, and autonomy. The advice of the faculties themselves with respect to the proposed law was sought at the outset by a circular letter addressed to them by the minister in order to secure JIn liis decennial report (1877-1887) M. Fallieres refers to the new Sorbonne, since inaugurated with imposing ceremonies, and notes in addition the enlargement of the faculty of medicine at Paris, the construction of the school of pharmacy, the enlarge¬ ment of the museum, and in the departments the following buildings projected or begun : Building for the faculty of medicine, of science and letters at Bordeaux, the faculty of sciences at Toulouse, the faculties of medicine and of science at Lyons, the institution of chemistry in the faculty of science at Nancy, the faculty of science at Clermont, the faculty of medicine at Montpellier, the faculties at Caen, and the schools of Algiers. In addition to the above, he says, the following are nearly ready for operation : “The faculty of science at Rennes, the new faculty of letters at Tou¬ louse, the faculties of justice and of letters, and the scientific departments of the faculties of science and of medicine at Montpellier, the faculties of law and of letters at Lyons, and the departments of the faculty of science at Lille. Of these buildings, those which belong to the domain have been built entirely at the charge of the state; the others, those belonging to the faculties, have been erected at the common expense of the state and the cities, sometimes aided by the departments. * * * The facades of these new buildings indicate the transfor¬ mations which have been wrought in our superior instruction, but in order to become thoroughly informed upon the subject, it is necessary to enter the interior. These palaces, whose exteriors, often beautifully ornamented, serve for the passers-by as a sign of the dignity of science, are, within, veritable studios, arranged and equipped for purposes of instruction and study. But lately, our faculties had only lecture halls ; at present there are everywhere laboratories for. instruction and for researches, cabinets, libraries, study and conference halls; everywhere the labora¬ tories, cabinets, and libraries are furnished.” EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 83 the formal expression of their opinions. The measure is thus the out¬ come of large and varied experience and judgment. The changes which it is designed to effect in the constitution of the faculties are clearly enunciated in the first two articles, to wit: Article I. The universities are public establishments of higher education, whose purpose is instruction and culture by all the sciences (V ensemble des sciences ). u They are civil personalities.” “They are named from the cities in which they are located.” Art. II. A university must comprise at least the four faculties of law, medicine, sciences, and letters; other establishments of superior instruction may also be incor¬ porated with it at the instance of the minister. The remaining articles (thirteen in number) define in detail the scholastic and administrative organization of the universities, the extent and limitation of their powers, the sources and control of their budgets. To the foreign student, the most interesting thing about the scheme is its adherence to an organic type which is essentially French. Two principles nationalized in France by the Bevolution and the Imperial University are conserved in the new ideal, the principle of state respon¬ sibility in education and of the subordination of teaching bodies to civil authorities. To preserve these principles and yet give independ¬ ence to the proposed universities was a delicate problem. Its solution is to be found in the measures proposed for maintaining the relations of the universities to the central administration on the one hand and on the other for transferring certain powers to the universities. These measures may be conveniently considered under three heads, the coun¬ cils, the rectors, the control of finances. The Councils. — Councils, supreme and academic, were a feature of the Imperial University; their functions as determined by the decree of 1808 were deliberative and advisory, and in certain cases judicial. They reflected, however, the will of the central authority, since their members were appointed either by the grand master or by the Emperor. Transformed into representative bodies by subsequent legislation 1 they have largely substituted the professional for the official influence in the conduct of education. The law of February 27, 1880, under which the councils are at present organized, allowed 24 elected mem¬ bers out of a total of 60 in the superior council. Eleven of these elected members are chosen from the faculties. In the academic coun¬ cils each faculty is represented by its dean and one member. Iu the lat¬ ter council all matters pertaining to the local administration of the faculties, i. e., expenses, material appliances, promotions, are consid¬ ered, and the conclusions formed are transmitted by the rectors to the minister of public instruction, who in turn refers them to the superior council. The superior council is, in fact, an advisory body for the JBy a law of March 15, 1850, the superior council comprised 16 elected members upon a total of 27; by a law of February 27, 1880, the elective policy was extended to the academic councils. 84 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. service of the minister, and has also final judgment in certain cases of appeal. Complaint has arisen because the council has no initiative, but simply considers the matters submitted by the minister.1 In reality all matters of importance are thus submitted, and the decrees of the minister respecting programmes, the creation of new faculties and new chairs, the requirements for degrees, etc., voice the matured opinions of this imposing body. In 1885 two important measures were adopted in the interests of the faculties. The first of these, the decree of July 25, revived a right con¬ ferred upon all institutions of public instruction in 1801, but practically nullified as regards the faculties in 1875. This was the right to hold prop¬ erty, to receive gifts, and to manage their own estates. The decree also permitted funds to be given to the faculties by cities, departments, private corporations, and individuals. In order that the faculties should exercise this right the same decree instituted a general council of the faculties of each academie composed ns follows: the rector, president, the deans of the faculties, and two delegates from each faculty elected by their colleagues. Thus, at once, civil personality and organic form were secured. A second decree of the same year (December 28, 1885) carried the work of organization still further. This decree extended the authority of the general council of each group of faculties to all matters pertain¬ ing to the internal conduct of the group, such as the courses and coor¬ dination of studies, estimates of expenditure, the division of common funds, discipline of students, etc. The same decree constituted a coun¬ cil of each faculty composed of the titular or full professors, and an assembly of each comprising full professors and agreges. The council was empowered to administer the affairs of the particu¬ lar faculty in accordance with the laws and decrees and subject to the approval of the academic rector. The assembly deliberates upon the scholastic work of the faculty. The dignity and authority of the dean were confirmed by the decree, but the choice of the dean was virtually given to the faculties, the minister being authorized to make the ap¬ pointment every three years from two lists furnished, the one by the assembly of the individual faculty, the other by the council general of the academic group. Under the proposed law the academic council ceases to have jurisdic¬ tion over the faculties. The general council of a group of faculties becomes the council of the university when the group receives the 1 Says H. Marion : The pedagogical prerogatives of the council, although large, are considered by many people too limited, because the council is merely consulta¬ tive ; its advice is given only when demanded ; because its members have no initia¬ tive; because, in fine, the minister is not obliged to follow the advice he has sought. * * * * In fact, all the ministers of public instruction have always promulgated the projects of decrees and orders submitted to the council in accordance with its decisions. (IS Education clans V Universite, p. 27. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 85 benefit of the law. Subject only to the rulings of the minister in ad¬ vice with the superior council of education and to the legal 'preroga¬ tives of the academic rector, this council becomes the governing body of the university. The academic rector (an appointee, it must be remembered, of the minister of public instruction) will be the administrative head of the university of his district. Nominally his position will be the same as that of the rectors of the ancient universities, although his authority may be less. He will execute the decisions of the university council, which must not conflict with the general laws and decrees. The correlation of all grades of instruction is an essential element of the French ideal of public instruction. It has not been lost sight of in the university project, nor is it left entirely to the superior council, which remains unaffected by the proposed law. The removal of superior instruction from the academic council has already been noted. The unity of scholastic orders thus lost is restored in the local administration by the power granted the rector to convoke at his will the university council, the council general of faculties (not transformed into universities), and the academic council, to deliberate upon the common interests of secondary and superior instruction. (Title n, article 15.) Control of funds. — Absolute control of their own funds is a power which the extreme advocates of decentralization would have vested in the individual universities. This policy is, however, not possible in the French system so long at least as state appropriations are the main dependence of higher education. That this is now the case will readily be seen by examining the financial showings. The present sources of income, as specified in the bill, are private funds belonging to the universities, gifts and bequests of private indi¬ viduals, societies, communes and departments, tuition and examina¬ tion fees, state appropriations. (Title i, article 2.) The income from private property and bequests is as yet a trifling sum; tuition and examination fees, which are turned over to the state treasury, amounted in 1887 (the latest year for which the data are given) to about two fifths the total income. The state contributed then about three-fifths of the income, or $1,354,583 on a total of $2,296,540. The proposed law following the decrees of 1885 already noted vests the control of gifts and legacies in the council of the universities. The receipts from tuition fees and the state appropriations will be managed as heretofore by special agents appointed by the minister of finance. The report of these operations must be submitted each year as a part of the report of the expenditures of the department of public instruction. It should be noted that every organization whose contributions to 86 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. the support of the university are accepted may be represented in the sessions’of the university councils in which the financial affairs and the annual reports upon the state of instruction are discussed. Cities may be represented by their mayors, departments by the presidents of their councils, etc. (Title i, article 12). Thus the sense of a common interest and responsibility is stimulated. Should the pending measure be carried the number of universities will be less than the number of academic divisions, as at least four faculties will be required for organi¬ zation under the law. Each university will be created by a special decree of the council of state, based upon the proposition of the superior council of public instruction. Seven seems to be the largest number of universities that the Government is prepared to recognize. Without going further into the details of this project, which is likely to be much modified during the debate, enough has been said to show that it in no way impairs the authority of the state and the organic unity of the public teaching and administrative services. B.— DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEACHING FUNCTIONS OF THE FACULTIES. It will be interesting at this point to consider the most important change that has taken place in the faculties since their origin; i. e., the development of teaching functions. To understand this portion of their history it will be necessary to go back to the Revolution of 1789. Provision for medical instruction after 1789. — After the suppression of the old universities (1793) the medical profession was the first to make its urgent needs felt. The very next year, 1794, three schools of health ( Ecoles de Sante) were established to prepare health officers ( officiers de Sante ) for the service of hospitals, and especially for mili¬ tary and marine hospitals. Three additional schools of health were created in 1803, and to them all the term faculty was applied by the decree organizing the university (March 17, 1808). The subsequent history of these schools belongs to that of the medical faculties. The necessity of maintaining medical training had also induced indi¬ vidual physicians to open clinics wherever there were hospitals. Around these practical demonstrations there grew up courses of theo¬ retical instruction in anatomy, therapeutics, etc. These courses were gradually developed into schools and brought under official control. In a statute of October 28, 1808, they are referred to “as secondary schools of medicine, henceforth to be termed colleges of medicine,” a title however which seems to have been seldom employed. In 1855 and 1856, apparently under the impulse given by the law of 1850, which favored the liberty of teaching, several medical schools were established, and additions were still made to the number so late as 1889. Thus the existence of schools for practical instruction in medicine side by side with the medical faculties is accounted for. (See prospec¬ tus, pp. 92-95). Despite the deplorable condition of this profession, EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 87 painted by Fourcroy, councilor of state, in 1802, 1 it is evident that even in the decade immediately following the brief rule of the Convention the importance of special medical training had not been wholly ignored. Prior to 1875 none of the schools of medicine had the same rank as the faculties. Of the four years’ course required for graduation three might be taken in the schools, but the fourth year’s enrollment must be in the faculty. Exception should be made of two schools of pharmacy that were authorized to confer the diploma of a pharmacist of the first class. By a decree of July 14, 1875, it was ordered that such of the schools as fulfilled specified conditions should complete the course of medical instructions. Hence the distinction into full-course schools ( Ecoles de plein exercice) and preparatory schools. Provision for letters and science. — The development of advanced courses of instruction in letters and in science, that is, courses of a higher order than those available in the lycees7 whose goal was the bachelor’s degree, followed the same line as the professional courses. Individual cities began the work, maintaining courses in letters and in science according to local demands. By a decree of August 22, 1854, the courses established by cities that were not the seat of faculties were recognized as preparatory schools of science and letters, and the time spent in them was made equivalent to a certain proportion of the faculty course. The fact that by the decree mentioned these schools were assimilated to the preparatory schools of medicine indi¬ cates that they had arisen in part from the increasing demand for scientific knowledge as a preparation for professional studies. This inference is confirmed by the tenor of subsequent regulations as well as by the programmes of the schools.2 They present courses very similar to those of the scientific colleges of our own country. Faculty teaching under the Empire. — The characteristics of the schools as distinguished from the faculties were equipment for practical instruc¬ tion and teaching professors. Events have proved that they were the outcome of a spirit which the faculties themselves could not resist. Under the Empire the teaching functions of the faculties were nec- JSaid Fourcroy : u Since the decree of August 18. 1792, which suppressed the uni¬ versities, the faculties, and the learned societies, there are no more regular guaran¬ ties for physicians and surgeons. Complete anarchy has taken the place of the ancient organization. Those who have learned their art are confounded with those who have not the least notion of it. Almost everywhere licenses are accorded as readily to the one as to the other. The lives of citizens are at the mercy of men as greedy as they are ignorant. The most dangerous empiricism, the most unblushing charlatanism everywhere imposes upon credulity and confidence. No i>roofs of knowledge and ability are required. Those who have studied during the last seven years in the three schools of medicine created by the law of Frimaire, An. in (No¬ vember, 1794), can hardly receive any testimonials whereby they may be distinguished from the pretenders who are encountered everywhere." ( Expose des motifs dn projet de loi sur V exercice de la medecine, Yentose, An. xi, March 1802.) 2 The number and location of these schools (fcoles preparatoires a V enseignement des sciences et des lettres ) are shown in the prospectus, pp. 92-95. 88 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. essarily in abeyance; even if the conditions had been favorable, the number of professors was too small for the work. Outside of Paris 3 professors only were assigned to a faculty of letters and 4 to a fac¬ ulty of science, or not more than 86 professors for the service of lib¬ eral education in the provinces. The degrees which the faculties of letters and of science conferred were sought almost exclusively by teachers of the lycees aspiring to the degree of licencie or of doctor in letters or science; and the courses which these faculties maintained were just sufficient to carry candidates over the interval between the successive examinations, as may be seen from the official programmes.1 The state of the professional faculties was little better; 4 profes¬ sors sufficed for a faculty of law and 8 for a faculty of medicine. The faculties could hardly be said to have even fixed location, for, although the chief cities of the academies were their seats, their examinations were conducted each year at the centers specified by the grand master. Thus everything contributed to foster the purely official character of the faculties and to sever them from the intellectual life of the nation. Paris alone formed an exception. Here the faculty groups comprised a larger number of professors, and for the most part professors who were attached to some one of the special schools. The spirit of the old university was continued by such men as Delille, Luce de Lancival, Delaplace, Boissonnade, in the faculty of letters; Biot, Brongniart, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Thenard, in the faculty of science. New ideal of a faculty professor.— The abdication of Napoleon (April 4, 1814), and the restoration of the Bourbons in the person of Louis XVIII, was followed by a desperate attack upon the university, in which the clergy, many statesmen, eminent writers, and heads of fami¬ lies participated. The assent of the King to a project of decentraliza¬ tion was readily secured and on the 17th of February, 1815, an ordi¬ nance to that effect was promulgated. The sudden return of Napoleon put an end to this effort. In the hundred days of his recovered power, the university was legally restored. Although attacks upon it were renewed after his final overthrow, they accomplished nothing more than the diminution of its power. This particular part of the university history concerns us here solely because the reaction against absolute control proved a great stimulus to professional activity. Says M. Liard : It is at this epoch, however, that our superior instruction, deprived of institutions which would have given it a form adequate to its functions, took on another form that has become its chief glory. At this moment, sustained and inspired by the spirit of liberty, instruction at the Sorbonne became all at once, with Guizot, Cousin, and Villemain, an extraordinary manifestation of the French genius. To this initia¬ tive, to the influence of these models, is due the origin and the persistence of the ideal of a professor of the French faculties.2 1 See arretes determining the courses in these faculties, March 6, 1809, October 31, 1809, etc. ; also statutes of February 16, 1810. 2 Universites et Facultes, p. 9. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 89 M. Taine says : During several years in tlie State chairs at the Sorbonne, M. Guizot, M. Cousin, M. Villemain, lectured freely and with great effect before an attentive and enthusi¬ astic throng upon the highest questions of philosophy, of literature, of history.1 The lectures, which were henceforth a distinguishing feature of the faculty careers, were for the most part delivered before mixed audiences of hearers and students. For students only, there was generally not more than one exercise a week, and this often for no more than four or five months in the year. These special exercises were too few, and the conditions of the public lectures too distracting for the purposes of serious study. Moreover the lecture fervor did not tend to develop in the professors an enthusiasm for continuous and detailed instruction, and for the intimate interchange of questions and explanation which belongs to this work. So late as 1825, the Paris faculty of law advised that professors who gave lessons to students should not take part in the degree examinations, and this position was confirmed by an order from the council in 1829. The order applied also to the faculty of science.2 Although the faculty of law abandoned its position in 1838, declaring that every professor ought to give at least three lessons a week,3 the effect of the order was not easily overcome. New teaching agencies. — The necessity of increasing the personnel of the faculties was not greater than that of infusing into them a new spirit. The beginning was made in 1823 by the reorganization of the Paris Faculty of Medicine. Twenty-three full or titular professors and thirty-six special professors ( agreges ) made up the new body. In 1840, at the instigation of Victor Cousin, Louis Philippe authorized similar reforms in the faculties of law, of letters, and of science. In the report which led to the creation of supplementary courses in the law faculties, M. Cousin said : The agreges of the school of medicine are a class of professors young and full of zeal who represent progress and the spirit of innovation in the school, with, how¬ ever, sufficient guarantees, as the titular professors represent, it may he said, the conservative spirit in science, the maintenance of traditional knowledge, and the authority of doctrines confirmed by experience.4 Through the success of Cousin’s propositions a veritable teaching force was introduced into the faculties. Following this precedent, the Republic has greatly increased the number and importance of special and assistant professors, while enlarging, also, the force of titular pro¬ fessors. In the decennial report for 1877-1887, M. Fallieres, the minister of public instruction, says: Since 1876 practical courses of instruction to the number of 129, and comple¬ mentary courses to the number of 200 have been added, and 201 new professorships created. 1Les Origines de la France Contemporaine — Le Regime Moderne, Tome ii, p. 235. 2 Statistique de V enseignement superieur , 1876, pp. 201, 319. *IMd., p. 202. 4 For reports of M. Cousin and the royal decrees, see Recueil des lois et reglements sur V enseignement superieur. Vol. i, 1789-1847, pp. 838, 846. 90 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The term agrege , applied to a class of special professors, has no exact equivalent in our language. The agreges are appointed by the minister of public instruction from candidates who have gained a doctor’s degree, and have successfully passed a competitive examination (aggre¬ gation) in a special branch of knowledge. They are assigned to the faculties by the minister according to the exigencies of the service. They rank immediately after the professors ; they may take part in the assembly of the faculty (or school), may participate in the degree examinations, replace the professors, in their absence giving the regu¬ lar lectures, and conduct conferences or exercises intended to round out or complete, in detail, the courses of titular professors. (Decree of July 30, 1886.) The agreges are the only class of assistant professors allowed to the faculties of law and of medicine, and in these faculties alone are they found at present, although they may be assigned to the other orders. In the faculties of letters and of science supplementary instruction is confided to maitres de conferences and charges du cours. The distinction between these instructors and the agreges is chiefly that of position. The maitres de conferences provided with the doctor’s degree may be admitted to take part in degree examinations and also to a place in the assembly of the faculties ; the latter is also the privilege of the , charges du cours who have the doctor’s degree, but neither of these two classes of instructors can replace the titular professor. The distinction between the two classes of exercises, i. e., conferences and cours , is thus explained by M. Liard : Complementary courses — this word is plain and expresses well what is meant. These are courses of instruction in subjects that are not taught by the titulary chairs. Thus in a faculty of letters where there is only one chair of philosophy, a course of the history of philosophy would be complementary. The conferences are different; they were established not only for the purpose of enforcing the instruction of the faculties, but especially in order to change the character of the instruction. The word conferences came from the normal school. There instruction never was a monologue of the professor before passive hearers, it was an active colloquy between the teacher and the scholars; the teacher brought his method and his science, the scholars their rough-written drafts and oral statements; something in a word as in the German universities. This intimate, active, living method of instruction, it was desired to introduce into the faculties. Conferences were therefore created, not for the general public, but for the true scholars whom the teachers labored to create.1 Effect of reforms in attracting students. — The great purpose for which all these efforts have been made, i. e., the attraction of students, has not failed. In 1887-’88 the number of students in the faculties was 17,630, an increase of 7,667, or 77 per cent since 1875. With reference to this showing, M. Fallieres says: In this increase there figure two entirely new categories of students — the student of science and the student of letters. No farther back than 1876 these were so few that they were not mentioned. If some were enumerated in former statistics, it does 1 Universites et facnlte's, pp. 53, 54. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 91 not prove that they really studied at the faculties; there were students of law who were compelled, for financial reasons, to enroll themselves in the faculty of letters without being obliged to follow the courses, and there were candidates for licenses who were obliged to enroll themselves in four courses before proceeding to examina¬ tion. At present our 2,358 students of letters and our 1,335 students of sciences are real students — permanent pupils of the faculties. Tlie increase has continued since the date of the report. In 1892 the total number of students in the state faculties was 22,510, of whom 9,837 were at Paris. The total includes 400 women, of whom 258 were French. The statistics for 1893, just published, give a total of 23,397 students — 10,110 at Paris and 13,287 in the provincial centers (Algiers included). The distribution by faculties, Paris and the pro¬ vincial faculties being presented separately, is as follows: Protestant theology, 47 (42)- law, 3,503 (4,707); medicine, 3,634 (2,836) ; sciences, 599 (1,267); letters, 1,230 (1,770); pharmacy, 1,097 (2,665). Two features of this increase deserve attention. In 1887-’88 more than half the whole number of students were at Paris; the excess is now on the side of the provincial groups. The gain in the number of foreign students is noticed with satisfaction by the reporter. The total of these in 1892 was 1,397 ; in 1893 there were 35 more, or a total of 1,432. To recapitulate, the main features of the scholastic organization of the faculties are seen to be general courses under titular professors, complementary courses, and conferences confided to agreges , charges du cours and maitres de conferences. The general courses are either public or closed ( fermes ), that is, for students only. For students also are reserved the complementary courses and conferences. Students are enrolled ( inscrits ) as candidates for degrees. This formality takes place four times a year, the fee for each inscription being 30 francs or 120 francs ($24) per annum. There are, besides, the uniform fee of 10 francs yearly for the use of libraries, and varying fees for laboratories, apparatus, and examinations. In a faculty of science the total tax on a student who should secure the three degrees in the regular course would be 470 francs ($94) ; in a faculty of law for the certificate of capacity and three degrees, 1,955 francs ($391). Numerous scholarships maintained by the state, the departments, and the municipalities are offered for com¬ petitive examinations, the fortunate candidates being. relieved from all, or from a portion, of the fees. The growing sense of solidarity among the students is indicated by the formation of student societies, of which the chief is the Associa¬ tion of Paris Students ( Association generale des facultes et ecoles super- ieures de Paris). By its attitude toward professors, whom it welcomes as honorary members, and by its efforts to secure the representation of alumni in the government of the new universities, the association fosters the idea that a common life, common purposes, and common interests are the essence of a university. 92 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Said M. Lavisse in an address to this association: You have had the happy idea of grouping in your society students and teachers. This little event is not without importance. It is the visible sign of a transforma¬ tion which is taking place under our eyes, and which, in effect, will substitute for the impersonal student and professor, who entertain for each other the cold senti¬ ment that may pass between two abstractions, professors and students living together, knowing each other, speaking together, and cherishing toward each other the sentiments that unite two beings endowed with form, character, and determined spirit.1 From the events here reviewed we may estimate to some degree, at least, the forces that have caused higher education in France to devi¬ ate so widely from the model first presented to the world by the Uni¬ versity of Paris, u commonly called the mother of universities.” University faculties and schools. Conspectus. ACADEMY OP PARIS. At t'aris. Faculty of Protestant theology . . Faculty of law . Facility of medicine . Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . . Superior school of pharmacy . . At Reims. Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy Total . . ACADEMY OP A1X. At Aix. Faculty of law . . Faculty of letters . At Marseilles. Faculty of sciences . Superior school of medicine and pharmacy Total . ACADEMY OF BESANQON. At Besan$on. Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy Total . . . ACADEMY OF BORDEAUX. At Bordeaux. Faculty of law . Faculty of medicine and pharmacy . Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . Total . Personnel, 1888. Titular professors. 1 Agr6ges. Other profess¬ ors and instruct¬ ors. Students, 1892. 6 3 39 23 9 5 3, 612 30 32 2 3, 464 20 18 609 19 24 1, 163 1, 038 11 4 1 12 6 55 121 45 59 1 ... 9, 980 i 8 4 7 288 4 10 49 8 5 57 18 8 191 38 4 30 585 6 2 70 6 3 88 11 6 64 23 ! 11 222 12 4 4 570 23 17 6 722 6 - 8 99 7 14 195 48 21 32 2 1, 586 1 J Etudes et Btudiants, p. 222. Incomplete. EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 93 University faculties and schools. Conspectus — Continued. Personnel, 1888. Titular professors. Agreges. Other profess¬ ors and instruct¬ ors. Students, 1892. ACADEMY OF CAEN. At Caen. Faculty of law . Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy At Rouen. Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy Preparatory school of sciences . . Preparatory school of letters . Total . ACADEMY OF CHAMBERY. At Ohambery . Preparatory school of sciences and letters Total . 9 4 5 . . 12 6 \ 322 6 54 3 173 6 66 101 3 10 58 4 3 ; 31 | a 716 I 10 10 ACADEMY OF CLERMONT. At Clermont. Faculty of sciences .. . . Faculty of letters . Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy Total . ACADEMY OF DIJON. At Dijon. Faculty of law . . . Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . . . Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy Total . ACADEMY OF GRENOBLE. At Grenoble. Faculty of law . Faculty of sciences. . . Faculty of letters . Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy Total . 6 5 12 3 41 5 39 6 81 23 14 161 10 3 6 . 6 . 11 . 33 3 5 208 3 63 4 37 5 60 17 368 8 3 7 260 6 . 4 94 4 . 7 101 12 . 6 81 30 3 24 I 536 ACADEMY OF LILLE. At Lille. Faculty of law . Faculty of medicine and pharmacy Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . At Amiens. Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy At Arras. Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy Total . 9 16 6 6 3 10 13 9 6 12 242 234 110 202 46 a Incomplete. 94 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. VvirersUy faculties and schools. Conspectus — Continued. ACADEMY OF LYONS. At Lyons. Faculty of law . Faculty of medicine and pharmacy . Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . . . Total . ACADEMY OF MONTPELLIER. At Montpellier . Faculty of law . Faculty of medicine . Faculty of sciences . . Faculty of letters . Superior school of pharmacy . Total . ! . . ACADEMY OF NANCY. At Nancy. Faculty of law . Faculty of medicine . . Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . Superior school of pharmacy . Total . ACADEMY OF POITIERS. At Poitiers. Faculty of law . . Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy At Limoges. Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy A t Tours. Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy Total . ACADEMY' OF RENNES. At Rennes. Faculty of law . Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy A t Angers. Preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy At Nantes. Preparatory school of sciences and letters . Superior school of medicine and pharmacy .... Personnel, 1888. Titular professors. I Agreges. Other profess¬ ors and instruct¬ ors. Students, 1892. 10 ! * 3 6 402 26 19 3 784 9 10 142 10 17 165 55 22 1 36 1,493 8 4 7 377 17 17 7 445 5 7 109 4 . 10 115 5 1 4 2 73 39 25 33 | 1, 119 10 3 5 _ ' . 183 16 12 9 178 8 8 120 7 14 111 4 1 5 80 45 i 16 41 672 | .... . 3 6 I 381 6 4 72 5 6 105 11 5 60 12 i 4 94 11 60 £i 3 29 772 10 5 5 282 7 2 65 5 7 95 12 6 151 11 ! 4 107 10 | 18 | 8 168 i 5 i - 1 32 868 Total EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 95 University faculties and schools. Conspectus — Continued. ACADEMY OF TOULOUSE. At Montauban. Faculty of Protestant; theology . At Toulouse. Faculty of law . Faculty of sciences . Faculty of letters . Superior school of medicine and pharmacy Total . ACADEMY OF ALGIERS. At Algiers. Superior school of law . Preparatory schools of— Medicine and pharmacy . Sciences . Letters . Total . Grand total . . Personnel, 1888. Titular professors. Agr6g6s. Other profess¬ ors and instruct¬ ors. Students, 1892. 7 1 59 8 8 7 650 6 9 98 10 7 167 17 8 a 240 48 8 32 1,214 19 1 9 242 10 10 139 6 4 45 6 10 117 31 1 33 543 768 173 500 6 21,723 a In complete. b The slight difference between this total and that given in the text is explained by the fact that the statistics were taken at different dates in the year and also by the omission of a few schools in the table. CHAPTER IV. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRE¬ LAND IN 1892.1 Great Britain and Ireland. Constitutional Monarchy. Total population (census 1891), 37,879,285. SUMMARY OF EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS. Sources of informa¬ tion. Institutions. Date of report. GREAT BRITAIN. England and Wales 1892 Statesman’ s Year Book, 1893. Offici al report 1892 - ’ 93 . Universities : Oxford (23 colleges) . Cambridge (19 colleges) . . Durham (1 college) . Detached colleges (15) . Elementary day schools . Night schools . Training colleges for elementary teachers. Scotland . . 1892 Statesman’s Year Book, 1893. Official report 1892-’93. Universities : Aberdeen (1 college) . Edinburgh (1 college) . Glasgow (1 college) . . St. Andrews (2 colleges) _ Dundee University College.. Elementary day schools . Night schools . . Training colleges for elementary teachers. Ireland . 1892 Statesman’s Year Book, 1893. Official report 1892-’93. Official report 1892. . . Universities : Dublin University (1) . . Belfast, Queen’s college (1)-.. Cork, Queen’s college (1) - Galway, Queen’s college (1) Elementary day schools . Night schools . Training colleges for elementary teachers. Under department of Science and Art : Science schools and classes. . . Art schools and classes . Royal College of Science - National Art Training School (South Kensington). 1892 Registered students or pupils. Number of professors or teachers. Expendi¬ ture. 3,212 b 2, 909 212 7, 607 5, 037, 402 65,561 , 3,957 . ' ! 89 120 I 13 702 99, 291 a $317, 832 a 212, 055 | 39, 919, 145 881 3, 208 2, 140 196 160 681, 080 16, 007 860 .... , 39 95 88 23 22 13, 690 c 207, 048 d 125, 416 | 6,038,754 1,193 422 255 110 815, 972 1,928 674 74 20 17 17 12, 250 | 5,294,329 180, 410 115, 848 294 h l 3, 092, 197 572 . a University, exclusive of the colleges. Whitaker’s Almanac (1893) gives a total of £200,187 as the combined income of 19 Oxford colleges and £305,061 as that of 17 Cambridge colleges. b The number of students given in the Commissioner’s report for 1889-’90, vol. 1, p. 563, is much torinciples are to he considered in teaching language : (a) Tluent and correct speech is to he a matter of supreme importance; it is, however, not to he attained hy memorizing and reciting certain prose pieces, but by inducing the students in every lesson, especially in language lessons, to express their thoughts in complete and connected sentences. (&) With regard to compositions, correctness of form, clearness of expression, distinct arrangement of matter, should he demanded. The aim of this branch is always to enable the student to express, comprehensively^ any matter that he thoroughly understands. The tasks set for the different classes should he well graded, and the subjects treated taken from all the various branches of study, (c) The reading of the students should he partly private, partly public, in class. . For private reading, hooks from the school library are to he chosen. It should comprehend chiefly the master-works of German poets and prose writers, past and present. Especially gifted students may he furnished more plentifully than others. Matter read in class is to he explained with regard to form and con¬ tents. Poetry and prose are to he chosen from the different eras of German literature since Luther, especially the classics. The selection must he made so that the peculiarities of the various writers, and the different aspects of the language are illustrated. A number of the poems thus explained are to he memorized. The readers prescribed for the practice school of the institution should he diligently used; also, the matter contained in the readers used in the schools of the province should he worked over, and suggestions for the further acquisition of literary knowledge offered. Side hy side with the readers of the practice school, in the proper use of which the students are to he instructed, the academic instruction in reading in the normal school grades is to he based upon a special reader. Hisiory. Sec. 21. Grade first. — Two hours. Pictures from the life of the most important civilized nations of antiquity; more extensively the history of the Greeks, (1) the heroic age, (2) the age of the legislators, (3) from the Persian wars to Alexander the Great; the history of the Romans, (1) stories from the time of the Kings, (2) the history of the Republic in biographies, (3) the downfall of the Republic and the first century of imperial Rome. Grade second. — Two hours. Germany and the ancient Germans; their contests with the Romans; the great migration; the age of the Carlovingians (more exten¬ sively the spread of Christianity and Charlemagne) ; history of the great imperial dynasties ; the age of the crusades ; the period from the Crusades to the Reforma¬ tion. Grade third. — Two hours. Brandenburg-Prussian history up to the present time. In connection writh specially fitting events, the history of other European states is to he considered. The instruction in methods of teaching begins in grade first with exercises in con¬ nected narration, is continued in the second grade in connection with trial lessons, and concluded in grade third with the criticism of such lessons. Arithmetic. Sec. 22. Grade First. — Three hours. Numeration and notation. The four funda¬ mental rules in abstract and denominate numbers. Decimal fractions. Common fractions. Simple and compound proportion. Business rules, such as percentage and interest, profit and loss, etc., square and cube root. Grade second. — Three hours. In connection with algebra, proportion. Positive and negative quantities. Simple. equations. The method to be illustrated by model lessons on the subjects taken from the course prescribed for the elementary school. Opportunity should be given to handle the abacus, and other devices used in the lower schools. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 165 Grade third. — One hour. The greatest attention to he given to the teaching of arithmetic. In algebra, equations are continued and logarithms taught. Sugges¬ tions for independent study. Aim : Comprehension of the method, accuracy in solu¬ tion, and independence of thought and action at all times. Geometry. Sec. 23. Grade first. — Two hours. Lines, angles, triangles, parallelograms, and circles. Constructive geometry. Grade second. — Two hours. Equality and similarity of figures. Measuring. Stere¬ ometry. Grade third. — Review of the entire subject and instruction in methodical treat¬ ment in the lower schools. In all three grades the students are exercised in the drawing of geometrical figures on the blackboard. The instruction starts with object teaching, and is to follow a text book. Aim : Clear comprehension of the subject and the method of teaching it. Suggestions for independent study and ability to teach the subjects successfully. Natural history, physics, and chemistry. Sec. 24. Grade first. — Four hours. ( a ) Natural history. Knowledge of selected home plants representing the most common families. Knowledge of systems (Linn6) and the most important parts of botanical morphology. In winter, zoology. (&) Physics. Mechanical, magnetic, and electric phenomena, (c) Chemistry. The sim¬ plest elements and their combinations. The mineralogical side of the subject (inorganic chemistry) to be treated with special attention. Grade second. — Four hours. ( a ) Natural history: Knowledge of the chief forms of seed and spore-plants; the natural system; construction, life, and spread of plants. In winter, continuation of the work in zoology, especially anatomy and physiology of the human body, (b) Physics: The phenomena of light, heat, and sound, (c) Chemistry: Continuation of the course in grade first, with the addition of organic chemistry. Grade third. — Two hours. A general extension of the work of the first two grades with particular attention to the method of instruction, in addition the elements of geology; suggestions for independent study. In all three branches of study the method of teaching is considered of supreme importance; hence, model lessons are to be prepared on paper and given in the class room. It must be the special object of this instruction to find methods for the pre¬ sentation of natural science, which would, even in the lower schools, have an educative influence. Hence, in every case, the instruction should start with object lessons. In physics and chemistry no lessons should be given without experiments, and in nat¬ ural history none without the object, or its pictorial presentation. Pure memory work is to be rigorously excluded. Aim: To enable the students to find their way independently through the three kingdoms of nature, to continue the study of nature, with the aid of good books, and to give objective instruction in natural history and science in the elementary school. Geography. Sec. 25. Grade first. — Two hours. The essentials of home and foreign geography. Systematic knowledge of the earth’s surface. The continents. Reading maps. Grade second. — Two hours. Europe, Germany; mathematical geography. Instruc¬ tion with regard to the method of geographical teaching by means of model lessons on paper and trial lessons in school. Grade third. — One hour. Continued study of methods of teaching, especially those having reference to the application in school of atlases, wall maps, globes, tellurions, and other means and devices. 166 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-96. Drawing. Sec. 26. Grade first. — Two hours. Free-hand drawing: Division of lines and angles. Drawing of geometrical plane figures. Complex symmetrical figures within the square (conventionalized natural forms). Drawing of rectangular and curved bodies from the front. Symmetrical figures and ornaments after models. Instru¬ mental drawing; exercises in ornamental and blackboard drawing. Grade second. — Two hours. Elements of perspective. Free-hand drawing from wooden models and casts, also from natural objects with crayon, India ink, sepia, and other colors, according to the talent of the students. Exercises in blackboard drawing. Grade third. — One hour. Continued practice (especially on the blackboard) in drawing from nature, also objects used for illustration in other lessons. The meth¬ ods of drawing to be discussed and illustrated. Suggestion for farther study. Aim : To enable the students to readily and accurately draw on the blackboard the figures necessary in the various branches of study (geometry, geography, object and language lessons), and to give good instruction in drawing in the lower schools. Penmanship. Sec. 27. Grade first. — Two hours. Grade second. — One hour. Aim : (1) Students shall acquire a fluent, good penman¬ ship, and use it in all written exercises. No negligent writing to be allowed. (2) To enable the students to set a good copy, not only on paper but also on the blackboard, and (3) to give good, methodical instruction in penmanship in the lower schools. Gymnastics. Sec. 28. The instruction in gymnastics is to follow tho new guide prescribed for Prussian elementary schools, but this does not prohibit considerable extension of the course when local circumstances will permit it. Under any circumstances the aim must remain — the ability of the student to give good instruction and training in gymnastics in the public schools according to the published guide. The first and second grades have each two hours per week; the third grade, one hour of practical gymnastics. The latter grade has, in addition, one hour for the necessary instruction concerning anatomy and functions of the human body. The first necessary aids in. case of accident, historical development, aim, organization and management of gymnastic training, as well as the arrangement of gymnastic grounds and apparatus in elementary schools. The students of the third grade must be given opportunity under supervision of the teachers of gymnastics to give lessons in gymnastics in the lower schools. Music. Sec. 29. ( a ) Piano. — In the first grade purely technical exercises in touch and fluency ; some etudes according to a well-reputed text-book ; independent musical pieces in successive order (beginning with easy sonatas, by Clementi) of modern as well as classic composers. In the second grade etudes are continued; by specially gifted students Cramer’s work may be used ; sonatas of classical composers like Mozart, Beethoven, Haydn, and others. In grade first piano playing is reserved for private practice. (&) Church, organ. — The students follow the prescribed book according to the measure of their musical talent and training. Class instruction can not well be given except in regard to a certain number of hymns in the first grade. Analysis and transposition of preludes and interludes, as well as practice in reading at sight and preparation for the functions of an organist in church. For the third grade trans¬ position of hymns, practice in modulation, and composition of simple preludes and interludes. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 167 (c) Harmony. — Students who do not intend to prepare themselves for the position of organist must nevertheless take part in the instruction in harmony prescribed for grade first and in the historical part of the study. Grade first. — Position and practice of the triad in major and minor, seventh and ninth chords, according to their principal forms and combinations. Grade second.—' Confirming knowledge gained in harmony, and constant applica¬ tion of the same in transcribing church hymns, and in analyzing, transposing, and practicing brief organ pieces. Also first course in modulation. Grade third. — Harmonizing hymns and popular airs. Composition of simple pre¬ ludes, composition of interludes worthy of being applied in divine service. Second course in modulation. The scales of the ancients. Knowledge of the most essential forms of instrumental music. Explanation of the construction of organ and its care. A little of the history of music. (d) Violin. — The students are not divided into annual classes, but arranged accord¬ ing to their talent and training in music. Each division is to follow the prescribed text-book for violin playing. Besides the formal exercises found in text-books the following points are to be gained: (1) Simple andmemorized exercises for beginners; popular airs and school songs prescribed for the lower schools; (2) acceptable per¬ formance of duets in systematic arrangement; (3) introduction into the higher positions on th@ violin. (e) Singing. — Grade first in class lessons, elementary exercises in cultivating the voice, and for the purposes of independent presentation of melodic, rhythmic, and dynamic conditions of music. Hymns and popular airs; the former of one part, the latter of one, two, and three parts. Besides mixed choir of combined classes; exer¬ cises in vocalization and solfeggios, a more extensive treatment of intervals, espe¬ cially of the chords in their different forms. Memorizing of popular hymns in two and three part music. Liturgical music : liturgical hymns in which the students must bo able to lead; other religious choruses, such as motets and psalms of classical composers; secular choruses, with particular attention to patriotic songs. Grade third, in a class by itself, is to receive instruction concerning the teaching of singing in the lower schools combined with practical exercises. Mixed choirs are to be combined of the students of the normal school and the pupils of the practice school. The instruction in music aims to make good singing teachers, organists, and choir leaders. This aim should not be lost sight of by undue training of a few students as virtuosos. The students should be trained in the comprehension of classical compositions, and thus be prevented from amateurish performances in composing. In grades first and second, each, five hours per week is to be devoted to music; the seniors have three hours. These hours are to be so divided that each of the subjects previously mentioned shall find a place on the daily programme. Sec. 30. Instruction in foreign languages may be offered in three classes with three or two hours per week to students who desire such instruction ; the lowest grade to begin with elementary grammar of the language studied. Sec. 31. Horticulture, arboriculture, culture of the silkworm shall, as hitherto, find attention in the normal schools of the Kingdom, and be, in a measure, supplemented by instruction in natural history. The institutions hitherto maintained for instruc¬ tion in horticulture and arboriculture shall be continued (school gardens and nurseries). The foregoing is the course of study in the normal schools in Prussia as prescribed by the Government. Of course each school has its own course of study framed and carried out by the faculty of that school, but these separate courses must be in accord with the princi¬ ples expressed in the foregoing course. In order to show what the detailed course of a normal school is, we insert here a small portion of 168 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. tlie course of study prescribed for the normal school in Halberstadt, the institution of which the famous Dr. Kehr was principal for many years. We choose the chapter u History and literature’7 to show how the two subjects are taught so as to supplement one another. Titles in parentheses are those of literary masterpieces. DETAILED COURSE IN HISTORY AND LITERATURE. Grade first. (Selections from literary masterpieces are inclosed in parentheses.) Definition and division of history; First beginnings of states; Oriental life;~Tlie Egyptians; (An Egyptian funeral; The Nile). Geography of Asia Minor and adjoining countries in antiquity ; The Assyrians ; Babylonians; Medes; Cyrus; (Bel¬ shazzar; Nineveh ; Grave of Cyrus). The Persian Empire ; The Phoenicians ; The peo¬ ple of Israel; (Tyrus). Geography of Ancient Greece; Greek islands and colonies; Primitive people; The heroic age; Greek mythology ; Homer; The Dorian invasion; Codrus; (Capture and destruction of Troy; Mythological stories of Ancient Greece; The ring of Polycrates; Cassandra; The festival of victory; Combat between Hec¬ tor and Ajax). The laws of Lycurgus and Solon; Pisistratus; (Athenian education according to the laws of Solon); The Persian wars; Miltiades; Leonidas; Themistocles ; Aris¬ tides; Pausanias; Cimon; (The Persian wars and their consequences; Xerxes and the battle at Thermopyhe ; Themistocles). The Age of Pericles ; The Peloponnesian war; Alcibiades; Socrates; Lysander; (Socrates); The city of Athene during the age of Pericles; Sparta’s predominance; The Corinthian war; Agesilaus; Thebes’ predominance ; Pelopidas ; Epaminondas ; Philip of Macedonia ; Demosthenes ; (Demosthenes). The Empire of Alexander the Great ; Culture and civilization of the Greeks; Youth and education of Alexander ; (Alexander the Great with the Amaliers). Geography of ancient Italy; Tribes; Founding of Rome; Rome under the kings; (Romulus and the founding of Rome). Wars for the preservation of the Republic; Brutus; Horatius Codes; Mucius Scaevola; Internal wars; Menenius Agrippa; Co- riolanus; The Decemvirs ; The Gauls in Rome; Camillus ; The Licinian laws. Wars for the possession of middle and lower Italy; Causes of the Punic wars; (Pyrrhus). The Punic wars; Regulus; Hannibal. The Scipios; (Scipio). The wars of the Romans in the East; The disturbances of the Gracchi; The Cimbrians and Teutons; (Agriculture among the Romans). Marius and Sulla; Pompey and Caesar; Brutus; Octavius; (Julius Ceesar; Roman sceues; Degeneration of morals in Rome)'; Imperial Rome up to Diocletian; Culture and civilization of the Romans; (Condition of morals of the Roman Empire; Charac¬ ter of Augustus; The destruction of Herculanum and Pompeii; The death of Tibe¬ rius). Christ; Christianity during the first three centuries. The Roman Empire from Diocletian to Romulus Augustulus ; Constantine the Great ; Theodosius the Great; General Review. Grade second. Ancient Germany ; Land and people; German tribes; Contests between the Romans and the Germans; Arminius; Germanicus; Union of tribes; Beginning of the great migration; (The religion of the ancient Germans ; Hermann, Germany’s deliverer; death of Drusus; The battle in the Teutoburger forest). The great migration; The Goths; Alaric; Genseric; Attila; Odoacer, (Theodoric the Great; Belisarius and Nar- ses; The Longobards; The grave in the Busento River; Eudoxia; Attila; The bat¬ tle on the Catalaunian fields). Founding of the empire of the Franks; Clovis; The Merovingians; The major domo ; Pepin the Little; Extension of Christianity among Germanic people; Establishment of monasteries; The Feudal, system ; Justinian; TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 169 Mohammed and the Arabian conquests ; (Mohammed and the Islam ; Omar). Charle¬ magne; Louis the Pious; Division of the empire; The Carloviugians in Germany; (Charles the Great ; How Emperor Charles visited schools ; Wittekind’send and grave in Eger; King Karl’s voyage; The Paladine’s battles and fall at Ronncesvalles). Conrad I and the Saxon Emperors; (The coronation of Otto I; Emperor Otto I; Henry the Fowler; Battle with the Huns; Battle on the Lechfield). The Salic-Frankisli Kings; (Election of an emperor). Lothair of Saxony and the Hohenstaufen emperors ; (Barbarossa; Frederick the Reel-beard ; Stories of Emperor Frederick I in the Kyfihauser mountain; Barbarossa and Henry the Lion-hearted; death of Frederick I); The end of the Hohenstaufen s; The interregnum; The first crusade; (The last of the Hohenstaufens; The holy lance of Antiochia; The execution of Conrad III). The other crusades; Time of the greatest power of the popes; The religious orders ; (The time of chivalry). German civilization from the ninth to the thirteenth century; (A picture of cities in the thirteenth century; Pictures from the Middle. Ages). Methods of teaching history; Rudolf of Hapsburg; Adolf of Nassau; Albrecht I; (Rudolf of Hapsburg; Emperor Rudolf’s ride to the grave; The count of Haps¬ burg.) Model and test lessons; Henry VII; Louis the Bavarian and Frederick the Beautiful. Charles IV; Wenzel; Ruprecht of the Palatinate; Sigismuud; John Huss; The war of the Hussites. Albrecht II; Frederick III ; Matthias Corvinus; diaries the Bold; The war of independence of the Swiss; Maximilian; Civilization of the Germans in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ; (Maximilian ; The Martin’s Wall ; William Tell ; The battle at Sempach.) Italy and Spain during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; Introduction to the study of the new era; Discoveries and inventions; Columbus; Gutenberg; Conquests; Cortez and Pizarro; Conquest of Constantinople by the Moslems; (Columbus; The last supper by Leonardo da Vinci.) The church reformation in Germany; Martin Luther; Philip Melanclithon; Zwingli; Calvin;. (Luther’s circular letter to the Burgomasters.) Charles V and his wars; The Schmalkaldian war; Wars of independence of the Dutch; (Duke of Alba at breakfast in the castle of Rudolstadt; The pilgrim of St. Just; Charles V.) Brief history of France up to Henry IV ; Brief history of England up to Elizabeth ; Introduction of the reformation in Scandinavia. Ferdinand I; Maximilian II; Rudolf IT; Matthias; The thirty years’ war; Wallenstein; Gustavus Adolphus; (Wallenstein.) Conditions of civilization and culture during the reformation and the century following it; (German city life at the beginning of the seventeenth century.) Grade 1 liird. Louis XIV ; The Stuarts in England and the two revolutions; Oliver Cromwell; The ascension of the house of Hanover: The Turkish wars; Leopold I; (Prince Eugene before Belgrade). The Spanish war of succession; Poland, Sweden, and Russia before the Northern war; Peter the Great; The Northern war; Charles XII of Sweden; August the Strong of Saxony; The Polish war of succession; The American war of independence; The French revolution; Liberation of Greece; (Alexander Ypsilanti upon Munkacs; The little Hydriot) ; Review. The people of the Margraviate of Brandenburg; The oldest times; Founding of the North Mark; The eras of Charles the Great, Henry I, and Otto I; Margrave Gero; The rulers of the Ascanian dynasty; (The Court of the Ballenstaedter) ; The Margraves of the Bavarian dynasty ; The electors of the Luxemburg dynasty ; The his¬ tory of the Hohenzollerns from their ascension; Frederick I; (The fall of the Quit- zows). The electors; Frederick II; Albrecht Achilles; John Cicero; Joachim I. The introduction of the reformation into Brandenburg; Joachim II; The history of the Prussians up to the year 1525; John George. Joachim Frederick; John Sigismund; George William; Review of the history of Brandenburg up to 1610. (The old Berlin.) 170 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Frederick William the great elector; Frederick III; (Frederick William the great elector; Fehrbellin.) King Frederick I; Frederick William I; Youth of Frederick II; (Frederick William I to his son). Frederick the Great;' (Frederick II and his valet; From the life of Frederick; Frederick II surnamed the Great; Zietlien; The hymn at Leuthen; From letters of Frederick; Speech of Frederick II before the battle of Leuthen ; Hymn upon Frederick the Great; How Frederick Germanized the Netze district.) Frederick William II; The coalition wars of Fred¬ erick William III; The battle of Jena. Prussia’s regeneration; The wars of inde¬ pendence from the rule of Napoleon; Queen Louise; Later period of Frederick Wil¬ liam III; (The bugler at the Katzbach; Liitzow’s wild chase; Before Blii cher’s statue; Queen Louise in Tilsit; The Prussian people in 1813; The battle of Nations at Leipzig; From the life of Frederick William III; Andreas Hofer; The Song of the Field Marshal). Review of Prussian history from 1640 to 1840; Frederick William IY ; (A word from old Bliicher; Prussian generals ; Prussian heroes of 1813 and 1815; Frederick William’s last will; Queen Louise’s letter to her father; King Frederick William’s appeal to his people; The song of Schill; Baron von Stein; Waterloo). King Wil¬ liam; The Schleswig-Holstein war; The war with Austria; Causes of the war with France; (The song of Diippel. The French pretensions of 1870). The Franco-Ger¬ man war; Reestablishment of the German empire; Emperor William as regent, king, and emperor; Historical literature, especially juvenile books. (From a letter of July 9, 1866 ; The capitulation of Sedan ; The new German empire ; The nineteenth of July, 1870; The trumpet of Gravelotte; Strasburg; The watch on the Rhine; On the third of September ; The hymn of Kaiserslautern; The flag of the Sixty-first reg¬ iment; Two anecdotes from the French war; King William to the Queen about the battle of Sedan) ; Review of the entire course of the year in form of lectures by the students. This is the detailed course in history, coupled with a course in his¬ torical and literary readiug, followed by the students in the normal school of Halberstadt. IV. — PROFESSIONAL STUDY OF GERMAN TEACHERS. The course of study pursued in Prussian normal schools (see pp, 1C2-667) shows that among the branches taught pedagogy is mentioned. To an American reader this term may possibly convey an erroneous meaning. Hence it is desirable to define it by giving a synopsis of the course in pedagogy prescribed. We see from it that pedagogyis a collective term, embracing the history, science, and practice of teach¬ ing, or, to use a more comprehensive term, education. The synopsis is taken from a text-book on pedagogy now in use in the majority of Prussian normal schools. Its title is Lehrbuch der Pddagogilc , by Dr. W. Ostermann and L. Wegner (Osnabriick, 1891), 2 volumes. Synopsis of the Course in Pedagogy. Introduction; definition and classification of pedagogy. FIRST PART. — HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN EDUCATION. * (1) Importance of Christianity for the development of education. • (2) Christ a model of the Christian educator. (3) Education during the first centuries of the Christian era. (4) Christian pedagogy on German soil. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 171 (5) The first Christian educational institutions in Germany : (a) Convent schools; (b)' endowed schools ( Stiflsschulen ). (6) School reform of Charlemagne. (7) Education during the age of chivalry. (8) German city schools at the close of the Middle Ages. (9) Revival of letters. (10) Pedagogical science during the Middle Ages. (11) Education during the era of Reformation : (a) Pedagogical importance of the Reformation; (&) pedagogical activity of the great reformers, ( aa ) Luther, (bb) Philip Melanchthon, (cc) Johann Bugenhagen. (12) Educational reformers of the Seventeenth century : (a) Wolfgang Ratichius, (b) Amos Comenius. (13) The Era of Pietism: (a) Philip Jacob Spener: (b) Aug. Herm. Francke. (14) Jean Jacques Rousseau. (15) The Philanthropists : Basedow. (16) Friedr. Eberhard v. Rochow. (17) Johann Heinr. Pestalozzi, his biography, personality, and activity. (18) Other noted educators of the Nineteenth century. (19) Brief systematic survey of the historical development of German popular education: (a) Before the Reformation : (b) during the Reformation, (c) during the Seventeenth, ( d ) Eighteenth, and (e) Nineteenth centuries. Appendix : Special schools and institutions. SECOND PART. — PSYCHOLOGY AND LOGIC. Introduction; definition and classification. A. Intellect ( Die vorstellende Seele). (1) Perceptions (Emfinden und Wahrnehmen) : (a) The nervous system as physical organ of perception; (b) origin and essence of perception; (aa) the different kinds of perception; (bb) general theory; (c) representation and objectivity; (^percep¬ tion and apperception. (2) Conceptions ( Vorstelhmgen) : (a) Origin, essence, and differences of concepts; (b) reproduction, consciousness, and unconsciousness of concepts; (c) change and combination of concepts; (aa) mechanical procedure ; (&&) logical procedure (logi¬ cal thought, understanding, intelligence); (cc) logical forms of thought, idea, judgment, conclusion; (dd) the understanding as original faculty of the soul, and training of the intellect; (d) attention; (e) memory; (f) imagination. B. Emotion (Die fiihlende Seele). (1) Kinds of emofions: (a) Emotions of pleasure and displeasure, mixed emotions; (b) sensual and spiritual emotions, (aa) intellectual and (1)1)) aesthetic emotions; (c) Sympathy; (d) Ethical emotions; (e) Religious emotions. (/) Emotional dis¬ turbances (“Die Afifecte”). (2) General remarks concerning origin and importance of emotions. C. Volition (Die begehrende und ivollende Seele). (1) Desires (impulses, affections, passions). (2) The will: (a) Difference between desire and will, (b) freedom of the will; (c) kinds of volition ; (d) character. (3) The relation of desires and will to intellect and emotions. Individual differences in psychical life. Existence and essence of the soul: (a) Human individuality; (b) existence and essence of the soul. 172 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. THIRD PART. — THEORY OF EDUCATION. A. Physical education. Chief rules of dietetics. ( a ) Nourishment of the body; (&) air and breathing ; (c) circulation and cleanliness; (d) heat; (e) motion and rest. Dietetic treatment of the nervous system and sense organs. B. Mental and moral education; theory of religious and moral education. I. Direct training of the will. II. Indirect training of the will by means of (a) habit; ( h ) discipline and govern¬ ment (school regulations; rules and punishments) ; (c) by means of instruction and appeals to the emotions; (precept and example). III. The ideal Christian educator. C. — Practice of teaching; general practice. (1) General object of popular education. (2) Selection and arrangement of matter: (a) Courses of study, (6) timetables. (3) Forms of instruction : (a) Method of presentation, (&) of imitation, (e) of communication, and (d) dialogic method, (aa) question, (bh) answer. (4) Concerning the conditions of procedure which will develop the mind. (5) Exercises: (a) repetition, (&) application, (c) memorizing, (d) home lessons. I . Appendix . School management. (1) The schoolhouse; its environment; the schoolroom. (2) Time, school terms, vacations, etc. (3) School furniture and apparatus. Appliances for instruction. (4) Order and regulation of school life. Discipline. ; (5) Classification and grading. Location. (6) Lists of attendants and other registers. (7) School administration, authorities, supervision, and revision. IT. Appendix. Subsequent education of teachers. Extended circle of duties. The life and social status of teachers. Y. — TEACHERS’ TRAINING IN SWITZERLAND. Switzerland shows some special features in its system of normal schools which may be worthy of mention. The Year Book of C. Grob furnishes very well sifted material for that purpose. The buildings of the Swiss normal schools are partly sequestered convents or ancient manor houses, partly convents and schoolhouses still in use and serving other purposes besides those of normal schools. One was formerly a hotel. Eight of these schools have large areas of land for the purpose of agriculture ; some, a spacious park or garden for the practical study of botany and for recreation. Switzerland has 37 normal schools; of these 22 are in German, 13 in French, and 2 in Italian Switzerland. Twenty-three are attended exclusively by men, 13 by women, and 1 (since 1873 in Ktissnach) by both sexes. Of the 23 schools for men, 6 are independent institutions — TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 173 that is to say, not exclusively normal schools, because the students are prepared in them for other pursuits also. It may be mentioned that in Basel the principle lias been followed according to which general edu¬ cation is separated from strictly professional training. The teachers in Basel “must acquire a scientific education on a level with the other learned professions.” “We demand of elementary teachers,” says the report of the commission of public education, “as well as of teachers of secondary schools, that they graduate from a secondary school which leads up to the university. The pedagogical education is restricted to a seminary affiliated with the university. Its course lasts one year and a half. Owing to the necessary practical exercises in teaching, the purely professional training of teachers could not be entirely given over to the university proper.” Since May, 1892, the council of education of Basel has authorized an extension of this course to two years. The cantons maintain 25, certain communities 4 of the Swiss normal schools, 8 are private. The number of students in 1890 was 2,002 (1,294 men and 708 women). They were instructed by 288 men and 70 women, whose salaries were comparatively low; for instance, in Zurich and St. Gallen between $600 and $1,000; in Vaud between $600 and $800; in Thurgau between $480 and $760 (with some benefices), and in Berne between $400 and $600. The entire expenditure for teachers’ training in Switzerland in 1890 amounted to $223,800, which is $112 per capita. Twenty-four Swiss normal schools offer their students the econom¬ ical advantages of dormitories. In some of these the students have to clean rooms and keep house, attend to the garden, serve at table, and to some extent also in the kitchen, split wood, and do similar domestic work. These duties are performed to lessen the expenses of the stu¬ dents. This convent discipline is very severely commented upon in the educational press, but it may be explained by the prevailing pov¬ erty in certain strata of society in Switzerland. The students are allowed to form societies for mutual improvement. The report referred to notes 9 gymnastic, 7 shorthand, 4 singing societies, and 3 for general purposes. This is to afford students some experience in parliamentary rules, a very essential element of education in a republic. With the exception of Basel, mentioned before, the requirement for admission is that the student, shall have attended a grammar school, the graduates of which must be 15 years of age; then follows in 11 normal schools a course of four years, while in the remainder the course is one of three or two years. In the latter the minimum age for admission is sixteen years. The authority quoted remarks that with few exceptions, such as Zurich and Basel, the normal schools offer too little in the way of intellectual culture and professional training. The lessons prescribed require 38 hours’ work, to which must be added a considerable number of hours of work for optional studies. A revision of the course of study is frequently called for by the teachers. 174 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The course of study varies in the different cantons. Instruction in lan¬ guage receives 5 to 10 hours per week. The mother tongue receives a larger share of time in French and Italian schools than in the the German, where natural sciences and the mathematical branches are treated more extensively. On the other hand, in German Switzer¬ land the foreign tongues are generally considered of greater importance than in the French and Italian schools. In all Swiss normal schools, with the exception of four, one other language is taught beside the mother tongue, as an obligatory study. In German schools it is either the French or Italian, in the French it is the German language. To geography only 2 hours are given uniformly, but as regards mathe¬ matics and natural sciences, the courses vary considerably. While in Zurich these branches are considered of great importance, they are almost neglected in Wallis. Arithmetic and book-keeping are separate branches in 9 institutions, hygiene in 4, and civics in all the normal schools of western Switzerland. Civics is understood in Switzerland to embrace knowledge of the constitution, laws, and political economy. Agriculture is taught in 11, and manual training given in 7 institutions. The professional preparation of the common school teachers is not treated with the importance it deserves. The time is too short to apply, in the practice school, principles and methods learned in the elass rooms. The students are much too young to comprehend and assimilate much of psychology and other branches of pedagogy. Nor are the teachers well enough prepared to give scientific instruction in pedagogy. Besides all this the opportunities for practical work in school are, in many institutions, insufficient. A peculiar feature of the professional part of the course is, that pedagogy and method are represented by two different teachers. (C. Grob.) There is a general uuwritten law in Switzerland derived from experi¬ ence, that no candidate for a teacher’s position may be elected before he is of age (20 years). The diploma of graduation of a normal school is based upon the accomplishments of the students in every branch of study pursued during the course. Though a branch may have been finished during the first year, the result of the final examination in that branch held during the first year has its bearing upon the diploma. A minute study of the entire system of teachers’ training in Switzer¬ land will evince the fact, that the connection between the great national common school system of the Republic and the normal schools is not as organic as it might be, the general supervision being wanting. The teachers of the Swiss normal schools have not formed a society as have those of the secondary schools. There is even wanting a connection of the normal schools of each canton with the other advanced seats of learning ; but if we consider the fact, that public education is not a federal concern, but of the different cantons or states that constitute the Federation as it is with us, we can easily see why it is that in school matters Switzerland shows such a remarkable variety of objects and means. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 175 YI. — SYMPOSIUM. In order to shed light on the present status of the training of teachers in central Europe, this chapter is inserted. It contains opinions con¬ cerning the training of teachers, expressed by normal- school men in reply to a circular letter submitted by the executive committee of the German Teachers’ Union. The gentlemen to whom the letter was addressed were all men of great reputation and long experience in normal-school work in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Of 42 to whom the circular letter was sent, 17 replied to every one of the 8 questions submitted. They were Ur. Andrae, inspector of normal schools in Kaiserslautern, Bavaria; Dr. Bliedner, principal of a secondary school (formerly of a normal school), in Eisenach, Saxe- Weimar; Mr. Bolim, normal-school teacher in Altdorf, Bavaria; Mr. Brossmann, principal of a normal-school in Schleiz, Thuringia; Dr. Han¬ nah, principal of a Padagogium in Vienna, Austria; Mr. Helm, inspec¬ tor of normal schools in Schwabach, Bavaria; Mr. Israel, school coun¬ cilor and principal of a normal school in Zschoppau, Saxony; Dr. Just, principal of a secondary school (formerly normal-school teacher), in Alten- burg, Thuringia; Dr. Lange, principal of a secondary school (formerly normal-school teacher), in Plauen, Saxony; Mr. Leutz, principal of a normal school ii> Karlsruhe, Baden; Mr. Mahraun, superintendent of city schools (formerly principal of normal school), in Hamburg; Mr. Martig, principal of a normal school in Hofwyl, Switzerland; Dr. Bein, professor in the university (formerly principal of a normal school), in Jena, Thuringia; Dr. v. Sallwiirk, chief school councilor in Carlsruhe, Baden; Mr. Schultze, school councilor and principal of normal college, Potsdam, near Berlin, Prussia; Bev. Mr. Seyffarth, superintendent of schools in Liegnitz, Silesia, Prussia; Dr. Staude, principal normal school in Coburg, Thuringia; Dr. Kefer stein, principal of a normal school in Hamburg; Dr. Wohlrabe, rector in Halle, Prussia; Prof. Bau- itzsch, principal normal school in Weimar, Thuringia; Mr. Schoppa, principal normal school in Delizsch, Prussia. Other gentlemen explained their failure to respond to the queries submitted, on account of the position they are holding, since it might appear as though they criticized the government. The first question asked was : Is it advisable to organize the normal schools in such a way that they can offer professional — that is, pedagogical — training exclusively, or should they also offer academic instruction and general education which must be the basis of professional work? Thirteen replies were in favor of the first, three in favor of the latter organization. For the principle of separation of general educa- cation and purely professional training, the following reasons were advanced : Without doubt the true object of a teacher’s training school is to prepare its students for their profession. The science it has to teach 176 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. is therefore pedagogy and its supplementary sciences ; the art it has to develop is the art of teaching. The school can accomplish this task satisfactorily only if the general education of its students has to a certain extent been completed before they are admitted. This seems necessary also because without previous thorough training of the mind a scientific treatment of pedagogical questions, as well as pedagogical thinking, is impossible. If a separation between general preparation and professional training is made, the work in the normal school would be more unified, hence its effect upon mind and heart more intense. The mixture now prevailing is the chief obstacle to progress in the field of teachers7 training. It necessitates a low degree of requirements for the general education as well as for special professional training, lower at least, than is desirable in the interest of popular education. The lowering of requirements of both objects will prevent doing justice to either, and is the chief cause of the specific type which is popularly styled u schoolmaster’s wisdom.77 In the field of teachers7 training for secondary schools the State has recognized the imperative necessity of separating general culture and professional training, by requiring the former to be gained in the uni¬ versities, the latter in special seminaries connected with secondary schools. A similar separation in the preparation of teachers for the common schools would not only be beneficial for the entire system of training, but equally benefit the profession, since the latter would rise in public opinion very perceptibly. Of the three opponents, one bases his objection to the proposed sep¬ aration upon the fact that it presupposes two educational institutions, hence would greatly enhance the cost of teachers7 training. The other two gentlemen seem to presuppose that by the term Faclibildung or pro¬ fessional training is meant the study of the science of pedagogy and supplementary sciences only. If this were the case, their objection would be justified, for instruction confined to those limits would scarcely fill out the time or engage the interest of the student sufficiently. But that presupposition is erroneous. During the national teachers7 convention at Halle in 1892 it was plainly stated: The Faclibildung or professional training should consist in the study of the science of pedagogy and its supplementary sciences, together with practice in teaching and the complete elaboration with reference to its didactic treatment and formation of the matter of instruction prescribed for common schools. It is true, in this practical work, the matter of instruction is below the level of the student, hut it is treated from a different point of view so that the dominating interest is enlisted and strongly expressed. Beside these studies a few branches of studjr for general culture must find a place in the curriculum of the professional normal school, such as history of civilization, literature, foreign languages, etc. However, they must be so taught that they become serviceable to the professional training. In the history of culture and civilization, for instance, the development of education and school systems must come in for a good share of attention; the treatment of literary masterpieces must emphasize their psychological and pedagogical importance; the reading of works in foreign languages must chiefly touch upon educational questions, etc. From this it TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 177 is plain tliat though the professional instruction in the normal school (by subjecting it to the pedagogical interest) maintains its unity of character and purpose, yet it acts suggestively and fructifying upon all parts of the student’s horizon of thought. Tlie author of tlie seventeenth reply holds a singular point of view. He desires a uuiversity education for all teach ers, elementary as well as secondary, with the exception of special teachers of music and organists, as well as teachers of ungraded schools who are obliged to teach music also. This class of teachers, he thinks, should be trained in seminaries, where a general education is offered, besides professional training. For the other teachers he proposes to require them to obtain their preparatory education in some of the numerous secondary schools ; and in the university a new faculty, the u pedagogi¬ cal,’7 should offer the required professional training. The second question submitted was : Iu what manner, in case the first question be answered in the affirmative, shall the general preparatory education be obtained? Is it desirable to (a) establish special preparatory schools for teachers, or (&) should the existing normal schools be extended downward by establishing preparatory courses, or (c) is attendance of sec¬ ondary schools to be recommended? If so, which one, the classical (Gymnasium), or the modern (Realgymnasium), or the citizens’ high school (without Latin)? The replies to this question exhibit the greatest diversity. Three of them plead for perfect liberty of preparation. Says one gentleman : I lay little stress upon the form of the institutions for that purpose, since they always more or less adapt themselves to given local circumstances; but the contents of such schools, i. e., their course of study, is the thing to be considered. My view is that a preparatory institution of a normal school should most resemble the Real- gymnasium, yet show individual features. Another writes : Uniformity in preparation I consider neither practicable nor to the purpose. It is no disadvantage to have students of a normal school who come from different pre¬ paratory or secondary schools, provided always, that these institutions have given them true intellectual culture and not merely dead, undigested knowledge. At any rate, a student applying for admission to a normal school should have passed the final examination in a secondary school. The torso education of a junior or sopho¬ more can not suffice as a preparation for a normal-school student. In three replies special preparatory schools for normal schools are recommended, because none of the < existing secondary schools suffi¬ ciently prepares its students in those branches which are essential for the practice of teaching, like the German language and literature, religion, home natural history, arithmetic, penmanship, and music. Spe¬ cial preparatory schools are recommended, also, because they will make possible a more uniform training of the students in the normal schools through their having received a like preparation. But in these three replies it is expressly stated that graduates of classical or modern high schools may be admitted to the normal school. One gentleman of the three pleads for separation of preparatory and normal school; another for close organic connection under the same management and roof. ED 92 - 12 178 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. One thinks the preparatory school should also admit students who do not intend to devote themselves to teaching. In five replies the organic connection between preparatory and nor¬ mal school is urged as the most practical and successful arrangement, and an imitation of the plan followed in Saxony is recommended, where the normal-school course is one of six years, three of which are devoted to preparatory, three to professional study. Only in this way the preparation could be had in a proper manner, and carried through with the necessary comprehension on the part of the teachers. In six replies now-existing secondary schools are considered the most suitable preparatory institutions, and all choose that type of a school known as the citizen’s high school, without Latin. For [so it is said] the special preparatory schools precipitate professional train¬ ing, which in consequence narrows the horizon of thought of the student instead of extending it. A school for general culture that does not deal with special pro¬ fessions is not apt to contract the horizon of the student, and is therefore to he preferred. All kinds of classical schools estrange the teacher from those classes of society in which he is expected to act as educator. The “ six-grade high school ” proposed unites, however, in its present organization all the requirements of the general culture of common-school teachers, and offers the teacher a position in the higher— that is, cultured — class of citizens in which he is to act as educator. It may be remarked liere that in one of the replies this high school is considered suitable as a preparatory institution only because the present circumstances make it appear so; otherwise the gymnasium or classical high school would be preferable owing to the more thorough culture it offers. In still another reply the citizens’ high school is rejected, because the scientific and mathematical branches are pressed into the foreground, while in the preparation of teachers who will have to educate, as well as instruct, the linguistic and historical branches should predominate. The authors of all these replies stand with regard to the present question exclusively upon the standpoint of the normal-school teacher. But for elementary-school teachers other considerations are of weight. Thus, a speaker in Halle points to the fact that a close connection between the preparatory and normal schools, however suitable it may be otherwise, would yet carry with it the unavoidable disadvantage that the various external considerations (political; clerical, and econom¬ ical) which influence teachers’ training in the State would necessarily also influence the management, organization, and course of study of the preparatory schools; while the secondary schools of general culture, conservative as they are and have been, will not be touched by that influence to any great extent. To this is added the other weighty consideration that it must be in the interest of the profession to see its members conjointly share in the general culture with the members of other professions. This would prevent the unpleasantness arising from undervaluation and disparagement so frequently met in connection with the profession of teaching. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 179 The third query submitted was : Shall the normal schools "be denominational schools or shall they receive students of all religious confessions'? Six of the replies declare in favor of denominational institutions j ten in favor of schools in which all confessions are represented. One gen¬ tleman writes : This is, in my judgment, not an educational hut a political question. The aims of popular education and culture may be attained in either case. I have taught for many years in a denominational seminary, and even longer in a mixed institution, but have not found that a mixture or combination of confessions in any appreciable degree influenced the work or secured greater success. One reply contains a decided preference for separation of the reli¬ gious confessions, claiming u that if the normal school is to act in the service of character-building, and is to imitate the family, especially where it is a boarding school, the students of different confessions must be separated lest the most annoying occurrences might endanger the peace of the institution.” Another gentleman, also an objector to mixed schools, says: In a mixed normal school neither the mother tongue and its literature, nor history can be taught in a manner which would allow the future teachers to recognize the various momenta and factors of culture in Germany since the Reformation; nor could the historical importance and mission of the Protestant Prussian State, through which the German individual has become a political citizen, be discussed before students of both Christian confessions. On the other hand, weighty arguments are advanced in favor of a combination. It is said the normal schools are State institutions, and since the State is neither Protestant nor Catholic, no educational insti¬ tution belonging to the State should have a denominational character. He who trains the teacher denominationally makes him impracticable for the German common school, a school that is to promote unity of national education. Finally, denominational normal schools endanger one of the most essential qualities of good instruction, i. e., objective truth. In one reply it is said: However deeply convinced the undersigned is of the fact that educational insti¬ tutions must be built upon a common basis only when they are to propagate a specific spirit, I must yet plead for the common character of the professional normal schools. The teachers’ training school is not to be an educational institution, pure and simple, designed for character-building. It is to be supposed that the character of a young man when he enters a professional school, though that character may not be quite developed, is fixed to such extent that he will not tolerate external influence upon it. Inner development and self-assertion in religious conviction must be left to the individual. On the other hand, the professional training is a matter of common concern. There is no specific Catholic multiplication tabic, or Protestant grammar, or Jewish geography. The fourth question was : Is it desirable to organize teachers’ training schools in the form of boarding schools ? 180 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. In two replies to this query a decision is declined, since a judgment concerning the value or worthlessness of dormitories connected with normal schools is entirely dependent upon the condition of the institu¬ tion. It depends upon the principal and professors entirely. Dinter and Diesterweg, it is said, had hoarding schools against which no objections were raised. Only one gentleman expresses himself in favor of boarding arrange¬ ments. He says: If the hoarding school is neither a military barrack nor a convent it has great advantages over the other arrangements according to which the students live in private families or other lodgings. The advantages are found in the necessary inten¬ sity of the work which is demanded by the modern training of teachers. In seven replies the authors declare themselves in opposition to the compulsory boarding schools, but are not quite willing to give up the institutions entirely, since they enable many a poor but capable boy to live cheaply and prepare himself for the profession. It is said that the boarding-school arrangement would lose all its dangers if, as is done in Saxony, admission to it is left to the choice of the students. One gentleman writes: The dormitories should be considered a benefit, but charily forced upon a person is no charity, and therefore ethically not justified. “The right to punish an evil-minded boy by expelling him tempora¬ rily or for good from the benefits of the dormitories,” writes a Saxon author, “gives us a most effective means of discipline.” We have had no case as yet where that punishment was necessary, hence conclude as aforestated. Another author replies : Dormitories belong to the provisions of pathological pedagogy, provided they are conducted well and arranged according to hygienic principles. Delicate cases are known to me that needed careful treatment, and the dormitory has proved a moral hospital. Of course only in this sense it should be made use of in normal schools. With much more decision the last seven replies reject the boarding arrangement and plead for liberty, so to speak. Only in cases of great need, and then only temporarily, should the students be allowed to live in the institution, “ since experience teaches that the faculty have little influence over the spirit and conduct of boys assembled in dormitories. The rule should be to make the normal school a day school.” There have been cases where the dormitories proved to be beneficial, but the general experience is that they are not. It is much more difficult for a faculty to govern a boarding than a day school, and everything depends upon the character and executive ability of the principal. Moreover, the principal of a boarding school is hampered by and burdened with many household cares which infringe upon his pedagogical activity. The life in a family exercises a much better influence upon a student than convent life. Of course, as in the other, so in this case, much will depend upon the proper choice. The fifth question has reference to the selection of the locality of the TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 181 normal school. Three authors declined a decision on principle regard¬ ing this point. One says: The normal schools should he equitably divided according to the population. This will locate some in large and some in small cities, according to the character and needs of the province. As there are renowned universities in lai'ge as well as in small cities, so it may be the case with normal schools. It is a matter of self-evi¬ dence that the schools should be located in county centers for obvious reasons. In four replies small towns are preferred. The following reasons are advanced : In our modern time larger cities give too much opportunity for dissipation. The period of training needs quietude; the teacher after graduation may look about himself in the world. Generally small towns are preferable because the students can then be supervised better, and the circumstances prevailing in those towns are similar to those in which the teachers have to live afterward. Moreover, the rural environments offer oppor¬ tunities and ample material for home geography and natural history as they will have to be taught later. The use of collections, museums, etc., of a metropolis, or a capital, is not com¬ mensurate with the greater familiarity with country and people that can be gained in smaller towns. The students of normal schools in large cities can not study in museums any more than the students from other places who may visit them. As far as the members of the faculty are concerned it must be granted that they have more social and scientific intercourse in a large city, but literary and scientific work on their part is much better performed in quiet, rural surroundings. Naturally it will be unavoidable that cities of the size of Berlin and Vienna, having thousands of teachers, must have normal schools of their own. A metropolis has a highly developed life and so many peculiar elements of culture that the children need city-bred teachers. A country teacher can not well enter at once into the circle of thought of city children. Ten replies are in favor of large cities. It is said that very small towns are apt to countrify the students. On the other hand, a metropolis is apt to dissipate and endanger the morals of students not kept in dor¬ mitories but choosing their own lodgings. The best choice would seem to be cities of medium size, as these have been found to be the best locations for universities. The normal-school student should not be reared so as to estrange him from the world. He must feel the incessant throbbing and pulsating of the world, but be equally guarded against the danger of moral depravation and intellectual dissipation. I consider it very necessary in the selection of the location that intercourse with nature be facilitated. This point I consider most important. The morbid longing of country teachers for positions in the city I attribute to the lack of a well-developed love and sense of nature. The best plan would seem to be to place the normal schools in suburbs of larger cities, since both requisites mentioned may be satisfactorily met there — the vicinity of ample sources of culture and the solitude necessary for intellectual labor. In very small towns the teacher loses connection with the scientific movements of the time; hence the interest of the faculty as well as the students point toward cities in which a high degree of intellectual life is found. The sixth question was: Is tlie professional training at present offered in normal schools considered to be sufficient, or do the present status of the science of pedagogy and the increased demands which modern times make with respect to popular education, justify an extension of the course in professional training ? 182 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Not one of the replies received answers the first part of the question in the affirmative. On the contrary, all express the opinion more or less distinctly and emphatically that the present status of German normal- school training is insufficient. Only in one reply is an extension of the course considered inadvisable, owing to the fact that the students are already overburdened with matter and method. The fact mentioned may be true, yet it must be considered whether a different prepara¬ tion for the normal school and a more practical organization of the teachers’ entire training may not remove the difficulty. Although the question had reference to the professional training alone, several replies include the general culture. In one of them it is emphasized that the greatest weakness of the students is found in the lack of the thorough general culture. It is said, “Here the lever should be applied. Only with better prepared students can higher demands be made in professional training.” Thus again we see that the question of preliminary work is the keynote of the whole subject. How insufficient is the present preparation for normal schools is exem¬ plified in some of the replies. One author says : It is ridiculous to expect of young people to solve difficult psychological and peda¬ gogical problems when they still wrestle with grammatical and rhetorical rules. With regard to the strictly pedagogical professional training the necessity of reading educational sources, as well as an extension of the instruction in sciences supplementary to pedagogy, such as psychology and ethics, are recommended. This latter instruction should, it is said? be so conducted that pedagogical theories are derived from it. In the practice school instruction should be given in such a manner that the students become convinced of the fact that teaching is an art. Several replies object to the dogmatic manner in which professional instruction is offered. Where the system of pedagogy does not grow out of the practice iu school, where the practice teacher is not the most experienced, but the youngest of the faculty, one may, during the lessons in pedagogical theory, speak with the tongue of an angel — the students will after all not profit much by them, but acquire futile examination knowledge. The seventh question proposed was : Are the requirements for the preparation of normal-school professors generally considered sufficient? In one reply the author declines to give a definite answer, owing to the difference of the conditions in the various countries. Four authors reply in the affirmative, twelve in the negative. Says one of the latter : These requirements may be regarded sufficient as far as the general education offered by professors is considered; but quite insufficient with respect to pedagogical qualification^. This is particularly true of the principals of the normal schools, who are quite frequently insufficiently prepared for their positions. Until better men are put at the head of those institutions, progress in the training of teachers can not be expected. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 183 In the second reply we read : This is the weakest point and reform is most needed here. The present practice, according to which shipwrecked candidates for higher schools are considered good enough for the normal schools, and ambitious theologians are placed at the head of normal schools, assisted by young men just graduated, must be considered a grave error which may be explained by the want of financial means, but can never be excused. Whether the principal or teachers in the normal schools have received their preparation in the theological or j>hilosopliical faculty of a university, or only in the normal school, is immaterial; but it is not immaterial by any means whether they are highly cultivated and experienced educators, or whether they first intend to gain their experience in the normal school, according to the popular saying : To him whom God gives an office, He also gives the requisite understanding. In another reply tlie author demands that all normal-school teachers should possess a university education. The normal-school teacher should, with regard to scientific knowledge, stand on the same level with the teachers of secondary schools who must have received an academic education. Not only the work they are to perform requires that, but also the position, reputation, and importance of the institutions in which they work; in various ways this will reflect upon those who are to gain their professional education there. This is the cardinal point of all reforms in the training of teachers. Care should be taken to enable those who have made their way through normal schools to enter such positions by special preparation and study. In another reply university education is required only for the prin¬ cipal and a portion of the faculty. Most of the authors who advocate reform in this point think it advis¬ able that all normal-school teachers should attend, for several years, a pedagogical university seminary. In order to make this possible “the conviction that pedagogy is a science, and that it is necessary to rep¬ resent it properly in the faculty of the university, must first be awak¬ ened in Prussian universities.” “ This demand,” writes another, “ will be unattainable so long as the present indifference for real national education continues. This indifference is found where the common- school teacher is considered the servant of the pastor, and where a professor in the gymnasium is considered a shipwrecked university professor.” The last question proposed was : Are you of the opinion that the education gained in a German normal school, if supplemented by continued private study and acknowledged practical results in school, is sufficient and will enable a teacher to fulfill the duties of supervisor, either as principal of a building or superintendent of a system of schools? Do you con¬ sider it necessary to establish special institutions for the preparation of such officers? Iii most of the replies received the necessity of special institutions of this kind is denied $ of course, provided that the training of teachers should be reformed in the light of the advice stated in the foregoing replies. One author says: Our present system of training teachers for the common school is entirely insuf¬ ficient for the purpose of preparing supervising officers. In most of the replies a special examination for principals and super¬ intendents is urged, u so that all arbitrary promotions be made impos- 184 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. sible.” Witli reference to the examining board for this purpose, it is recommended to appoint only educators of acknowledged high culture, who are not suffering from the prevailing disease of the age, i. e., are not specialists of some kind, so that the entire education of the candi¬ date may be judged fairly. A few writers oppose this measure and recommend the custom in vogue in Saxony, which is, that candidates for supervisory offices are required to attend the university after they have graduated from the normal school. In one reply a similar custom in vogue in the canton of Berne is pointed out. Here graduates of normal schools have the right to attend the lectures of cert in professors of the philosophical faculty of the university called the Lehramts-schule (university sem¬ inary). This gives the candidates a claim upon positions m secondary schools, and it is from among these teachers that most of the school inspectors and normal-school teachers are selected. These opinions, rendered as they are by die foremost normal school educators of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, have made a profound sensation among teachers and government authorities. The educa¬ tional press has reproduced them and commented upon them; even the political press in Germany has considered them the most authoritative and important contribution to the question of teachers7 training of late years, and expressed the hope that the provincial as well as the central Government will base future reforms on the advice of these gentlemen. The further fact that this symposium was called for and published by the National Union of Teachers, a union that has nearly 60,000 mem¬ bers, is most significant, and proves that the teachers themselves are not satisfied with the professional education the state offers them. From the historical review on previous pages, it has been seen that it was always the teachers themselves in central Europe who recognized the prevailing inadequacy, and urged reforms. The Government has not always been willing to acknowledge tlie force of the teachers’ criti¬ cism, but in the course of time it has always acknowledged its justice. VII. — PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS. During the months of January and February, 1893, the writer of this report was detailed to inspect German normal schools, and to gather material that would be useful in giving an accurate picture of the present status of professional training of teachers in central Europe. To the foregoing historical review and statement of the statistics and present condition of the normal schools in central Europe, therefore, are added here some personal observations made during several visits of inspection in teachers’ preparatory and normal schools. The nature of this report requires that these observations be general, leaving personalities and localities out of consideration. Buildings. — In comparison with State normal school buildings in New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and other States, the German normal TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 185 scliool buildings are very inferior. It lias a depressing effect to see tlie most vital rules of hygiene set at naught in these schools, from which are to come the teachers of the present and future generations. It is the common experience that a teacher will teach “as he is taught,” that he will conduct a school as he has seen it done. Hence it is to be supposed that the graduates of normal schools in poorly ventilated and wi^tehcdly arranged buildings will have no very exalted idea of how a school building should be built, or how it should be kept to comply with hygienic rules. Circumstances, such as poverty of the state, existing local conditions, old buildings which must be utilized, may explain, but can never excuse the present insufficient provision for a system of schools of equal importance with the proud system ol universities in central Europe. Even new normal school buildings in Prussia do not come up to the standard of American school architecture, having flat, expressionless fronts, unbroken rows of windows, and a box-like shape. They betoken a want of provision for aesthetic culture, serious if one considers the consequences of such a want. The students of such schools can not obtain ideals of aesthetic culture, if trained in surroundings that seem to poorly fit the purpose they are designed for. This observation regarding style and poor arrangement of buildings is not meant to include a few buildings erected later in large cities, but refers to most of those inspected by the writer. It is, perhaps, not too much to say that the lack of cleanliness frequently found, the exces¬ sively foul air, the crowded condition and general want of comfort and beauty noticed in German elementary schools, are chiefly owing to the lack of high ideals in school architecture and aesthetic education on the part of the teachers and inspectors, who would exert their influence toward an improvement in this matter if they had been differently trained. A visit to a preparatory school. — The State of Prussia maintains a number of preparatory institutions in which the candidates for admis¬ sion to the normal schools are specially prepared. Many other schools for the same purpose are private, especially in the western provinces. Since the candidates for normal schools rarely come from secondary schools (see Hist. Review, p. 149) special preparatory institutions seem a necessity. The writer inspected two of them, one very closely. Here he noticed a fact well known, but rarely heeded by school authorities, namely, that the most logical arrangement of matter of instruction, the most carefully devised courses of study, the most skill¬ fully prepared appliances for teaching, the most devoted attention to study and love of knowledge on the part of students, are as nothing compared with the skill of the teacher who knows how to prepare the matter and also to prepare the mind for receiving it. A simile may illustrate this. The prevalence of indigestion in the United States is not owing to the want of good meat and vegetables, for they are as 186 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. good, if not better here than in other countries, but to bad preparation of our food in many kitchens over which ignorant cooks preside, and also to the unduly hurried mode of eating prevalent all over the country. Just so with the teacher in school. If he work like the proverbial cheap restaurant cook, the best course of study (bill of fare), the finest appliances (condiments and spices), the greatest atten¬ tion (hunger), will not make the knowledge offered (sole-leather beef¬ steak) palatable or digestive. The school visited offered striking examples of good and bad teach¬ ing. The instructors were selected from among the best teachers of the city, men who are specially well qualified in certain branches of study. Several lessons were offered, most of which were excellent examples of pedagogic art and skill; but two were marred by errors such as will seriously endanger the future usefulness of the students in the profes¬ sion of teaching, unless they see themselves the glaring contrast between good and bad teaching and profit by it. The boys (80 in number) sang three and four part music remark¬ ably well and proved that they possessed commendable theoretical knowledge of music. Then followed a lesson in mental arithmetic, which would have been a revelation to many teachers who can not conceive the idea that arith¬ metical problems with numbers of more than two places can be solved mentally. The students in this school had such a familiarity with the structure and value of the numbers they worked with that they could apply them in innumerable ways, analyzing them for the purpose of dividing and multiplying. Each problem was pronounced by the teacher and repeated verbally by the pupil slowly and deliberately. When he had finished this repetition he was usually ready to announce the result. At times an analysis was called for, and then it was seen what a splendid command of the language the students had, for each of the explanations was an almost faultless oral composition. The teacher explained that he still followed the Pestalozzian rules : (1) “ Offer objects at first for the purpose of conceiving the numbers in the concrete, and illustrating all numerical operations.” (2) “ Create a profound and clear idea of the structure and value of each number, and train the student in swift and correct mathematical application.” (3) “Rely not on mechanical work, such as memorizing of rules and working problems by means of them, but insist upon a procedure, the .first and main object of rvliicli is to train the mind to find and make rules itself.” (4) “Arrange your course so as to afford a procedure from the easy to the more difficult, or a step by step arrangement which will not leave gaps.” This continuity of instruction was Pesta- lozzi’s chief excellence in teaching arithmetic. Another lesson given was in history. The teacher demonstrated the irrationality of teaching history backward, by beginning with the present ruler of Prussia and going into the past. Since this afforded TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 187 no cliance of seeing the cause first and the effect afterward, hut presup¬ posed a great amount of historical knowledge in order to judge by means of analogous cases from effect to cause, the teacher showed an example of how not to proceed. Having clearly established this fallacy he took up another period of history and proceeded to illustrate the contrary mode of teaching history by proving an evolutionary tendency, teaching history biologically, so to speak. This lesson would have been an excellent one had it not been marred by an overbearing conduct on the part of the teacher, who, regardless of the sensibilities of his students and of the presence of guests, scolded and used epithets that were out of place in the school room. The fourth lesson was in grammar. A finely inflected language, such as the German, affords better and much more logical treatment than the English ; hence good instruction could be expected, but that which was offered far surpassed the observer’s expectations. The sub¬ ject of copulative verbs was treated in a masterly way. Then followed a lesson in geography, the treatment of which was so antiquated that it called to mind the period of common-school teach¬ ing in which such tidbits of information were committed to memory, verbatim et literatim , as u Zenith and Nadir are two Arabic terms imparting their own signification.” The teacher conducted a veritable recitation (A verbal repetition of something committed to memory.— Webster.) The items asked for were so irrelevant, so disconnected, so illogical, that it seemed as though the minds of his students could not possibly profit by learning them. Now, if there is any branch of study in the curriculum of the common school calculated to develop the idea of cause and effect, it is geography. But what causal connection is therebetween the exact length of the river Elbe and the equally exact statement of the elevation of the u Hohe Tatra” in Hungary? The school inspector of the city, who had invited the visitor to this school, was so fully aware of the unsatisfactory teaching exhibited that he suggested to the teacher to take up one country, say Hungary, with respect to (a) topography, (b) climate, ( c ) soil, ( d ) inhabitants, [e) occu¬ pations, and to show that there exists a causal connection between them. However, the attempt made was futile, because it was evident that either the teacher himself did not know it or that he refrained from making the connection seen. Then followed two lessons so ideally excellent that they overshad¬ owed all the foregoing. The one was in zoology, the other in physics. Reptiles were considered in the former, magnetism was the subject of the latter. Zoology was taught with a true scientific spirit. The teacher did not presume to give information 5 but he led the boys by skillful questioning to find the knowledge themselves, and then express it in good language. For instance: u What makes our chest expand? Could it be done if all the ribs were grown to the breast bone, or all 188 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. the so-called false ribs were bone and not partly cartilage? What enables the snake to swallow animals thicker than its own body?7’ The structure of the snake’s skeleton was then hinted at, and the boys discovered the peculiarity of its ribs. The teacher of physics pro¬ ceeded with great tact and admirable skill in making facts the basis of theories, and leading the boys to use the theories in turn for the pur¬ pose of discovering facts. No text-book was used. Most of the teachers exhibited the delicate tact of the true gentle¬ man. They did not disregard the dignity of the young men, yet maintained their own authority in a masterly manner. From the con¬ duct of the students it was plainly seen whom of their teachers they respected and loved. A brief conference of teachers followed the day’s work and the work was discussed. One of the speakers laid much stress upon the point that it would seem a waste of energy to indulge the students who have a definite aim in view in doing anything that could in the least dissi¬ pate their attention from their future profession. It would lift them out of their grooves, etc., — the song is quite old and well known. Other speakers dwelled on the indisputable requirement of modern education, that all instruction should be directed, first, at the develop¬ ment of the natural talents, and, secondly, at special aims in life. Man is a human being before he is an officer, engineer, teacher, etc., and the more the human being is considered the better it will be for the state, society, and the individual. A visit to Ad, Diesterweg1 s former seat of activity (Moers, in Rhenish Prussia) caused disappointment. The school was not in session. The director of the institution informed the reporter of the course of study and methods generally pursued in Prussian normal schools. One fact gleaned from him is, that the managers of the Prussian normal schools are prohibited from reporting publicly upon the status and progress of their schools. Their written reports are examined by the provincial governments and filed away. Publications are issued only when a school celebrates an anniversary, and in that case a historical review is offered. From these publications little can be gleaned of the trends of normal-school education in Prussia. The best information concern¬ ing the currents of educational thought in normal schools is found in the educational press, which discusses timely questions with candor and much freedom. Another fact gleaned from the interview was, that Herbart’s Philoso¬ phy and Theory of Education is looked upon with little favor by the managers and teachers of normal schools; that the great majority of professors of “pedagogy” appear to lean toward Lotze, and hence, that the text-book on pedagogy used in more than 90 per cent of the Prus¬ sian normal schools clearly and distinctly disapproves of Herbart. The text-book is that of Ostermann and Wegner. ( See iv, Professional Study. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 189 In another normal school the reporter chanced to witness a senior student give a composition lesson in the practice department to boys of 12 years of age. The lesson was very similar to one of which Dr. M. Heidingsfeld (Liegnitz, province Silesia) gives an account in Lehrpro- ben und Lelirgaenge. It is here reproduced in English in order to illustrate a method of teaching language and composition worthy of note and imitation. The dying old lion. ( A composition lesson.) Lessing recommends tlie invention of AEsopiau fables as very fruitful composi¬ tion work for pupils of 11 to 13 years of age ‘ 1 not that I should try to make poets of our hoys, hut because it is incontrovertible that the medium by which fables are invented is the same which is applied by all inventors. This medium is the principle of reduction. But the application of this principle offers great difficulties. It demands extended knowledge of the particulars and of all the individual things upon which the reduction is to take x>lace. Even though this knowledge be not wanting it will be the wiser plan in the beginning to lead the pupils to find, or reinvent, rather than to invent the fable.” Such a trial — namely, to let my pupils find a fable — I made in a class of boys of 12 years, for the purpose of framing a narrative in composition work. It was a very successful effort. Lessing’s fable, “ The Dying Lion,” appeared to me the most suit¬ able subject. If I had read this fable to the boys their interest would soon have lagged during the subsequent conversation. This I prevented by the procedure hereafter set forth. When — after this preliminary discussion, during which the pupils found the fable, almost identically in words and expression — I read it as the poet had written it, it gave them great pleasure. With bated breath they compared their own production with that of a master mind. And now the lesson : Teacher. We will prepare a composition to-day. I have selected a fable for that purpose. What is a fable ? Pupil. A fable is a narrative in which the active persons are animals. Q. What animal often plays a role in fables? — A. The lion. Q. What is the lion usually called ? — A. King of the animals. Q. Why is he thus called? — A. Because he is the strongest and most beautiful ani¬ mal. Q. How do other animals look upon the lion? — A. They fear him. Q. Why? — A. Because he makes his superiority over them felt in a cruel manner. Q. Our fable tells us that an old lion, who had always been very cruel, lay power¬ less in front of his den, and expected death. The news of this spread rapidly among the other animals. Now, if they had loved him, what would have been the conse¬ quence? — A. They would have been sorry and have mourned his loss. Q. Do you think they had reason to do this? — A. No ; indeed not. Q. Tell in a general way the reason of their want of sorrow. — A. No one regrets the death of an enemy. Q. Give this thought in form of a question, introducing it with the word for. They did not pity him, for - . — A, They did not pity him, for who feels sorrow for the death of an enemy ? Q. Another pupil may try it. — A. - , for who would feel sorrow for the death of a peacebreaker in whose presence no one can feel secure ? The thoughts brought out are repeated. Q. Now, if the animals did not pity the old, dying lion, what do you think they felt? — A. Joy, to be sure; they felt uncommonly glad. Q. Why? — A. Because they hoped soon to be free of their cruel enemy. Q. State it differently. — A. They felt glad that they would soon get rid of him. 190 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Q. Do you think they hid their joy from the lion? — A. No. Q. Why not? — A. Because he could not punish them any more. Q. In what way do you suppose they expressed their joy? — A. By vexing, net¬ tling, and teasing him. Q. Mention some animals that often appear in fables, and which, it is reasonable to suppose, were there. — A. The fox. Q. Another? — A. The raven. Q. Well, yes; but we will leave the birds out of the play this time. Why? — A. Because they were not likely to feel a- grudge against the lion, never having been injured by him. Q. Name other animals. — A. The donkey. Q. Others.— A. The wolf, the horse. Q. Good; I will mention two more who happened to be there, the ox and the boar. How do you think the fox vexed the dying lion ?— A. He said : “ See, there lies our king, who so cruelly pursued us. A nice king he is, to be sure; he can’t even raise his head any more.” Q. And the donkey? — A. He kicked him with his foot. Q. With his hoof, you mean, do you not? And the wolf? — A. He bit the poor, dying fellow. » • Q. That is possible, but in other ways he may have expressed his malicious joy. — A. Yes; ho may have called him names. Q. Very well, and the ox? — A. Oh, he poked him in the ribs with his horns. Q. And the boar? — A. He gave him a kick. Q. No; I differ from you there. What weapon does the boar use in fighting? — A. His tusks. Q. Then we will say the boar dug his tusks into the lion’s sides. What would you term such an act? Was it noble and generous? — A. No; it was the act of a coward. Now that they were sure the lion could not defend himself they vented their spite. Q. You are aware that a fable always contains a precept or moral. What moral do you see in this one? — A. One should not revenge one’s self on an enemy who can not defend himself. Q. Will some one express it differently? — A. It is wrong to revenge yourself on an enemy who is no longer able to injure you. Q. Does the poet always himself express in words the moral of the fable? — A. No; sometimes it has to be guessed from what the actors do in the fable. Q. What do you say ? — A. I think sometimes one of the animals expresses the moral. Q. Which one of the animals surrounding the dying lion do you think expressed it? — A. I believe it was the horse. Q. Why? — A. Because it is always called a noble animal. Q. How did the horse come to express that moral? — A. It did not like to see the other animals treat the dying king so badly. Q. Yes, my son, the noble horse alone stood by and did not wound the lion with his hoofs any more than he pained him with biting words. What impression did this make upon the other animals? — A. It astonished them, and they asked the horse to show the king his contempt and punish him for his cruel treatment of former days. Q. What animal may have thus asked the horse? — A. The fox. Q. Possibly. What other animal ? — A. The donkey. Q. Why? — A. Because he is a relative of the horse. Q. Who can give a better reason? — A. Because horse and donkey bave the same mode of defense; they use their hoofs. Q. Well, yes, it was the donkey who asked the horse whether he would not also punish the lion for having once cruelly torn to pieces the horse’s mother. At what place in a fable is the moral usually found? — A. At the end. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 191 Q. Then who was it that spoke last? — A. The horse. Q, Then there remains to he stated the order in which the animals are to be men¬ tioned in the fable. How shall we arrange them? — A. According to their mode of revenge. Q. What difference do yon perceive in their modes of revenge? — A. Some revenged themselves with words; others by using violence. Q. Which ones used words? — A The fox and the wolf. Q. Which ones violence ? — A. Donkey, ox, and boar. Q. But, as we have seen, the donkey is the one to address the horse, so it will be better to mention ox and boar before the donkey. Whieh animal’s revenge seems to you the meanest of all? — A. That of the dpnkey. Q. Why? — A. Because he hits the lion from behind. Q. Yes ; the stupid ass does no.t even think the king worthy of a look. Now, state what order wo shall adopt. — A. We ought to begin with the most refined kind of revenge and end with the coarsest. Q. Why will this be the best arrangement? — A. It will bring out the generosity of the horse the more forcibly. The order observed by the poet was observed also by the pupils, to wit: “The wily fox revenged himself by sarcastic remarks and biting speeches; the wolf advanced with coarser ammunition; ox and boar applied violence ; but the donkey revenged himself in the meanest way — he expressed his contemj)t without looking at the lion, and only giving him a kick from behind.” Q. Now let ns select a fitting heading for our fable. What do you propose? — A. The Lion and the Animals. Q. What! all the animals? — A. No; the lion, the fox, the wolf, the ox, the boar, the donkey, and the horse. Q. But that would be too long a heading. Let us suggest another.— A. The Gen¬ erosity of the Horse. Q. Very good; but is not the lion the principal figure? — A. Well, we might say the Sick Lion. Q. I am afraid that is too narrow; it does not cover enough. The lion was not only sick. — A. He was also old. Q. If the lion had only been sick, I suspect the animals would not have dared to treat him as they did. — A. No; he might have gotten well again, and then have punished them. Q. Precisely; for that reason it seems best to select the heading, “The Dying Old Lion.” Now, I will read you the fable as Lessing wrote it. Listen: “An old lion, who had always been very cruel, lay powerless in front of his den, and awaited death. The animals who had feared him greatly did not pity him, for who would feel sorry for the death of a peace disturber, before whom no one can feel secure? The animals were glad to get rid of him. Some of them, who were still smarting under the wrongs he had done them in former days, now gave vent. to their hatred. The wily fox vexed him with sarcastic remarks; the wolf used coarser expressions ; the ox poked his horns into the lion’s sides, and the boar wounded him with his tusks ; even the lazy donkey gave him a kick with his hoof. The noble horse alone stood by calmly, and did nothing, although this lion had killed the horse’s mother. ‘Are you not going to give him a kick, too?’ asked the donkey. Solemnly the horse replied: ‘No, for I consider it villainous to revenge myself upon an enemy who can not injure me any longer.’” Q. Into how many parts may we divide the story? — A. In two — the revenge of the animals and the generosity of the horse. Q. Is not the revenge to be introduced by some statement which can explain it? — A. The condition of the lion. Q. So, then, we may count three parts. Which are they? — A. Condition of the lion; revenge of fox, wolf, ox, boar, and donkey; combict of the horse. 192 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Q. Now repeat the fable in your own words. Fred tell the first, Paul the second, Mas the third part. (It is done.) Now I will read it once more. Some one will narrate it again. After this the boys were told to write out the fable, and 1 need not assure my readers that it was done very well. A VISIT TO ANOTHER PRUSSIAN NORMAL SCHOOL. The building. — In a quiet, sleepy little town, connected by railways with large industrial centers, the Government has erected a large build¬ ing with two spacious wings for the special purpose of giving the nor¬ mal school of the district a suitable home. The structure is very fine, and reminds one of true American school architecture. Jt j^s l^rgg, handsome, commodious, well ventilated, and surrounded by extensive yards and gardens. The stairs and halls are covered with linoleum, the windows are large, the walls delicately tinted, and the general session room (used as a chapel) decorated with beautiful fresco borders and other ornaments. Altogether the building is one of the few worthy habitations of a teacher’s training school, particularly because it impresses the students with a correct idea of what a good school build¬ ing is or ought to be. Biblical history. — The writer passed a day in this school, and was well repaid for getting up at 0 o’clock a. m. on a raw winter day, traveling an hour on the railway, and calling on the rector before 8 o’clock — that is, in time for opening school. The first lesson he heard was one in biblical history. The rector had announced on the previous day that he would give a model lesson to youug pupils, in presence of the senior class of students. Indeed, it was a model lesson in more senses than he understood that technical term. The subject of the lesson was: “The wise men from the East following the star, and coming to Jerusalem to inquire of King Herod where the new-born King of the Jews might be found; then being told to go to Bethlehem, and there finding Jesus, giving Him their presents and worshiping Him.” The rector told the whole story in plain, unassuming words, such as the little pupils could understand. By such simple means as describ¬ ing the mode of traveling in the East; the poor, modest dwelling of the Holy Family, etc., he succeeded in creating vivid mental pictures. Then he questioned the little ones on a part of the story, namely, on the journey to Jerusalem and the inquiries of Herod. The rector’s skill in the art of questioning could not be adequately conveyed except by a stenographic report. After this part of the story was well worked over, and every incident explained, or called forth by leading questions, two pupils had to repeat the part, and they did it with singular faithful¬ ness as regards facts and expression. Errors of speech were corrected on the spot, but never in a humiliating way, nor so that the thread of the conversation was broken or tangled. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 193 Then the second part — Herod’s inquiries, the mention of the prophet Micah, the journey to Bethlehem, and the finding of Jesus — followed. In this part of the story the insincerity of Herod, and his evil intentions were dwelt upon, and a distress could be noticed on the faces of the youngsters when they heard that a king should so debase himself as to say one thing and mean another. Again, all the minute details of this part of the narrative were brought out by skillful questioning, and the answers were very faithful, both in regard to facts and expression. Again, as before, a review was had in connected repetition. The third part was treated likewise, and here the presents, gold, incense, and myrrh, gave rise to a pretty explanation, childlike but all- sufficient. After this part was repeated, a general review followed. One little boy told one part, another the second, a third the last; and the singular faithfulness with which they repeated whole sentences in almost identically the same words could only be attributed to the consistency with which the rector had clung to these expressions all through the lesson. Then he concluded by showing a handsome illus¬ tration in which the Holy Family, the wise men, the servants, the camels, the star, the presents, etc., were shown. This fixed every item of the whole story in the memory of the little ones. All through the. masterly lesson the seniors sat apparently with bated breath, making notes now and then. When the little ones were dis¬ missed, the students were questioned as to what they had heard. Object of the lesson, means employed, psychological references, methods, principles of method, I know not what words to use to give my readers an adequate idea of how that model lesson was analyzed. The rector gave the students free scope to express their judgment. It seemed that if any of these young men did not take away treasures of knowledge, of skill in handling a class, and methodical treatment of matter, it cer¬ tainly was not the fault of the rector and his pupils. Literature. — The second lesson heard was a lesson in German litera¬ ture. It began with the reading of a composition upon Lessing’s u Minna von Barnhelm ,” the first distinctly German drama. Though the diction of the student was faulty at times the composition was unquestiotfably an original effort of rare merit. The professor (not the rector) proceeded in his criticism Avitli that delicacy which is the dis¬ tinctive sign of a thoroughbred gentleman. It was obvious that the most friendly relations existed between him and the students. JSTe\7er- theless he spoke very much to the point, and the students assisted him in correcting with praiseworthy zeal. The vistas which were opened to the students in the realm of German literature were wide and pleasant. There was nothing of that gnaw¬ ing at the shell, or of that splitting of hairs, which is sometimes observed in the teaching of literature, where the students never get to see the forest on account of the multitude of trees. In short, the lesson was characteristic, inasmuch as it was free from that petty, ed 92 - 13 194 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. annoying criticism indulged in wliere conformity with the exact text of the hook is the criterion of successful study. This professor was a master in the art of questioning such as is rarely met. Altogether the lesson left a pleasant impression, and the conclusion was that the students would, later in life, do very well to copy their teacher. Natural history. — The next lesson heard was one in zoology. And here again, as so often in Germany, the principle illustrated was that observation is the foundation of cognition. Birds were studied like that proverbial fish of Agassiz. Stuffed birds were available in large numbers. Colored pictures assisted where objects were wanting; and the lesson proceeded as one would wish every lesson in zoology to proceed: (1) Actual observation established percepts; (2) several of these formed concepts; (3) these then were grouped by collecting the essentials and dropping minor items to establish clear-cut ideas. The latter were well expressed. When a number of them were available conclusions were drawn from them. Thus the process of gathering knowledge and strengthening the thinking power was successfully exemplified. Some of the steps taken were superfluous, it seemed, in a class of adults, but it was the evident desire of the professor to make these young men learn in precisely the way in which they are to cause young children to learn afterward. It was with much curiosity that I heard the students state their observations of domestic birds. We are very apt to think that we know all about them, and that in zoology the attention should be directed to the birds which the children are never likely to see. This lesson converted one to the opinion that we know much less of domestic birds than we think we do. It was with much curiosity that the writer heard the students state the difference in the mode of drinking between pigeons and chickens, to wit, that the pigeon sucks water by keeping its beak almost closed and causing a vacuum in the throat, while the hen dips or ladles water with the lower part of the beak and then raises its head to let the water run down into the craw. rI he causes were looked for and found in the peculiar build of the beaks of the different birds. Monogamy among the pigeons, polygamy among the fowls, the peculiar flight of pigeons, swallows, and other birds which Was traced to the form of the wings and feathers, and various other things of great interest were brought out, all of which gave opportunity for tracing effect back to cause,- and to judge from cause to effect. This kind of instruction is very interesting, and as different from the old-time zoology lessons as day is from night. No text-book in zoology, botany, or mineralogy was used, but each pupil had an atlas which contained at least several thousands of exquisite illustrations of natural objects, accompanied by a few pages of print containing a table of con¬ tents and a key to pronunciation. Dra wing . — The drawing lesson seen was poor and the results meager. This department was evidently the weakest point in the institution. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 195 Music. — A lesson on tlie church organ gave a fair sample of the thoroughness with which the students are prepared for organist’s serv¬ ice in church. Each student, as his turn came to play a hymn, was told to play a prelude of his own composition. Thus, for instance, if the hymn was written in D major, he would start in E major and, by way of seventh chords, try to reach D through A. Or, beginning at O major, he would go upward through D into G, and then through A into D. These were some of the easiest preludes. This practice made the young men free and easy at the instrument. But the pedal proved full of pitfalls, as it naturally will to beginners. After three years of daily practice, good results are obtained. Geography. — Then followed a lesson in geography, in which a pro¬ fessor illustrated the principle of concentric instruction, by drawing into this lesson history, physics, meteorology, etc,, and thus making the lesson have connection with many other branches of study. Through all his visits in German schools the writer had not had the chance of hearing a lesson in the geography of the United States. Here fortune favored him, and the readers may imagine his pleasure when he heard Washington pronounced Uashington, and not Vashington ; New York, not JYoy York; Maine, not Mine , etc. It was a very pleasant surprise to him. He inquired whether the teacher spoke English, and, upon receiving a negative answer, inquired how it came that he pronounced the English and American geographical names correctly. The answer was: We are careful in looking up the pronounciation, for we insist upon pronouncing each name correctly. As there can he but one correct pronunciation of the name of the river Spree, namely, Spray (else Berlin would he constantly “on a spree”), so there can he hut one correct pronunciation of Ohio, namely, Ohio, not Oheeo, as we Germans might he tempted to pronounce it. We are aware of the fact that English- speaking nations Anglicize all geographical names. This we consider wrong. We follow the golden rule, “Do as you would he done by.” Of course, ignorance may excuse a man’s mispronunciation, hut a teacher who excused himself hy claiming not to know how Frenchmen pronounce their geographical names, or Americans theirs, deserves to he dismissed. A review of the politic d geography of the Union led to an historical outlook upon its rapid growth, and there teacher and pupils revealed a familiarity with American history which brought the lamentable ignor¬ ance of the average American teacher regarding German history into bold relief. Our remoteness makes us rather exclusive, and it is well to call attention to it, and make us measure ourselves by the standards of others. As a rule, we find less ignorance concerning America among teachers in Germany than among French teachers — a statement which, it is hoped, is readily believed. The teacher in this grade was a gentle¬ man of the highest type, who treated his students like gentlemen, and never intentionally or otherwise wounded their sensibilities. Arithmetic. — Then followed a lesson in arithmetic. Percentage was the subject of discussion. Problems were solved orally with a rapidity which fairly left the visitor behind. He asked jiermission to put a few 196 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. questions to the students, and among other things asked them to tell how they would begin the study of percentage, and at what age in the course ? The answer was very gratifying, to wit, expressions couched in the term u per cent” might be taught in connection with reduction of fractions. Thus, for instance, the children might be taught that one-fourth is equal to twenty-five hundredths, or twenty-five parts of one hundred. The subsequent practice of percentage would thus receive an early foundation. Daily programme. — Passing through the hall the writer copied the characteristic items of the daily programme to give his readers a fair sample of how to get sixteen hours’ work out of twenty-four : 6 to 6:30. — Rising, dressing, washing. • 6:30 to 7:30. — Preparing lessons under supervision. 7:30 to 7:50. — Breakfast. 7:50 to 8. — Opening exercises in chapel. 8 to 1. — Lessons and experimental teaching. 1 to 1:30.— Dinner. 1:30 to 2. — Playing and walking in the grounds. 2 to 5. — Lessons in academic department. 5 to 6. — Practice in instrumental music. 6 to 7. — Outdoor exercises. 7 to 7:30. — Supper. 7:30 to 9:30. — Working in class-rooms under supervision. 9:50 to 10. — Evening prayer. 10.— Retiring. CHAPTER VII. THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM— AN HISTORICAL AND STA¬ TISTICAL REVIEW.1 (After Dr. O. Hunziker’s Expos6 for the Columbian World’s Fair.) CONTENTS. Introduction. — General view. — I. Historical development. (A) During the Middle Ages. ( B ) Period of the original thirteen cantons. (C) Period of centralized gov¬ ernment. (D) Napoleonic era. (E) Time of restoration. (F) Period of regener- ' ation. (G) From 1848 to the present time. — II. Present condition of the Swiss schools. (A) Organization, (i) Elementary, (n) Secondary , professional, and higher institutions. ( B ) Expenditure. (C) Supervision. (D) Hygiene. (E) Teachers. ( F) Statistics. Introduction. Switzerland is a democratic federal republic, consisting of twenty-two states or cantons, each of which manages its own local affairs, while the Federal Government attends, as with ns, to those affairs that pertain to the whole country. Area, 15,976 square miles; population, according to census of 1888, 2,933,334 (183 to the square mile), of which, however, only 2,917,740 were residents. The can¬ tons are named in German and French, as follows : 1. Zurich . . Zurich. 13. Zug . . . _ Zoug. 2. Bern . — _ _ Berne. 14. Freiburg . - Fribourg. 3. Luzern . . Lucerne. 15. Solothurn . .... Soleure. 4. Uri . . Uri. 16 ! i Basel-Stadt . ... .Bale-V. 5. Schwyz . . Schwyz. ' Basel-Land . ...Bale-C. 6 \ Obwalden . . le Haut. 17. Schaff hausen . _ Schaff house. Nidwalden . 18 1 i Appenzell a. Rh . . . _ Appenzell ext. 7. St. Gallen . . St. Gall. 1 Ajipenzell i. Rh .. . _ Ajipenzell int. 8. Aargau . 19. Graub linden . - Grisons. 9. Tessin . . Tessin. 20. Tliurgau . . . . ..Thurgovie. 10. Wallis . . Valais. 21. Waadt . . _ Vaud. 11. Genf . . Geneve. 22. Neuenburg . . _ Neufchatel. 12. Glarus . . Glaris. From this list we see that the political division of Switzerland into 22 cantons is not congruent with the number of school cantons, for three of the cantons ( see Nos. 6, 16, and 18) are divided into two semi¬ cantons each, which makes the number of school cantons 25. The German language is spoken by the majority of inhabitants in 15 cantons, the French in 5 cantons, the Italian in one, and the Romansch *By Dr. L. R. Klemm, Specialist in German Education. 197 19,8 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. in one; or 2,092,530 inhabitants of Switzerland speak German, 637,972 speak French, 156,606 Italian, and 38,375 Romansch. The number of those who speak two, or even three languages is very great, but can not be ascertained from the census. GENERAL VIEW. Switzerland has no national school system ; that is, a system of ele¬ mentary and secondary schools established and maintained by the Federal Government; neither has it a federal school law. The constitu¬ tion of the Federation, however, prescribes that — (1 ) The Federal Government has the right to establish a polytech- nicum, a federal university, and other institutions of higher instruction, or to subsidize institutions of such character. (2) The separate states or cantons must provide for sufficient ele¬ mentary instruction under exclusive state supervision. This instruc¬ tion is obligatory, and in public schools gratuitous. The public schools must be open for all religious denominations without restriction to their liberty of faith and conscience. (3) The Federal Government is empowered to take the proper meas¬ ures to enforce this provision in cantons that fail to fulfill their duty. (4) Liberty of faith and conscience is inviolable. Ho one may be coerced to become a member of a religious body, attend any religious instruction, or participate in religious exercises. According to the foregoing principle, parental authority or that of the guardian provides for or directs the religious education of children up to the sixteenth year of age. Within these limits fixed by the Federal Constitution, each of the cantons and semicantons established and arranged a public school system according to its own laws and special needs or intentions. Hence it is plain that the little country, having a smaller area than the two States, Vermont and Massachusetts, taken together, and a popu¬ lation almost equal to that of Vermont, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island taken together, has a great variety of school systems no two of which are identical, yet all of which are similar, for nearly all the various systems follow essentially the same principles, especially in the reformed cantons Sch a ff hausen, St. Gallen, Thurgau, Zurich, Aargau, Solothurn, Berne, Waadt, Basel, and others. Perhaps the greatest differences to be observed are found to exist between the French and the German cantons, but these differences chiefly refer to secondary and higher institutions of learning, scarcely to elementary schools. A state of affairs such as this is not new to us, since the same condi¬ tions prevail in our country, where every State is left to establish, main¬ tain, and regulate its own school system. Yet the absolute publicity in matters of public interest causes a similarity in efforts and results which prevents confusion. It is thus in all governmental relations and public affairs. We see a reform in balloting, for instance, begun in one THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 199 State and continued in others whose legislative bodies imitate the measure taken elsewhere. It is reasonable to suppose that the various laws that make the application of the Australian ballot system manda¬ tory show slight variations, yet the essential features of that system are secured by all these laws. Movements that are likely to prove of general benefit to the public are supported by the people of the whole Union without regard to State boundaries. A similar procedure is witnessed in the schools. Though no two State school laws of the Union are identically alike, and though with regard to their organiza¬ tion even vital differences may be perpetuated by these laws, yet it is not difficult to state in general lines the objects, methods, and results of the American public school which is thus spoken of as though it were a homogeneous institution or a uniform system. Mr. Morf, a well-known Swiss writer on educational questions, says in Der Lehrer Leumund : One of the most splendid results of popular education is the awakening and foster¬ ing of the beautiful and grand idea of humanity, the inrportance of the human being as such. It is not so very long ago that the people were left ignorant of their powers in the State. History knew nothing of the existence of the mass, except when it was assembled on the battlefield to fight for the interest and the glory of its lords. The aim and object of the State have changed; they are not now the pomp, glory, or pleasure of a few, but the welfare and rights of all. Formerly the Govern¬ ment was in Switzerland, as it is still in other countries, an inherited monopoly, pro¬ tected by the theory of the divine right. At present in Switzerland offices and honors are open to competition; they fall to him in whose hands the people consider their rights most securely protected. Formerly the activity of our Government had no higher object than to secure and preserve the privileges and property of a few. Now it aims at granting everyone the means to make his life woith living, and to secure to him the undisturbed enjoy¬ ment of human rights. Our modern codes do not contain the word privileges (pri¬ vate rights). This is the stream of modern life, and the common school has aided essentially in clearing away its obstructions. Some people who view this broad stream look upon it as a wild flood that causes vast destruction; we see in it a bless¬ ing, a river that waters the desert and changes it to fertile land. But in whatever way we may consider it, as a destructive flood or a beneficent current, the powerful Gurrent is there; it can not be stemmed or dammed; no human power can turn it back. The wealth of aptitudes and creative power latent in the mass of humanity is without limit. Popular education is bound to free them. It not only seeks to do so but does it. It purposes to make the intellect and the deep, glowing love for all that is good, noble, and beautiful the rulers and the foremost great powers of the world. The great importance of the present rational elementary school instruction lies in the fact that it exercises and strengthens the powers of the mind. The so-called old school offered a quantity of knowledge and a certain degree of skill, but it left the mind undeveloped. Formerly the acquisition of knowledge was the aim; now it is regarded as a means. Knowledge is now acquired incidentally, as it were, in the effort at awakening and strengthening the mind and fostering the inborn faculties. This school is young with us, as it is in all other countries ; it is scarcely sixty years old. Let it grow to be a hundred or two hundred years, and it will give to the people what the highest pedagogical authorities have promised — a new heaven and a new earth. That our people (I am speaking here of the canton of Ziirich) have recognized the importance of the common school, may be seen from the fact that the maintenance of the Schools costs 18 francs, or $3.70, per inhabitant. 200 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. I. — Historical Development of the Swiss School System. A. — DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. The Swiss school system has had the same beginnings that the systems in other central European countries have had — that is, first, convent, cathedral, and parochial schools, founded by the clergy, followed in later centuries by secular schools in cities, established by municipal authority. In preserving and nurturing science after the ravages of the great migration the order of St. Benedict was specially meritori¬ ous. Later orders followed ascetic methods, hence do not deserve attention in this connection. During the time of the Carlo vingians it was the school of the monastery in Reichenau which added materi¬ ally to the preservation of culture. Walafried Strabo (died 849 A. D.) left us a vivid and interesting description of this school. During the tenth and eleventh centuries the abbey of St. Gallen was a center of culture for the whole of southern Germany. In Burgundian, now French Switzerland, the abbey of St. Maurice (founded in the fifth century) was an ancient seat of monastic culture. In the seventh century Bomainmotiers in Yaud, St. Ursanne and Mon- tier-Grandval in Berne were famous. In Allemannian, now German Switzerland, besides St. Gallen and Reiclienau, which were foundations of the eighth century, the abbeys of Beromiinster, Einsiedeln (tenth century), and Engelberg (twelfth century) must be mentioned. In Ratia, or Italian Switzerland, the abbeys Disentis (seventh century), St. Luci, near Chur (seventh century), and Munster (eighth century) are worthy of note. The cathedral schools of Geneva, Lausanne, Con¬ stance, and Chur at times promoted the education of the clergy with great zeal and success. This era of flourishing ecclesiastical culture, lasting as it did far into the time of the crusades, was followed by the fierce contests between emperors and popes and similar struggles between the ecclesiastical and secular principalities, and in consequence the education of the priests degenerated. Even in St. Gallen, in 1298, the abbot and the majority of the monks were unable to write, likewise, in 1335, all the canons of St. Felix and Regula in Zurich, except one. The Latin school in this institution was no longer taught by Brother Scholasticus of the order, but by a nonresident teacher, who received a salary. Many cities had such Latin schools, mostly supported by the cathe¬ drals and monastic orders. Besides these there arose during the latter part of the Middle Ages a number of schools in which the vernacular of the place was the medium of instruction; they were called writing schools and were taught by traveling schoolmasters. The calendar of Zurich of 1508 calls it a laudable and desirable custom to teach writing and reading to children from 6 to 12 years of age before they begin to learn trades. Outside of the walls of the cities and abbeys school education was not to be found. THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 201 During the second half of the fifteenth century the liberal wave of humanistic study had entered Switzerland, and at the same time the art of printing opened new channels for the diffusion of knowledge. Basel began to be a shining light of learning owing to the university founded in 1460 and the efforts of the famous learned printers, Froben and Amerbach. Such industrial and intellectually striving cities as Zurich did not have a printing office for thirty years after Basel had set the example. Geneva, however, followed Basel at once by establishing a printing office, aud the remote abbey of Beromiinster claimed to have published the first printed book in Switzerland in 1470. The claim has subsequently proved erroneous. B. — THE PERIOD OF THE 13 CANTONS, 1513-1798. A few years after Appenzell had been admitted into the confedera¬ tion of sovereign cantons, and thus the confederation had reached the extent it preserved up to the time in which it was demolished, Switz¬ erland began to make efforts in behalf of church reformation, which efforts were strongly supported by Zurich and in fact emanated from there. The cantons divided sharply on religious questions, and con¬ tests and competition arising from these questions essentially influ¬ enced the further development of Swiss civilization. In the schools the religious or ecclesiastical interest became much more prominent than it had been in previous centuries. The great church reformers estimated the schools according to their value, for the church took them into its service and reorganized them, as well as the whole State, according to religious ideas. Hence the higher schools established or remodeled by the reformers (the “Lectorium” of Zwingli in Zurich, the u Academy” of Calvin in Geneva, 1559) were at first theological seminaries exclusively. But as early as 1541 the Zurich institution opened its doors for a professor of natural sciences, and that in Geneva reserved three hours a week for mathematics and physics, and temporarily a chair for medical science was occupied. One of the results of the Reformation consisted in attracting renowned teachers to the universities, also in building up a complete system of higher education from the Latin or preparatory school to the university (or academy as it was called), and lastly, in making higher studies accessible to the poor strata of society. Zwingli’s liberal conception of a broad basis of education that prompted him to extend the system of preparatory or Latin schools to the country (he founded schools at Kappel, Riiti, and Stein) did not find much favor in a subsequent generation, for during the middle of the century these schools fell victims to the current of the time which leaned toward founding and maintaining German schools. Higher education became and remained for a long time “an orna¬ ment of the cities.’7 Thenarrowmindedness of the Protestant popu¬ lation, expressed in the cantonal governments, allowed higher educa- 202 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. tion to become a city monopoly. This exclusiveness was not found in Catholic cantons,' where the free entrance to the ecclesiastical profes¬ sion was promoted by the monasteries. The colleges of the Jesuits, which sprang into existence with an almost elementary force about the same time, led to a beneficial competition between Catholic and Protestant seats of higher education. While the great reformers bestowed much care upon the Latin schools and higher education, the documents in the city archives give no evidence whatever that they also favored and promoted popular education on the basis of the mother tongue. Yet it is plainly notice¬ able that popular education received the strongest impetus through the Reformation in Switzerland as well as in other countries. “The con¬ trasts arising in matters of faith created intellectual life, and the desire to confirm the teachings of the new faith in the growing genera¬ tion.” The sermons from the pulpit were soon supplemented by regular instruction in catechism, especially to children. The services in church were fashioned to meet their understanding, hence divine services were conducted for children separate from those for adults. These juvenile services were obligatory, and extended to young people of 18 to 20 years of age, in some cases even to all unmarried. The Bible became a domestic reading book; a large part of the Psalms, Proverbs, and Biblical stories became common property. The principle of the Reformation which did away with priestly medi¬ ation between man and divinity required that each one be responsible to himself concerning the truth of his faith, i. e., its conformity with Holy Writ. This requirement became more powerful as the constant controversies between Protestant and Catholic theologians, as well as the contests between church tenets and dissenting views that arose in opposition to the clergy, kept the people in suspense and turmoil. Thus the desire to spread the arts of reading and writing grew rapidly. The importance of the church reformation for popular education lies in the fact that it not only promoted the establishment of elementary schools in cities, improved their condition, their course of study and methods of instruction, but also that it carried school education beyond the city walls into the open country and created a desire among the peasants to learn reading and writing. In the cities the beginnings of vernacular schools had everywhere been made, but now these schools were made to serve ecclesiastical purposes. It was done by subjecting them to church supervision, or at least by allowing the ministers of the church to participate in their supervision. In the open country and villages elementary schools developed from the Sun day instruction in church. The synod of Zurich in a circular letter to the clergy of Berne in 1562 closed with the advice “not to spare time or efforts in behalf of the young.” This proves how earnestly the pastors considered the care for elementary instruction to be an essential part of their duties. THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 203 The great start popular education made in the Protestaut cantons induced the Catholic Church to similar efforts. The resolutions of the Council of Trent with reference to the establishment of schools for the young were brought nearer their execution’ by Episcopal orders in 1564. Thus m the democratic cantons of original Switzerland (Ur- schweiz) a system of rural elementary schools was established in a com¬ paratively short time. Much less favorable were the prospects in the rural districts of the so-called Catholic city cantons. Solothurn (or Soleure) was the only canton whose government bestowed attention upon education in the open country and granted financial aid to good teachers. In the districts belonging to Freiburg, Luzerne, and other towns, over which Zurich and Berne had no influence, the rural school system w'as either left undeveloped or was totally neglected. This state of affairs continued till the ancient confederation broke to pieces in 1798. The reaction caused by the devastation of the terrible thirty-years’ war in central European culture was spared to Switzerland. But the social turmoil caused by the cruel peasants’ war had a partial reaction upon the rural schools. Thus the government of the Catholic canton Solo¬ thurn, that had done much for the maintenance of schools, resolved as follows: “It is left free to the peasants to keep schoolmasters, but the lords of the manors will no longer contribute to their support.” In the Protestant . city cantons the school regulations of the first half of the eighteenth century are, Avith exception of unessential variations, copies of those in vogue during the seventeenth century. Under such circumstances it can scarcely be called an advantage that the clergy in the rural districts and villages withdrew from the actual business of teaching and left it to secular teachers. The school did not gain in reputation thereby, and it was moreover remoATed from the good will of the ruling powers, since the latter were essentially religious. But as a foundation of subsequent development of the schools this change was of the most A-itsl importance. The profession of teaching, and the people’s school, became thus a subject of inde¬ pendent interest, and the intellectual movement (the era of enlighten¬ ment) that characterized the second half of the eighteenth century did not hesitate to take hold of the problem of popular education with enthusiasm and persistence, a thing that would have been impossible if the schools had still been appendages of the church and teaching a function of the pastors. Indeed, the last few decades of the eighteenth century manifested great efforts in behalf of popular education. We notice in all the cantons beginnings of school reform borne by popular will and proving to be spontaneous. The reform of the whole school system of Zurich, during the years from 1765 to 1774, is remarkable, not so much for its results and immediate improvements, as by the zeal and enthusiasm with which the clergy and statesmen studied the existing conditions 204 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. and the means of improvement, in order to create a system that should be a model for other cantons. The Helvetian Society (founded in 1761) offered its hall and moral aid to the school reformers. The seminary Holdenstein-Marschlins (founded 1761 by Martin Planta), gave a shining example of natural education for higher classes, sev¬ eral years previous to the opening of the Pliilanthropin in Dessau, Germany. It is well known how much sympathetic interest Pestalozzi found among the Bernese mayors (Landvogte) of the vicinity, when he made his educational attempts at Ueuliof. In the convents of Kreuzlingen and St. Urban, Felbiger’s methods were introduced, and the publica¬ tion of text-books and appliances in accordance with them was pushed zealously. Suitable candidates and teachers were prepared by special courses of instruction. Yet, despite all these laudable attempts, the result consisted more in lamentations over the inadequacy of existing institutions than in tangible results. The people had become pain¬ fully conscious of the low condition of education, and groped vainly for remedies that would improve the entire system. For, generally speaking, the Swiss school system at the close of the eighteenth century, even in the most progressive cantons, stood on a lower plane of development than that of many a principality in Ger¬ many at that time. The rural schools were open in winter only; here and there school was kept a few half days per week in. summer. The teachers were frequently not in possession of the most scanty elemen¬ tary knowledge ; they were dependent upon the pastor of the place, poorly paid, supported chiefly by tuition fees which they had to collect themselves. They were often obliged to ply a trade, or serve as sacristan in church to increase their scanty income. Their election was nearly always determined by exterior causes (such as being a resident, in needy circumstances, and having a suitable room that could be used for school purposes) than by their professional prepara¬ tion and moral character. Few localities had their own school houses; the rooms used for school purposes often served as workshops and as a part of the family dwelling. Here and there the school was an ambulatory one, hence the necessity arose to board the schoolmaster, who spent one week at each house or settlement. To institute general attendance at school of all the children of a district was impossible, owing to inadequate provision for seating all. There were scarcely beginnings made in methodical treatment of the matter of instruction, or the grading of pupils, in providing for proper seats and suitable appliances for teaching. This is the picture of the Swiss rural school system, as it appeared in 1799, in the replies to queries sent out by the minister of state, Mr. Stapfer. In small towns the circumstances were not much better. The cause of such a disproportion between conception and execution lay in the prevailing idea concerning the relation of the state to the THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 205 schools in Switzerland as well as in other countries. The eighteenth century generally considered the state’s duty to consist essentially in organizing public order and securing safety; civilizing agencies such as public education, were thought to lie outside the pale of the state, and given over into the hands of the church, securing only the state’s natural right of supervision. The state’s budget was in no wise adapted to maintain and promote education. The conviction that it was the moral duty of the state to provide means for schools, was lack¬ ing entirely; and we have eloquent proofs of the fact, that the imperial decree, dated Vienna, October 13, 1770, which characterized the school system to be a “politicum,” was considered novel and revolutionary. The idea of using public lands for school purposes and for raising means for their support, was considered wrong, u one which no well- wishing citizen would ever entertain ” (words of Antistes XJIrich of Zurich in his memorial on improving the rural schools, 1776). Hence voluntary contributions for the purchase of urgent necessities were called for and liberally spent, but of course were inadequate for a thorough reform of the whole system. This patchwork with insuffi¬ cient means, attempted with the best of intentions and good will, was going on when the great revolution took place that shattered the ancient confederation and erected in its place a unified State, “The Helvetian Republic, one and indivisible.” C. — THE PERIOD OF CENTRALIZED GOVERNMENT, 1798-1803. The French revolution abruptly changed the conception of the rela tion between state and school. It was a natural consequence of its current, directed as it was, against the church, and wherever the revo¬ lutionary ideas entered, the school became a subject of governmental concern. To this was added another consideration : The revolution felt in the very beginning theneed of giving expression to the humane prin¬ ciples of the era of enlightenment in which it had its origin, and of replacing the traditional and historically developed, but always inade¬ quate social and political institutions, with finished, systematic consti¬ tutions. It would have been a disavowal of its most ideal aspirations, if it had not recognized the duty of enlightening the citizens, and hence caring for public education of the young. Switzerland also, which was remodeled in 1798 into a unified state according to the French model, adopted a constitution which expressed the principles mentioned, that is, that the state assumed the duty of enlightenment and public education. The first draft of the constitution (an imitation of the French directorial constitution) written by Peter Ochs in 1798, sounded rather theoretical and abstract: Article 4. The two bases of the public weal are security and enlightenment. Enlightenment is preferable to wealth. But the constitution opened a chance for the appointment of a min¬ ister of arts and sciences, and how abidingly this man has impressed 208 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. public consciousness with the state’s duty toward education, may be seen from the fact, that all subsequent constitutions and drafts of con¬ stitutions (for they were changed frequently) during the time of cen¬ tralized government, touch upon education strongly. Under the most difficult circumstances, at a time when Switzerland was the seat of wars carried on by foreign powers, and face to face with destitution and misery, and at a time, moreover, when fierce internal political contests made abiding order impossible, the founda¬ tion of a national Swiss school system was to be established. And it was done. The u directorium ” (executive) appointed, May, 1798, a minister of arts and sciences, Mr. Phillip Albrecht Stapfer, of Brugg. When he in 1800 was sent to Paris as ambassador of Switzerland his successor, Mr. Melchior Mohr, of Lucerne, continued Stapfer’s work in the direction in which it was begun. Stapfer’s leading idea was : uWe must prove to the world that from our revolution arises a gain for true human culture.” As early as November 18, 1798, the Government (directorium) sub¬ mitted to the legislative council a bill concerning the lower city schools, which bill had been prepared by Stapfer, who aimed at a uniform system of elementary people’s schools for the whole country. These elementary schools he intended to lead up to a system of intermediate or citizens’ schools, over which should be placed the reorganized classical second¬ ary schools, and as apex to the pyramid he designed a national central school for higher education. The bill was read and discussed for the first time in the spring of 1799, was then referred to a committee, and there was neglected. Nevertheless, Stapfer began the work of reorganization with a will. He was empowered by the executive to take the most necessary measures toward reform, hence elections were ordered for cantonal educational councilors (state commissioners) and school inspectors, and Stapfer, with the permission of the executive, issued instructions for these officials. These instructions are a beautiful monument not only of his enthusiasm and pedagogical insight, but also of his honest endeavors to win over public opinion in favor of school reform, without regard to politics, by perfect candor in reference to his own ideas and by a sympathetic consideration of every suggestion arising from interest in imhlic education. His instructions are conspicuous by an utter absence of bureaucratic flavor. They have reference to things the importance of which only the present time has learned to value, as, for instance, control of hygienic measures. In order to obtain a clear statement of the conditions of the Swiss schools he had printed a circular letter, in 1799, containing a number of plain questions. The letter was sent to every school-teacher in Switzerland. During the year 1800 the replies arrived with few excep¬ tions. They form an invaluable source of information concerning the condition of the schools at that time. Stapfer made repeated endeavors THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 207 to establish professional courses for teachers, and supported and aided his secretary, Fischer, in Castle Burgdorf in his efforts at elevating the teachers. He it was, also, who by constant reminders induced the central Government to aid Pestalozzi in his enterprises. It is one of the best features of the Helvetian Government that, though it at times failed to know where to get the money for the most pressing needs, it hacked Pestalozzi with firm confidence. The appropriations for the orphan asylum in Stans were ample. For his attempts in the elementary school at Burgdorf the Gov¬ ernment paid Pestalozzi a small salary; he owed to this same Government the security with which he could pursue his educational experiments, by having the free use of the castle at Burgdorf. The Government aided him further financially in pre¬ paring candidates for the teacher’s profession, that is, with a sum quite considerable in comparison with other appropriations. This same Helvetian central Government, during the last few months of its existence in 1803 enabled Pestalozzi to publish his schoolbooks by paying him a handsome subsidy. It acted as a godfather to Pesta- lozzi’s work, and whatever was free from the dross of political confusion during this Helvetian period, its genuine ideal aspiration has been saved for future generations by Pestalozzi ; it has subsequently become a positive gain for Switzerland and the whole of humanity. The Helvetian Government laid at least certain foundations upon which the future could build. Its resolutions of December 4-6, 1800, prescribed that every community should be obliged to furnish a school¬ room and the proper amount of fuel to keep school open during the winter, and to pay a teacher a salary of at least 80 francs per annum. Compulsory education was decreed, making it the duty of every father to send his children and wards to school during the winter. D. — THE NAPOLEONIC ERA, 1803-1813. THE TIME OF MEDIATION. The seed planted by the Helvetian centralized Government began to germinate during the quiet decade following the overthrow of that Gov¬ ernment and the adoption of a constitution March 10, 1803, which decentralized the union and made of it what it formerly was, a confed¬ eration of states. Now that the form of unity was broken, the men who had served Stapfer as lieutenants began to agitate the school question in the separate states or cantons. Most of the school laws passed by the legislative bodies of the cantons, and the regulations decreed by the various executive authorities, all are characterized by the idea that the care for the education of the young is u indispensable and one of the highest objects of the state,” ua holy duty of the government.” It had become obvious that the idea of the state’s neutrality in matters of public education, prevalent before 1798, was untenable. However, the amounts that the states thought themselves able to speud for the school system were measured out very economically. All the greater was the enthusiasm of private citizens. A great number of institutions arose in cities and in the country for the purpose of affording the sons of well to-do families a better education than hitherto. Pesta- lozzi’s educational enterprise at Y verdun became popular and very suc¬ cessful. It soon became the place of pilgrimage for native and foreign 208 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. educators. In Hofwyl Fellenberg established that system of institutions in which he hoped to conjure the threatening social crisis by means of better education of all classes of society. In Freiburg Pater Girard suc¬ ceeded, through the charm of his personality and the clearness of his method, in elevating the city schools to a degree of perfection which enabled them to compete with Yverdun. Rural pastors, prompted by the supreme need of well-prepared teachers, established professional courses for them; these courses proved to be remarkably beneficial if the circumstances of the time are considered. Higher education also took part in this patriotic revival, partly by the foundation of vigorous state (cantonal) schools (such as in Aarau and Chur). Finally, Pestalozzi succeeded in founding the Swiss Educational Association. It met first in 1808 in Lenzburg, and brought together many men who had hitherto worked single-handed in their respective localities, and this society became the central source of educational enthusiasm for Switzerland. When in 1812 its fifth annual meeting adjourned the members were filled with the joyous hope of a blessed time of peace and progress, and had no foreboding of the terrific events that were to take place in Europe in 1813, events which not only overthrew Napoleon and readjusted the map of Europe, but ended abruptly the activity of the Swiss Educational Association as well as the blessed time of mediation in Switzerland. E. — THE TIME OF RESTORATION, 1813-1830, The downfall of Napoleon led to a reorganization of the political institutions of Switzerland, which reorganization found approval very slowly. The sovereignty of the cantons was reestablished in almost absolute form. The Federation was now a powerless union of states, though W allis, Neuenburg, and Geneva were added permanently. After all the efforts and restless activity exhibited during the Napoleonic era, the desire for rest made itself felt very strongly, and characterized the following years as a period of conservative standstill and occasional retrogression that met no opposition in public opinion. However, the plans for reforming the school system had too well matured and taken root in public consciousness during the previous period to check a gradual development along the whole line or undo the work already accomplished. Only in one point an unquestionable step backward was taken in some cantons by withdrawing the State’s centralized maintenance of the school and by giving into the hands of the clergy the work of supervision. Moreover, the famine years of 1816 and 1817 pressed material interests into the foreground. The year 1819 witnessed a shifting of scenery, and the revolution of the Greeks, for whom much sympathy was manifested in Switzerland, strengthened the liberal spirit of a great part of the Swiss people. Most of the veterans of the time of the Helvetian union and the Napoleonic era were still alive. The Swiss Society for the Common Weal, founded in 1810, accepted the inheritance of the defunct Swiss THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 209 Educational Association, and became the debating club of all who aimed at a liberal development in public education. With great interest and the far-reaching approval of public opinion, the question of better pro¬ fessional preparation of teachers was discussed. By adopting, upon the advice of P. Girard, the Bell-Lancasterian method of mutual instruc¬ tion, it was hoped that a temporary solution had been found of the problem of how to extend general elementally education, with very lim¬ ited means, into the poorer cantons and country places. In a^few can¬ tons the efforts toward school reform crystallized into laws. Mdwalden passed a new school law in 1829 and Luzern in 1830. Zurich had been occupied for several years with a careful revision of its school system and had completed the draft of a new law in its essential features when the July revolution in France (1830) created an entirely new situation. F. — THE PERIOD OF REGENERATION, 1830-1848. It was a peculiar turn the revolutionary movement of 1830 took in the land of its origin, by being checked by the educated and cultured classes of the citizens and prevented from degenerating into anarchism. This spectacle of victory of culture over wild excesses was repeated in Switzerland. Revolution became reform. The more or less patriarchal organization of the State was replaced by a conscious formation of the State based upon law (Reehtstaat). This influenced the school in two directions. First, the State claimed the exclusive right to organize the school, and hence assumed the unlimited duty to maintain it. By taxing the people directly for school purposes the possibility for radical reforms was opened, and the makeshift resorted to during the twenties,, i. e., to accomplish a general popular education by means of mutual instruction and the use of pupil teachers, was now discontinued. It soon disappeared completely from the Swiss schools. Secondly, the efforts in behalf of carrying into effect the principle of equality before the law resulted in doing away with the differences between city and rural schools, citizens’ schools, and schools for the poor. The division line between classical (or secondary) and elementary schools, also, was felt very acutely, and the desire to connect organically all institutions of learning became the leading motive of the reformers. Upon this basis the third decade created the modern unified common school, an organism which begins with the primary school and leads the child up through intermediate and secondary schools to the university or poly- technicum. The entire system is one organism, managed and super¬ vised by the different cantons, but essentially the same all over Switzerland, a system fashioned very much like our American common school, the graduate of which may enter college and subsequently the university. This development took place within cantonal jurisdiction. The school was, and is now, considered strictly a stare or cantonal concern. The ed 92—14 210 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. federal government bad no jurisdiction in school matters, for the ob¬ stacles in the way of replacing the federal agreement of 1S15 by a consti¬ tution that provided for closer centralization, were still too formidable. The draft of a new constitution drawn up between 1832 and 1834, for instance, was rejected. It did not mention the schools at all. The movement during this time in behalf of granting the federal govern¬ ment power to establish a federal university, failed signally, and ended in the establishment of several universities by cantonal governments (Zurich in 1833, Berne in 1834). Partial reactions, long continued con¬ fusion and conflict, even civil war, had to be overcome before the possi¬ bility was opened of changing the loose aggregation of sovereign states into a federation of states with a strong federal or central government, which was enabled to act as the determinative power in matters con¬ cerning institutions for the develojiment of culture and public educa¬ tion. As a matter of self-evidence, each canton has its own history of pub¬ lic education during this period of regeneration. In some cantons the political waves were soon smoothed, and the united efforts of the better educated classes succeeded in creating a well-planned school system that was able to withstand attacks. In other cantons party differences prevented a similar establishment for many years, and the rivalry of the leading persons constantly hindered or checked the development of the school system upon a modern basis. In other cantons, again, the ideals at first accepted remained on paper and failed to be incor¬ porated in actual institutions ; only gradually measures were taken which proved the growth of the seeds planted. In still other cantons the reactionary opposition against the spirit of modern times succeeded in opposing all liberal movements. One school organization only, that of Zurich, became important as an example for other cantons and was imitated by several. Switzerland possessed in the works of Pestalozzi, Eellenberg, and P. Girard a most significant pedagogical past of its own. All the more astonishing it is to notice that the Zurich school system, inaugurated during the thirties, which system was partly copied by other cantons, is not constructed upon the lines laid down by these men. When an educational leader was to be chosen a candidate from among the dis¬ ciples of Pestalozzi was rejected, and a man from Wiirtemberg, Thomas Scherr, was selected to direct the professional training of teach¬ ers. He had been principal of a blind asylum, and now became the principal of the cantonal normal school in Zurich $ as such he exerted his influence most beneficially over the whole school system of the can¬ ton, which to this day bears the characteristic features this admirable man imprinted upon it. The Catholic cantons did not call upon P. Girard, but upon Scherr, to ask for advice in the reconstruction of their school systems, while in Berne, Fellenberg, whose institution in Hofwyl was then flourishing, THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 211 but who was engaged in bitter controversies with members of the can¬ tonal government, lost all influence upon the reorganization of the school system of this canton. Thus we see Pestalozzi, Fellenberg, and P. Girard disregarded. It is true the ideas of Fellenberg found practi¬ cal realization through his coworker Wehrli, who was called to the head of the normal school in Kreuzlingen, in Thurgau, and whose work was very beneficial to the schools of the whole canton ; but twenty years later Thomas Scherr, as president of the board of education in Thurgau, succeeded in removing this last opponent also (1853). The French part of Switzerland does not exhibit a single example of per¬ sonal influence upon the schools such as Scherr’s. His influence exerted itself over entire German Switzerland, and the Swiss schools of to-day are still exhibiting Scherr’s ground plan. And, indeed, Scherr’s common school was a masterpiece of its time. The main features that characterized it were, the simplicity of its organi¬ zation; consistent restriction of its programme to intellectual educa¬ tion; excellent, methodical skill displayed, especially in the primary grades; a lavish equipment with a complete and carefully graded set of appliances; the fact that it vigorously maintained its independence from the clergy; care for the rights, social position, and material inter¬ ests of the teaching profession, as well as consideration for its corpora¬ tive self-respect; above all, in everything it undertook it wisely limited itself to that which was possible and attainable. Of course the system was not without its 'defects. Subsequent years have changed, supplemented, and improved it. The length of school age has been extended, the methods of instruction have been improved, new branches of instruction introduced ; yet, essentially, the fundamental lines laid down by Scherr have remained the same, although to-day other conceptions of the object and method of school education are advocated, Frobel’s kindergarten, manual training, and school games are claiming admission, and demands for concentration of the matter of instruction are heard; thus the foundation of Scherr’s plan is put in question, and we stand in the midst of a contest that may take many years before it will be definitely decided. Gr. — FROM 1848 TILL THE PRESENT TIME. The federal constitution of 1848 was framed in accordance with the principle that centralization should be restricted to absolutely neces¬ sary measures, hence the organization of the school system was left, as heretofore, to the separate cantons. The constitution does not even claim a general supervision over the schools, and in article 22 it restricts the Government’s functions solely to the establishment of a university and a polytechnic school. During the debates from 1852 to 1854, with reference to certain amendments, the word and was changed to or, and the question then decided in favor of a polyteclinicum. In 1854 the Federal Polytechnic University in Zurich was opened. 212 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The cantons or separate states, on the other hand, progressed in developing their school systems in proportion to their political and intellectual progress. The most conservative of the cantons, induced by the great strides the liberal cantons made in popular education, has¬ tened to replace the regulations and school laws that dated from the period of mediation (1803-1813) and shunned no sacrifices or efforts to regain their rank. New laws were enacted that expressed the views of modern times. When at the beginning of the seventies a revision of the constitution for the purpose of strengthening the central gov¬ ernment was called for, the soil for such a procedure was much better prepared than in 1848 ; indeed, federal provision for school education was now a thing which seemed quite plausible. The revised constitu¬ tion of 1872 did not find the sanction of the majority of the people, but the one of 1874 did. It contains a number of articles referring to public education which were adopted by a large majority of the popu¬ lation April 19, 1874. These articles are worth quoting: (1) The Federal Government is empowered to establish or subsidize, beside the federal polytechnic school, a university, and other higher institutions of learning. (2) The separate cantons are obliged to offer children of school age sufficient ele¬ mentary instruction, which shall remain exclusively under cantonal supervision. It is to be obligatory and gratuitous in public schools. (3) The public schools shall bo open to the members of any religious denomina¬ tion without detriment to their liberty of faith and conscience. (4) The Federal Government shall institute the necessary proceedings against any canton that fails to conform to the foregoing requirements. The wording of these articles allowed several interpretations. One point was left undecided, namely, whether the Federal Government has the duty, or only the right, to regulate by law the relations insti¬ tuted by the constitution between it and the school system. In 1882 the Federal Council (the legislative body) determined upon the creation of the position of permanent secretary of education (state or federal commissioner). However, when the law was submitted to a popular vote, as all laws have to be in Switzerland, it was rejected by a majority of more than two-thirds. Hence the Federal Government was obliged to restrict its influence and aid in behalf of popular education to insti¬ tutions that are not in any way infringing upon the established can¬ tonal institutions. At present it subsidizes the school museums exist¬ ing since 1876 $ and in late years it also aids materially, by subsidies and control, the industrial and agricultural (since 1884) and the com¬ mercial schools (since 1889). The present Swiss military organization has afforded the Federal Government an opportunity (since 1875) for arranging examinations for army recruits j it also has issued regulations with regard to gym¬ nastic institutions for the male youth, and the preparation of gym¬ nastic teachers. In accordance with article 33 of the constitution the medical examinations are uniformly regulated by the Federal Govern¬ ment, and inspection of secondary schools leading up to the study of THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 213 medicine has been assumed by the Government as a consequence of the former duty. In accordance with article 34 a law has been passed for¬ bidding- the employment in factories of children below 14 years of age (1877). This law also provides that for young people between 14 and 16 years the necessary attendance in continuation schools or courses is to be included in the normal work day, which is restricted to eleven hours. The organization of the entire system of secondary schools and higher education (exclusive of the Federalpoly technic university, medical exam¬ inations, which influence the preparatory schools, and subsidies, which affect industrial, agricultural, and commercial schools) is left to the cantons, as is also that of the elementary-school system (exclusive of gymnastics for boys) in accordance with article 27. Since 1880, all the cantons have inserted into their constitutions provisions referring to public education and have passed laws to execute these provisions, which, though in every case specific, are by no means uniform. II. — Present Condition of the Swiss Schools. A. — SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. I.— THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. Purpose and extent. — In expressing the object of the elementary or people’s school, the various cantonal school laws exhibit two distinct currents: Some say it is the object of the school to educate the whole child, while others claim that the school has the sole purpose of giving instruction. The first definition was adopted by Scherr. The Zurich school law of 1832 says: The people’s school shall train the children of all classes of society, according to uniform principles, to become intellectually active, civilly useful, and morally good men and women. Partly in verbal repetition of the foregoing, partly in different words, but essentially the same in meaning, the laws of Baseband (1835), Zug (1850), Graubiinden (1853), Bern (1856), Aargau (1865), Wallis (1873), Innerrhoclen (1875), Schwyz (1877), Nidwalden (1879), and Schaffhausen (1879) express the object of school education. Very much differently sounds the law in Oberwalden (1876), to wit: Every community shall see to it that all its children of school age attend an ele¬ mentary school that offers the knowledge necessary for common life. The law in Luzern (1879) says: The primary and continuation schools are designed to give, in connection with the parental home, a training such as is generally considered essential for life. The law in Baselstadt (1880) defines the object of the elementary school to be, u To make its pupils familiar with elementary knowledge.’7 The other cantons do not define the purpose of the school at all, hence are indirectiv allied with the second group. Oberwalden and Freiburg state in their constitutions that u school education shall be conducted 214 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. in a religious and patriotic spirit;” they also secure to the clergy a legal influence upon school education. The length of school age is not uniform in Switzerland. The uni¬ form part is the medium age between 6 and 15 years, embracing six to nine courses. In the cantons Freiburg, Aargau, Tessin, Yaud, Neuenburg, and Geneva a prescholastic course, kindergarten or mater¬ nal school, is part of the legal organization of the elementary school, but attendance in these prescholastic institutions is not obligatory, except in Neuenburg and Geneva, where the upper grade of the infant school is also the lowest grade of the obligatory elementary school. At the close of the elementary school everywhere in Switzerland efforts are made to keep the boys and girls at their studies, by means of vol¬ untary or obligatory continuation schools, review courses for army recruits, etc. Thus an extension of school work to the eighteenth or twentieth year of age is aimed at and successfully secured. The schools for children of customary school age (6 to 15) are organ¬ ized as follows : (a) The elementary or primary school (6 to 11), attendance in which is obligatory; and it is everywhere open all the year round. (b) The intermediate or grammar school, for pupils who do not intend to enter secondary schools. As a rule this intermediate department has two branches. (1) An advanced elementary school, attendance being voluntary and the course extending over four years. It is variously called district, real, and secondary school (not to be mistaken for American secondary schools). (2) A simple continuation of the elementary school, commonly open only half-day and in most places organized in form of obligatory continuation schools. The duty of attending school begins at the close of the sixth year of age, or as near that age as is convenient, in Zurich, Berne, Glarus, Zug, Baselstadt, Baselland, Scliaffhausen, both Appenzells, St. Gall, Thurgau, Tessin, Neuenburg, and Geneva. In all other cantons the limit is the completed seventh year of age. Admission takes place in spring in most cantons; in Appenzell and Geneva in August; in Uri, Graubiinden, Tessin, and Wallis in the fall, because in these cantons schools are almost exclusively winter schools. For schools of six grades in Luzerne, pupils are admitted at 7 years also. The duty of attending school extends over six to nine years, namely: Six years in Ziirich, Gri, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Zug, Baselland, Appenzell i. Bh.; six to seven years in Luzern; seven years in Schwyz, Glarus, Appenzell a. Rh., St. Gall, Neuenburg and Geneva; eight years in Baselstadt, Schaff hausen, Aargau, Tessin, and Wallis; eight to nine years in Freiburg, Solothurn, Graubiinden, and Thurgau; nine years in Berne and Yaud. Counting the half years of required attendance, we range the can¬ tons as follows: 6, IJri; 8, Tessin and Wallis; 8 to 9, Graubiinden; 10 to 12, Luzern; 12, Zurich, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Zug, Solothurn, THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 215 Baseband; 14, Sekwyz, Glares, Appenzell a. Eh., Neuenburg, Geneva; 15, Thurgau; 14 to 1G, Schaffhausen and Aargau; 1G, Baselstadt; 16 to 18, Freiburg; 18, Berne and Vaud. The cantons Appenzell i. Eli. and St. Gall can not well be placed in this scale. Appenzell i. Eh. has in different communities, in schools of six grades, forty-two, thirty- six, and twenty-six school weeks, and should be credited with six to twelve half years. St. Gall requires seven school years, but some of its schools are half, others three-fourths, and still others whole-year schools. Hence it should be credited with seven to fourteen half years. Attempts have been made to classify the cantons with reference to the number of school weeks and hours, adding the amount of time required by obligatory attendance in continuation schools or courses. (a) Calculations of the secretary of education, Mr. Grob, in his year book for 1887, group the cantons with reference to the number of hours spent in school : Group I. Uri, 3,760; Appenzell i. Rh., 4,072. II. Wallis, 5,440; Graubiinden, 5,600; Riclwalden, 5,784; Tessin, 5,808; Obwalden, 5,824; Zug, 5,919; Luzern, 5,952; Appenzell a. Rk., 5,952. III. Aargau, 6,372; Sekwyz, 6,548. IV. Solotkurn, 7,458; St. Gall, 7,644; Baselland, 7,704; Zurich, 7,788. V. Sckaffkausen, 8,274; Glarus, 8,418; Berne, 8,424; Freiburg, 8,466; Neuen- burg, 8,640. VI. Thurgau, 9,148; Vaud, 9,291; Baselstadt, 9,416; Geneva, 10,136. (b) Calculation found in the statistical atlas prepared for the World’s Exposition in Paris 1889, with reference to the number of school weeks in the different cantons: Group I. Appenzell i. Rk., 178; Wallis, 202; Uri, 206; Graubiinden, 208; Luzern, 211. II. Nidwalden, 247; Appenzell a. Rk., 251; Ob walden, 258; Tessin, 260; Zug, 266. III. Solotkurn, 281; Sekwyz, 293; Zurich, 302; St. Gall, 309; Berne, 310; Bas- selland, 312. IV. Sckaffkausen, 322; Thurgau, 325; Neuenburg, 332; Glarus, 335; Freiburg, 339. V. Baselstadt and Geneva, 352; Aargau, 360; Vaud, 377. It is well to state explicitly that these groupings have but a very relative value, and are subject to local and personal exceptions which for certain schools and groups of pupils cause considerable modifica¬ tion, but which can not be considered in calculating averages. If we take into the scope of the elementary school the so-called secondary schools, which in Switzerland mean grammar schools, and attendance in which is not obligatory, we have to make this brief expla¬ nation: these schools have as a rule the double object of giving a more general education, and likewise serve as foundation for the advanced schools which in America are called secondary or classical schools. The one branch of this bifurcated school, that which intends to com¬ plete a common school education, scarcely advances beyond the scope of an elementary school. If, however, w~e consider the great number of 216 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. pupils it has, it becomes plain why the greater attention and care is bestowed upon it, according to the saying, u the greatest good to the greatest number.” Since the fall of 1888 it has become obvious that this branch (the advanced common school branch) has had much to do with the recent intellectual high standing of the army recruits. This advanced grade of common schools (called upper schools in Berne, ecoles regionales in Freiburg, continuation schools in Aargau, middle schools in Appenzell a. Rh., and secondary schools in Yaud) is a mixture of secondary and primary schools, iust as the advanced schools of the other cantons are mixtures of secondary schools, in the American sense of the word, and advanced elementary schools. There is no division line possible, since the differences ai*e too numerous. Asa rule the upper grades of the common school of nearly all cities and towns have a mixed character, and it simply depends upon the personal leaning of the pupil or the inclination of his parents to decide in what direction he is to progress. (b) Classification of schools. — The limits of the different grades, as well as their definition, is different in the various cantons ; just so the age at w hich the advanced common schools and real secondary schools branch off from the simple elementary schools. Still they may be grouped for purposes of classification in three distinct types: (1) The general common school with a course of six to seven years followed by an advanced school, one branch of which leads into the secondary and preparatory school for universities: Zurich, Luzern, Uri, Schwyz, Obwalden, Ridwalden, Glarus, Zug, Freiburg, Solothurn, Baseband, both the Appenzells, St. Gall, Graubiinden, Tliurgau, Wal¬ lis, Neuenburg, Geneva. (2) Unified organization of the entire elementary school wdth the longest possible course, but with an early bifurcation of the upper grades into advanced elementary and real secondary schools: Berne, Schatf hausen, Aargau, Tessin, Yaud. (3) Bifurcation of the simple and advanced common school in the middle of the course, that is, after four or five years’ study: Baselstadt. The primary grades are everywhere taught by class teachers. Sometimes all the children of school age in a small place are taught by one teacher (ungraded school). In more populous places they are graded and taught by several teachers (graded schools), or the children of a community are separated according to location and sex (parallel schools). Most cantons have legal enactments concerning the maximum num¬ ber of pupils. When that is exceeded a parallelizing takes place in the primary grades. The following maxima are observed: Baseband, 120 j Zurich, 100; resp., 80; Solothurn, St. Gab, Aargau, and Tliurgau, 80; Berne, Luzern, and Schwyz, 80 in graded, 70 in ungraded schools; Freiburg, 70; Glarus, 70 in all day, 50 in half-day schools; Uri, 70 under one teacher; Schaffhausen, 70 under several teachers, 60 under THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 217 one teacher; Zu g, Tessin, Mdwalden, 60 under one teacher; Wallis, 60 (when 50 pupils the girls must be separated); Baselstadt, 52 in pri¬ mary grades, 45 in advanced grades; Neuenburg, Yaud, and Geneva, 50. Some cantons also state the maximum for advanced common schools. When that is reached or exceeded a division is considered necessary. Thus, Zurich, 50 (provisionally 35) ; Luzern, 45; Baselstadt, 45; Berne, 30. In grading the schools some cantons, especially in Catholic Switzer¬ land, exhibit a decided tendency toward separation of the sexes, nota¬ bly in larger cities. The proportion of schools containing both sexes in 1881 was as follows: In Appenzell i. Bh., 66*6 x:>er cent; Mdwalden, 61 per cent; Uri, 57 T per cent; Neuenburg, 56-4 per cent; Freiburg, 54T per cent; Schwyz, 50-9 per cent; Tessin, 43 per cent; Zug, 38*6 per cent; Geneva, 36’6 per cent; Wallis, 35*3 per cent; Obwalden, 28*9 per cent; Baselstadt, 9*4 per cent; while all or nearly all primary schools were mixed in Glarus, 100 x>er cent; Thurgau, 100 per cent; Ax>penzell a. Bh., 99 per cent; Baseband, 98-4 per cent. In the advanced common schools both the system of class teachers and special teachers are found. The tendency toward dividing the instruction among special teachers is the result of the peculiar special examinations for teachers (Zurich and Berne); partly also of legal requirements that such schools should have, at least two or three teach¬ ers (Freiburg, Solotliurn, Baseband, and Aargau.) (c) Course of study . — The branches of study in the primary and continuation schools (x^rimary and grammar grades, as we are accus¬ tomed to term them) are as follows : (1) Beading and writing of the mother tongue with the aid of object and colloquial lessons. (2) Arithmetic and geometry. — The latter is not taught in Uri, Schwyz, Obwalden, Mdwalden, Zug, Appenzell a. Bh., Neuenburg, Wallis (as to girls), and it is optional with the teachers in Freiburg and Tessin. (3) History and geograxbiy, of Switzerland only, in Luzern, Uri, Schwyz, Mdwalden, Solothurn, Ai:q)enzeb i. Bh., Graubiinden, Tessin, Geneva; restricted thus only in the minimum requirements in Berne and Freiburg; history alone restricted to Swiss history in Obwalden, Glarus, Zugy Ax>i)enzell a. Bh., Aargau (exclusive of continuation schools), Wallis and Neuenburg; general geography ox>tional for schools of Tessin. (4) Natural history is not taught in Luzern, Uri, Obwalden, Md¬ walden, Axqjenzell a. Bh., Wallis, Neuenburg, and is left to the discre¬ tion of the teacher in the schools of Freiburg and Tessin. (5) Penmanshix>. (6) Singing, ox>tional in the schools of Uri. (7) Drawing, optional in the schools of Uri, while it is restricted to free-hand drawing in Freiburg, and restricted to instrumental drawing 218 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. in Tessin. Drawing is not tauglit in Obwalden, Bidwalden, Appenzell a Eh., and Wallis; while in the schools of Tessin and Bidwalden draw¬ ing is taught to the pupils of school age in separate voluntary drawing schools. (8) Female handiwork is optional in Uri. (9) Gymnastics, only for hoys in Uri, Sehwyz, Eidwalden, Freiburg, Appenzell a. Eh., Tessin; optional for girls in Berne and Luzern. Eo legal enactments concerning gymnastics are in existence in Appenzell i. Eh., and Graubiinden; but federal laws prescribe gymnastics for all the male youth over 10 years of age in every canton. (10) Eeligion is a study optional with the parents according to the federal constitution. It is placed entirely outside of the pale of the public school organization in Eeuenburg and Geneva, while in Luzern, Uri, Obwalden, Eidwalden, Catholic Freiburg, and Yaud, the respon¬ sibility is shared with the church and the clergy. In the cantons of Solothurn and Appenzell i. Eh., religion is taught without reference to denominational distinctions. To the foregoing regular branches must be added some special branches : (1) Bookkeeping in Berne, Sehwyz, Obwalden, Eidwalden, Glarus, Solothurn, Graubiinden, Aargau, Thurgau, Wallis, but only optional in the schools of Freiburg and Tessin. (2) Hygiene in Solothurn, in the girls’ industrial schools of Eeuen- burg, and optional in Tessin. (3) Science of government in Freiburg, Taud, Wallis, Eeuenburg, and Geneva; optional in Tessin. (4) Arboriculture in Obwalden, elements of political economy in Eeu- enburg, agriculture in Geneva; also in some communities in Yaud. 5) Domestic economy for girls in Freiburg, Solothurn, St. Gall, Yaud, Eeuenburg, and Geneva. (G) Manual training for boys in Yaud, Eeuenburg, and Geneva. (7) Aforeign language in Graubiinden (Germanfor Bomanic children), Baselstadt (French), Geneva (German); optional in Berne, Luzern, Aargau, and Eeuenburg. In the cantons of Berne, Freiburg, and Tessin, a double course is in operation, carried through by every school, and resulting later on in the bifurcation spoken of heretofore. The advanced elementary school differs principally from the simple elementary school in its obligatory teaching of a foreign tongue. The branches of study in this kind of schools are: Mother tongue, one or two foreign languages and arithmetic, mostly in connection with bookkeeping; geometry, optional only m Tessin and Wallis; in Luzern also for girls; geography and history; some cantons restrict these branches to geography and history of Switzerland exclu¬ sively, with science of government, natural history, and science, sing¬ ing, drawing (in Wallis only for boys), penmanship (in Tessin only for THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 219 boys), gymnastics (obligatory for all boys between 10 and 15; in Aargau tlie use of arms is obligatory) ; religion, as above stated. To these regular branches the following are added as obligatory branches: Manual training for boys in Geneva; female handiwork for girls iu Luzern, Sekwyz, Tessin, Zu g, Solotkurn, Baselstadt, Schaff- kausen, St. Gall, Graubiinden, Aargau, Tessin, Vaud, Wallis, Neuen- bnrg, Geneva; domestic economy in Luzern, Sekwyz, Tessiu, Vaud, hTeuenburg, and Geneva: horticulture in Tessin : pedagogics in ®enen- burg and Geneva. Optional studies are: Ancient and modern languages in Zurich; exercises under arms in Berne, Yaud, and FTeuenburg; elements of physics and chemistry and free-hand drawing in Freiburg; commercial branches in Baselstadt and Geneva; instrumental music in Aargau; agriculture and hygiene in Wallis. As a rule these advanced elementary schools have the double pur¬ pose of offering a. more complete general education, and also of acting as a foundation for the higher institutions, such as classical schools; they are considered decentralizing parallel institutions for the lower classes of the real secondary, or centralized cantonal schools. It is plain, there¬ fore, that these advanced elementary schools fashion their courses of study in some cantons after those of the lower grades of secondary schools. In some cantons the study of vocal music is carried beyond school age and taught in separate singing schools (Zurich, Baseband, and Thurgau). Schools for Female Honi&iworh — Female handiwork is taught either as a branch of the course in elementary schools, or treated in separate institutions, intimately related to the elementary schools. The more populous cantons arrange from time to time courses for the training of teachers for that branch. Manual Training for Boys. — This is an integral part of the programme of normal school education in the cantons of Berne, Tessin, Yaud, Xeuenburg, and Geneva; in the last three cantons it is introduced in the elementary school and is obligatory in Geneva. In Yaud and Feuenburg the introduction of manual training is left to the local school authorities, who receive a cantonal subsidy if they introduce it. In all the other cantons, it is left to the initiative of private persons and societies; in Thurgau it is subsidized by the government, but not directed. In 1891 manual training was given to boys in the cantons of Zurich (9 schools), Berne (15), Fidwalden (1), Glarus (2), Freiburg (4), Solothurn (3), Baselstadt (2, of which one has 29 classes and 538 pupils), Schaffkausen (7), St. Gall (6), Graubiinden (3), Aargau (3), Thurgau (4), Yaud (2), and Neuenburg (4). The Swiss Society for the Promotion of Manual Training arranges annual courses for the training of teachers and issues regulations for their examination. Continuation Schools. — The pupil’s age at which these schools begin 220 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. tlieir work is not uniformly fixed, since tlie term, continuation school, is used for obligatory supplementary schools for children past school age, as well as for advanced elementary schools for children within school age (7 to 15). Besides these obligatory and voluntary schools there are many other institutions under different names, as industrial, drawing, trade, Sunday, evening, repetition, supplementary, and tech¬ nical schools, all of which deserve to be classed among the contin¬ uation schools. Prof. Hunziker takes the term to mean, all schools which young people of both sexes attend for a certain number of hours per week or day, after completing an elementary course, either for the purpose of retaining or improving their general education, or of gain¬ ing knowledge and skill necessary for the occupation or trade they have chosen. For the boys the Swiss continuation schools may be grouped in three classes, which are rarely found in their original state: (a) Schools for the purpose of technical, industrial, or agricultural training. These schools have, in the nature of the case, voluntary attendance. They are organized to fit special technical needs ; hence we see them provided with special institutions, such as workshops, etc., in order to facilitate practical skill in trades or occupations. (b) Schools for the purpose of supplementing general education between the ages of 15 and 20. Their character and management favor obligatory attendance which, in some cases, is decreed by local author¬ ities. (c) Schools for those who have not become proficient in the branches taugb fc “u the regular elementary schools. These schools aim at securing the mi ’mum of education necessary for civil life. In order to gain their e d it is necessary that instruction in them be obligatory. A review of the entire system of continuation schools of Switzer¬ land gives the following results: (1) No canton is without continuation schools. (2) One canton only (Appenzell i. Eh.) is without a legal enactment concerning continuation schools upon which the school authorities could base the institution. (3) Voluntary continuation schools only are found in Ziirich, Berne, Glams, Baselstadt, Graubiinden, Geneva, Appenzell a. Eh., St. Gall, and Aargau. In the last three cantons some communities have insisted upon obligatory attendance. (4) In some cantons obligatory attendance has been carried through conditionally — that is to say, in Schaff hausen for all who have not com¬ pleted a full eight years’ course in an elementary school \ in Luzern for all who have not spent at least one year in the advanced elementary school. In Schwyz, Freiburg, Tessin, and Neuenburg the obligatory attendance depends upon the failure in examination for admission. (5) The obligatory continuation schools of the cantons Uri, Schwyz, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Zug, Freiburg, Appenzell i. Eh,, Tessin, and THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 221 Wallis are only review courses for army recruits; in Tessin and Wallis these courses are combined with the general repetition school, while Luzern, side by side with its obligatory continuation schools, has, in a number of communities, special obligatory review courses for army recruits insufficiently prepared. Berne possesses the latter institution also, but attendance here is optional. (6) The cantons of Solothurn, Baseband, and Thurgau have oblig¬ atory continuation schools for more or less organic continuation of the instruction in the lower schools. (7) The system of continuation schools for the girls (which includes cooking, domestic practice, and schools for servants, etc.) has begun to develop during the last few decades (a) by connecting special continua¬ tion courses with girls’ secondary schools in Zug, Freiburg, Baselstadt, and St. Gall, or to the cantonal review schools in Zurich; (b) in con¬ nection with women’s industrial schools in Zurich, Baselstadt, and St. Gall ; (c) in connection with continuation schools for boys in Zurich, Glams, Baselstadt, Neuenburg; (d) by means of special schools estab¬ lished by communities or societies and subsidized by the cantons in Zurich, Berne, Luzern, Glams, Solothurn, Appenzell a. Rh., St. Gall, Graubiiuden, Aargau, Neuenburg, and Geneva. (8) Industrial continuation schools are under the supervision of the Federal Government and receive regular subsidies. During the scho¬ lastic year 1891 the Federal Government of Switzerland subsidized 61 industrial schools, in which drawing and theoretical instruction was given; 13 in Zurich, 10 in Berne, 2 in Sehwyz, 5 in Glarus, 1 in Zug, 1 in Freiburg, 3 in Solothurn, 1 in Baselstadt, 1 in Schaffhausen, 2 in Appenzell a. Rh., 2 in St. Gall, 2 in Graubiiden, 10 in Aargau, 5 in Thurgau, 2 in Neuenburg, 1 in Geneva. During the same year the Government subsidized 35 drawing schools — 4 in Berne, 1 in TIri, 3 in Obwalden, 2 in Nidwalden, 2 in Freiburg, 3 in Baseband, 3 in St. Gab, 15 in Tessin, 1 in Yaud, 1 in Neuenburg. (9) Parallel with industrial continuation schools are the agricultural institutions; they are mostly connected with schools for the purpose of supplementing general education. In Wallis agriculture is taught in connection with elementary schools (some communities make them obligatory), and the promotion of arboriculture is left to the initiative of teachers. Private schools. — Side by side with public schools there are scattered all over Switzerland a number of private elementary and secondary schools, the right to teach and to open schools being granted by the Fed¬ eral constitution and the school laws of the cantons; but the cantonal authorities have everywhere reserved the right of supervision. II. — SECONDARY, TECHNICAL, AND HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING. (A) Secondary schools. — As was said before, the so-called secondary or middle schools in Switzerland are advanced elementary schools, 222 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. “grammar77 schools in the American acceptation of the term; the real secondary schools — that is, those which lead up to higher seats of learning and correspond to our high schools and academies — are variously called cantonal schools, complete secondary schools, progymnasia, and gymnasia; again, at other places they are called higher schools for girls and lyceums. In this group of schools there is much less uniformity than in the previous group — that of elementary schools. They have but one point in common, namely, that their char¬ acter of secondary schools begins at the pupil’s age of 15 — that is, the time when obligatory attendance ceases. However, their courses vary in extent and duration almost as much as do the private secondary schools of America. Some of them lead up to the university, others to the polytechnicum, still others to other professional schools; hence the latter complete their courses sooner. In some cantons these institutions are communal or private. Many of them are State or cantonal schools, and the latter are frequently brought into competition with the former, hence are stimulated to more vigorous activity than they might otherwise exhibit. A review of the statistics of the secondary system will be found in section F. (B) Technical schools. — These institutions may be divided into those that, according to age of the pupils and conditions of admission, are parallel with secondary schools mentioned before, and those that bear the character of higher institutions of learning. To the first category belong, above all, the teachers7 normal and training schools, which will be more minutely described in section E. To the same category belong the industrial, agricultural, and commercial schools. The list in 1891 contained — (a) Trade and industrial schools: Three technical schools, in Winter¬ thur, Biel, Burgdorf. These institutions give technical education for the pursuit of trades and industries. The school at Winterthur is famous all over Europe. Two weaving schools, at Zurich and Wattwil; 8 watchmakers7 schools, at Biel, St. Iinmer, Pruntrut, Solothurn* Neuenburg, Ghaux-de-Eonds, Locle, Geneva; 3 mechanics7 schools, at Chaux-de-Fonds, Locle, Geneva; 1 carving school at Brienz ; 7 schools for woman’s work, at Berne, Basel, St. Gall, Cliaux-de-Fonds, Chur, Geneva, and Zurich. Seven workshops, for woodwork in Zurich; metal-workers in Winter¬ thur; joiners and shoemakers in Berne; bookbinding, basket-braiding, and stone- cutting in Freiburg. Mne art schools and institutions, for industrial art in Zurich, con¬ nected with industrial museums; in Winterthur, connected with the technical school; in Berne and Biel, connected with technical schools; Luzern, Basel, connected with industrial schools; St. Gall, connected with the industrial museum; Chaux-de-Fonds, connected with the school of design and engraving; Geneva, connected with the cantonal school of industrial art. THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 223 One school for the construction of railroads in Biel, connected with the technical school. The foregoing list does not quite cover the actual conditiou, since several other institutions are maintained which are not subsidized and controlled by the Federal Government, as, for instance, the municipal art school in Geneva, the watchmakers’ school at Fleurier, and the woman’s industrial school in Zurich. The principle that where the Government does not subsidize it has no right to control is strictly adhered to. (b) Agricultural schools: Five theoretical and practical agricultural schools, in Zurich, Berne, Eeuenburg; the horticultural school in Geneva ; the school for wine and fruit growers and gardeners at Waedensweil; 3 agricultural winter schools at Sursee, Brugg, and Lausanne- 4 dairy and cheese-making schools at Riitti, Freiburg, Sornthal, and Mcudon- Lausanne. (c) Commercial schools: The Government subsidized, in 1892-’93, 5 commercial schools, at Geneva, Eeuenburg, Chaux-de-Fonds, Berne, and Winterthur, and gave to 34 commercial societies small subsidies to cover the costs of commercial courses of instruction. (0) Universities. — The apex of the Swiss system of education is formed by the universities, scientific faculties, and higher professional schools. Of such Switzerland has 1 federal polytechnic school in Zurich, founded in 1854; 6 cantonal or higher universities, Basel, 1460; Zurich, 1833; Berne, 1834; Geneva, 1873; Freiburg, 1889, and Lausanne, 1891; 1 academy in FTeuenburg; 2 law schools in Freiburg and Sitten; 2 Catholic theological schools in Luzern and Solothurn, and 5 Catholic priests’ seminaries; 2 veterinary schools at Zurich and Berne; 1 school for dentistry in Geneva. More minute information concerning the status of secondary, profes¬ sional, and higher institutions are found in Grob’s JaJirbnch des Unter- riclitswesens of 1891. B- — EXPENDITURE FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES. The income of public education in Switzerland is derived from irre¬ ducible funds, state school taxes, and funds from the federal exchequer distributed pro rata of the population. I. Some cantons, notably Obwalden, Mdwalden, Zug, Appenzell i. Eh., and Thurgau, have cantonal or general school funds; but in the majority of the cantons the constitution, or the school law, decrees the formation of communal school funds. The advanced elementary schools are maintained in the same way, by either communal or state funds. The statistics j>ublished by Secretary C. Grob concern¬ ing public education in Switzerland show for the year 1881 the follow¬ ing totals of school property: Beal estate, 82,614,327 francs; furniture, 4,017,226 francs; funds, 50,903,044 francs, or a total of 137,534,597 224 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. francs for primary schools only; 9,077,720 francs for advanced element¬ ary schools, which is a total of 146,612,317 francs (or $29,322,463). The following itemized list of cantonal school funds and property, which list we owe to Secretary Grob, exhibits the same variety notice¬ able in the school funds of American States: Cantons. Thurgau . Schaff hausen . . . Appenzell a. Rh Baselstadt . Glarns . Solotliurn . Zurich . Neuenburg . St. Gall . Aargau . Freiburg . Graubiinden Baselland . Berne . Vatwl . Sclvwyz . Ridwalden . . Obwalden . Luzern . . Appenzell i. Rh . Wallis . Uri . Tessin . Total and average Primary school funds and property. Per capita of population. Advanced elementary school funds and property. Francs. 8, 491,043 Francs. 85 $17. 00 Francs. 242, 160 2. 925,159 76 15. 20 20, 805 3, 449, 961 66 13. 20 676, 527 4, 231, 835 65 13. 00 444, 105 2. 196, 173 64 12. 80 420, 734 5, 165, 910 64 12. 80 176, 411 20, 103, 508 63 12. 60 1, 286, 869 6, 575, 556 63 12. 60 1, 266, 900 13, 043. 726 62 12. 40 2, 418, 130 11, 138.884 56 11. 20 320, 834 6, 030, 715 52 10. 40 5, 256 4,901,221 52 10. 40 29, 579 2, 900. 235 49 9. 80 699, 751 1.097, 493 48 9. 60 1,000 4, 856, 920 48 9. 20 122, 540 21,317, 253 41 8. 20 663, 479 9, 654, 600 40 8. 00 10, 720 1, 795, 175 35 7. 00 131, 524 383, 524 32 6. 40 17,680 444, 714 29 5. 80 3,061,084 23 4. 60 47, 823 250, 884 20 4. 00 1, 887, 765 19 3. 80 38, 030 407, 903 17 3.40 150 1, 223, 356 9 1.80 36, 713 137,534,597 ! 48 $9. 60 9, 077, 720 II. In comparison with the expenditures for public school purposes (in 1890 they amounted to about 20,000,000 francs for primary and 31,000,000 francs for all the public educational institutions) the amount of annual interest from funds is not very considerable and by no means the chief source of income. By far the greatest part of the expendi¬ tures has to be, met by taxation. The manner in which this school tax is levied and raised varies considerably in the different cantons. Besides, the children attending schools pay a small tuition fee. This custom, however, is gradually disappearing. Instruction in the primary grades of the public schools is gratuitous according to the requirements of the federal constitution. Some can¬ tons have extended the principle of gratuity to the advanced elementary schools (grammar schools); Zurich to secondary schools, Solotliurn to the county central schools, Baselstadt to every kind of secondary and preparatory schools. In late years some states have begun to publish text-books and prepare other supplies, and to sell them at cost of production (Zurich, Luzern, Appenzell a. Eh.). Other cantons have adopted the custom of furnishing pupils with free text-books and supplies in the primary schools (Glarus, Solothurn, Baselland, Yaud, Neuenburg, and Geneva). In one canton this principle is carried out in all the grades of the elementary schools, THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 225 primary and advanced (Baselstadt). The cantons St. Gall and Zug furnish only the printed text-books. In other cantons individual com¬ munities have adopted the principle of tree text-books, though the canton in which they are situated may not have adopted it. III. We have seen that the sources of the income for puiblic educa¬ tion in Switzerland vary considerably. A like variation is noticeable in the distribution of the expenditures in the several cantons. The Year Book of 1891 offers a summary which we here append. It shows that for elementary and grammar school purposes the canton Basel¬ stadt pays all expenses, the canton Geneva pays more than three- fourths, and the following cantons pay between one-half and one-fourth : Zurich, Berne, Luzern, Uri, Freiburg, Solothurn, Schaffhausen, Appenzell i Rh., Graubiinden, Aargau, Tessin, Vaud, and Reuenburg. Less than one-fourtli is paid by the cantonal governments of Schwyz, Obwalden, Mdwalden, Glarus, Zug, Baseiland, Appenzell a. Rh., St. Gall, Thurgau, and Wallis. Distribution of expenditures in 1890. Cantons. Baselstadt . Geneva . Zurich . Berne . . . Luzern . TJri--, . Freiburg . Solothurn . Schaffhausen . Appenzell i. Bh . Graubiinden . Aargau . Tessin . Vaud . Xeuenburg . . Schwyz . Obwalden . Mdwalden . ; . Glarus . Zug . Baseiland . Appenzell a. Bh . St, Gall . Thurgau . Wallis . Total Switzerland. . . Expressed in dollars Elementary and continua¬ tion schools. Secondary and higher edu¬ cation. I | Total. Cantonal government. Communal governments. Cantonal government. Communal governments. Francs. 979, 306 441, 782 Francs. Francs. 641, 689 660, 576 Francs. Francs. 1, 620, 995 1, 286, 343 175, 985 8, 000 1,381, 770 3, 718, 295 2, 885, 869 1, 154. 211 6, 254, 276 6, 536, 448 1, 292, 774 1,435, 834 921, 971 296, 570 391, 295 162, 136 7, 200 857, 201 14, 369 143. 147 40, 000 350, 000 400, 000 9, 054 93, 984 63, 423 587, 131 726, 667 208, 541 166, 945 22, 016 118, 126 57, 123 275, 000 499, 068 53, 466 31. 000 450 . ;; 145, o27 440, 121 262j 300 131, 643 539’ 470 1, 307, 000 150, 075 22, 250 1, 919, 446 141, 550 327, 950 • 105,200 574, 700 515, 598 1, 011, 500 542, 171 290, 000 2, 359, 269 306, 200 650, 000 164, 130 50, 000 1, 170, 330 8, 594 186, 294 5,928 200, 816 5, 300 29, 550 5, 700 7, 500 48, 050 11, 467 41, 674 303, 790 40 53, 181 377, 022 153, 681 70, 232 24, 954 3,000 15, 902 98, 220 14, 605 48, 729 251, 468 7, 217 310, 414 31, 440 303, 428 11,503 15,679 362, 050 256, 089 2, 353, 367 247,268 15,000 2, 871, 724 198, 296 1, 284, 270 260, 000 79| 319 1, 578, 943 353, 368 14, 049 . ' . 7,165,366 16, 941, 255 5, 898, 656 1,352,205 j 31,357,482 $1,433,073 ! $3,388,251 $1, 179, 731 $270,441 $6, 271, 496 IV. Adding to these totals the sums spent for technical and higher education by the Federal Government, to wit, 341,542 francs for indus¬ trial schools in 1890; 145,500 francs for agricultural schools in 1890; 38,886 francs for commercial schools in 1891; 627,376 francs for the federal polytechnic school in 1890 (total from Federal Government 1,853,304 francs, or $370,661), we find a grand total of 32,510,786 francs, or $6,502,157. V. The per capita of the population of the sum total of cantonal and ED 92 - 15 226 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. communal expenses for sciiool purposes in 1891 was as follows (average for Switzerland 10-8 francs, or $2.16) : 1. Baselstadt . Francs. . .... 21. 9 or $4. 38 14. Zug . Francs. . . . . 6. 6 or $1. 32 2. Zurich . . 18. 5 or 3. 70 15. Luzerne . - 6. 3 or 1.26 3. Thurgau . . 15. 1 or 3.02 16. Graubunden . . . . . 5. 7 or 1. 14 4. Berne . . 12. 2 or 2. 44 17. Baselland . - 5. 0 or 1.00 5. St. Gall . . 12. 1 or 2. 42 18. Freiburg . - 4. 9 or .98 6. Glarus . . 11. 2 or 2. 24 19. Tessin . . - 4. 5 or .90 7. Schaff hausen . 2.’ 06 20. Appenzell i. Rh _ .... 4. 2 or .84 8. Geneva. . . . . 10. 2 or 2. 04 21. Nidwalden . _ 4. 2 or .84 9. Neuenburg . . 10. 1 or 2. 02 22. Schwyz . 4. 0 or . 80 10. Aargau . . 9. 9 or 1.98 23. Uri .! . .74 11. Valid . . 9. 6 or 1.92 24. Wallis . - 3. 5 or .70 12. Solothurn . . 8. 5 or 1.70 25. Obwalden . . . . . 3. 2 or .64 13. Appenzell a. Rh . . . 6. 7 or 1.34 C. — SCHOOL SUPERVISION. Each canton has a number of supervisory officers, elected for a definite number of years and bearing various titles. Yet, great as the differences in titles, length of service, and sphere of authority may be, there is a uniform scheme followed, i. e., a cantonal supreme school authority, local supervisory, and intermediate supervisory authorities. In Appenzell i. Rh. and Zug the functions of both cantonal and middle authorities are in the same hands. Local supervision of primary and grammar schools is exercised throughout Switzerland by commissions, or boards, whose number of members is not uniform. The boards are not identical with the political city, or town councils, but are more or less independent of the political authorities, being either elected, directly by popular vote, or in a few cases appointed by the city council, and managing the schools inde¬ pendent of direct interference. Usually the school boards are essen¬ tially coordinate with, not subordinate to, the city councils. The intermediate school authorities are elected in Zurich by popular vote, but in other cantons they are appointed by the supremo cantonal authority. They are considered executive officers as well as inspectors. In two cantons, Aargau and Solothurn, these functions are separated and given into the hands of different men. In nearly all the cantons professional and authoritative supervision is exercised by these inter¬ mediate school officers and the cantonal or state inspector. In more com¬ plicated school systems a superintendent or inspector for each kind of schools is appointed, namely, for the primary, advanced elementary, secondary, etc. The cantonal or state authorities are constituted with even less uni¬ formity than the lower ones. In Graub unden and in the smaller demo¬ cratic original cantons (such as Uri, Obwalden, and Zug) the highest educational authority is separated from the executive branch of the government, and perfectly independent, except that it is legally obliged to report annually. In the other cantons the school authorities are connected with the political authorities in as much as the presiding officer must be a member of the government. Two methods are noticeable in this : Either the weight of decision is placed in the hands of the gov- THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 227 eminent representatives and the professional members only act as superintendents and inspectors (as is done in Berne, Glarus, Baselland, Thurgau, and Yaud), or the educational department has the duty of management and the government officers merely reserve a nominal control (as is done in Zurich, Luzern, Schwyz, Mdwalden, Freiburg, Solothurn, Baselstadt, Schaffhausen, both the Appenzells, St. Gall, Aargau, Tessin, Wallis, Feuenburg, Geneva). In some cantons the teachers’ association, or its representatives (as in Zurich, Berne, Neuenburg, and Geneva), or the school inspectors (as in Schwyz and ether cantons), or the faculty of the normal school (as in Solothurn) has a legal influence upon the central management of the schools. In the cantons of Berne, Freiburg, and Yaud the politi¬ cal authorities enter upon the management of the lower schools by supervising the discipline and attendance. D. — SCHOOL HYGIENE AND SPECIAL PROVISION. For the purpose of regulating the hygienic conditions of the schools, with reference to architecture, furniture., and sanitary control, a num¬ ber of cantons have made thorough legal provision. The Swiss Zeit- schrift fur Statistik for 1884 gives a complete list of all the regulations and laws in force. Generally speaking, honest efforts are made to come up to legal requirements and to the results of recent investiga¬ tions as far as possible under existing circumstances. In some cities the school authorities are more vigorous in this respect than in the country, and in consequence the latest progress in hygiene is consid¬ ered ; thus bath-rooms are put into the schools of Basel. The cities of Berne and Winterthur have introduced instruction in swimming as part of the gymnastic exercises; open air games are organized in Zurich, Winterthur, Waedensweil, Berne, Freiburg, Basel, Schaffhau¬ sen, St. Gall, Aarau, Weinfelden, in the college of Mariahilf in Schwyz, and other iffaces. Skating, too, is frequently encouraged by the school authorities, who arrange for skating vacations, and by preparing ice¬ fields for this sport; excursions on foot and on the railroads are arranged during the summer. The introduction of hj^gieuic school furni¬ ture is an object of great solicitude everywhere in Switzerland. The so-called perpendicular writing in preference to slanting writing is at present the subject of most animated controversies. Several cities have arranged for regular examinations of the pupils’ eyes at stated inter¬ vals, others have made the ears and the organs of speech subjects of special investigation. 'In several cantons, especially m large cities, the school authorities fur¬ nish warm dinners and clothes to indigent pupils, and afford opportunity for changing and drying wet clothing of children who come from a dis¬ tance. During summer vacation colonies and “ milk cures ” are arranged for poor and sickly children ; also asylums where children may be kept after school hours and employed with manual work. Zurich, Basel, St. Gall, Geneva and a few other cities have special classes for weak- 228 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. minded children ( ecoles gardiennes). In some cities and villages savings banks are connected with the schools. A number of blind asylums, deaf-mute schools, and institutions for imbeciles attend to the physically abnormal; other institutions of refuge and reformatories attend to the morally neglected and depraved youth. Music schools are found in Zurich, Winterthur, Berne, Luzerne, Schaff hausen, Aarau, and Lau¬ sanne. Well-managed school gardens are maintained in the cities of Berne, in Langnau, and Feldbach (Zurich), in Prattein (Baseband), in Lichtensteig and Buchs (St. Gall) and in Lustorf (Thurgau). E. — TEACHERS. Teachers are licensed by the cantonal governments. Licenses are granted only if the required proof of moral character is furnished and a certain age has been reached. A cantonal examination of the candi¬ date’s scholarship is generally required, except in a few cantons where the certificate of graduation from a normal school is accepted in lieu of an examination. The teachers of advanced elementary schools are required to pass an additional examination. In recent years, the license to teach female handiwork is made dependent upon attendance on a special course of preparation and an examination. Throughout the greater part of Switzerland women find employment in the primary school, but their remuneration is, as a rule, smaller than that of men. In advanced (or grammar) schools women are employed as glass teachers only in the cantons of Berne, Luzern, Schwyz, Uri, Obwalden, Nidwalden, Freiburg, Baselstadt, Baseband, St. Gab, Tessin, Wallis, Neuenburg, and Geneva. It is interesting to note the percentages of women teachers in the different cantons: Per cent. Glams . 01 Baseband . 0’8 Appenzell a Rh . 1# Tliurgau . 2-7 St. Gall . 3-4 Solothurn . 4*5 Schaflhausen . 8-4 Zurich . 8*4 Graubunden . 12*2 Aargau . 13 5 Luzern . 13 '8 Baselstadt . 28-6 Appenzell i. Rh . 29-2 Vaud . 37-6 Per cent. Berne . 38 6 Freiburg . 39*7 Wallis . 45-4 Zug . 49-2 Uri . 50'0 Schwyz . 55’0 Geneva . 56 -3 Tessin . 59’5 Neuenburg . 65’3 Nidwalden . 72'2 Obwalden . - 73’7 Average . . . 30-2 This table was prepared by Mr. 0. Grob in' 1881. A comparison with statistics of 1891 from other sources reveals the fact that the average has since risen to 33*3 per cent, though the cantons of Schaffhausen and Appenzell a. Rh. have entirely abandoned the practice of employ¬ ing women as teachers in elementary schools. THE SWISS SCHOOL SYSTEM. 229 The regular training of teachers is given in secondary schools in the cantons of Eeuenbnrg, Geneva, and Basel, while in all other cantons special normal schools are established for that purpose, but in Grau- biinden and Solothurn these normal schools are departments of the cantonal central school. Only one normal school is open to both sexes. Switzerland has 37 normal schools altogether. Of these 23 are open exclusively to men, 13 only to women, and 1 to both sexes. Of the 37 Swiss normal schools, 22 are German, 13 French, and 2 Italian. The cantons or states maintain 25 of these schools ; 4 are maintained by communities 5 8 are private institutions. For further statistics see p. 172.. In some cantons the definite appointment of a teacher is preceded by a period of probation of two years. The appointment of teachers is decided by general election or by a school board, or, as in Geneva, by the city council. Usually the teacher is elected for life. In some can¬ tons the right to call for a teachers’ resignation is reserved. In a few cantons the teachers are elected or appointed for a definite number of years (three to eight). Eeelection is permissible. In Catholic cantons certain ecclesiastical positions are connected with educational work in advanced elementary schools. As a rule, the teacher is by law and contract obliged to give instruc¬ tion a certain number of hours per week, to attend certain courses of instruction for his own benefit, to become a member of an aid society in order to secure a pension for himself, widow, and orphans. He is also obliged to arrange continuation and evening schools for boys and girls past school age, and not infrequently the care of the school building devolves upon him. Occupations that would interfere with his voca¬ tion are prohibited. He is free from certain duties that other citizens have to perform, as for instance, watch duty, statute service. In W allis the teacher is executed from income taxes. These privileges give him a high position in the community. Salaries.— The teachers’ salaries are higher in advanced elementary (or grammar) than in primary schools. They vary considerably in the different cantons. Some cantons have no legally fixed minimum salary. The following table was compiled in 1881 ; later information is wanting : The minimum salary of primary teachers is below 1,000 francs ($200) in the cantons, Wallis, 187 francs; Eidwalden, 448; Uri, 451; Tessin, 572; Obwalden, 597 ; Graubiinden, 689; Schwyz, 758; Zug, 778; Appen- zell i. Eh. 882; Freiburg, 898. The minimum varies between 1,000 and 1,500 francs in the cantons, Aargau, 1,207 francs; Berne, 1,249; Luzern, 1,289; Solothurn, 1,283; Eeuenburg, 1,356; Baselland, 1,446. The minimum varies between 1,500 and 2,000 francs in the cantons : Yaud, 1,514 francs; Thurgau, 1,552; St. Gall, 1,554; Glarus, 1,610; Schaff hausen, 1,623; Geneva, 1,647; Appenzell a. Eh., 1,821. In Zurich and Baselstadt it exceeds 2,000 francs, to wit: Zurich, 2,192; Baselstadt, 2,778. 230 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. It is plain, though, that these figures are only of relative value, since they do not represent the actual salaries paid, but only the lowest. Switzerland has 23 pension funds and aid societies for teachers, widows, and orphans. Most cantons provide for pensions; others only aid the voluntary pension funds of the teachers, but all recognize the duty of the state to pension teachers after a certain number of years, which varies between 30 and 45 years. F. — STATISTICS. 1 A. — PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The number of school districts in 1891 was 3,847 with 8,239 schools. The number of pupils in 1891 was 467,596 (234,618 boys and 232,978 girls). The number of teachers was 9,332 (6,224 men and 3,108 women). In 1891 the number of pupils to one teacher was 50. The average attendance in 1890-’91 was 84-97 per cent (an improvement of 4-05 per cent over 1881). These and the following numbers do not include pri¬ vate schools. B. — ADVANCED ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The number of pupils in 1891 in 477 schools was 28,537 (16,346 boys and 12,191 girls). Teachers, 1,370 (1,178 men and 192 women). C. — CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. The number of pupils in 1891 was 40,575 (37,292 boys, 3,283 girls). In these schools recruits prepare for entering the army by reviewing their elementary studies. J>. — SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The number of secondary and technical (such as normal) schools is not stated, but the number of students in 1891 was 19,299, nearly all boys. E. — HIGHER EDUCATION. In the universities and the federal polytechnicum the number of stu¬ dents in 1891 was 3,073, (2,847 young men and 226 young ladies). Dr. Huber, an educational authority in Switzerland, having access to reports of private schools, makes this statement, which certainly comes nearer the true figures than the total of the foregoing. The total number of pupils in elementary schools in 1891 was 549,067, to wit: Schools . Pupils. | Percent. 1 Primary . . . 467, 596 28, 537 40, 575 12, 359 85 6 7 2 Advanced elementary . . . Continuation . Private . . . i Total . 549, 067 100 Secondary . . . 19,299 549, 067 3-5 96 -5 Elemen tary . Total . . . 568, 366 100 -o 1 According to Grot’s yearbook. CHAPTER VIII. THE RESULTS OF HOME TRAINING AND INFLUENCE. (From the German of Franz Schoberle, Vienna.) [The following presentation may seem very fragmentary and the figures too inadequate for use as a basis for generalizations such as the author indulges in. The inquiries may have, in some cases, resulted in erroneous statements. Thejacts themselves may be considered dubi¬ ous; at least the place in which they are gathered (the city of Vienna) may not be the proper standard of comparison for other localities. The grouping of facts may be defective, inasmuch as it is done by what the author himself considers social standards — not by any standard gener¬ ally agreed upon. In many cases potent educational influences may have escaped the author’s observation; hence his conclusions maybe faulty. Yet, after making all due allowances, after admitting all this and more, there remains a residue of suggestive thought in the little table, the author or compiler of which was a man who, for several years, patiently plodded in the service of science without hope of reward, except such as warm-hearted appreciation can offer. The author presents only the first table, which shows each item as compared with the sum total of all cases observed. Two more tables are inserted, showing the same items, first, compared with the sum of each column; secondly, compared with the sum of each line. In other words, inquiry has been made into the relation one number bears to the total number of the social class of which it forms a part, and then into the relation the same number bears to the total number of children under similar educational influences. — The Translator.} Table 1. — Classification of 9,000 Viennese school children, in different classes of society according to their home training. L II. III. | Heme training. Children of the upper class. Children of the middle class. Children of the poor and ignorant. Totals. a. According to moral principles. . . b. Mostly passive . . . c. One-sided . d. Bad . Vo. 135 1 225 180 135 Per ct. 1 -5 2-5 2-1 1 -5 ! Vo. i 360 855 1,125 135 Per ct. 4 5-5 12-5 1-5 Vo. 5S8 3,420 945 900 Per ct. 0-5 d8 10 -5 10 Vo. 1, 080 4, 500 2,250 1,170 Per ct. 12 50 25 13 Totals . 675 7-5 ,475 J 27-5 5, 850 65 9, 000 100 231 232 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 2. — Ratio of the several items to the -mm of the column. Educational influence. I. Children of culture and wealth. II. Children of the middle class. III. Children of the poor and ignorant. Totals. No. Per ct. No. Per ct. No. 1 Per ct. No. Per ct. a. According to moral principles . . 135 20 360 15 588 10 ! 1,080 12 b. Mostly passive . 225 33 855 35 3, 420 59 ! 4, 500 50 c. One-sided . 180 27 1, 125 45 945 16 2, 250 25 135 20 135 5 900 15 1, 170 13 Totals . 675 100 2,475 100 5,860 100 9, 000 100 Table 3. — Ratio of the several items to the totals in the margin. Educational influence. I. Children of culture and wealth. II. Children of the middle class. III. Children of the poor and ignorant. Totals. No. Per ct. No. Per ct. No. Per ct. No. Per ct. a. According to moral principles .. 135 12 -5 360 33 588 54 -4 1, 080 100 b. Mostly passive . 225 5 855 19 3, 420 76 4,500 100 c. One-sided . 180 8 1,125 50 945 42 2, 250 100 d. Bad . . 135 11-5 135 11 -5 900 77 1, 170 100 Totals . LO t>« o 7-5 2, 475 27 -5 5,850 65 9,000 100 This table (table 1, the author’s) is the result of five years’ study and observation in three ward schools of the city of Vienna, Austria. The observations were made by a teacher in fifteen class rooms and embrace 9,000 children of various ages between 10 and 14 years. Both sexes were observed, but from the explanatory remarks of the author we see that it was chiefly boys whom he studied. A comparatively large portion of the children belong to the lower strata of society. Though the tables might speak for themselves the explanations of the author may be helpful. Line a (horizontal) contains the number of children, grouped' in three classes, whose parents try to educate them, consciously and with a purpose in view, according to ethical principles or maxims, as, for instance, simplicity in appearance, word, and action, respect for others, sense of order and law, honesty, truthfulness, and uprightness. These children possess ideals of right, are ambitious, but not at the expense of others, and they are generally trained well in obedience and imbued with the sense of firmness and justice. Line b contains the number of children whose parents are chiefly passive in their duties toward education. All they do is confined to a prevention of degeneracy on the one hand and a development of those impulses and actions which are presupposed and implied by society. These groups represent the u mechanical virtues.” It is the discipline of formalism that we find here. Line c contains the number of children who are educated in a one¬ sided manner; that is, some important factor of education is neglected. For instance, respect of one’s own person or respect for others; or sense RESULTS OF HOME TRAINING. 233 of honor and ambition are repressed ; hypocrisy, vaunting, or mendacity are systematically, though not in all cases consciously, taught. Line d contains the number of children found to be badly educated. Their training violates, either with or without intention, ethical princi¬ ples. In these groups we find souls brutalized by bad examples; con¬ tempt for others because of their poverty or some natural defect; intentional negation of the ideas of rights such as u mine and thine;” also absence of repression of sensuality. Column I contains the numbers representing the offspring of wealthy or cultured parents, such as people living on the proceeds of invested funds, owners of manufactories, noblemen, high army officers, physi¬ cians, lawyers, teachers, and high civil officers. Column II contains the number of children coming from the middle class of society, people who have a secure income, either a fixed salary or an established business, tradespeople and mechanics who own their shops; also persons in positions of responsibility in factories and offices, such as foremen, supervisors, and subaltern officers. Column III contains the number of children of the laboring and serv¬ ing class, people who earn wages as u hands” in factories and shops, and those who have no fixed or steady income, such as servants, coach¬ men, men and charwomen; also all who live directly or indirectly upon charity. Minute inquiries and investigations with regard to the parents, have resulted as follows : I a. Father and mother are earnest, well educated, and observant at home. In II a , we find almost the same qualities in the parents, only that the pecuniary means are so much less abundant that the influence and authority of the parent is somewhat lessened. Ill a. The father works in the factory or at home, but is represented by a well inclined, strong mother, whose authority he reinforces. I b and II 1). The father is away from home during the day, the mother is weak both physically and educationally. Ill b. Father and mother have no comprehension of education. I c and II c. The father has no comprehension of education, no higher ideas, lives chiefly in the pursuit of pleasure; the mother is fond of dress, vain and without ethical strength. Ill c. The father and mother can only be driven to work by dire necessity or compulsion. I d and II d. The parents are either purse-proud or proud of descent and position. Ill d. The father is as a rule, unknown. The mother represents a very low grade of intellectual development. Observations among these various children in the schoolroom have shown the following characteristics and indications pointing towards their future career : la. The children are earnest, aspiring from habit, sometimes preco¬ cious and conceited, have sympathy with others, study diligently, but avoid publicity. They are apt to become silent benefactors, travelers, 234 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. investigators, scientists, etc. II a. These children are also earnest and aspiring, but the latter from foresight; remain without intercourse with their schoolmates, have no pronounced inclinations, and a charac¬ ter difficult to define. If they pursue higher studies they do so for bread, but are not prompted by the love of study. In public life they are mostly patient listeners; they are apt to be “yea, yea,” and “nay, nay” persons. I II «. Children enumerated in this column are also earnest and ambitious, but from necessity. They possess little expe¬ rience, their intellectual horizon is limited, owing to poverty; they are bashful, but have very vivid imaginations; they are apt to drift into channels of study which can be pursued without a great outlay of money. Future idealists, explorers, collectors, and poets are likely to spring from this group. I b, .The children of this group are superficial, have much experience, but need incentives for study constantly. They generally follow the pro¬ fessions of their fathers; participate in public life; but never have any original ideas that open new ways. Sportsmen and the officers of social clubs and societies are recruited from this group. II b. Incentives for learning and working in this group are spontane¬ ous; hence self-consciousness is developed to a high degree. The.se children will be found to become pronounced characters, and furnish the leaders in public life. III b. These children have some sense of honor which incites them to action ; but they are easily approached, hence easily tempted and led astray. If they reach manhood without coming into conflict with the law, life’s experiences improve them, and they become foremen, section- leaders and the like. I c. The girls are poor in intellect, love appearances and finery, are frivolous and void of good manners. The boys are distinguished by despotic and domineering conduct toward their schoolmates; they are apt to become sensual, void of sympathy for misfortune and poverty. They squander their inheritance or easily gained fortunes, and will be egotists or spendthrifts. II c. In this group we meet with imitators, the so-called universal genius, the jack of all trades and master of none, people who are never satisfied with whatever profession they may choose. . The profession ot gamblers recruits itself from this class. III c. These are children who simulate misery and claim sympathy, who have no self-confidence or self-respect. A good teacher will often train them to become trustworthy workmen, and he will awaken self- respect in them. I d. Here we find the children who have contempt for all who rank below them. They do not think it necessary to study hard, knowing that their parents are wealthy. Sympathy for others is rarely found among them; hence egotists, usurers, and many who take advantage of others, are recruited from this group. RESULTS OF HOME TRAINING. 235 II d. These children feel no desire to learn or to work, attend school very irregularly, and when they do so, it is to amuse themselves. The boys are apt to become dandies, forgers, and defrauders. III d. The children of this class are frequently withheld from school, or attend only by compulsion. The girls are morally bad and apt to sink low while the boys grow up to be candidates for the reform school and penitentiary. For the work in school, some remarkable conclusions may be drawn from the foregoing tables. The children of line a, columns I, II, and III, have home training. Those of I a have much recreation in the open air, but always under surveillance of parents, or other reliable persons. The summer is spent in the country. Pl^sical development is cared for assiduously. Their health is normal, but sometimes they are a little delicate, and hence are kept from school in bad weather. Those of II a are also under super¬ vision at all hours of the day, and spend much time in the open air. Their mode of life is natural, effeminacy is not found in this group; hence, the health of these children is always good and attendance at school regular. Those of III c find their only recreation and bodily exercise by walking to and from school. Everything is wanting to aid physical training. The parents fear bad influence and example among the schoolmates and watch over their children too anxiously. Often food is insufficient, and the children of this group furnish the greatest number of sickly pupils ; hence, the greatest percentage of mortality. The whole group I a , II a , III a seems destined to act as examples of good conduct for others, but owing to their exclusiveness, this benefi¬ cent influence is lost as far as school is concerned. During lessons the children of the first three groups (I a, II a, III a ), are quiet workers, slow in thinking, exact and prompt in doing their tasks, but without pronounced vivacity. They never give cause for complaint, are satis¬ fying all reasonable demands, yet are not a source of real joy to a teacher, because everything such children do betokens outer compul¬ sion. Spontaneity is rarely found among them. The whole group, I &, II 6, III &, prefers the streets and parks after school hours, and can not be kept at home. The children distinguish themselves by great practical experience. They observe and compre¬ hend quickly, are quick and skillful in motion, have a fresh complexion, cheerful looks, are attentive when interested, and quick in repartee. In their work they are frequently negligent in form, but generally cor¬ rect in the solution of problems, mathematical and otherwise. Their vivacity and adroitness are a constant source of pleasure' to the teacher; they enliven the whole school, and not unfrequently engage in mischief and playfulness, but rarely, if ever, in wicked acts. Innate interest in what is taught makes them noisy and pert, but they are easily called to order. Teachers remember such children with much pleasure. The whole group Ic, lie, and IIIc tends toward hypocrisy. These 236 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. children are quiet — in fact, the least noisy of all — but where they can play a trick unseen and with the presumption of not being found out they do so, and often do very wicked things. Characteristic qualities of these children are deceit, treachery, malignity, and conceit. During recitations they rely upon being prompted, boast of work obtained by deceit, always have a good excuse for whatever infraction of rules they cause, and are quick in shifting their guilt upon the shoulders of others. Outside of school the children grouped under Ic keep aloof from those of other groups and associate only with children of their own “set.” Those of group lie seek intercourse with others, but their friendship is not lasting ; they are apt to quarrel, to pry into the affairs of others, and to spoil play. Those of IIIc may be imposed upon, and can be ruled by presenting them with some little thing, as an apple, a toy, or a piece of bread. For a consideration like that, they accept even positions in a game which no other child would take. The children of the three groups d (Id, II d, Hid), are not often found in school ; those of I d because they do not need to learn much (so they and their parents think) and because “the teachers keep school merely for the sake of the salary attached to their positions.” Those of II d are often absent from school, because regular attendance and hard study are inconvenient, hence they are frequently “quite ill” at the beginning of a school session, but quite lively after the session progresses, and they see that the teacher takes no notice of their fancied indisposition. Those of Hid are rarely found in school because they dislike study. Those of I d walk alone on the street and look with con¬ tempt upon the others as a “beggarly pack; ” the boys learn to smoke early and like to play the role of grandees. Those of II d roam about the streets and spend for candy and toys the pennies given them for school requisites. They are not very scrupulous as to where they get their pennies. Those of Hid are the poison of juvenile society. The health of the children in groups II d and III d is indestructible. The children withstand all influences of the weather, are insufficiently clad in winter, and seem not to be susceptible to infectious diseases. As has been said before, the entire three groups a shrink from exercising an influence upon public education, the children of the three groups b are the tormenting spirits on the streets, whose play and noise is harm¬ less but annoying to adults. The children of the three groups c are, for purposes of public education, of no appreciable consequence; those of group d are even dangerous, noticeably those of III d. They fre¬ quent remote streets, dark alleys, field and wood paths, caves, canals, and appear in crowded streets only like hostile enemies to make sallies and inroads upon civilization. Here they meet children of groups II b and III b , and impress themselves forcibly upon them by expressions of brutality and immorality, and by descriptions of the enjoyment they have secured for themselves by defying law and order. Thus they enlist others who, without contact with vice, might become good citizens. RESULTS OF HOME TRAINING. 237 These 900 (III d) tempt the 885 of II b and the 3,420 of III 5, and draw astray into the slums many who, under other circumstances, might remain good through habit, if not from principle. The children of this group, III d, are dangerous companions at all times. Reviewing the whole matter, we see that the parents of group a of all three classes withhold their children from contact with schoolmates chiefly on account of the 900 of group III d, and that parental influ¬ ence in group b is often too weak to prevent evil influences from out¬ side. The Government must do something to allay the apprehension of parents of the three groups a, and to protect the children of the three groups b. Home training needs a reinforcement in form of super¬ vision on the streets and play grounds. Public play grounds , well con¬ ducted by shilled and experienced teachers , should be established and main¬ tained by the city authorities , and patronized and attended as regularly as the schools. [The statistical matter offered in this article may, as has been said, seem defective by reason of its fragmentary nature, but it may induce others to follow up the idea, and make similar studies and submit the results to the light of criticism, as this is submitted, with all due defer¬ ence to the opinion of others. — The Translator .] CHAPTER IX. SCHOOL MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL LIBRARIES, AND PERMANENT EXHIBITIONS OF APPLI¬ ANCES FOR TEACHING. A Historical and Statistical Review. The following is a summary of a hook, entitled The Pedagogical Libraries, School Museums, and Permanent Exhibition of School Appli¬ ances, with special regard to the Pedagogical Central Library (Comenius- Foundation) ad Leipzig, by Julius Beeger, director of the Pedagogical Central Library at Leipzig (pp. 84, 1892). This work may be considered the most reliable and most comprehensive report on educational collec¬ tions. I. — HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL COLLECTIONS. School libraries are quite an old institution; they originated at the time when schools were established within, or in connection with con¬ vents. But these libraries served exclusively the purposes of the school to which they belonged. Educational or teachers’ libraries for entire school or governmental districts, which came into existence during the first half of the Nineteenth Century, were made serviceable to wider circles. Some schoolmen, like Dr. Ed. Dlirre in Weinheim, conceived quite early the necessity of large libraries for far-reaching purposes in educational centers, but such plans found no realization. The beginnings of school museums may be traced back to the exhi¬ bitions of school appliances connected with national teachers’ asso¬ ciations, and industrial state or world's expositions. With them they appeared, and with them they vanished. The result of minute inquiries establishes the fact that the oldest school museum in the world is the Educational Museum at Toronto (Canada); it was founded in 1853. Then followed in 1857 the Educational Division of the South Kensing¬ ton Museum. In 1864 the Pedagogical Museum at Petersburg, and in 1865 the Permanent Exhibition of School Appliances at Leipzig were founded. The last-named institution came to an untimely end in conse¬ quence of lack of interest on the part of the managers; the objects remaining intact were given over to the Comenius Foundation at Leipzig, which organization had meanwhile assumed large proportions. In 1867-8 the Bureau of Education in Washington began to collect 239 240 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. educational works and objects for school use, with the intention of establishing a museum and a library. In 1870 the Pedagogische Bibliotheek van het N ederlandsch Onderivijzers Genootschap (the Peda¬ gogical Library of the Dutch Teachers’ Association), and the following year the Pedagogical Central Library (Comenius Foundation), at Leip¬ zig, were founded. The Permanent Exhibition of School Appliances in Vienna was cre¬ ated by a resolution of the city council July 30, 1872, but since 1891 it has been abandoned, appropriations for its maintenance having been refused. In 1873 the Hungarian School Appliance Museum ( Orszdgos tanszer vriuzeum) at Budapest was founded, but not opened until J 878. In Pome, after the model of the institution in Vienna, a museum for instruc¬ tion and education (. Museo dJ istruzione e d1 educazione ) was opened in 1874, which, however, was soon abandoned. The Oassianeum, at Do- nauworth (founded 1875, in Neuberg on the Danube), may be considered the most flourishing institution of this kind at that period. In 1875 the Swiss Permanent School Exposition in Zurich was founded. Since 1890 it bears the name P'estalozzianum. In 1876 the pedagogical library of the Nederlandsch Onderivijzers ’ Genootschap was reorgan¬ ized into the Netherlandish School Museum at Amsterdam. In the same year the German School Museum at Berlin was opened 5 also a city school Museum, on February 10, 1877, created by resolution of the school board. The year 1877 also witnessed the establishment of the great Pedagogical Museum at Tokio, in Japan. I11 1878 the estab¬ lishment of one of the most noted institutions of this kind, the State school museum at Brussels was suggested, and in 1880 it was opened under the name National School Museum. Equal in importance with that in Belgium is the Pedagogical Museum and Central Library for Elementary Instruction, established in Paris in 1879. In the same year a School exhibition at Berne and the school museum at Konigsberg were opened, the latter established and maintained by the city teachers. The year 1881. saw the opening of the Provincial School Exhibition at Magdeburg and the Permanent Exhibition of School Appliances at Graz, in Austria. One year later, 1882, a pedagogical museum was opened in Madrid, and likewise a municipal pedagogical museum at Lisbon. On December 3, 1883, the National School Museum at Bio de Janeiro was opened, and at about the same date the Freiburg Educational Society induced the cantonal government to establish a permanent school exhi¬ bition in Freiburg. The Pedagogical Library at Stockholm, founded by teachers, dates from the same year. In the year 1886 the Permanent School Exhibition at Neuenburg, in Switzerland, in 1887 the Museum for ElementarySchools at Bostock, and in 1888 the Tliuringian School Museum at Jena came into existence. The year 1889 saw the birth of three such institutions, the School Museum at Hildeslieim, the Per¬ manent School Exhibition of the German Teachers’ Union at Innsbruck, and the School Museum at Cassel. In 1890 a school museum was opened at Kiel, and lastly, in 1891, a school museum in Braunschweig. SCHOOL MUSEUMS, LIBRARIES, AND APPLIANCES. 241 Several institutions of this kind are planned and will iirobably be opened in the near future in Genoa, Basel, and Bozen. In Hannover a similar plan crystallized into establishing a special department of pedagogy in the city library, which contains a reading room for teachers. In Australia, also, the idea seems to take root. The Colony Victoria will open a school museum at Melbourne, the Legislature hav¬ ing passed a resolution to that effect in 1891. II. EDUCATIONAL COLLECTIONS OF THE PRESENT TIME. A. Germany. 1. German school museum at Berlin. — This institution is a private enterprise on the part of the teachers’ association in Berlin. It con¬ tains an exhibition of school appliances and an educational library of over 14,000 volumes. A specialty of the German school museum is the collection of literary and other works of some distinguished edu¬ cators in separate alcoves. Thus, the Diesterweg, Pestalozzi, and Ear- cort collections are very complete. In 1891 the income was about $300. The institution is situated in Blumen Sir., No. 63 a. Custodian, A. Rebliulin. 2. City school museum at Berlin. — Belongs to the city, which main¬ tains it. Annual appropriation in 1888, about $1,000. The institution has a building of its own in Stallschreiber Str., No. 54. Custodian, Hector A. Baeblich. 3. Cassianeum at Donauieorth [Bavaria). — This institution is private. It was established by a teacher, Ludwig Auer, who is still its custodian. The library has the purpose of collecting material for scientific work in pedagogy, and offers it for use to men engaged in such work. In 1891 the library had 40,000 volumes and pamphlets and 150 appli¬ ances for teaching. In connection with the museum Mr. Auer main¬ tains a boy’s academy and a u psedagogium,” in which educational literary production is carried on. Eight periodicals, several calendars and juvenile journals are published in the institution. It is situated in the former Benedictine monastery of the Holy Cross. The library has an annual income of $500 from the publications of the paedagogium. A special librarian is engaged. 4. Thuringian School Museum at Jena . — This institution was founded, December 8, 1888, by Teacher Ernst Piltz, who had been the prime mover of the formation of the Thuringian school museum society. This society manages the institution, which was opened March 31, 1889. Its purpose is to furnish principals and teachers in schools of all kinds with appliances and other means of instruction, facilitate the study of candidates for highest positions, and instruct parents and friends of popular education in becoming acquainted with the science and prac¬ tice of teaching, and lastly, to enable manufacturers of appliances, as well as publishers, to exhibit their objects and books without cost. The income of the institution is limited to the dues of the society (25 ED 92 - 16 242 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. cents per annum for each member).. This museum is located in a hotel (Weimarischer Hof) in Jena and occupies the entire upper story and several other rooms. Custodian, Ernst Piltz. 5. School Museum at Hildesheim. — This institution was founded in 1891 by the teachers of the city, aided by the city council. It is located in the new school building on Liitzel Str. Custodian, A. Kreipe. 6. Schlesiv ig -Holstein School Museum at Kiel. — This was founded, upon motion of Teacher Wolgast, by the teachers’ society of Kiel. Five members are entrusted with the management. Custodian, Mr. Boor- mann, Stern Str. 7. School Museum of Konigsberg. — This consists of a city library for elementary teachers and a collection of appliances. The library con¬ tains 5,000 volumes, the museum a number of appliances for teaching and drawing models. A special feature of this institution is the collec¬ tion of literature concerning Dinter, a noted Prussian educator. The income of the institution is derived from dues of society members and annual appropriations from the city council. It is located in the annex of the gymnasium. Bahnhofs Str., Ho. 2. Custodian, E. Danziger. 8. Pedagogical Central Library at Leipzig ( formerly Gomenius Stif- tung). — The prime mover in founding this institution was its present director, Julius Beeger, who suggested it in an oration delivered on the two hundredth anniversary of Comenius’ death, Hovember 15, 1871. The purpose of this institution is to make available to all educators and educational authors in Germany and Austria the entire literary material that has reference to education in kindergarten, elementary, secondary, higher, and special schools, German as well as foreign. This library is intended to promote pedagogical science — hence to serve all persons who are engaged in that pursuit. At present the library contains 60,000 volumes and pamphlets. The funds of the institution are scanty — hence it is impossible to keep the library abreast of the times. It is located in the teachers’ house, Kramer- Strasse Ho. 4, and occupies a large hall and a reading and waiting room. Teachers and authors, as well as students of pedagogy and normal schools, are entitled to the free use of the library. Teachers in Leipzig may keep books for four weeks, nonresidents for eight weeks. Custo¬ dian, Julius Beeger. 9. Permanent School Exhibit of the Teachers’’ Association of the Province of Saxony at Magdeburg. — Was founded in 1881. It is intended strictly to be confined to an exhibition of appliances, models, and illustrations. Books are excluded. It is located in a schoolroom, Scliul-Strasse Ho. 1. The management is in the hands of a committee. Present custo¬ dian, Teacher Weber. 10. Permanent Exhibition of School Furniture and School Appliances at Munich. — This institution belongs to the government of Upper Bava¬ ria, and is intended to be a collection of the best appliances for teach¬ ing, school furniture, and supplies for elementary and continuation SCHOOL MUSEUMS, LIBRARIES, AND APPLIANCES. 243 schools. It is also to aid teachers in procuring supplies at low prices. The institution is located on Heumarket No. 2; it has a board of man¬ agers. 11. People's School Museum at Rostock ( Mecklenburg ). — It was founded in 1887, and is the property of the museum society. Its catalogue has 2,200 numbers. Librarian, Teacher O. Obenhaus. B. Switzerland. 12. School Exhibition in Berne. — A private enterprise subsidized by 'the state and the city. The institution is located in the cavalry bar¬ racks. The members of a society for the maintenance of this institu¬ tion tax themselves in order to secure the state subsidy. Teacher Liitlii is custodian. 13. Exposition scolaire permanente in Fribourg. — A private enter¬ prise enjoying state subsidy. It was founded in 1883. This institu¬ tion being situated near the border line of German Switzerland has assumed great importance, since it objectively displays German and Trench methods of teaching, besides promoting school education in general. The expenses are nearly covered by the income from admis¬ sion tickets and State subsidies. Founder and custodian is Teacher Genoud, of Fribourg. 14. Exposition scolaire permanente in Neuchatel. — This institution is the property of the canton and was founded in 1887. Its purpose is to exhibit a collection of school furniture and supplies and offer advice to teachers and school officers for procuring them. It is located in the academy building. President, Ami Guebhart. 15. Pestalozzianum in Zurich. — It was founded in 1875, receives sub¬ sidies from the federal and the cantonal government, and enjoys special care from the Society of the Pestalozzianum at Zurich. Purpose of the institution is the development of the Swiss school system. This is aimed at by showing the present condition of the schools and suggest¬ ing comparison. The museum is located in a hotel, “The Eiiden,” in Zurich; it will soon have its own home. Surplus, 4,000 francs ($800). The property of the museum is estimated at 55,922 francs ($11,000); the objects on exhibition alone have an estimated value of 42,415 francs. Director, Dr. Hunziker. C. Austria-Hungary. 16. Permanent School Exhibition in Graz. — This is a private enter¬ prise of Messrs. Mckl, Lochbihler, and Kmetisch, three teachers. The exhibition contains 6,842 objects and collections; the library contains 2,000 volumes; 75 periodicals are taken. This institution is not con- lined to appliances for elementary teaching, but a great number of objects are intended to illustrate and aid teaching in secondary schools, universities, and professional schools. An insufficient income is derived from subsidies on the part of the Empire, the state, the city 244 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. council, and the Styrian savings bank. Tlie institution has seven large rooms on the second floor of a city school (Schul-Strasse No. 5). A committee manages it. Custodian, Teacher Nickl; its organ, First Austrian-Hungarian Teaching Appliance Magazine. 17. Permanent Exhibition of the German Teachers1 Association at Inns- bruck , Tirol. — This is not opened yet, being still in process of construc¬ tion. The German teachers of the crownland Tirol are the owners. Custodian, Teacher Fleiseh, in Innsbruck. 18. State Exhibition of School Appliances at Buda-Pesth. — This is a state institution and confines itself almost entirely to elementary schools. The catalogue contains 5,000 numbers, valued at 9,000-10,000 florins ($3,213-83,570). This museum has an annual income of $393. It is located in the Pmdagogium. Custodian, Franz. Girokuthy. D. Netherlands. 19. Netlierland School Museum at Amsterdam. — It originated in 1876 from a pedagogical library and is now located at Keisersgracht No. 121. Custodian, Editor Lalleman. 20. School Museum at Rotterdam. — This institution is similar to the aforementioned, but younger. E. Belgium. 21. Rational School Museum at Brussels. — This institution is a state concern. It has three large halls used for purposes of exhibition, an educational library, and several work and reading rooms. The museum halls contain models of a kindergarten, schoolrooms, Froebel collections, etc. The state granted an appropriation of 16,200 francs (or $3,240), The originator of the institution is A. J. Germain, who is at present its genera] director. F. France. 22. Pedagogical Museum and Central Library of Elementary Instruc¬ tion at Paris. — It was founded in 1878 and is a state institution. Its purpose is to collect, arrange, and make available everything which will shed light on the history and the present status of school and edu¬ cation in France and foreign countries. Its income during 1886-1888 was $8,000 a year. The institution is located in the manual training school, Hue Gay-Lussac No. 41, and occupies 30 rooms. Under the name central library nine separate libraries are managed: The Eapet library, the general library, the reserve, the circulating library, the library of fiction, the collection of French and foreign educational doc¬ uments, the library of duplicates, and that of pupils’ work. The museum contains atlases and illustrated works on school architecture, art collections, results of manual skill, the most varied appliances for teaching, a collection of school buildings uen miniature,” etc. The present director is Jules Steeg. SCHOOL MUSEUMS, LIBRARIES, AND APPLIANCES. 245 G. Great Britain and Ireland. 23. Educational Division of South Kensington Museum at London.— This is a state institution. Object of the library is to offer to teachers and other educators opportunities to examine and compare the different publications on schools and theory and practice of education. It has a scientific collection designed to meet the demands of students and those who prepare themselves for examinations. The library at pres¬ ent contains 45,099 volumes without counting duplicates. The man¬ agement lies in the hands of a committee of the council of education. H. Portugal. 24. Municipal Pedagogical Museum at Lisbon. — It was founded in 1882, and is managed by Ad. Ooellio, but seems to languish from want of interest. I. Russia. 25. Pedagogical Museum of the Military Schools at St. Petersburg. — This is a state institution and belongs to the department of war, hence has a different purpose from other school museums. The collections occu¬ py 3,200 square meters floor space, 6,400 square meters wall space, and 5,300 square meters space on shelves. J. Sweden and Norway. 26. Pedagogical Library at Stockholm.— This is an institution of the city teachers. It was opened in 1885. The library is designed to aid principals, teachers, candidates, and authors in their work. The state pays a subsidy of 1,500 crowns (or $393). Number of volumes, 10,600. Director, Dr. Lagerstedt; librarian, Dr. Planck. K. Denmark. 27. Danish School Museum at Copenhagen. — This has been opened quite recently. It is located on Gl. Kongevej, No. 15. Librarian, Emil Sauter. L. Spain. 28. Pedagogical Museum at Madrid. — It was established by the state in 1882 and is under supervision of the general director of public instruction. It confines itself to illustrating education at home, in kindergarten, and the elementary school. Annual appropriation, about $1,000. Director, Manuel B. Oossio. M. United States. 29. Division of Library and Museum of the Bureau of Education at Washington. — This institution was founded in 1869. Purpose of the museum is to enable teachers and all who are interested in education 24 6 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. to examine and study appliances and illustrations for teaching in use in America and foreign countries, and to utilize tlie knowledge thus gained for the improvement of American education. The library in 1891 contained 43,500 volumes and 120,000 pamphlets. The museum contained .in that year about 20,000 articles and collections. The appropriations vary, being determined by the U. S. Congress annually. During the last ten years the cost of maintenance and new purchases were about $10,000 annually. N. Canada. 30. Educational Museum at Toronto.— This is a governmental insti¬ tution founded in 1853. It is located in one of the schools. O. Brazil. 31. National School Museum at Bio de Janeiro. — This is a private enterprise consisting of teaching apx>liances and an educational library. P. Japan. 32. Pedagogical Museum at Toldo. — This is a state institution. In 1885 the library contained 26,282 volumes. The museum consists of school furniture, school appliances, zoological, botanical, and mineralog- ical collections. Director, M. S. Tegima. Q. Australia. 33. School Museum at Melbourne.— This was temporarily established in connection with the World’s Exposition. At present apian is being matured to establish it on a firm basis after the example of the museum in Paris. CHAPTER X. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. [From a work prepared for the German educational exhibit in Chicago by Prof. W. Lexis.1] CONTENTS. Part I.— Character and Historical Development of German Universities, by Fr. Paulsen, Berlin. Introduction, Types of universities; General character of German universities. — I: Sketch of their historical development; (A) The Middle Ages, Origin, Foundation, Organization, Attendance, Regulations of life and conduct, Teachers, Curricula of studies, Form and con tents of instruction; ( B ) Modern times, Renaissance and reforma¬ tion, Confessional universities, The eighteenth century, The nineteenth century. — II : Relation of German universities to state, church, and society; (A) Relation to state ; ( B ) Relation to church; {C) Relation to society. — III: University prof essors and uni¬ versity instruction, Professors and private docents, Their teaching lectures, seminaries, freedom of teaching. — IV: The students and their work; Preparation , Age of students, Vacations, Conditions of life, Costs of university career , Change of univei'sities, clubs and societies, Study, Freedom of study, Means of study and their use, Examinations; Conclusion: The unity of the university. — Appendixes: ( A ) List of universities arranged to date of founding; (B) Bibliography . Part II. — General Statistics of German Universities, by J. Conrad, Halle. (I) General view, The separate faculties, The relation of the faculties -to each other, The preparation of students, Foreigners studying in Germany, Length of study and average length of stay in each university, Army service, Age of students, Occupation and pro¬ fession of parents, Religion of German students, The professors, Promotions and degrees, Income and expenditures of German universities, Costs of study, Benefices. Part I. CHARACTER AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. [Written for the Columbian World’s Exposition by Prof. F. Paulsen, Berlin.] INTRODUCTION. General Character of the German Universities. The many varied forms of universities of the present day may he traced hack to or grouped around three types: the English, French, and German types. 1 Translated by Dr. L. R. Klemm, specialist in German education. 247 248 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The English type, represented by the two old and venerable univer¬ sities Oxford and Cambridge, is the oldest. We find represented in it the original form of the Middle Age university, because England is the most conservative country in Europe, a country in which ancient cus¬ toms are most faithfully preserved. The university in England is a free corporation resting upon a church basis; it has its own government and maintains itself from funds and estates derived from bequests ; the state government has nothing to do with the routine of the management. The regulations of life and conduct are in fundamental principles simi¬ lar to those of the university of the Middle Ages: teachers and scholars live together in colleges and halls in a kind of monastic community. The instruction also resembles both in matter and form the instruction of an ancient university, and its chief faculty is the facultas artium. Its aim is essentially an extensive and profound general education suit¬ able for a gentleman ; scientific investigation as well as scientific prep¬ aration for the learned professions lie outside the pale of English uni¬ versity instruction. The chief branches of study are those that promote general education, such as languages, history, mathematics, natural sciences, and philosophy. The mode of teaching is that of a school; in many cases it is purely private instruction. The French type of a university has departed farthest from the ancient form. The great revolution swept away with one stroke the ancient universities like many other institutions, intending to make room for anew structure to be erected according to geometrical lines. Not until the imperial throne was set up did the new university jdan assume shape and form. The place of the ancient universities was taken by independ¬ ent faculties for the several learned professions that necessitate scien¬ tific preparation : facultes de droit , de medecine , des sciences , des lettres . The ancient combination of the faculties to the unity of a university was abandoned, even the term university would have vanished had it not been preserved in a changed significance in the Universite de France. Here it means the great centralized body of administration of public instruction that embraces every public educational institution of the land, from the elementary to the scientific professional school. The facultes are now state institutions for certain professions; the instruct¬ ors are state officers and as such they conduct state examinations. Scientific investigation and general scientific education are not, properly speaking, their object in view; the former is a matter of the Academy of Science, the latter that of preparatory schools. The German type, as it is found in Germany and in neighboring coun¬ tries, the institutions of which have had a similar development (Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and partly, also, Kussia) represents, as far as the outer form is concerned, a type between the English and the French. This type has preserved more of the original than the French; on the other hand it has yielded more to the demands of modern times than the English. The German university is, like the GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 249 French faculty a state institution ; it is established and maintained by the state and subject to state administration and supervision. Yet, it has preserved some important features of the ancient constitution of a corporation: It possesses a certain measure of self-government; it elects its own officers, rector, senate, and deans; it exercises an impor¬ tant influence upon the selection of the professors, first, by defining the circle from which the professors may be chosen through granting the degree of doctor, and deciding the question of admission of private lecturers (Privat-Docenten) ; secondly, by submitting to the government the names of candidates for vacant chairs. In its character as an edu¬ cational institution the German university has preserved the original form in its purest type; the four faculties have remained actual institu¬ tions of learning, while in England instruction and student life have withdrawn to a great extent into the colleges; on the other hand, the combination of the faculties to a living unity in the university, the centralized institution for all the learned professions, in contradistinc¬ tion to the French plan, has also been preserved. Viewing the inner character of the German university its special feature becomes apparent at once, namely, that it is both a laboratory of scientific investigation and an institution for the highest scientific instruction, general as well as professional. Like the English univer¬ sities it offers an extensive and profound general scientific education; this is the special aim of the philosophic faculty. Like the French facultes the German university offers professional instruction for the learned professions, for the clergymen, the judges, the higher adminis¬ trative officers, the physicians, and teachers of secondary schools. Besides this, the German universities are something which the English and French universities are not, namely, the principal seats of scientific labor — and likewise the nurseries of scientific investigation. Accord¬ ing to the German acceptation of the term a university professor is both a teacher and a scientific investigator, and the latter is considered the more important, so that the true statement should read: In Germany the scientific investigators are at the same time the teachers of the academic youth. From this it follows that academic instruction is thoroughly scientific; above the technical preparation for a profession stands the introduction into scientific truth and investigation. This unity of investigation and instruction characterizes the German university. There certainly are excellent scholars in Oxford and Cam¬ bridge, but no one will say that the English universities are the repre¬ sentatives of scientific labor in England. Many of the most noted scholars of England, men like Darwin, Herbert Spencer, Grote, the two Mills, Macaulay, Gibbon, Bentham, Bicardo, stand or stood outside of the university, and of many of them it may be said that they are impossible in an English university. Even the great learned men of such a university are not really the teachers of the academic youth; they may deliver a few dozen lectures a year, but the real instruction 250 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. lies iii tlie hands of the fellows and tutors. A similar state of affairs is found in France — the scientific investigator, the great learned man, belongs to the Academie , to the Institut de France ; he is, perhaps, also a member of the College de France , or the Sorbonne , and, as such, he may read a few public lectures, to which everybody is admitted, but he is not, like the German professors, the actual daily teacher of the academic youth. Of course it can not well be expected of all the teachers of the facultes , notably in the provinces, that they shall be independent scien¬ tific investigators. In contradistinction to this, the presumption is raised in Germany that all university teachers are scientific investigators, really learned men, or that all really learned men are university professors. Natu¬ rally, there are some exceptions. Germany has had, and has now, very distinguished scholars who are not university professors; it suffices to mention Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt; likewise among the professors of secondary schools there are many who have gained fame and'distinction as learned men. Similarly there are among the university professors some who do not accomplish much as scholars, who lay all their stress upon being successful teachers; but that is not the rule. The rule is the congruency of the two terms, learned man and professor. When in Germany a great scholar is mentioned the question is asked at once: In what university is he active? And if he is not in a university, it may be confidently expected that he feels this official disregard. Again, when a professor is mentioned the question is asked: What has he written? what are his scientific achievements? The cofisequences of this relation have been most significant for the formation of the entire German intellectual and scientific life. The German scholar is also an academic teacher; upon that rests his position in the life of our people. Our thinkers and investigators have been known to the people not only as authors, but as personal teachers with whom they have sat face to face. Men like Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schleiermacher, have influenced their time as academic teachers; a large part of their works was not published until after their death, either from their own notes or from memoranda made by the students. Just so Kant and Clir. Wolff were university professors. The same is true of the great philologists, of Heyne, F. A. Wolf, and G. Hermann; they have accomplished much by their personal activity as teachers; their students, afterward as teachers in secondary schools, carried the spirit and method of these men into the youth of the nation. Or think of the activity that historians like Banke and Waitz displayed in their seminaries; and it deserves special mention that among the most distinguished poets of the German nation more than one was a uni¬ versity professor; thus, Uhland, Biickert, Burger, and Schiller. The one fact, that Luther and Mel an ch thou were university professors, speaks volumes. This is undoubtedly a most fortunate circumstance. The young GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 251 generation in Germany being brought into immediate contact in the university with the intellectual leaders of the nation, receives the strongest and most abiding impulses. In German biographies the period spent in the university plays an important role; not unfre quently the instruction received by one academic teacher determines the direction of the student’s subsequent efforts. On the other hand, the relation stated is a delightful and fruitful one for our men of erudi¬ tion and investigation ; they remain young in their intercourse with youth. Personal transmission of ideas has a stirring and revivifying influence through the quiet, yet appreciable counter-effect among the students, an influence which the lonely author misses. The presence of an audience directs the attention of the instructor constantly upon essential and general ideas. Inclination towards philosophy, a direc¬ tion toward leading ideas and generalization, which are said to be char¬ acteristics of the German intellect, may be explained by the fact that knowledge is here, more than elsewhere, acquired and generated for the purpose of ingenuous communication in oral instruction. Of course this has its disadvantages. . Certain disagreeable features of our scientific life are directly traceable to the “university cut” which science in Germany receives; thus we notice a literary overproduction ; an inclination toward forming schools and science sects; a disregard for all efforts not emanating from the university, a slight which is felt keenly and resented violently, as is shown by Schopenhauer’s disquisi¬ tion upon the learned guild. It is true that a learned man not con¬ nected with a university can not secure appreciation in Germany as readily as he can in France or England; and it is also true that it would prove a useful corrective of our university education if inde¬ pendent scientific labor could flourish better, for it might in some ques¬ tions furnish less prejudiced minds and more reliable standards of judgment. Nevertheless the German nation has no cause to be dissatisfied with existing conditions that have historically developed. If in Germany science stands closer to the heart of the people than in other countries it is owing to the fortunate circumstance that its great men of science have also been the teachers of the academic youth. At any rate the universities must wish the continuance of this relation. The secret of their power consists in attracting the leading minds and being able to hold them; as long as that power is preserved the universities will succeed in holding the position they have gained in the life of the nation. Certain modifications may subsequently take place. The position the universities held during the first half of our century was based upon the fact that the national life had no other center than science and literature. The fact that participation in political life was denied, activity in industrial life greatly hampered, and competition in the world’s market checked by almost insurmountable obstacles, prompted 252 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. all higher activity to direct its attention to the inner life, and seek in the intellectual world compensation for the neglect it experienced in the outer world. Thus it happened that in the European community of nations the German people played the role of u a people of thinkers and dreamers;” there was no other role left it in the .cast. Germany and France seemed to have exchanged parts, for during the Middle Ages it was said that Italy had the Papacy (Papstthum), Germany the Empire ( Kaiser thum), and France Science (Studium). Much of this has changed within the present generation. The Ger¬ man people, which had long been an object in European politics, has again become a subject. The unity of Germany now rests upon other foundations than its universities. This change has made itself felt in more than one direction. The universities can not in the new Empire remain what they were, in a certain sense, during the time of the Fed¬ eral Congress, namely, the real center of national life (the attention this exalted body bestowed upon them gave testimony to the fact). At present other ways are opened for talent to reach prominent positions; in the national parliament, in the army, in administrative offices, in the industrial world, in the colonies — everywhere a talent that puts itself forward will find room for application, and a prospect of influ¬ ence and gain; the prerogatives of birth have also vanished. Yet under these changed social conditions the universities have maintained themselves in their prominent position among our national institutions. They still are important pillars of German unity. The customary exchange of teachers and students between the various universities and the most diverse tribes and provinces, taking place almost daily, contributes not a little toward keeping alive the con¬ sciousness of national unity among the component parts of the Empire that are clearly defined by state boundaries. It is to be expected that the German universities will preserve the well-earned fame of being the main support of German science. This fame will remain theirs as long as they preserve, like a precious inheritance of the past, a spirit of objectivity, a quiet joy in the subject of study, faithfulness to work, and love of truth that deprecates evil intentions and personal con¬ siderations. At present the German universities may enjoy the appreciation offered them in foreign countries where attempts are made to imitate their institutions and forms. France has just begun to again collect its separated “facultes” to real universities, and in England it is attempted to raise the dissipated work of the colleges to real university instruction. In these attempts at carrying into effect the German idea of unity of scientific investigation and instruction, some of the most prominent American universities have been very successful. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 253 I. — SKETCH OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. A. In the Middle Ages. Origin. — The universities had their origin in France and Italy. This origin is cotemporaneons with the beginning of the second half of the Middle Ages. During the first half the eyes of the world were turned toward the past, toward Christianity and antiquity; at the close of the eleventh century people began to look forward into the future. Powerful impulses stirred the intellectual life; the crusades brought the occidental nations into close contact with one another and with the oriental world; the religion and culture of Islam entered the field of vision. In chivalry arose a promoter of secular literature and educa¬ tion, and the new orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans formed a kind of religio-clerical chivalry. The great names that represented the new and flourishing theology and philosophy of that age belonged to a great extent to these two orders. Everywhere was noticeable a long¬ ing for knowledge. Attempts were made to master and penetrate by means of reason the faith which had at first been accepted by the new nations as something given. At the same time the chief works of the Aristotelian philosophy became known. Thus arose the problem of har¬ monizing and combining faith and science, theology and philosophy. This problem found its solution in the great formation of systems of the thirteenth century. This new intellectual world developed the universities as its organs and bearers. Paris, the first great university of the Occident, was the seat of the new tlieologic-philosophic speculation. From this university (ex diluvio scientiarum studii Pccrisiensis) the German uni¬ versities may be said to have derived their origin. However, the uni¬ versities of Italy that had an independent origin, especially Bologna, which developed from a law school, were not without influence upon the German institutions. While the oldest universities of Italy, France, Spain, and England reach with their roots into the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the German universities date their beginning from the second half of the fourteenth century. Prague and Vienna were the first foundations ; the former established by the house of Luxemburg in 1348, the latter by the house of Hapsburg in 1365; both were situated near the eastern border of German culture, evidently because Paris was near enough to western Germany, and the ancient clerical schools on the Khine, espe¬ cially that of Cologne, were in intimate contact with Paris. Toward the end of the century western Germany began with the establish¬ ment of universities at Heidelberg (1385) and Cologne (1388); central Germany followed with Erfurt (1392); the two last named were munic¬ ipal institutions. The temporary dispersion of the professors of the University of Paris consequent upon the notable church schism con¬ tributed a large share toward the necessity of establishing these three 254 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. German ni liversities. Cologne liad long been one of the most promi¬ nent seats of scientific clerical education. Here in the school of the Dominicans Albertus Magnus and Thomas of Aquinas, and in the school of the Menorites Duns Scotus, had taught. As a recompense for the loss of the University of Prague, Germany received Leipzig (1409) and the Baltic countries Bostock (1419). The confusion caused by the changed constitution of the University of Prague, suggested by John Huss, gave rise to the establishment of the universities of Leipzig and Bostock. Of all these seven institutions only two have ceased to be. Cologne and Erfurt, which during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries stood in the front rank, went down with the clerical governments to which they belonged, giving way before the storms that swept Europe in the wake of the French Bevolution, a movement that was fatal to many ancient universities. Cologne succumbed in 1794, Erfurt in 181G. A second epoch of university foundations dates from the beginning of the humanistic movement. This epoch has called into existence nine German universities: Greifswald (1456); Freiburg (1457); Basel (14G0); Ingolstadt (1472) ; Trier (Treves, 1473) ; May ence (1477) ;Tubingen(1477) ; * Wittenberg (1502), and Frankfurt-on-the-Oder (1506). Four of these are still flourishing in their ancient localities, namely, Greifswald, Freiburg, Basel, and Tiibingen. Trier and Mayence, the universities of the two archbishoprics, never having gained great importance, ceased to be when toward the close of the last century the ecclesiastical states went down. The remaining three at the beginning of the century either changed their locality or lost their independence. Ingolstadt was first moved to Landshut (1802), then to Munich (1826); Wittenberg was combined with Halle (1817), Frankfurt with Breslau (1811). Before I show the organization and work of teaching of the univer¬ sities in the Middle Ages, I insert a word concerning the term univer¬ sity. The real title of the educational institution was Studium generate, in contradistinction to Studium particulare , which was a local school. The university was called general school, because it was intended for entire Christendom without regard for national or territorial bound¬ aries. Degrees acquired here were recognized all over the Christian world. The term u univer situs” did not at first signify the institu¬ tion, but the political corporation of teachers and scholars that had acquired, through various exemptions and privileges, the character and position of a legal public body. Hence we see them mentioned as uni¬ versitas magistrorum et scolarium Parisiis existentium , as universitas studii Pragensis , Yiennensis. Gradually the term u universitas” dis¬ placed the other, and was modified in universitas liter arum, and, as such, meant both the corporation of persons and the institution. Foundation. — The German* universities have not, like the first French and Italian, grown gradually, but were founded according to matured plans. State and clerical powers worked together in founding them. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 255 The Pope established the educational institution by means of a bull, granting it the privilege of conferring degrees whereby it received the character of studium generate or privitegiatum. According to the views held during the Middle Ages, the ability and right to teach emanated from the church. But gradually the Emperor assumed the right of establishment in competition with the Pope. It was derived from the Imperial or Roman law, the representative of which was the German Emperor, upon whom, as was supposed, had descended the preroga¬ tives of the Roman Emperors. The head of the separate state, the local Xnince, on the other hand, furnished to the studium generate the sub¬ stantial means for existence ; he appeared in every case as the real founder; he secured from the clergy or the Emperor a bull of estab¬ lishment (a charter); he furnished an income by land grants or real estate; this income he secured by investing it in church prebends already existing and founded for this xMirpose; he equipped teachers and students with corporative rights, granted exemptions from secular judiciary, self-government, exemption from taxes, and other privileges. Organisation. — The first German universities exhibited a twofold organization; the educational institution was divided into four facul¬ ties, the political corporation into four nations, following in this the Parisian example; the former organization having reference to the cur¬ riculum of studies and order of examinations, the other to jurisdiction and management. At the head of the faculties stood the deans;* at the head of the entire unwersitas stood the concilium or the senate; at the head of the nations the procurators. The universities of later date have dropped the division into nations; the faculties displaced the nations, and in a measure compensated for their loss. But the remem¬ brance of the old constitution has remained alive in the fact that the rector could be elected by the scholars; princes and patrons were some¬ times distinguished by this honor which thereby reflected upon the corporation. Attendance. — Tradition in this case, as in every other, is generous with large numbers. It tells of thousands and tens of thousands that studied at one time in Prague and Vienna as well as Paris and Oxford. These reports seem to be upheld in a great degree by the rolls of ma¬ triculation that have been preserved and recently x>ublislied. If the annual number of matriculates amounted to five hundred or a thousand, the sum total of students, taking a four or six years7 course into consid¬ eration, would seem to come near the traditional statement. Careful consideration of possibilities and a critical use of documentary re¬ sources, has led to the assumption of much more modest figures. This is not the place to enter into details; it is reasonable to assume, that the greatest German universities never counted more than two thousand supposita (the technical term for matriculated members), and the smaller ones a few hundred or less. The great majority of the students be¬ longed to the faculty of arts and letters, which has been called the EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 256 philosophical faculty ever since the sixteenth century. Of the three higher faculties which had comparatively a small attendance, the fac¬ ulty of law, as a rule, was best frequented; after that followed the theo¬ logical; the medical faculty was generally the most insignificant. Regulations of life and conduct. — The university of the Middle Ages had little similarity to the German university of to-day. It can be best characterized by saying it was a big boarding school. Teachers and students, at least those of the faculty of arts, lived together in the buildings of the university. Every university had collegia (the Colleges of the Englishman, in Germany the term colleg now means lecture) aud often a p oedagogium (a preparatory school) for younger students in Latin. When, in consequence of increased attendance, the halls and dormi¬ tories of the university proved insufficient for all the students, pri¬ vate houses of professors were included in the university. These pri¬ vate boarding houses were termed burses (this term also stood for col¬ leges; the German Bur sell , meaning the inmates of a burse , has led to the application Bur sell for student.) The life in these halls was regu¬ lated according to the plan of a convent. A great number of ancient university statutes make this very plain.' We find in such a house rooms for common use, such as sleeping apartments, dining halls, study and lecture rooms, and a conference room for the faculty, besides rooms for individuals, for the professors, cells and chambers for the students, which could not be heated. Presuppositions for these institutions are, on the one hand, celibacy on the part of the professor ; on the other, juvenile age of the scholars, about 15 to 20 years on an average. The whole life was regulated in the minutest details by rules established and maintained by the university: time for rising and retiring, the two meals (prandium and ccena , at about 10 a. nr. and 5 p. m.), dress (natur¬ ally it was of a clerical cut), instruction, hours for repetition ( resump - tiones ), everything was regulated. There were also a number of pro¬ hibitory rules, against making noise, strolling, carrying arms, bringing women into the building, etc. It is natural to suppose, and if necessary, could be proven from numerous documents, that in those times, as is done to-day, various ways were invented for the purpose of circumvent¬ ing the law. The teachers. — In the higher faculties the number of lecturers was not large; three to six theologians, about as many jurists, and one or two professors of medicine made quite a stately university. The pro¬ fessors of theology and law enjoyed, as a rule, the benefices of a clerical prebendary incorporated in the university; the medical lecturers devoted themselves to the profession of medicine, and were considered of the least importance in the university. The activity of the regular professors was supplemented by reading tutors or baccalaureates. The number of lecturers in the faculty of arts and letters like that of the students was very much greater than in the other three faculties; it GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 257 may have risen to twenty or thirty in large universities. The older professors held positions in the colleges, sometimes also small pre¬ bendaries, but the majority were without fixed income, hence dependent upon examination and tuition fees, the proceeds of boarding, private pupils and other sources. To act as professor in this faculty of arts was not considered a lasting profession, but a transitional period, a stepping stone, as it were. Very often the lecturers in the faculty of arts were at the same time students in one of the higher faculties studying for a degree. They either succeeded in gaining a professorship for life, or entered the church which provided for their maintenance. The curricula of studies. — When the boy of 15 or 1G years left the particular or preparatory school, where he had acquired the learned language, Latin, to enter the studium generate , his first business was to be enrolled by the rector in the matricula of the university, for which he had to pay a fee, which fee was frequently remitted propter paupertatem , or oh reverentiam (this was done with well-known scholars, or with stu¬ dents recommended, by them). Then he applied to a lecturer in the faculty of arts for admission to the number of his students. With the aid of older students, the professors and the dean, he went through the for¬ malities of the Uheaniumv (act of initiation consisting of symbolic actions that signified to him the entrance into the world of academic culture); thus he became a student. ISTow he began to participate in the prescribed lectures and exercises of the faculty of arts, unless he was too far behind in age or in knowledge of Latin; in this case he was assigned to th e> pcedagogium, or given over to a tutor in order to acquire knowledge of the learned language. The course in arts was one of three or four years; it consisted of two parts, which were separated by the first examination. After about two years’ study, which consisted chiefly of logic and physics, the stu¬ dent applied for admission to the first examination. Having proved thathe had attended the prescribed lectures, participated in the required discussions, and acquired the amount of knowledge necessary, he re¬ ceived in public the first academic degree, that of haccalarius (after - Avardscalled haccalaureus). Examinations and promotions took place at stated times; an entire group of students was promoted together, so that to each one could be assigned a place according to the result of the examination. After another two years’ successful study, consist¬ ing of the whole range of philosophical sciences, physics, and mathe¬ matics, with astronomy, metaphysics and psychology, ethics, and politi¬ cal economy, he was examined again, and received his second promo¬ tion, the degree magister artium being conferred upon him. Similar to this was the course in the higher faculties. It is worthy of note that the new master of arts was, as a rule, re¬ quired to spend a few years in reading in the faculty of arts ( biennium complere). It appears that the authorities had a double object. in Anew; first, the preservation of the institution; Avithout such obligatory duties ED 92 - 17 258 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. as teacher, the number of teachers in the faculty of arts would have been inadequate, salaries being scanty and well- endowed chairs very few. But there must have been this other weighty consideration, that the young masters of arts were thus obliged to keep fresh the knowl¬ edge gained ; with Aristotle, the leaders of the universities of the Middle Ages believed that no one can know anything unless he be able to com¬ municate it to others. According to this the baccalarius was called upon to participate actively, and not only passively, in the instruction, both in lectures and disputations. The gradation, scolaris , baccalarius , and magister , is evidently the same that we find in the handicrafts of the Middle Ages, apprentice, journeyman, and master. The apprentice learned; the journeyman learned, produced, and if occasion offered, taught; the master produced and taught. In the particular or lower schools of those times we find the same steps; scholar, assistant ( sodas, also called baccalarius ), and schoolmaster. We must, however, guard against the impression that completing the entire course of the faculty of arts and a course in one of the higher faculties was the rule. Most of the students left the university be¬ fore even obtaining the lowest degree, that of bachelor of arts. Such cases are very rare at present; the rule now is to complete the course. The cause is obvious; it is that no office in the gift of the Government or mum cipal ties can be obtained without the completion of a university course, and each office presupposes a certain well-defined course of preparation. That was not the case in the Middle Ages; not even attendance upon a university seems to have been the condition for fill¬ ing an office. The absolutely necessary condition of an office in the gift of the church was priestly ordination, and, in fact, there were scarcely any secular offices. Previous to the ordination the bishop examined the candidates ; he required barely more than some knowledge in Latin. As late as at the end of the fifteenth century a great num¬ ber of clergymen had never attended a university, but it may be sup¬ posed that such attendance had become a duty of decorum for the higher clergy. In the cathedral chapters a certain number of positions were frequently reserved for graduates in theology. Also, knowledge of law proved more and more necessary for the higher clergy; for the lower positions, however, the degree of master or bachelor of arts was an important recommendation, and the mere certificate of matricula tion from a university secured to the owner a preference over other candidates. As proof of this fact may be regarded the rotuli which the oldest university sent from time to time to the clergy; they were lists of all the members of the university, arranged according to their academic rank, down to the simplest student, and they all appear as applicants for benefices. Contents and form of instruction. — The contents of instruction ap¬ peared to the Middle Ages as given and final; the object was to trans¬ mit the fixed inventory of scientific knowedge; for theology deriving its GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 259 knowledge in the last instance from tlae revelation, the Holy Scriptures {sacra pagina) were the supreme source of decisive authority. To be sure, for their comprehension, the interpretation of the church was determinative, and, from the fact that the contents of faith had to be arranged and systematized by means of human reason, the great theo¬ logical systems of the Middle Ages arose, which became the real objects of theological instruction. In the law faculty the great- collections of Eomau and canonic laws formed both sources and substance of instruc¬ tion ; commentaries and glossaries were called in for aid. The medical faculty, likewise, derived the substance of its instruction essentially from some authors of canonic reputation ; above all, the writings of Hippocrates and Galenus, with a few of their Arabic commentators. Finally^ the faculty of arts taught the philosophic, that is, all purely theoretic sciences, as far as they could be derived from human reason. Here, too, the substance of instruction was found in canonic text books, especially the writings of Aristotle, mathematics in Euclid, astronomy in Ptolemaeus; besides these, a few more modern text-books were used, such as the Summula Petri Hispani and the Splicer a of Johannes de ►Sacro Basco. As far as the form of instruction is concerned, we find everywhere during the Middle Ages two organically combined parts, lecture and disputation. The object of the lecture was the transmission of scientific knowledge. A canonic text, for instance, some passage of Aristotle (naturally in Latin translation) was read and explained, not dictated. A text- book was supposed to be in the hands of the students. At times the pro¬ fessor read from the text, in order to insert the proper punctua¬ tion and correction, but the main point always was the explanation. The versus memoriales , in which the explanation of law text was arranged, may be considered to have been in vogue for other texts also, perhaps with slight adaptations. Here is an example: Praemitto, scindo, summo, casumque figuro, Perlego, do caiisas , connoto , objicio. The object of the disputations was exercise in the application of scien¬ tific knowledge, above all the solution of mooted questions. The dis¬ putations appear to have been as important as the lectures. Yfhen at stated times public disputations took place, the whole faculty, masters and students, appeared in gowns. One of the masters, acting as chair¬ man, proposed a series of theses; the other masters in turn attacked his deductions with syllogistically arranged arguments. The bachelors as respondents defended the theses, by analyzing the arguments, aided by the chairman when necessary. Beside these formal disputations at which the students remained silent listeners, there were preparatory disputations conducted by masters and bachelors for the practice of the students. The Middle Ages laid much weight upon these learned dis¬ putations. Their number was determined beforehand, and attendance 260 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. at them was obligatory; masters who were lax in arranging them were threatened with fines. In fact the real power of university instruction emanated from these public discussions. There is no doubt that this was well understood; these discussions were a splendid means for securing acquisition of knowledge, as well as for practice in its appli¬ cation. They were well adapted to prove the presence of original knowledge, as well as skill in comprehending the thoughts of others and their relation to one’s own thoughts. It may be presumed that in these two things the learned men of the Middle Ages had a mastery not easily found now a days. The scholar of to-day depends for many things upon reference books, while a man in the Middle Ages had to charge his memory with them. Again, the ability to logically present and defend one’s views face to face with an opponent who supports his own, and in his defense tries to dissipate the discussion and lead one astray, this ability is not developed much now, hence is rarely found. Of course, such public disputations are not possible any longer in our universities. They presuppose two things that do not exist any more: (1) living together of teachers and students in colleges and halls, and (2) a certain inventory of generally acknowledged philosophic prin¬ ciples, or in other words, an authoritative school philosophy, such as the Middle Ages had in Aristotle for their faculty of arts. It was seen clearly enough that u contra principia negantem non est disputandum .” Since the sixteenth century these two conditions gradually dwindled in importance, and, finally, during the nineteenth century disappeared entirely. The once famous university disputations were first discred¬ ited, then abandoned; only a rudimentary fragment has been preserved as a reminder of the past, in the formal disputations on the occasion of granting the degree of doctor. B. — In Modern Times. The modern time began in that grand revolut onary era which is filled with the Benaissance and the Beformation. These two powerful move¬ ments cut deep into the life of the universities. The conquest of the German universities by the humanities took place during the first two decades of the sixteenth century. An exas¬ perating conflict between the old and the new raged during that time. The entire customary management of the universities, especially the instruction in the faculties of arts and theology, was rejected with the utmost contempt by the new culture and its representatives, the poets and orators, who, as may be said in passing, had here and there raised their voices similarly during the second half of the fifteenth century. Form and contents of that instruction appeared to them as the most disgraceful barbarism that could not be enough abhorred. Hatred and hoiror on the part of the humanities agaiust the ancient character of the universities have created for themselves a lasting monument in the Epistolcc obscurorum virorum which were issued at about 1510, by a GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 261 group 'of young poets in Erfurt whose head was Mutian. Among the men who represented the scientific power of the humanities, Desiderius Erasmus and Reuchlin deserve to be mentioned first. The latter intro¬ duced the study of Hebrew into Germany, and gave fruitful sugges¬ tions for the study of Greek. Erasmus, a man of astonishing talent and power of work, taught the Germans a simple, natural, and elegant Latin, awakened among them a susceptibility for higher culture, planned the way for pliilologic-historic investigation everywhere, and finally, by means of his studies of the Hew Testament, brought the humani¬ ties into contact with theology. That the systems of scholastic theol¬ ogy were led back to the original sources and the ancient fathers, is preeminently his work. It is noteworthy that Erasmus declined repeatedly a chair in a university that was frequently and urgently offered him. The new education was victorious upon the whole line. It had per¬ meated all the great universities as early as 1520. Hew courses of study afforded room for the new branches, both in instruction and examination. Two -points are particularly prominent. (1) The ancient Church Latin was replaced by classic Latin; Roman authors, especi¬ ally the poets, were made the subject of the lectures with the intention of inducing imitation; the ancient translations of Aristotelian texts were replaced by humanistic translations. (2) The Greek language Aras introduced into the course of the faculty of arts; in all universi¬ ties chairs for Greek languageandliteraturewereestablished. Among the first professors of Greek in German universities the most promi¬ nent were Reuchlin, who taught in Tubingen and Ingolstadt, Melanch- thon in Wittenberg, P. Mosellanus in Leipzig; among the professors of Latin, Conrad Celtes in Vienna, Eobanus Hessus in Erfurt, and H. Bebel in Tubingen, deserve to be mentioned first. But after 1520 the humanistic, that is, the aristocratic secular move¬ ment, was overtaken and replaced by an infinitely more powerful and deeper movement, namely, the popular religious movement of the Reformation. For a moment the Reformation appeared as a reinforce¬ ment of the humanities; both movements agreed in their hatred of scholastic philosophy and of Rome. Hutten’s and Luther’s pictures were printed side by side in pamphlets of the year 1520 and termed the great champions of liberty. But really they were very different men, and very different were the aims to which they intended to guide the German people — Luther, the man of intense anti-rationalistic and anti- Church religiosity; Hutten, the man of rationalistic libertinistic human¬ ism. Hutten did not live to see this great contrast revealed; during the years 1522-3 the eyes of the humanists were opened concerning the aims of the Reformation and nearly all of them turned away from it, because it was more hostile to the higher studies than even the ancient Church, and, indeed, it appeared at first as though the Reformation, in its effect, would become essentially hostile to the higher education. The 262 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. universities and schools declined and almost entirely vanished during the frightful storms of the third decade. Wherever the Church fell the institutions of learning it had developed fell with it, so that Eras¬ mus could say: u Ubi regnat Luther anismus, ihi inter itus liter arum? But the last word had not been spoken in this cause. In some man¬ ner the federation between the Reformation and humanism remained intact, namely, in the person of Melanchthon. Through long, noiseless activity and joyful labor this man planted and nursed the humanistic studies in German universities and schools, despite the unpropitious times. For more than forty years (1518-1560) he lectured at Witten¬ berg upon all philosophic and philologie-liistoric branches as they were then understood. Almost alone he represented an entire philo¬ sophic faculty. During the fourth decade Wittenberg became the most popular university. From all parts of Germany and all the countries of Europe young men came together there. When Melanchthon died there was scarcely a town in Protestant Germany in which there was not a grateful pupil of his who lamented the death of the Prceceptor Germanics. His grammatical and philosophic text-books remained in use in schools and universities long after his death. The development of the German universities, as it took place sub¬ sequently under the influence of humanism and the Reformation, may be divided into three sections: (1) The era of confessional universities, maintained by the churches of the petty states. If extended from the time of Luther to the end of the seventeenth century, and was characterized by the preponderance of theologic-eonfessional interests. The faculty of theology stood in the foreground. (2) The era of development of modern philosophy and culture in the universities. It may be said to have covered the eighteenth century and was characterized by the rising importance of philosophy and the philosophic and law faculties. Halle and Gottingen were the leading institutions. (3) The era of the greatest influence of German universities upon the thoughts and life of the nation. It embraces the nineteenth century, and was characterized at first by the predominance of philosophy; later by the progressive devekrpment of minute scientific investigation in nature and history. The philosophic faculty stands in the foreground ; besides the medical faculty assumes greater importance than ever before. The first epoch — the confessional universities. — With the close of the peasants’ war (1525) the first act of the great religious conflict had termi¬ nated. The second act began with the establishment of new churches upon a Protestant basis. Each petty state having its own church organization, it followed that the universities were closely connected with the church during the next two centuries. The ancient institutions of learning were restored in accordance with the new church consti- GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 263 tution botli on the Protestant and Catholic side; also a great number of new ones were founded. The first of the new Protestant institutions was the Hessian Univer¬ sity of Marburg (1527). This was followed by Konigsberg (1544) in the Grand Duchy of Prussia, which had just been changed from a clerical to a secular possession. Then came Jena (1556) in the remaining portion of the possessions of the Saxon house of Ernest, after Witten¬ berg had fallen to the Saxon house of Albert. Despite the small¬ ness of the state it served and the scarcity of its means, this institu¬ tion has maintained an honorable place among the German universities to the present day. In 1576 a university was founded at Helmstadt in Brunswick. This institution was equipped well, and was, during the seventeenth century, one of the most noted Protestant seats of learning. Especially noteworthy were the theologian Calixtus and the polyhisto¬ rian H. Conring, who may justly be called the founder of the science of history of German law. The two institutions founded by the impe¬ rial municipalities, Altdorf and Strassburg, belonged to the most noted universities of the seventeenth century. The former arose from a gjun- nasium, which was transferred from Nuremberg in 1573 and made a uni- iversity in 1622; the latter grew out of a similar school belonging to the city of Strassburg (in 1621). Of less importance was Giessen (1607), founded to represent the Lutheran faith in Hesse-Darmstadt, having branched off from Marburg; likewise Kinteln in Schaumburg (1621). The same may be said of the university of Duisburg (1655), which represented the Eeformed Church. More important was the univer¬ sity of Kiel, founded in 1665 for the duchies Schleswig-Holstein. Be¬ sides the aforementioned real universities, quite a number of so-called academic gymnasia existed during that time. They were institutions of secondary education which maintained post-graduate courses of philosophic and theologic lectures. These institutions partly continued their existence into our present century, as in Hamburg. The school of the Eeformed Church at Herborn had a great reputation during the seventeenth century. This era shows numerous new establishments also in the Catholic countries. The first was at Dillingen, founded by the bishop of Augs¬ burg in 1549. Eor a time this university was the center of scientific study of Catholic Germany. Then followed Wurzburg (1582), splen¬ didly equipped by Prince Bishop Julius; then Paderborn (1615), Salz¬ burg (1623), Osnabrlick (1630), Bamberg (1648), all of which were founded by bishops. Lastly we must mention the universities estab¬ lished in the countries belonging to the house of Hapsburg: Olmiitz (1581), Graz (1586), Linz (1636), and Innsbruck (1672). However, many of these Catholic institutions never became complete universities, but were privileged philosophic-theological schools, mostly conducted by Jesuits. Eew had law faculties. Generally speaking, it may be said that the institutions established 264 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. during tliis first epoch of the modern era did not show the vitality- exhibited by the old universities of the Middle Ages. Of the ten newly founded Protestant universities only five are still active: Marburg, Jena, Kbnigsberg, Giessen, and Kiel, to which must be added the re opened university of Strassburg (1871). Helmstadt, Rinteln, Duisburg, and Altdorf were suspended duringthe great Napoleonic revolution that overthrew the German states at the beginning of our century. Like¬ wise the universities established by the bishops were suspended after the fall of clerical government, except Wurzburg, which has been pre¬ served as a royal Bavarian university. Of the others only certain parts are preserved in form of theological seminaries. Of the Austrian universities only Graz and Innsbruck remain alive. The chief impulse for the numerous new foundations mentioned was the importance which the idea of state assumed, both in religious and political affairs. Each state endeavored to have its own university; first, in order to secure the preservation of the faith represented by the church of the state; secondly, to save the citizens the trouble of attending the university in what was then considered a foreign country, and to keep the money at home. When the means of maintaining the institution were insufficient (we must not think them to have been very extravagant; a few thousand florins or thalers sufficed to pay the sala¬ ries of ten or twelve professors, a sequestered cloister offered the required rooms, and other university institutions were not known), post-graduate courses of lectures were added to existing secondary schools, thereby changing them to gymnasia academica or illusive. For such institutions the privileges of a university could be secured afterward from the Emperor, and were not very difficult to obtain. This then explains why the universities of this first epoch lacked the universality of those of the Middle Ages. Interterritorial and interna¬ tional right of changing one’s domicil, which had characterized the studium generale , was lost. If not the boundaries of the state, then cer¬ tainly those of the confession became synonymous with the boundaries of the university dominion. However, even at that time the inborn migratory desire of the German student would not be fettered. The control of wliat was taught in that epoch was more rigid than in any previous or subsequent age. The dread of heresy, the painful rigidity with which the orthodoxy of the faith was preserved, was found in the Protestant as well as in the Catholic world, perhaps greater among the Protestants, since a departure was possible in two directions, to the light toward Catholicism, to the left toward Calvinism. Imprisonment of the intellectual life within confessionalism stamped this epoch as the one that farthest departed from the real inner life of the nation in the entire course of its history. If we cast a glance at the inner arrangement and management of the universities of the epoch mentioned, we shall see that, generally speak¬ ing, the ancient forms had been preserved. The four faculties had GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 265 remained, and with them the fundamental plan of the curriculum and order of examination. The degree of bachelor of arts gradually disap¬ peared during the sixteenth century, and the magister was replaced in the higher faculties by the more aristocratic doctor. Only the degree of master of arts was retained until the beginning of the nineteenth century. The theological faculty was the most prominent of all, and had gained in real importance, for at that time the study of theology had become a requisite for the entire clergy, which was not the case in the Middle Ages. A consequence of this was that doctrines and dogmas became more important than divine worship, at first in the Protestant, later also in the Catholic world. While thus Protestantism influenced Catholi¬ cism, it was subject to a counter effect, that is, it was drawn back to scholastic dogmatism from its original tendency of Bible study. The Bible is not a structure of doctrines, the formulas and definitions of which are suitable for controversy and the exclusion of heretics. The law faculty also gained in importance and extension in exact proportion to the development of the modern state and the increase of its army of officers. The learned judge gradually displaced the igno¬ rant lay judge, and the state officer who had a university education replaced the feudal knight. The form of instruction also changed in this way, the systematic presentation of science repelled the interpre¬ tation of canonic texts; the u mos Gallicus ” replaced the u mos Itali- cus y The medical faculty remained the weakest of all up to the nineteenth century; however its mode of teaching and its curriculum began quite early to exhibit remarkable changes. Astronomy and physiology began to be freed from traditions and ancient texts and be based upon individ¬ ual observation. The philosophic faculty, formerly called “ facultas artium generally kept its old position. It remained the link between the preparatory schools that taught the languages and the. higher faculties that offered scientific professional education. Its main object was to supplement the previous school instruction by a course in the general or philosophical sciences. The substance of this instruction consisted, as heretofore, in the writings of Aristotle upon logic, physics, psychology, metaphysics, ethics, and political economy, sometimes in Latin (during the sixteenth century it was the aim, attained only in a limited measure, to apply the Greek original text), or in translations and texts for which Melanchtlion had given the example. Side by side with the philosophic course ran a course in the humanities consisting in lectures on the classic s and exercises in elocution and poetry; but this course lost power a; id impor¬ tance the more the age of humanism receded. From the middle of tbe seventeenth century the making of Latin verses was gradually aban¬ doned. French language and literature began to predominate ia tlie courts, where for more than a hundred years it ruled supreme. The 266 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. classic humanistic education now suffered the same reverse which it had caused to scholastic education in the Middle Ages at the begin¬ ning of the sixteenth century, and became old-fashioned and ridiculous. The professors of rhetoric, elocution, and poetry were profuse in their complaints concerning the contempt for fine arts and. the returning bar¬ barism of the Middle Ages. The former order of life and conduct was abandoned also, when the power of the Church was broken. The living together in colleges as in monasteries presupposed celibacy on the part of the masters. Besides, the average age of the students had increased perceptibly; for the unprecedented development of the lower schools, especially the court and state schools in the Protestant countries and in Jesuit colleges in the Ca tholic countries, led to an extension of the school courses. The abandonment of monastic life was also urged by the higher faculties which had never quite submitted to its rigid rules, and which now in¬ creased in importance perceptibly. During the eighteenth century it was customary for professors to give students board and lodging in their houses. But it must not be left unnoticed that in most universities a sort of dormitory was estab¬ lished in which a number of indigent students were kept at imblic expense, and where their studies were supervised. As a recompense such students had to agree to serve their country either in secular offices or in the service of church and school. This dormitory was called u convict.5’ Similar to this arrangement certain state schools were established in which talented boys were prepared for the univer¬ sity at public expense. The means for both the convicts and these preparatory schools were derived from sequestered church property. These institutions existed essentially unchanged until the beginning of the seventeenth century. At the close of this epoch, the universities in Germany had fallen to the lowest degree of influence and fame. They appeared as superan¬ nuated and almost degenerated institutions in comparison with the progressive culture that had its center at the princely courts. A man like Leibniz refused to accept a position in a university; he preferred the princely courts, where he was sure to find comprehension and pro¬ motion of his ideas and extensive plans. The universities were almost without any perceptible influence upon the life and thoughts of the peo¬ ple. The number of university teachers during the seventeenth cen¬ tury whose names have been perpetuated in the memory of the learned world is insignificant in comparison with that of the sixteen th and eighteenth centuries. It is well known, also, that the greatest de¬ generacy in student life occurred during this epoch. Drinking and quarrelling (Saufen and Baufen) were not only related to each other in ryhme, but flourished to such an extent in the middle of the seven- teeth century that serious steps had to be taken on the part of the state authorities to gradually reestablish some semblance of order. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 267 The second epoch ; the eighteenth century. — This epoch began with two new foundations: Halle (1694) and Gottingen (1737), to which was added Erlangen (1743) for the Frankish principalities Ansbacli- Baireuth. These three universities are still nourishing. The Catho¬ lics provided Breslau and Munster. In Breslau (1702) a philosophic- theoiogic seminary of the Jesuits was furnished with university privi¬ leges, but it did not develop into a complete university until its reor¬ ganization in 1811,. when the university of Frankfort on the Oder was transferred to Breslau and connected with the institution at that place. Munster, founded in 1780 as a university for the archbishopric of Cologne, exists since 1818 as an academy of two faculties, philosophy and theology. Halle, the university of the rising Brandenburg-Prussian state, owes its fame, above all, to three men, to wit, the jurist, Chr. Tliomasius, the first who urged the modern study of law; the theologian, A. H.Francke, and the philosopher, Chr. Wolff. Thomasius, a pupil of Samuel Pufen- dorff, the first teacher of natural law in a German university (in Heidel¬ berg, 1626, the first chair for the new treatment of law was estab¬ lished), was a man of the modern French court culture; he was the editor of the first monthly magazine in the German language (1688), and also the first who introduced the German language into the lecture room. He despised scholastic philosophy and humanistic eloquence, as well as theological orthodoxy and ancient learned jurisprudence; with his own university in Leipzig, where he taught as assistant professor, he engaged in serious controversies ; hence he was obliged to resign. He then established himself in Halle, where he found a hearty welcome. The group of students that gathered around him at Halle became the nucleus of the university which was opened in 1694. The theological faculty received its peculiar direction from Francke, the chief repre¬ sentative of Pietism; he, too, had been expelled from orthodox Leip¬ zig. His theology culminated in practical Christianity and Bible study conducted with pure faith. The grand institution of the orphan asylum in Halle, which was founded by him, became a model school for his students for the practice of Christianity and the instruction of the young. During the second half of the century Joli. Sal. Semler taught in the theological faculty of Halle; he was the founder of historical or the higher criticism of the Holy Scriptures. But of the greatest importance was the philosophy of Chr. Wolff, who taught in the philosophic faculty at Halle, from 1707 to 1723, and then again from 1740 to 1754. From 1723 to 1740 he taught at Marburg. His expulsion during the reign of Frederick William 1, and his trium¬ phant reestablishment through Frederick the Great, signifies the great turning point of the epoch. The acceptation of his philosophy may be said to signify the end of scholastic philosophy in German universities. From that time, modern philosophy in the form of Wolff’s system took possession of the universities of Germany. Until then, it had been the 268 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. object of instruction in philosophy, generally, to transmit and master the former school philosophy (Aristotle in Melanch thorns garb) by means of recitations. Philosophy had been studied essentially for the pur¬ pose of formal preparation for theology. The new philosophy planted itself firmly upon reason. Rational Thoughts is the chief title of Wolff’s works in the German language. It did not intend to be ancilla theo¬ logies, but to seek the truth without prejudice; its basis was found in mathematics and natural sciences in their modern form. With equal emphasis it denied transcendental sanctions for ethics and law; it based itself solely upon the nature of man and society. Wolff’s philosophy was triumphant in all Protestant universities in the course of the eighteenth century. The higher faculties also, especi¬ ally theology and law, submitted to the influence of Rational Thoughts. Rationalism with its motto : “ Nothing without satisfactory cause,” became the maxim of the day. With this we mark a decisive turn in science. The German unversi- ties owe it, above all, to the acceptation of Wolff’s philosophy that they were able to extricate themselves from the mire into which they had sunk during the seventeenth century, and that they could begin to assume the role of leaders in the intellectual life of our people. That the universities of our neighbors to the West have not been able to assimilate the modern philosophy, that they still occupy the stand¬ point of confession alism, is really the ultimate cause why they exer¬ cise so much less influence upon the public life of their nations. The leading minds in Prance and England stand outside, in Germany inside, the universities. Halle has the renown of being the first real modern university; the principle of libertas philo sophandi, upon which the modern university rests, the principle of free investigation and untrammeled teaching (freie Forschung and freie Lehre) was first applied at Halle. They were clearly conscious of this in Halle. When the university, in 1711, celebrated the birthday of its founder, Prof. Gundling delivered an ora¬ tion de libertate F rider iciance. This oration called the youngest uni¬ versity a stronghold of free thought. It concluded with the following words: u Veritas adliuc in medio posit o est; qui potest, adscendat , qui audet , rapiat: et applaudemus .” A bold word which characterized the great change in the intellectual world that had taken place. In the ancient university instruction always started from the presupposition that the truth was fixed and given, all that was to be done was to transmit it, and that the supervisory authority had the duty to see to it that no false teaching was transmitted. The modern university starts from the presupposition that the truth must be sought, and that it is the duty of instruction to enable the student to find it. The uni¬ versity simply realized the consequences of the situation created by • he Reformation. During the second half of the eighteenth ceutury the University of GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 269 Halle found a rival in tliat of Gottingen/ by which it was overtaken later on. At the close of the century Gottingen was considered an aris¬ tocratic university; counts and barons of the holy Roman Empire stud¬ ied law and political science there under Profs. Schlozer and Putter. Mosheim taught church history, theology, and pulpit eloquence; Micliae- lis taught oriental languages ; Albrecht von Haller and his successor, Blu- menbach, who were the best representatives of the science of man at that time, taught physical anthropology; the astronomer of worldwide fame, Tob. Mayer, the ingenuous physicist, Lichtenberg, and the elegant math¬ ematician, Kastner, all these graced the institution. The newly awakened science of archaeology found in Gottingen its first nursery; its philolo¬ gists, J. M. Gesner and J. G. Heyne, to whom we owe the return of Greek to the university, found a new point of view for the study of classic authors. It is not dead erudition, nor Latin and Greek imitation that is needed, but formative, intimate intercourse with the authors of antiquity, the highest models of art and taste. This is the point of view of modern humanism, which has given a comprehensible human aim to the study of the ancient authors; its object has become the formation of taste for everything beautiful and genuine in literary representation. This modern humanism had a reciprocal action upon German poetry, that was just then beginning to flourish. This poetry, also, had its central seat in Gottingen; it suffices to mention Haller’s poems, Ges- ner’s German Society aud the Hainbund. If we compare the condition of the German universities at the close of the eighteenth century, as it had developed under the leadership of Halle and Gottingen, with the condition at the close of the seventeenth century, we may group the differences from the following points of view : (1 ) The place of scholastic philosophy had been taken by rationalistic philosophy, that accepted no decision by authorities. (2) In place of the mechanical treatment of the dead languages and imitation had come the animated study of ancient science^ for purposes of general human culture. (3) In organic connection with this was the fact that the German language had displaced Latin as the vehicle of instruction in universi¬ ties. (4) In instruction the principle of free research and unhindered teach¬ ing had been generally accepted. (5) Natural consequences of this were: abandonment of disputations, dismissal of text-books, and on the other hand the establishment of seminaries. Gesner in Gottingen opened the first pliilologic seminary; E. A. Wolff in Halle followed his example. The third epoch ; the nineteenth century. — This epoch, like the pre¬ ceding one, is opened with a few important new foundations. First of all came the University of Berlin (1809), established under memorable circumstances at the capital of the Prussian state for the purpose of proving “that Prussia will not give up the function it has so long EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 270 exercised, namely, to work in tlie direction of liiglier intellectual culture, and in that to seek its real power*; it will begin anew. Prussia will not be isolated, but desires to remain, not merely in political matters but also in regard to culture and civilization, in close contact with entire Germany.” Thus Schleiermacher interpreted (in his Occasional Thoughts Concerning Universities, p. 145, which we may call the intellectual charter of the institution) the fundamental idea of the Berlin Univer¬ sity, its historical and national duty. When the venerable university of Frankfurt was transferred to Breslau it formed with that institution a great modern university (1811). After the Napoleonic wars a new university for the western provinces was established at Bonn (1818). The new state of Bavaria soon founded a large central university at Munich (1826), in which the ancient University of Ingolstadt was per¬ petuated. Lastly, the reopening or reestablishment of the University of Strasbourg by the new German Empire (1872) completed the number of new foundations. Thus we see political changes reflected in the changes which the universities underwent. Still another change of vital importance must be mentioned. The universities abandoned their former denominational character. When the most prominent German states, during the great revolution at the beginning of this century, abandoned the confessional unity which until then had been preserved, the universities respopded in kind. They thereby returned to the universality of the ancient u studium generate, ” departing from their church basis and placing themselves upon the basis of general human culture. The ancient internationality also returned, although now it acts in a contrary direction. During the Middle Ages the German students went into foreign countries — to Paris and Italy; at present the foreigners come to Germany from the far West and the far East. During this epoch the philosophic faculty has become the most prominent in influencing the ideas and the entire intellectual life of the people. Of well-known and distinguished names in science the philosophic faculty can justly claim more than the other three faculties together, and the number of professors in the philosophical faculty is, as a rule, greater in all universities. At the beginning of this epoch philosophy stood in the foreground; Kant, the sage of Konigsberg, whose philosophy had followed that of Wolff, gained supremacy in all German universities, the Catholic not excepted. He was followed by representatives of the speculative phi¬ losophy which for a time had its seat in Jena, where Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel taught in the beginning of the nineteenth century; then philosophy had its chief center at Berlin, where first Fichte, after him Hegel, taught. The latter has exercised great influence upon the entire Prussian system of education. This philosophy could be designated, during the twenties and thirties, as the Prussian state philosophy in a double sense of the word : It was the officially recognized philosophy GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 271 of the state, or at least that of the department of education; and, on the other hand, Hegel was the admired preacher of the idea of state. This condition lasted until Frederick William IY ascended the throne. He hated HegePs rationalism and called the aged Scheliing from Munich to Berlin in order to combat it. Beside Fichte and Hegel, Schleiermaeher exercised a far-reaching influence through his theologi¬ cal as well as through his philosophical lectures. As a representative of another tendency in philosophy, the so-called positive philosophy, Herbart (in Gottingen and Konigsberg) must be mentioned. His philosophy has gained great ascendancy since the decline of Hegel, especially in Austrian universities. Among the intellectual powers of this time must be mentioned the modern humanistic philology, which deserves a second piace. F. A. Y/olf, who soon surpassed the aged Heyne, taught first in Halle, then in the Berlin University, which had been founded through the active par¬ ticipation of W. von Humboldt (a friend of Wolf) ; it had been destined from the very beginning for a central seat of archaeological sciences, and has remained true to its destiny to the present day. Here Boeckh, Lachmann, and Haupt have taught. Trendelenburg, the restorer of Aristotelean philosophy, for many years an influential professor in Berlin, combined philosophical with x>liilological study. In this branch the other new universities became conspicuous. In Bonn we And Hiebuhr, Weleker, Brandis, Bitschl; in Munich, Friedrich Thiersch, Spengel, Halm; Leipzig maintained its former rank through Gottfried Hermann; Gottingen, through Otfried Muller. It is worth recording that a number of new branches of philosophic investigation sprang up. Above all, must be mentioned the cultiva¬ tion of Germanistic studies through the brothers Grimm, who lived and taught, first at Gottingen, then in Berlin. To that was added the study of Bomanic philology, the founder of which was Diez, in Bonn. Also the study of Oriental languages and literatures took a fresh impetus. It suffices to mention the name of Bopp, the founder of comparative philology, and of Lepsius, the Egyptologist, both in Berlin, and of Fr. Buckert, the great philologist and poet, of whom Erlangen may boast. Of very pronounced importance is also the phenomenal development of historical investigation. Above all, L. Banke, in Berlin, is to be mentioned as the most influential teacher, who was followed by a long line of notable pupils in the direction of research among original his¬ torical sources. It must not be left unnoticed that historical instruc¬ tion in universities in this epoch has had an enormous influence upon the political thoughts of the nation. This influence has made itself felt particularly in favor of the unification of grand old Germany. It is not a mere accident that the most distinguished professors of history, Dahlmann, Waitz, Droysen, Hausser, played their roles as members of the parliamentary bodies of 1848. Lastly, we mention the impetus which investigation in the matlie- 272 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. matical and natural sciences has received since 1820. In Gottingen the mathematician Gauss and the physicist Weber taught. In Giessen, Liebig founded, with comparatively scanty means, a laboratory that proved to be of far-reaching consequences, both for chemical instruc¬ tion and the practical application of science. In Berlin Joh. Muller formed a nucleus for the modern school of physiologists, that made it its object to explain biological phenomena purely by means of the nat¬ ural sciences without the aid of metaphysical principles. This school has had an enormous importance in the development of medical science. While thus the first half of our century is distinguished by a long line of pioneers in science and by works that laid the basis for future labors, the second half is characterized not so much by a growth in depth as by a growth in width. This is particularly true in regard to the two great branches of scientific investigation — for the philologic historic sciences as well as for mathematics and the natural sciences. An ever-increasing specialization in the fields of investigation is a con¬ sequence of this. This becomes obvious in the institutions of the uni¬ versity, where the number of chairs and seminaries for new branches of the natural sciences has increased enormously. The number of regular professors in the philosophic faculty has increased to double and triple of what it was at the beginning of the century. Berlin began with twelve such professors; it has now fifty-three, and that does not include extraordinary professors and Privat-Docenten. If an attempt be made to sketch in a few lines the history of the other three faculties of this epoch, that of the theologic faculty might be stated in this way: At the beginning of our epoch theology was in the most intimate relation to philosophy ; rationalistic as well as spec¬ ulative philosophy make that plainly obvious. A peculiar position is occupied by Schleiermacher. He was himself a philosophic thinker, yet endeavored to sever religion from a combination with philosophy such as was found both in orthodox and in rationalistic theology. He did this by taking religion to be more a function of the emotions than of the intellect. Since the second third of the century passed two new currents, though opposing one another, seem to press philosophic the¬ ology into the background; first, the so-called positive current that depends upon church authority. In the Protestant Church this current is represented by Hengstenberg, in Berlin ; in the Catholic, it is identical with the great movement of church restoration that led to the Vati- canum and now aims everywhere at strict adherence to authoritative harmony in theological and philosophical sciences. The second cur¬ rent is that of historic criticism, represented byBaur and the school of Tubingen within, and by D. Pr. Strauss outside of, the universities. A similar plan might perhaps be observed in tracing the develop¬ ment of the faculty of law. At the beginning of the epoch under consid- sideration we had here also a preponderating influence of, first, Wolfits, then Kant’s and Hegel’s philosophy, which influence was obvious in the GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 273 interpretation of tlie ancient natural law, and in the new philosophic construction of rights and state. Then $he philosophical treatment of law was displaced, on the one hand, by the historical school (by Savigny, in Berlin) ; on the other, by the school of positi vists (by Stahl, in Berlin). Lately a renewed tendency toward philosophic contemplation in both theology and law seems to manifest itself. In the school of A. Rietsclil a leaning toward ' Kant’s philosophy, and, strange to say, also toward Schleiermacher and his double position, are undeniable. Political science shows recently that it is influenced by economic-social ideas of history, and a historic-philosophic, or sociological view, becomes prom¬ inent (Ihering and L. Stein). The medical faculty also was at the beginning of this epoch under the dominating influence of natural-philosophic theories. Since the thirties this course is abandoned, and the tendency is now toward strictly scientific investigation of nature. During the present genera¬ tion the medical faculty has experienced an astonishing development. IJp to the close of the eighteenth century this faculty was, as far as numbers are concerned, an insignificant appendix of the theological and law faculties. At present the number of students and professors of medicine occupies the front rank in not a few universities. Also medi¬ cal institutes of all kinds have been increased and extended ; they claim, a large share of the expenditures of a university. This increase is doubtless owing to the rapidly-increasing wealth of the population, but the wonderful progress medical science has made is not without influence upon the growth alluded to. Improved methods of investi¬ gation, especially the application of the microscope, have caused a remarkable progress in recognizing causes and character of diseases, followed by important improvements in medical science, especially in surgery and the treatment of wounds. As far as the outer form of the universities is concerned the ground plan has not been materially altered. The articulation into faculties has been retained, though at the beginning of this century all sorts of objections were uttered against this “ institution of the Middle Ages.** However, in a few universities the number of faculties has been increased by opening a new one for the other confession, or by dividing off from the philosophical a faculty for natural sciences and one for political science. The last traces of the ancient regulations of life and conduct have been lost. There are no u convicts” or dormitories, no professors who maintain boarding establishments, no obligatory courses of study, no tutors, and even the academic jurisdiction has vanished with the exception of a small remnant. The student now is a citizen of the state like all others. After he is enrolled, and has promised to the rector with word and hand-shake that he will obey the academic laws, no official person asks after him for a number of years. He is left entirely to his own counsel. It is evident that this dissolution of all school order is essentially a result of the gradual increase of the student’s average age. ed 92 - 18 274 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Tlie twentieth year is now generally accepted as the average age of the freshman; and for young mep. of 20 to 25 years the strict regulations of a school are obviously out of place. With regard to the constitution of the teaching bodies, a change in the position of the philosophic faculty has taken place. While for¬ merly its object was the general scientific preparation for professional study in the three higher faculties, now it has become a professional faculty itself namely, for the preparation of teachers for secondary schools. Up to the present century the profession of teaching was an adjunct to the theological profession, so that theological candidates first spent some time in the service of education, either by accepting a position in a city high school or as tutor, before a position in the gift of the church was obtainable. At present the teachers’ profession is an independent calling; a transition from that into the profession of the clergy has occurred rarely since the middle of the century. The intro¬ duction of a professional examination for teachers in 1810 ( examen pro facilitate docendi ) designates for Prussia the outspoken separation of the two professions which had hitherto been united; its intention was the elevation, if not the creation, of a profession of high-schoolteachers with uniform scientific preparation and professional spirit. The inner cause of this fact is the separation of the spirit of the time from theol¬ ogy and theologic views, and a tendency to following the humanism of Goethe and Wolf. In the matter and form of instruction the changes for which the way had been paved in the preceding epoch have been completed, to wit : The German university professor does not consider it his duty to trans¬ mit a fixed inventory of generally accepted truths, but the results of individual investigation and research. It is true the term tradere has been perpetuated in our programme of lectures, but even the youngest Privat-Docent, and he perhaps most of all, would consider it an insult to his dignity if he were expected to take the word literally. This is quite in accord with the intention underlying instruction; itiis intended to lead the student tp independent thought and investigation. The act of learning expected of the student does not consist in accepting finished and polished facts, but in making him think and work scien¬ tifically. This, above all, is true with regard to the philosophic faculty. Here investigation and suggestions for research are the predominating pur¬ pose. In the other faculties transmission and memorizing of knowl¬ edge necessary for a technical outfit in the profession play a more important role. Physicians, judges, and clergymen are not, and do not intend to be, learned scholars; at least, this is not their most important object. The practical profession and its promotion are already empha¬ sized in the universities. On the other hand, the philosophic faculty is really the learned faculty. This is true with regard to the professors as well as the students. Externally, the case becomes obvious in its GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 275 relation to tlie academies of sciences. Between the German academies and the philosophic faculties there exists a personal union in the widest acceptation of the term, while the other faculties are repre¬ sented only occasionally. Another point makes obvious the impor¬ tance alluded to : The nurseries of investigation, the “ seminaries,” have their origin in the philosophic faculty; dissertations emanate from them. The importance of the different degrees, also, is characteristic. Degrees are given in other faculties as well, but in the theological and law faculty seldom, and the medical degree is, although acquired uni¬ formly, of a different character. The acquisition of a degree in the medical faculty is the result of social compulsion, but no one believes any more than the young M. D. does that he has proven himself a learned investigator by having written a dissertation. But; to a cer¬ tain extent, that is the meaning of the. degree of Doctor Philosophice. The character of instruction in the philosophic faculty is in accord with this: it aims throughout at the cultivation of learned scholars. A professor of philology, history, mathematics, and physics proceeds as though he had before him in his lectures and exercises nothing but future learned scholars, future professors. He overlooks, on principle, the fact that in reality the great majority of his hearers are intended for a practical profession— the profession of teaching; or, rather, he does not overlook it, but is convinced that the teacher can not bring anything better into his profession than true erudition. Everything points toward it. The ancient view of the object of the gymnasium, even the traditional name of the institution, preparatory school for the learned,” points toward it. What did a teacher in the preparatory school for the learned (the term gymnasium arose at the beginning of this century) need in the way of professional preparation more than erudition? And, on the other hand, the recently begun and gradually extending specialization in the branches taught in the gymnasium seems to necessitate such a state of affairs. At present every gymna¬ sium has its professor of ancient and modern philology, its mathema¬ tician and professor of natural science, its historian and theologian. This secondary sclropl assumes the aspect of a university in embryo. Finally, the character of the examination for the degree, which requires only erudition, may be regarded as proof of the assertion. The prob¬ lems submitted to the candidates are themes for scientific investigation and essays. Kot unfrequently published essays originate in these examinations. Thus, the German teachers in a gymnasium are imbued with the spirit of learned men, at least for a time; that is, so long as the university sentiments are still strong in them, and the best of them even retain some of this spirit all through life. Doubtless this condition has its disadvantages; they appear first in the fact that many teachers who have devoted themselves in univer¬ sities to learned studies are somewhat disappointed when they enter school, as though they had lost their proper place in the world. The 276 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. lowest grade of a gymnasium does not show many opportunities for dis¬ playing profound learning: nor, for that matter, does the highest grade of the school. The disadvantages also are seen in this fact, that teachers without having had a pedagogical preparation, and being suddenly placed in charge of a class, require considerable time before they can find their level and a suitable mode of intercourse with their pupils. (This has recently been obviated by* the institution of semi¬ naries for secondary teachers). On the other hand, it must not be for¬ gotten that the old view, which saw a learned scholar in the teacher of a gymnasium, has had great advantages. Upon it rests the high estimate enjoyed by the profession of secondary teacher in Germany compared with that in other countries. This will not change in future. In the hierarchy of the state officers the teachers will never stand at the head; the only way in which they can maintain their position is by scientific exertions. This determines the character of our gymna¬ sium — it still has something of the school for the learned, that directs the attention of the student toward scientific labor and research. If the faculty of such a school has only one really learned man, he will give the school its character. Thus we see cause and effect. The character of the secondary school requires learned men from the philosophic faculty and the entire university. They cultivate learned men because the teachers of gymnasia lay just claims to being learned men. Doubtless the great abundance of scientifically prepared workers in all dominions of human exertion, of whom Germany is so justly proud, is partly owing to this. The surplus may at times be felt uncomforta¬ bly, but let us not forget that the remarkable working power of the German nation in all fields of scientific investigation, esjjecially in phi- lologic and historic research, is owing to this apparent surplus. A Frenchman has recently expressed an opinion upon this point, the like of which a German would scarcely dare to express, or even enter¬ tain. Ferd. Lot says in his interesting little study {If enseignement supe- rieiir en France , 1892) : The scientific predominance ( hegemonie ) of Germany in all domains of thought, without exception, is at present acknowledged by all nations. It.isa confirmed fact that Germany alone produces more than all other parts of the world together; its superiority in science is similar to that of England in the commerce on the ocean. Perhaps it is even greater in comparison. It is probable that this is to be taken with some allowance. But M. Lot is not mistaken when he says that the organization of the German universities, their uniform constitution as corporations, their liberty in teaching and learning, and above all, the tendency of their instruction toward investigation, are the chief causes of their superiority. This is particularly true with regard to the philosophic faculties. In them the peculiar character of the German universities, as nurseries of scientific investigation and research, is prominently apparent; they draw the other faculties into the same channels. Hence whatever would threaten GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 277 to rob the philosophic faculties of this character would endanger the German universities, and the position of Germany in the scientific world. Finally, let us not forget, that all this exists and acts in intimate connection with historic life. The vital air of the German universities is the historic spirit which surrounds them all, and each one in its indi¬ vidual form. There is scarcely one of them which has not in the life of our nation, or in some science, at one time, played an important role; not one that may not be proud of a few distinguished names of abiding importance in the history of science. He who sets foot on this ground feels the breath of historic life. And he who enters the lists becomes conscious that he accepts certain obligations. Not all feel it in the same degree, yet it may be said that in some way everyone feels it who enters a university as a teacher, and in some way almost every¬ one feels it who enters as a student. And every graduate takes some of that spirit with him into his practical profession. For the German clergyman, physician or judge does not wish to be merely a practitioner, but also a little of a learned man, at least in so far as is necessary to keep his interest awake for what is produced and accomplished in his profession by others. This is particularly true (I repeat it emphati¬ cally) of the German high-school teacher; he feels himself not only as an officer and teacher, but also as a scholar, and not a small portion of them succeed, though often under very restrictive and oppressive circumstances, in taking active part in scientific investigation in their professional dominion. That is what heretofore has given, the German gymnasium its char¬ acter; its pride.has ever been to be a school for the learned, and to become, in its own manner and in a small compass, something similar to what a university is, not only a school for lessons and recitations, but an institution where* scientific work is performed, and where the students learn to work scientifically. It is to be hoped that the tendencies which aim at an ever increas¬ ing extension of the system of examination and supervision, and which would convert the teachers into mere officers and the schools into knowl¬ edge shops, will not succeed in finding general favor. If our gymnasi should lose their character of schools for the learned, the universities would not be able to maintain their position in future. II. — THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES IN THEIR RELATION TO STATE, CHURCH, AND SOCIETY. Their relation to the State. — That the universities should be state institutions, seems to us quite self-evident; but it was not always so, and it is not necessarily so. Scientific investigation and scientific instruction are not, in the nature of the case, a state enterprise. The first universities were private corporations, which, under the general protection of the state, conduct scientific investigation and instruc¬ tion. Like other guilds, they governed themselves; they made their 278 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. own laws, elected their own officers, had jurisdiction over their own members, and perpetuated themselves by admitting new masters of arts, in which act, it is true, a formal cooperation with the church took place. The English universities live in this way to the present day. In Germany the state university has developed from historic necessity. In the beginning, as has been said before, the German universities were founded by heads or princes of the separate states. Since the fifteenth century the princely power has become predominant, and has made itself felt in the universities, by regulations for reform and ordination ; though the corporations claimed the right to make their own laws, the princes enforced their own rules without much ceremony. The Reformation gave to the Protestant princes church power in addition to their political power. The universities became institutions belonging to the princely rulers, and had the clearly defined purpose of educating officers for state and church service. Since the middle of the seventeenth century the state has gradually turned into a commonwealth that embraces all and attends to everything. The diminutive size of the German states favored the idea of a state that represented a single large household under absolute princely adminis¬ tration. During the eighteenth century this view ruled exclusively. The acknowledged principle was, the satisfaction of all essential needs of life in the community is a matter of state concern, to be attended to by state enterprise, or at least under state supervision. The Gov¬ ernment attended to the growth of intercourse and commerce, to the opening of roads and canals, to cleaning and lighting of streets, to caring for the poor, to the promotion of industries, to the regulation of prices for labor and food, to the supply of proper intellectual food by means of books, theaters, etc. Naturally it belonged to the duties of the state to furnish the young with the necessary instruction. The German elementary school ( Vollcsschule ), which makes both the offer and the acceptation of a general elementary education a duty of citi¬ zenship, is the fruit of the eighteenth century. Naturally the universi¬ ties were also drawn into the folds of this general parental Government. The Prussian civil code only formulated an existing and self-evident law when it said at the head of the chapter “ Public Education”: Schools and universities are state institutions, intended to offer instruction of the young in useful knowledge and science. The nineteenth century, it is true, has not preserved the principle of state omnipotence in its original form; the various constitutions, since 1848, express in general terms a number of limitations to the state’s activity. Thus the Prussian constitution says in section 20, u Knowledge and the teaching of knowledge are free,” and adds in section 22, that it is left free to every one to give instruction and establish educational institutions; but as a necessary requirement is mentioned, that he first prove to the Government his moral, intellectual, and technical ability, and submit to governmental supervision. In fact only the nineteenth GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 279 century has thoroughly carried out the plan of turning the educational system into a state institution. Foremost of all, the u schools for the preparation of the learned” (the gymnasia), which during thelast century were almost exclusively city institutions, came under direct state management. Later on, by creating a department of public instruction and the requisite machinery of management, the entire system of public education found a proper representation in the hierarchy of state officials. In sketching the present legal status of the German universities, we may say : The universities are institutions founded and maintained by the state. Cooperation with papal or imperial power, in vogue formerly, has ceased to be. Also the power of granting degrees emanates from the state. The state grants charters and prescribes statutes. It estab¬ lishes chairs and institutes and endows them. The professors and directors of institutes (libraries, laboratories, hospitals, clinics, etc.} are state officers. The universities are under direct supervision of the minister of education, not subject to provincial governments. In a number of universities a local representative of the minister, in the person of the curator, sometimes called chancellor, is found; his chief duties consist in a general supervision of the institution and care for the promotion of its ability in every department, especially with refer¬ ence to pecuniary matters. All communications between the Depart¬ ment of Public Instruction and the university go through his hands. If thus the university has been made legally a link of the entire state system of education, it occupies nevertheless, a peculiar position, and, as it were, one of exemption. It enjoys a measure of independence and self-dependence like no other state institution ; state supervision of the professors is almost imperceptible. Also essential parts of the ancient cooperative self-government have remained, chief of which is the free election of academic officers. The head of the university is the rector. He is elected annually by the college of regular professors. He formally represents the university, the other officers are subject to his orders; he matriculates students, and exercises supervision over the associations and meetings of the students. The senate, also, is elected by the professors. Beside the members elected, it consists of the rector as chairman, the academic judge, and the sev¬ eral deans. The senate forms a board of general management. The application of disciplinary jurisdiction over the students is the joint duty of the rector, the judge of the university, and the senate. In Prussia the following punishments for misdemeanors of the students are at the disposal of the rector : Reprimand, fine not to exceed $5, imprisonment, not to exceed fourteen days, suspension from the uni¬ versity threatened, actual relegation, and lastly, expulsion.1 'If a student is relegated from a German university he may attend another, hut if he is expelled from one, he is thereby debarred from attending all other German universities. (The Translator.) 280 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Like tlie university, so the faculties posess au important function of self-government. They each annually elect a dean from their midst, who conducts the business of the faculty. As a board the faculty super¬ vises that which is taught, and it is their special duty to see to it that every branch of study is represented in the course or calendar of the term. Furthermore, they exercise supervision over the students in regard to their morals and scientific attainments, which supervision, however, in the usual course of events, is noticed no more than the supervision of the professors on the part of the state. They also manage the benefices and stipends, and conduct the examinations prescribed to secure them; they determine the prize questions and award the prizes. Last but not least, they conduct the examinations for academic degrees, and through their deans grant the degrees. They give to Privat Docenten the “ venia legendi ,” and submit to the minister of education the names of suitable candidates for vacant chairs; this defines their old right of nomination. In regard to the management of the course of study in the university, it may be said, that almost absolute liberty rules supreme. All the supervision there is confines itself in reality to the two points, that every appointed professor give lectures, and that the required branches are represented each by a course of lectures and exercises. On the other hand, no official courses of study are prescribed, as is done in schools, where contents, extent, and form of the matter are out¬ lined. The professor is simply commissioned to teach a certain branch ; it is left to him to interpret that commission : to determine the separate parts of his branch, the number of hours he may devote to them, the matter he may treat, the method he may employ — all this is left to his own discretion. No one speaks of reports, revision, or control by means of supervisory officers. It is reasonable to say that at no time heretofore has university instruction enjoyed a greater measure of liberty than now. Up to the seventeenth century instruction was limited by the requirement that it should, in regard to the matter taught, be in accord with the doctrines of the church with which it was affiliated; also official prescriptions regarding the matter and form of instruction were rather peremptory. During the eighteenth century the Government not infrequently meddled with the internal affairs of the instruction; it often happened that the professors (particular ones, especially) were ordered to use certain sources of information, and to follow certain methods. Even during the first half of the nineteenth century similar orders were given; for instance, during the twenties and forties against Hegel’s philosophy. At present all attempts to influence the internal manage¬ ment of the university have ceased; matter and method of instruction are left entirely to the discretion of the professor. While in the u schools for the learned” (the gymnasia) liberty of teaching has been more and more offensively restricted, in the university this liberty has been more and more extended, and is now admitted without reserve. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 281 Postponing a discussion of this liberty for the present, a word may be inserted concerning the mode of appointment of professors. As was said before, the extraordinary professors are appointed by the minister of education, while the regular professors are appointed by the King himself. However, in filling the chair of a regular professor, there is a cooperation on the part of the faculty. The latter is called upon to send in nominations, accompanied by an opinion upon the work and reputation of the persons nominated. As a rule three names are proposed, but the Government is neither legally nor actually bound to accept these. This mode of procedure has been severely criticised; it has been said that it opened the way to intrigues, to school and family nepotism. The German universities are accustomed to meet this reproach with the calmness of a good conscience, and they may safely do so. Kow and then a thing is done which had better have been left undone, but where in all this world are there coveted positions connected with which no irregularity ever takes place? Take it all in .all, our univer¬ sities have fared well under the present mode, and it would be difficult to find a system of filling university chairs which would better and more securely serve the purpose — i. e., to put the right man into the right place. The privilege of the faculty to propose candidates curbs the absolute will of the minister, which in reality means the rule of one man, the head of a school; for the minister, or a bureau chief in the department, could not possibly have an independent judgment of all branches of study, hence would ask privately the advice of a compe¬ tent Iverson. As it is now, he hears also the voices of others — i. e., of competent and responsible advisers. On the other hand, it is necessary that the appointments should be made by the Government. The central state authority alone is able to view the entire field with its needs and available forces, and to weigh in the balance personal circumstances and local conditions. An elec¬ tion by the faculty alone would doubtless be disastrous, since it would open tbe door to the rule of schools and coteries, to personal interests and intrigues. In this light the procedure customary in Germany appears to be the securest and least dangerous; for to apply the mode in vogue in Romanic countries — i. e., to open such vacancies to competi¬ tion with its applications, accompanied by copies of writings or the requests for trial lectures — this, at least with us, will not prove a means to secure proficient men, but deter the most talented from com¬ petition. It would not seem inexpedient, though, to adopt the often made proposition to endow the various chairs with fixed and gradually increas¬ ing salaries according to length of service, partly in order to do away with the negotiations concerning the salary that now take place when a chair is to be filled, partly also to make the increase in salary less dependent upon tbe accident of appointments. The frequent changes taking place in the personnel of a university, caused by the existing cir- 282 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. cumstances, results in more evil than good; above all, the small universities suffer thereby. If a regular increase in salary were in vogue, as ifc is in Bavaria at present, one inducement for aiming at positions in the large universities would lose its force. Relation of the universities to the church. — Originally this relation was so intimate that the universities of the Middle Ages, and in a cer¬ tain sense also those of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, could be called ecclesiastical institutions. Since the eighteenth century this connection has been loosened, and during the nineteenth century, as stated before, the German universities, like the German states, have thrown off their ecclesiastical and denominational character. The Protestant church has accommodated itself to this change; it has not even objected to its clergymen being professionally prepared in a state institution in which it has no influence. However, the church, being intimately connected with the state, could simply and confidently expect that the state, which it completely permeated, would assume a duty that by rights should belong to the church. In fact, the church has always exercised a far-reaching influence upon the entire system of education, from the primary school to the university. But since the state has become undenominational, and the state’s policy is now determined to a great extent by the varying majorities in the legislatures, the Protestant church is beginning to see the inse¬ curity of its position and efforts are being made to allow the church officials a decisive cooperation in filling theological chairs in the uni¬ versity; a proposition to that effect has been submitted to the supreme consistory. The prospect of success in these efforts are at present not promising. If the church should succeed in this, it is very doubtful that it will gain by it. If the appointment of chairs of theology becomes dependent to a great extent upon the ecclesiastical authorities, the faculty could not maintain their present position in the universities. Bpth professors and students would then stand only with one foot on university ground — that is, on the ground of free science. That, how¬ ever, is a condition which would be prejudicial to Protestant theology. It can flourish only in intimate reciprocal relation with free philosophy and science. It is not backed, like the Catholic theology, by the authority of an infallible church ; it rests wholly upon the live personal power of its representatives. Neither could the Protestant church endure it; a narrow-minded party rule within the church, which would be the inevitable consequence, would speedily wreck it. Quite a different relation exists between the university and the Catholic Church, not only in Protestant, but also in Catholic states. The Roman Catholic Church is a great independently organized power, older than all the modern states. It claims the right to regulate the preparation of its own servants, and actually has succeeded everywhere in making good this claim. The majority of the Catholic clergy receives its preparation in institutions managed directly by the bishops, in boys’, GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 283 clerical, and priests’ seminaries. Attempts made in Prussia, in the sev¬ enties, to bring the preparation of Catholic clergymen under the influence of the state have been abandoned. A limited measure of supervision on the part of the state over the Episcopal institutions is, however, still in force. The course of study of clerical seminaries must be submitted to the minister of education, who is empowered to declare the instruction offered in Episcopal seminaries equivalent to that of a university course. This is necessary, because the state would not pay a Catholic clergyman his salary, unless he could prove his adequate preparation for the office. The Catholic faculties in the universities are, in fact, also dependent upon church government. Before a pro¬ fessor is appointed, the state seeks an agreement with the church authorities, and, after he is appointed, a simple order from the bishops not to attend his lectures has always proved a sufficiently effective means to nullify his usefulness. During recent years efforts are being made by Catholics to call into existence denominational universities aside from the state universities. In Belgium, France, and Italy there are already a small number of these facultes Hires .” It is the intention to establish a similar institution for German Catholics, and the city of Salzburg is thought of as a suita¬ ble locality. But, as yet, the execution of this plan seems to lie in the dim distance. Relation of the University to Society. — This may be viewed from three sides: (1) The aim of the university in society ; (2) the position which the representatives of academic culture hold in society; (3) the strata of society from which they come. (1) The university, like all educational institutions, owes its origin to social needs. Upon a higher plane of culture the necessity for profes¬ sional work is developed ; that is, work which presupposes a high degree of scientific knowledge. There are three services which, according to ancient custom, require a really scientific preparation : The ecclesiastical government ( cur a et regimen animarum)', the secular government (legislative, executive, and judiciary); and the medical profession. For these three profes¬ sions the three so-called higher faculties act as special schools — the theological for the clerical, the law faculty for the secular offices, and the medical for the physicians. The philosophic faculty was originally not a professional school, but an institution for general culture (arts and sciences). Only in t*he nineteenth century has it become a professional faculty also, namely, for teachers of secondary schools. During recent years several new learned professions have arisen that require a really scientific preparation. The professional work of technologists, engineers, architects, chemists (as scientific heads of chemical manufactories), miners, and foresters, and similarly the work of agriculturists and army officers have so many scientific aspects that a scientific, professional preparation has become indispensable for them. 284 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. This new social need has occasioned new forms of higher education, which only need to be mentioned here, but must be mentioned in order to comprehend the ever- widening definition of the terms higher educa¬ tion or academic culture. First of all are to be mentioned the tech¬ nical universities, or polytechnica , of which Germany has nine at pres¬ ent, all established during the nineteenth century. Secondly, mining and forestry academies, veterinary and agricultural schools, the latter mostly connected with universities. Finally, we may class among the institutions for professional work both the fine art and the military academies, which nowadays have a scientific basis. Many of these institutions imitate the universities in their constitution, courses, and regulations for students. This is especially true of the polytechnica. An aim which all universities have in common is the theoretic, scientific preparation for the future profession. The practical admis¬ sion to the profession, as a rule, follows the scientific preparation. But there are differences to be observed. The physician enters upon his practice as soon as he graduates from his medical course; his education is considered practically completed. The jurist, however, is obliged to spend a number of years in practical preparation after graduating, while the army officer requires this preparation before he enters upon a higher course of education. Like their origin, so is the maintenance of universities dependent upon social needs, in which they have their fertile soil. The changing preponderance of the faculties, for instance, points toward changes taking place in the social conditions and views of the people. During the sixteenth century, when church affairs dominated all public inter¬ ests, the theological faculty was most prominent in reputation and at¬ tendance. The development of the modern state during the seventeenth century enhanced the importance of the faculty of jurisprudence. The rise and independence of the philosophic faculty at the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries is an indica¬ tion of the great change m the ruling thought of the time, that may be characterized as a turning away from the supernatural and ecclesiasti¬ cal to a rationalistic, secular view of the world. The church loses its hold in school and education ; the disciples of modern humanism dis¬ place the church in the secondary schools, and the disciples of Pesta- lozzi enter the lower schools. The rise of the medical faculty during the nineteenth century, its phenomenal increase in attendance, is evi¬ dently a consequence of the increased wealth of the population, which causes an increase in the demand for medical advice and aid. But we see in it also a change of mind. The cure of the body has become so im¬ portant a matter that people do not treat themselves any longer, but depend upon the advice of experts. In former times people relied upon traditional knowledge, handed down from one generation to another, while in questions of the soul they always depended upon expert guidance. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 285 (2) With regard to the position in society of the representatives of academic culture, it may be said that in their totality they form an essentially homogeneous social stratum to which all leading and ruling men belong. To this stratum belong the clergymen, the officers in the higher positions of the Government, the teachers of secondary schools, the physicians, the higher technologists and architects, artists, and as a special group, the military officers. All take part in the government and administration. We find them in administrative offices and courts, in consistories and in the government of schools, in bureaus of con¬ struction, and in the administration of hygiene. All who belong to this stratum associate with each other upon a level of social equality which, however, does not exclude differences in rank and birth. But he who has a university education belongs to society ; he is entitled to connubium and commcrcium. On the other hand, he who has no university education, or an academic culture equal to it, is considered below par in the eyes of many people in Ger¬ many. He must at least have gone through a gymnasium, and with his graduation certificate have acquired the potential right to academic citizenship, in order to claim social consideration. The consequence of this is, of course, that aristocracy and plutocracy seek the univer¬ sity, or, at least, graduate from the “school for tho preparation of the learned,” the gymnasium. The entire gentility of Germany feels com¬ pelled at present to do either one or both. This is not the case everywhere, and it has not always been the case in Germany. During the Middle Ages higher education was not at all a condition of admission to the ruliug class of society. lu the ancient university, gentility was sparsely represented. Higher studies were necessary only for officers in the church, and even that requirement could be replaced by aristocratic birth. Princes and rulers who were wanting in the simplest elements of a school education were in the majority during the first half of the Middle Ages, and during the sec¬ ond half not found unfrequently. A change began toward the end of the Middle Ages. Beading and writing became more necessary, at first in the cities, and therefore these arts were acquired more frequently. In the sixteenth century they became indispensable to every one who occupied an important position in society, and more extended scientific education gradually became necessary for gentility. As early as the fifteenth century we find everywhere, at the courts of princes, learned men as councilors in important positions, men who were acquainted with the laws. The aristocracy was thereby obliged to resort to higher studies in order to preserve its position as the ruling class. In the sixteenth century, the state schools, and likewise the colleges of the Jesuits, swarmed with aristocratic students, many of whom entered the university. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it was more and more considered conformable to aristocratic rank and station to spend at least a few years in a university “for the purpose of study.” 28 6 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The most distinguished universities of that epoch, Halle and Gottin¬ gen, displayed with pride the names of hundreds of barons, counts, and even princes, who had been matriculated in these institutions. It is true there was another way to distinction — the military career that led through the military academy and the page service. The great princes were at that time standing too high to commingle with the people by attending a university; imperial and royal princes were sought in vain in gymnasia or universities during the sixteenth century. On the other hand, that century did not make university education a condition of admission to society. Only the study of law gave entrance to society. Candidates for positions in school and church as such occu¬ pied a very inferior position. A candidate of theology who accepted a position as tutor in an aristocratic house was considered as belonging to the servants, and when he became rector of a small city Latin school, he counted as parts of his official income the fees he could collect for singing at funerals, and his new-year presents. Not until he had become pastor did he gain a more elevated position ; but even as pastor it did not occur to him to consider himself socially equal to the lord of the manor. It was in the nineteenth century that university education rose in prominence to such an extent that its possessors could lay claims to social equality with classes that had enjoyed inherited privileges. This was the result of the great political and social change that deprived aristocracy of the rank of the ruling class, which it had gained during the seventeenth century. Aristocracy is not any longer the privileged gentility that has an inherited claim to all state offices so far as they are desirable. Like all other classes, aristocracy is now obliged to pass through schools and examinations, and to stand in line with other applicants. Hence we find in gymnasia at present the sons of the most aristocratic families, even the princes of ruling dynasties are found there ; they sit on the same benches with sons of simple citi¬ zens and meet them on the benches of the university. And again they sit side by side in Governmental bureaus, as high up as the King’s cabinet. Frequently they meet as comrades in the corps of officers in the army; even the school teacher is officer of the reserve army, and may become privy-councilor of the realm. Thus education has won the victory over the aristocracy of birth, and the ancient idea of u misalliance” has died out. With this change is intimately connected a disadvantage that oppresses all the learned professions of the day. Their official income is not sufficient to defray the necessary expenses of life and to main¬ tain a high social position ; at least this is true with regard to married men. This disadvantage is felt everywhere, but mostly in the teaching profession, the members "of which chiefly come from strata of society which are not favored with wealth. The lawyers and medical men usually come from wealthier strata; besides, their professional work GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 287 enables them to secure a better income, in some cases to accumulate a fortune. The theologians are better protected in their profession, partly by good salaries, partly also by the fact that they live in rural communities, where luxury is seldom displayed or even known. It can not be denied that this disproportion is a source of discomfort and discontent which it is difficult to remedy. (3) As to the third question, whence come the men of academic cul¬ ture, it maybe said they come from all classes of society. In prepara¬ tory schools and universities we find side by side with the sons of aristocracy and plutocracy the sons of farmers and tradesmen, village schoolmasters and subaltern officers. Here all academic citizens con¬ sider themselves equal on principle; occasional pretensions of aristo¬ cratic and plutocratic coteries usually end in their exclusion from the festive gatherings of the students. The principle is accepted that everyone who has been admitted to the right of academic citizenship has thereby acquired the claim to equality, which, if it should become necessary, he may defend with armed hand; no one can deny him sat¬ isfaction upon the ground of his descent. Hence we may speak of a democratic character as marking the Ger¬ man university. It excludes no one on the ground of his descent, and makes all its members equals. E. M. Arndt expressed this beautifully in his periodical, The Watchman (1815), when he said: As a citizen of a tmiversity, the son of the poorest and most obscure parents, “ armed and mounted” by culture, enters the arena together with the noblest and most distinguished, and he who proved to be the best in mind, aspiration, and cour¬ age can, if he is so inclined, rule by his talents. This proud equality, which life with its numerous limitations afterward rarely ever shows, I consider the greatest glory of the German students, the most precious relic that has remained of what the great German nation once was. It is different with our Western neighbors, where admission to aca¬ demic culture is limited to smaller social circles. In the old English universities the expenses are so high that they can be met only by wealthy people. Board and lodging in the college alone, for the six months of three terms, costs about 3,000 marks a year or more. To that must be added that the state does not maintain preparatory schools. In place of our gymnasia, which make higher study possible for sons of the poorer people by exempting them from tuition fees, in England the ancient public schools and some private institutions are all boarding schools; they prepare for the universities, and are very costly institu¬ tions. By similar conditions in the lycees in France, which are always boarding schools, the poorer people are prevented from pursuing higher studies, though the church in France opens its educational institutions to them. However, it can not be denied that recently, also in Germany, the circle from which the students of the learned professions are recruited has been narrowed down. The class of artisans and rural day labor¬ ers is not represented any longer in the university. This is the inevi- 288 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. table consequence of the fact that academic culture lifted its possessor into the ruling classes. The case presents itself historically in this way. In the university of the Middle Ages all classes of the population were represented; aristocracy sparsely — only the younger sons destined to enter the church came to study. The middle classes of citizens were in the majority, but also sons of peasants and u poverty ” were not wanting; they maintained themselves by alms; solventes and pauperes are the two classes which we meet on the rolls of the university. During the sixteenth century the order of begging monks disappeared and with them the beggar students; but in the court schools and other boarding schools public provision was made for indigent students by means of scholarships and private benefices — private, in so far as the names of those who enjoyed them were not published. Naturally the officers of church and school had the lion’s* share of these benefices. This is the reason why the theological faculty was considered less aristocratic, than the law faculty, where gentility was represented. During that century the expenses for university study rose perceptibly; also the duration of the course was gradually extended. During the last century it was still customary for students to close attendance at a Latin school quite early, in order to go to a university, there to spend a few semesters with the aid of benefices, or as private in¬ structor; then spend a few years as tutor in an aristocratic family in the country, and after that, pass a very difficult examination before a consis- torial councilor and receive a position as rector of a school or pastor of a church. At present the rule is : Attendance of nine years in a gym¬ nasium and of at least three years in the university, which frequently extends to four and five years. To this must be added the expensive voluntary one year’s service in the army. This is followed by a long period of waiting, owing to enormous competition ; the position of tutor has become very rare because the aristocratic families send their sons to military academies and public schools. Thus it has gradually come to pass that a safe income in the learned professions can not be expected before the twenty-fifth or thirtieth year of age. Naturally the pauperes of the ancient university have begun to disap¬ pear, and there is a strong current going through society which approves of this disappearance. It is said occasionally by lawyers and physi¬ cians, “we do not want the sons of small people,” and the teachers are beginning to say the same. One can read in periodicals for secondary teachers : The profession suffers when young men of the lower classes, sons of tradespeople, small farmers, and village schoolmasters, come to the university. They almost always bring with them a scanty scientific, and invariably an insufficient social culture, which makes it difficult to maintain themselves among the students. Without doubt these objections are not unfounded. Certainly pov¬ erty is a great obstacle to successful study. He who is obliged to earn GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 289 his daily bread by dint of giving private lessons will not liave left much time, power, or vigor of mind to occupy himself with learning. If this obstacle is not overcome by exceptional talent and great moral strength, study becomes a misfortune. Nowadays cases of this kind are not rare. The earnest desire of parents to lift their children to a higher position in life, which desire is quite common with numerous subaltern officers, has, during the lasf few decades, contributed consid¬ erably toward overcrowding the universities, partly with elements en¬ tirely unfit. On the other hand, it can not be denied that the exclusion of indigent elements, which to all appearances is on the increase, is not without danger. Above all, the disintegration of the nation as a body would be hastened thereby. If it should come to pass that the broad mass of the population, including artisans and small farmers, that now rise through intermediate steps, such as the positions in lower schools and subaltern offices, should not be represented in the university, then these classes would consider the state and its entire administrative organization as a foreign domination. In the ranks of social democ¬ racy, which has permeated with its views the industrial population of large cities, this feeling is already prevalent; the state appears to them an institution of the privileged classes for the purpose of defending their interests against the masses. I know of nothing that could more effectually spread this idea than the actual exclusion from higher studies and the learned professions of all who do not belong to the wealthier classes of society. The comprehension on the part of the cultured, for the people and their life, would vanish; offensive haugh¬ tiness and foolish sentimentality together would bring about a complete estrangement. Another thing should be considered : the exclusion referred to would deprive the intellectual life of the nation of talents and powers which it can not relinqnish without exposing itself to the danger of intellec¬ tual impoverishment. It must not be forgotten that many of, our most prominent men have come from very low strata — Winckelmann and Heyne, Kant and Fichte, were born in the humble homes of small tradesmen. Jacob Grimm in his autobiography, looking back upon his own youth and the restrictions placed upon him, gives expression to a beautiful thought, worthy of being repeated. He set forth the honor and advan¬ tage of poverty admirably, saying : Poverty urges to diligence and labor, preserves us from many a dissipation and infuses us with a noble pride, that is, a consciousness of self-earned merit, in com¬ parison with him who is supported by class-pride or wealth. I should even like to generalize, and say, many of the graud things the Germans have done should be attributed to the fact that they are not a wealthy nation. They work upward from below, and open new and peculiar ways, while other nations march the broad, well- paved highway. ED 92 - 19 290 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. III. — TEACHERS IN UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTION. Professors and Privat-Docenten (or Private Lecturers ). — In German universities three classes of teachers are active in all the faculties, to wit: .Regular, extraordinary, and Privat-Docenten. Privat-Docenten simply have the permission to give lectures and conduct exercises (venia legendi ), but no obligations. They are not appointed, and have no salary. The extraordinary professor is an appointed officer of the state, and as a rule receives a salary • but he has neither seat nor vote in the faculty, he does not take part in elec¬ tions, meetings, and academic examinations. The regular professor is one of the members of the faculty occupying an endowed chair, he is appointed by the state, and is the official representative of a scien¬ tific branch. The entire number of the regular professors forms the body of the faculty. There is to be mentioned a fourth class of pro¬ fessors found occasionally, the so-called honorary professors. This grade is reserved for meritorious aged scholars, who are too old for the regular professorship, or do not desire to be a regular member of the faculty, yet wish to continue their work as professors. Their legal connection with the university is similar to that of the reading mem¬ ber of the academy, and does not essentially differ from that of the private professor. The lectors , or teachers of modern languages for practical use, who as a rule are foreigners, may be regarded as an appendage to the philosophic faculty. Finally, we mention the masters of exercises, teachers of fencing, riding, and dancing. The three chief classes of university teachers mentioned show the normal gradation of an academic career. One enters the faculty as a Privat-Docent, then after a time which may be long or short, as cir¬ cumstances decide, the Privat-Docent is appointed to an extraordinary professorship, and again, as occasion offers and vacancies occur, he becomes a regular member of the faculty. However, exceptions to this rule are so frequent, that of late years it has almost ceased to be a rule. Not every academic teacher is first a private lecturer $ in the philosophic faculty especially, appointments take place from outside the university, frequently from among teachers of gymnasia. Nor does every Privat-Docent become in turn, a regular professor. Not a few of them leave the university in order to enter a practical profession, in ecclesiastic and secular offices, at the head of schools, in a library or some other institution ; some remain private lecturers all their lives. The medical faculty has an unusually large number of Privat-Docenten , because their duties do not greatly interfere with the practice of a physician. Lastly, the extraordinary professorship is by no means a necessary stepping stone to the highest grade. A promotion from the private to the regular professorship is not at all rare. Nor is it unus¬ ual to see extraordinary professors remain in their positions without being promoted, especialiy in large universities. There are branches GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 291 of study for which there is only one extraordinary professor appointed. Despite all these limitations, the gradations mentioned may yet be considered the typical career of a German university professor. Since the private lectureship is a peculiarity of the German univer¬ sity that has attracted the attention of foreigners, a word concerning this office and its importance may be of interest. Historically it may be looked upon as a survival from the constitution of a corporation, such as was the university of the Middle Ages. He who had by the faculty been declared Magister , that is, a master of sciences and arts, had thereby acquired the privilege of teaching in this faculty, and the right frequently became a duty in the faculty of arts. Since among lecturing masters of arts the older ones were provided with professorships in the colleges, with prebends or salaries, a distinction gradually arose between appointed and paid teachers who were obliged to give public lectures without receiving fees for them, and masters who taught for fees with¬ out receiving salary, or being under official obligations. This distinc¬ tion was more sharply drawn when, after the Deformation, the system of permanent paid professors was extended to the philosophic facult^v. With that distinction the obligation to serve as teacher, after obtaining the degree of master, was dropped, the perpetuation of the institution being secured by permanent professorships. Instead of this obligatory gratuitous service, the demand for further scientific accomplishments became customary in order to be accepted in any faculty as magister legens , we mean the work to be done for the purpose of habilitating as Privat- Docent, as it is at present required everywhere. The applicant for the venia legendi must nowadays, after having acquired the degree of doctor from one of the faculties, submit printed or written theses, pass an oral examination before the faculty, and deliver a public trial lecture; moreover, his habilitation, as a rule, is not allowed after the expiration of three years following his graduation as a student. The faculties are under no obligation whatever to admit anyone as a private lecturer; merit alone decides that. Generally, it may be said that the venia legendi is not granted very readily. The importance of this habilitation is found in the fact that it gives admission to the circle of those from whom the college of professors is chiefly recruited. The Privat-Docent acquires no right with this admission, no legal claim upon a professorship, yet with tolerably profound scientific labor he is, exceptions not considered, sure to reach the next higher step, the extraor dinar ium after, a few years. These years of private lecturing are considered essentially trial years. The young man has opportunities to try his hand at teaching and to develop his scientific attainments. His work as a teacher, which, in regard to the extent of his subject and number of his students, remains limited, is of great importance for the future professor. He has oppor¬ tunities to practice the art of academic instruction, a thing that has to be learned. The first mistakes, which are sure to be made, are made 292 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. before a small number of students, and are easily corrected. If bis choice of the academic profession should prove an error, it may be rec¬ tified by turning into other directions without great injury or much loss of time. The consequence of this gradation is that the three classes of pro¬ fessors stand on a level in a certain sense ; and this fact is of the greatest importance for the form which instruction takes ; it produces a competition of several professors in the same branch of study, which is a characteristic feature of German universities. This competition allows the students free selection of teachers. The regular professor is the appointed teacher of his branch, but he is not the only one. Besides him, there is, for extensive parts of his branch, it may be philology, history, physics, mathematics, or philosophy, and similarly in the other faculties, at least one Privat-Docent and one extraordinary professor, often there are several, who lecture on the same subjects. As a rule, the lectures are so arranged that no duplication takes place ; but in large universities it is not unfrequently observed, that the same subjects occur several times in the published courses of lectures, and there is no objection to the student’s preferring the lectures of the Privat-Docent or extraordinary professors ; be this because he has personal preference or because it is more convenient for him to do so. .Naturally, the regular professor has the preference, being an older and more widely known scholar; besides, he manages the institute or seminary, and is examiner in academic or state examinations. Nevertheless the activity of younger teachers is not insignificant, especially in large universities. We must also con¬ sider that in them the faculty has elements with which youth likes to associate. The young private lecturer enters more readily into intimate personal intercourse, especially with older students. It has often been said that this competition between older and younger teachers contributes toward infusing fresh life into the instruction, and prevents humdrum routine work. This is unquestion¬ ably true. The younger man must do his best, in order to succeed beside the elder well-reputed professor; on the other hand, the elder one is spurred to ever renewed efforts, and prevented from sinking into ruts, a danger always connected with life appointments. If he should follow the natural tendency of advancing age, shut himself up in his thoughts and views, and pass bv everything new that may turn up, or if he should devote himself entirely to his profound investigations, and perform his duties as teacher perfunctorily, he would soon, by the diminished attendance upon his lectures, be reminded of the necessity, that in order to attract youth, he must remain fresh himself, and be in sympathy with the movements of the time. The university studen ts are not apt to tolerate such a thing as hearing read to them the same old papers that are spotted with age. Youth soon feels whether or not dili¬ gence, love, and animated sympathy prompt the professor to continuous inner revival. It is also important to consider that the personal rela- GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 293 tion between tbe student and teacber is based upon the fact that the former is not obliged to be present, but that he has chosen the teacher himself. Of course, deliberation and careful selection do not always decide; accident, habit, and calculation play their role frequently, but generally it may be said that the German student is really not under obligation to hear a professor whom he does not like. As a rule he finds in the same university another representative of the same branch of science, and when that is not the case, he goes to another university, and there looks for instruction that pleases him better. The personal friendly intercourse between 'teachers and students found everywhere in German universities is doubtless the result of this arrangement. Hostile treatment 01 a professor on the part of the students is some¬ thing unheard of in Germany. Obligatory attendance at lectures would undoubtedly lead to discord and hostilities. A remark concerning the payment of fees for private lectures may be inserted here. This arrangement may at first sight appear illiberal; would it not be better to abolish this last vestige of the system of paying fees in the Middle Ages, which system has been doue away with in so many other state institutions'? With regard to the relation of the scientific teacher to his pupil the custom has an embarrassing aspect. It reminds one of the sophists and their treatment of Socrates. The payment of a fixed sum into the university treasury, in return for which the student would be admitted to all the lectures he may choose to attend, or gratuitous attendance upon the entire course, after the stu¬ dent has paid u intellectual import duties’7 by passing his final exam¬ ination in the preparatory school, would seem a more worthy and better mode. Nevertheless, we find that the university professors are much attached to the ancient arrangement, and not without cause. It would hardly do to look for the cause in selfish interest, for the present occu¬ pants of the positions would scarcely be losers if new regulations were adopted; on the contrary, on an average it is reasonable to suppose that they would receive larger incomes; at any rate, a secu¬ rity against fluctuations would be offered. However reasonable this appears, there are very strong objections to such an arrangement. (1) Man values and uses to better advantage that for which he pays hard cash more than that which is given to him as a present; to this general rule the student is no exception. Nor would a general pay¬ ment of tuition fees per half year make any difference. As things are now the student acquires a claim upon certain performances by a pay¬ ment dependent upon his own will. The introduction of a general advance payment would lead to irregular attendance upon all kinds of lectures, and this would have to be met on the part of the managers by introducing regulations that would degrade the university to the rank of a school. At present the student selects with serious deliberation the lectures which he intends to hear. (2) The teacher feels himself obliged to offer something in return that is worth being paid for; fur- 294 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. thermore, upon tlie results of his efforts his future income is, in a measure, dependent ; hence he is spurred on by two considerations to doing his best. To me there seems to be no doubt whatever about this. If the payment for lectures were abolished, and replaced by an increase in the salary, the professors would be exposed to the strongest temptation to diminish their work in quantity and quality — that is, pro¬ fessorships would become sinecures, the real hard work being done by assistants. The ancient clergy offers an example of this, and other examples could be found nearer at hand. Foreign countries that have abolished lecture fees show the results. The number of hours per week a German professor devotes to lectures appears astonishing to foreigners. The tendency of human nature toward giving the least possible meas¬ ure of work for a certain fixed remuneration is proverbial; to this ten¬ dency the nature of the German professor offers no exception. The necessary consequence would then be increased supervision and control. Hence in this regard also the lecture fees are a protection of academic liberty. This payment is to be perpetuated, thirdly, because it makes the university professor, in a measure, independent of the government; if he had no income but his salary, he would be an officer and nothing but an officer. Hence the payment for lectures is a very essential in¬ stitution for the preservation of the ancient free character of the Ger¬ man university. Its abolishment would have the tendency to change the university into a strictly managed professional school with fixed courses and regulations for students. But that would be the end of the university in the German sense of the term. The liberty it grants is its main power of attraction, and that the professorship is not really an office, but a free calling, gives it a peculiar charm in the eyes of the best and most liberal minds. Teaching. — As has been said in the introduction, the character and object of a university teacher is determined by the fact that he is both investigator and teacher. The former is considered the more important; not his success in teaching, but his scientific performances chiefly de¬ cide his appointment or election. His success as a teacher is dependent to a great degree on his ability to induce the students to scientific work and train them scientifically. However, this question is not of equal importance in the different sciences. What has been said has refer¬ ence chiefly to the philosophic faculty, while in the law and medical faculties doubtless more emphasis is laid upon talent for teaching; the minister of education may insist upon pedagogical skill more than the colleagues do when they propose names of candidates. With regard to the form of instruction we distinguish two kinds — lectures and exercises. Lectures are the chief part of academic instruction ; in most branches they take the first place. They are specially mentioned in the profes¬ sor’s contract; in this it is customary to mention his obligation for a public as well as a private lecture course. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 295 The difference between public and private lectures consists in this — the former are gratuitous, while for the latter a fee is charged. There is also this difference, that the systematic chief branches of the faculty- sciences, are, as a rule, treated in private lectures, while the public lectures usually treat of less •important subjects, either supplementary sciences or the explanation of an author, or a group of problems which awaken general interest. The difference is seen also in the fact that public lecture courses require shorter time, mostly one or two hours per week, while the private lecture courses require from four to six hours per week, some even twice as much time. The lecture as a form of academic instruction has often been made the object of bitter and sarcastic criticism. Since the days of Fichte and Schleiermacher, it has often been reiterated “that the professors are the only men who still dare to ignore the invention of the art of printing.” It is said that “year after year they dictate now, as they did five hundred years ago, unprinted text-books to patient listeners. This method may have been necessary during the Middle Ages ; ” to-day ? it is said, “most sciences can be acquired faster and more reliably from books. Attendance at a university is nothing but an expensive luxury, and a rather dangerous one to boot.” Indeed, if it were a fact that the lecturer merely dictated unprinted text-books, then, to speak with Schleiermacher, we can not con¬ ceive “why such a man asks the people to come to him, and why he does not sell his wisdom in the usual w ray, a wisdom that resembles a stagnant pool, for to speak of the wonderful impressiveness of the human voice in such antiquated work would be ridiculous.” At pres¬ ent such cases are rare exceptions, at least outside of the law faculty, where the ancient practice is still in vogue to some extent for good reasons. In the science of law there is a good deal of unchangeable impersonal knowledge, cast in permanent form; besides, there is a multiplicity of lecture courses in the faculty, which makes it difficult, if not impossible, to refrain from routine repetition. The professors of no other faculty are required to conduct three or four private lecture courses at the same time. The real lecture, the animated oral trans¬ mission of thought, is justified to-day as well as in the times of Aris¬ totle and St. Thomas, who, by the way, did not dictate, and to whose students books and the art of reading were not unknown. The lecture cannot be made superfluous by the most perfect text-book; it has an entirely different object in view, which may be expressed in this way: It is to give, in a series of connected talks, from the- whole range of a particular science, from its fundamental problems and leading ideas, from its essential inventory and the manner of acquiring new accumu¬ lations, from its connection with the whole realm of science and the essential aims of life, a peculiar view which is matured by individual absorption of the matter and borne by personal life. On the other hand, it cannot be its object to transmit the whole accumulated matter 296 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. of any science together with the complete bibliography. If in this the lecture course were to replace the text-book, it would always fall short and deserve the reproaches quoted in the foregoing paragraph. Even a small-sized text- book would be superior to the most carefully prepared lecture incompleteness of matter, exactness of dates, and bibliographical information. To him who first approaches the study of a science, be it theology or jurisprudence, philology or history, natural science or medicine, it appears as something infinite and beyond his grasp ; a vast abundance of facts, books, problems, opinions, investigations, overwhelming and perplexing him. Here, now, begins the task of the lecturer, to take him by the hand and serve him as a guide. He leads the student in gradual development to see the entirety of the science; he shows him the most important facts and problems, and gives leading points of view for their comprehension and solution ; he makes him familiar with the possible aims and the essential forms in which they have appeared historically, and at the same time points out the direction in which a decision is likely to be reached. All this may be contained in a book also; as is well known, many books originate in lectures. But for an introduction the animated talk of the professor has very important advantages ; above all this, that science appears to the listener in the form of a person who possesses it and lives in it; this gives him at once an immediate relation to the subject; it gives hiih faith in its value and reality. A book is an abstract and dead thing, which cannot generate faith. Faith can only be propagated from person to person. That a man who stands before me and speaks to me, a man whom I respect and in whom I gain confi¬ dence, believes in this particular science, devotes his strength and his life to it, that is what awakens in me a feeling of its reality, as it were. We have a similar experience with regard to foreign countries of which we have read in books and heard in schools. When some one comes who has been there himself, has worked and lived there for years and tells us of these countries and their peoples, describes the journey thither, and offers views of work and gain to be found there, then it is that a feel¬ ing of reality of these things comes over us. Africa and America are not then on paper any longer, where so many things are described that never existed, but in tangible, accessible reality; and with the belief in their reality grows the courage to go and see them ourselves. Just so it is with the student and the sciences. To the future historian or philologist the past assumes real ty in the words of the teacher who stands before him in person. Thus trifles which no science can pass by, commentaries, fragments, micrological observations, and tiresome definitions assume significance and reality in the eyes of the student, without which he would lose the courage for hard work. It was in this way, if a personal reminiscence may be indulged in, that Trendel¬ enburg awakened the courage of his students to study Aristotle. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 297 They liad heard something of the philosophy of the ancient Greeks, had even tried to read it, but the uncertainty as to whether it would be worth while, whether Aristotle was not too antiquated, deterred them. But when in Trendelenburg a man approached them who lived in the Aristotelean philosophy, and, as it were, stood in a personal relation to the Greeks, then faith in the subject was awakened, faith also in its significance for the present, and from faith courage resulted to penetrate into the strange world of thought. The ancient saying of Aristotle still holds good : u He who desires to learn must believe.” To keep him to this belief is the first and, per¬ haps, the most important advantage oral instruction has over the book. The presence of fellow students and co-workers is also an advantage not to be forgotten. One more point. The book is something finished, inflexible; the lec¬ ture is something alive and growing. This difference is observable at once: The book is there as a whole; the lecture course offers, from hour to hour, a small measurable ix>rtion. Nor is this portion brought along as something finished, that may be shown around, but a thing brought forth before the hearer. It is well known how much more animated sympathy we bestow upon the origin and development of a thing than upon the finished object; lienee, a map which the teacher sketches, with a few lines, on the board, representing the mere outlines of a country or a plan, will impress itself upon the memory better and deeper than the much more complete map of an atlas. The tension with which the listener follows the spirited thought of the lecturer can not possibly be provoked by a book. This tension has its influence upon the lec¬ turer also. While thus he enters into reciprocal relation with his hearers, the moment gives proper form, the fitting word, and the con¬ vincing simile. In contact with his hearers he feels what part of all the mass of information he has at his command is useful and serviceable, and what is sterile subtlety and useless ballast. Finally, the essential difference between the inner form of the lecture and that of the text-book may be pointed out. The text-book aims at a unity in the systematic course and prefers to progress, with synthetic method, from principles to the particular thing. The lecturer can move with much more freedom ; he does not need to adhere to a fixed scheme, but can change his method with every new chapter, if it will serve his purpose pedagogically to proceed in a different way. Usually he will be inclined to prefer the analytic way. He will not begin with exhaust¬ ive explanations, with definitions and principles, but start from well- known facts and phenomena to lead to the definition: or, to use an expression of Aristotle, he will proceed from the n porepov -p6q pp.dq to the 7 rporspov (pvedagogical act between teachers and pupils, every state examination which has the object of ascertaining the amount of knowledge by examiners not acquainted with the appli¬ cants, will necessarily lead to reviewing compendiums and memorizing text books. In the nature of the case, such an examination is directed toward externals — that is, things that can be stated in a few words — and not so much toward internals and the essence of a science. The real intellectual product of scientific occupation can never be of much account in such an examination, as the sharp -sighted Englishman, Latham, in his excellent book proved, “On the action of examination considered as a means of selection ” (1877). This fact becomes very prominent when the examination is conducted partly, or entirely, by men who do not take active part in teaching. This has been the case in Prussia in examinations for entering the legal profession, but recently the university teachers have found a better representation in the boards of examiners. V.— THE UNITY OF THE UNIVERSITY. It is a conviction generally shared that the preservation of the uni¬ fied university is a happy dispensation in our national history. This concluding chapter may show what gain for science and. the life of the nation is derived from it. The most obvious gain is, that a unified university is superior in influence and reputation to the separated faculties. The French fac- ultes have felt this; a detached faculty of law or medicine is barely known, while small German universities, like Jena, Kiel, Erlangen, have a world-wide reputation. In Erlangen it is the theological, in Kiel the medical, in Jena the philosophical faculty which gives luster and reputation to the whole corporation. This isr not without impor¬ tance for each individual member of a university. As a professor of the university of Jena or Erlangen, a scholar is everywhere known, and all doors are open to him, while a member of an obscure detached fac¬ ulty disappears from public view. For students, too, the term univer¬ sity has a better sound. That, for instance, Paris could gain such a preponderance over the other facultes that it alone enrolls one-half of all the students of France, is owing to the fact that there are no uni¬ versities in the provinces. For this very reason efforts are being made recently to consolidate the professional schools into unified universities. A more important consideration is that which pertains to the inter¬ nal importance of the question. The unified university represents the unity of science in its organization, and thus makes it obvious to all its members. Since it constantly suggests to every member to seek ed 92 - 21 322 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. aid among' the others, it leads the representatives of the most varied sciences to intimate reciprocal action. The professors meet daily within and outside of the university buildings. The theologian meets the physiologist, philologist, historian, and jffiysicist; and because these sciences present themselves to him personified, as it were, he can not possibly pass them by. He feels impelled to make terms with them in his mind, as he does socially. Doubtless, the character of Protestant theology is in close relation to this, for to reconcile science qnd religion is its chief tendency; especially is it the task of dogmatics to construct a bridge between scientific consciousness and the religious needs of the times. Catholic theology originates chiefly in the exclusive seminaries, and where it exists in universities it maintains a certain exclusiveness; hence there is more unity in its teaching, but also less power to influ¬ ence science and the culture of the times. Protestant theology being reinforced by all the sciences, has a reflex effect upon them; consider, for instance, such men as Schleiermaclier, Baur, Base. For the German universities it is not an insignificant source of impulse that most of them have a Protestant theological faculty in their midst. Estrange¬ ment of scientific thought from religion, as it is often found in Catholic countries, the universities of which have no theological faculties, is not possible in the Protestant world. Compare the French civilization with the German; the former is irreligious, the latter on the whole is a religious movement. Wolff and Kant are both, in a certain sense, reformers of theology; and Ficbte, Sclielling, Hegel are such even to a greater degree. A similar effect is noticed in the other sciences. The philosopher comes together daily with investigators of nature and history; influ¬ ences work hither and thither. He constantly receives from them im¬ pulses to bring his thoughts into contact with concrete reality ; the whole modern development of philosophy in Germany shows this. On the other hand, he awakens and enlivens in the investigator the desire to find general truth and ultimate aims. The inclination of German science toward philosophy may be the result of constant personal contact of philosophers and theologians. Likewise the jurist meets daily the historian, the political economist, the physician and the physicist, the chemist and the biologist. The mere existence of the others is an appeal to him to seek relations beyond the limits of his own field of study. The friendship that united v. Savigny and Jacob Grimm, the founder of the school of historic right and the founder of the school of Germanistic research, may be considered a symbol of the unity of the legal and the historic investigation in Germany. A similiar unity exists between medicine and natural science. We may also call attention in this connection to the ease with which students turn from one science to another — frequently the limits of a faculty are passed over. Lotze, the philosopher, was a physician and professor of medicine in Leipzig, before he was called to Gottingen as GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 323 professor of philosophy. Wundt also started with the study of medicine. Fechner was a professor of physics all his life. Helmholtz, the phys¬ icist and physiologist, had completed his medical studies and Avas army surgeon before he became professor of x>hysiology, and afterward of physics. Mommsen, the historian, was originally professor of law before he became professor of history. Zeller, the historian of philosophy, was a theologian, and for a long time x>rofessor of theology, before he turned to the philosophic faculty. All these men and many others have laid the foundation to this double nature while they were still students. And this leads over to the other x>oint. As social communion is of the greatest importance for the faculties, so it is for the student. It is true the university has not the unity of a school, for it is really a com¬ bination of independent institutions, the courses of which are essen¬ tially laid side by side. Nevertheless, a frequent reaching over from one faculty to another takes place. There is scarcely a student in a German university who has not attended one course of lectures outside of his own faculty, or at least attended occasional lectures there. Of all the faculties, it is the philosophic which proves to be the most gen¬ eral. In the lectures of the philo sox>her, the historian, the scientist, the political economist, the student of all the faculties meet 5 most fre¬ quently are the students of theology seen there, for of them it may be said that they have the most universal desire for culture. The students of law and medicine are not so often found in the x>hiiosophical faculty, but frequently enough to make an absolute nonattendance a rare excex>tion. The contrary case is found also. Members of the philo¬ sophic faculty attend, according to inclination and the nature of their study, courses of literature in other faculties. The student of history hears lectures on law and church history; the student of natural sciences hears lectures on medicine, etc. Undoubtedly this facilitates the passing from one faculty into another — that is, the change from one X>rofession to another which takes place frequently. The unity of the university makes it x>ossible to recognize and correct betimes errors in the selection of the studies and x>rofession, since it invites all its stu¬ dents to survey the ground in the whole realm of science. This reciprocity in the lecture courses is supplemented by another imimrtant fact, the social and scientific intercourse of the students themselves. There is scarcely a student ayIio is not in more or less lively intercourse with the members of other faculties. In this regard the students’ clubs are very beneficial; here lawyers and philologists, theologians and medical students, learn to know each other intimately. Many a friendship that lasts for a lifetime is cemented here. This is not a trifling consideration. He who has lived in personal friendship with a single member of another xwofession in the university enters into relation to the entire x>rofession ; the basis of mutual comprehension and confidence is given. u Ars nonliabet osorem, nisi ig nor cintem” The unity of university culture contributes to a great degree toward creat- 324 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-9?. ing in all who have academic culture a feeling of unity and solidarity, a feeling of aristocracy of the mind, destined to counterbalance the aristocracy of birth and money. Since it excludes no one who has the capacity to rise to the level of the academic world, it reestablishes, as the clergy did formerly, the unity and spiritual leadership of the nation. To do honor to truth it must be stated, however, that the ancient u universitas ” is recently exposed to the danger of disintegration more than before. Not that the outer bond is in danger of being loosened, but its inner relations seem to lose their strength. It is the progressing division of labor, and the tendency to specialization arising therefrom, which threatens the unity of the institution. The students and profes¬ sors of medicine have loosened their connection with the university proper more than those of the other faculties. This is owing to unavoid¬ able circumstances, namely, the independence and remote location of their institutes, such as clinics and hospitals. The study of medicine takes hold of the newcomer more decisively and exclusively than any other faculty. The students of theology and law remain more closely attached to the university. On the other hand, the tendency spoken of is found active in the philosophic faculty also. In the nature of the case this faculty intends to represent the unity of the sciences. Construing it purely theoretically, one might lodge in it all that is really scientific in the higher faculties, for it either belongs, like religion and law, to the realm of historical research, or like natural phenomena, to the field of scientific investigation. Upon this is based the ancient connection of the higher faculties with the philosophic — that is to say, we presuppose the philosophic faculty to be the general basis of the higher faculties, the latter having branched off and assumed the character of technical or professional institutions. But in proportion as the sciences within the philosophic faculty branch off and specialize, in proportion as these branches develop into technical or professional schools, in the same proportion the faculty loses the capacity to serve general purposes. Since the lectures on philosophy and mathematics have assumed the character of a profes¬ sional institution for specialists, they are not as numerously attended by students of theology and medicine. And in the lectures on natural science and history a similar change, with its consequences, is notice¬ able. The philosophic lectures, pure and simple, are about the only ones which are generally attended. However, the division of labor can not be undone, for upon it depends the enormous progress of scientific investigation in modern times. It must become the object of all who understand the danger, to combat the spirit of specialism, of self-limitation, and narrow-minded self-suffi¬ ciency; to aid in this endeavor every member of the university is called upon. The view of that which is general, a philosophic sense which is ever ready to place the particular at the service of the highest intelli¬ gence, should forever find a home in the philosophic faculty. This GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 325 would be a noble object of tlie public lectures, in which, to a large audience of members of related branches of science, the results and problems of separate sciences might be treated, so far as they are found to be of general interest. The official managers also might, to a certain degree, aid in checking the tendency to excessive specialization, both among the professors and students. An excessive number of chairs for one science will naturally promote a division of the matter to be taught, and thus threaten the aims of higher education. On the other hand, the character of higher study might be influenced advanta¬ geously, both by the order of examination and the composition of the examination board. In conclusion we shall touch upon another point: The unity of all universities of the German tongue. The totality of the German uni¬ versities forms a world of its own, exclusive toward the outside world and closely linked together. A constant exchange of students as well as professors runs through it, as the life-giving current of blood does through the body. This peculiarity is not found in foreign universities, notably not in those of the English type. As the students remain in their colleges, so the graduates remain with their university; at least, the institution preferably recruits its faculty from its own graduates, ceteris paribus. In Germany this is not at all the case, so that one is tempted to speak of a prevalent inclination to procure new professors from outside. Every university tries to draw into its folds the best men wherever it can find and induce them to come, and it does that in order to increase its own power of attraction. The territorial division of Germany into many states of varying size is, undoubtedly, one of the causes of this system. There lias ever been, and is now, a noble rivalry between the various German governments to elevate their uni¬ versities, and to keei> them on a high level of excellence without regard to the place of birth of the applicants for professors7 chairs. It can not be doubted for a moment that this system is superior to the system of favoring home talent. Though the change at times may be a little too abrupt, yet on the whole, it has great advantages that every university takes part in the life of the union, and is ever supplied with new blood and new thoughts. At the close of this essay it need scarcely be offered as an excuse that I have attempted chiefly to show the great underlying ideas of the German university system, and hence lightly passed over deficiencies and the shady sides of the picture, such as are not wanting in any human institution. People nowadays prefer to dwell upon these, think¬ ing that they represent the reality, whereas such persons, perhaps unknowingly, lose sight of the essential features as they have been rep¬ resented in the foregoing pages. The underlying idea is also a piece of reality, and so long as this reality is alive, the most important and most significant portion of reality, its animating spirit, will be found active. 326 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. A word of Savigny may express what the German nation possesses in its universities. In an essay, quoted before, he says: That which constitutes their value is not the perfect scientific scholarliness of their teachers, nor the growing scholarliness of their students. If we were to claim that, we should be holding before ourselves a mirror that would shame us. But it is the fact that in our universities we have a form in which every distinguished talent among the professors finds a chance for development; in which every strong pre¬ disposition among the students finds satisfaction; a form by means of which every progress in science easily finds introduction ; a form by means of which it is easy to recognize a man of talent who seems destined for a higher vocation, and by means of which in the poorer life of more circumscribed talents a feeling of higher exist¬ ence is awakened. Upon the possession of such a form we have reason to be proud, and he who knows our universities, will agree with me that this praise expresses literal truth, and is no exaggeration. APPENDIX. I.— UNIVERSITIES WITHIN THE LIMITS OF THE PRESENT GERMAN EMPIRE, TOGETHER WITH THE DATE OF FOUNDATION. [Those in parentheses have been dissolved.] Heidelberg, 1385. (Cologne, 1388-1794.) (Erfurt, 1392-1818.) Leipzig, 1409. Rostock, 1419. Greifswald, 1456. Freiburg, 1457. (Ingolstadt, 1472-1800.) (Treves, 1473-1798.) (Mayence, 1477-1789.) Tubingen, 1477. (Wittenberg, 1502-1817.) (Frankfort on the Oder, 1506-1810.) Marburg, 1527. Konigsberg, 1544. (Dillingen, 1549-1803.) Jena, 1558. Braunsberg, 1568; renewed, 1818. (Helmstlidt, 1576-1809.) Wurzburg, 1582. Giessen, 1607. (Paderborn, 1614-1818.; Strassburg, 1621 ; renewed, 1872. (Rinteln, 1621-1809.) (Altdorf, 1622-1807.) (Osnabriick, 1630-1633.) (Bamberg, L648-1803.) (Duisburg, 1655-1818.) Kiel, 1665. Halle, 1694. Breslau, 1702; renewed, 1811. Gottingen, 1737. Erlangen, 1743. Munster, 1780. Berlin, 1809. Bonn, 1818. Munich, 1826. II.— Bibliography. From the great number of books and pamphlets concerning German universities, many of which are orations and publications occasioned by anniversaries, I select a few of the most noteworthy. A. — General Works. Fr. Schleiermaclier. Gelegentliche Gcdanken fiber Universitiiten in deutschem Sinn. 1808. K. Fr. v. Savigny. Ueber Wesen und Werth der deutschen Universitiiten, in L. Ranke’s historisch-politischer Zeitschrift, Jahrgang 1832. J. Grimm. Ueber Scliule, Universitiit und Akademie (1849), in: Kleinere Schriften, i, 211 ff. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 327 J. S. Bollinger. Die Universitiiten sonst und jetzt. 1867. H. v. Sybel. Die deutschen und die auswartigen Universitiiten, 1868. Published in Vortriigen und Aufsiitzen, 1885. H. v. Sybel. Von deutschen Hochschulen. Allerlei was da ist, und was da sein sollte. 1869. J. B. Meyer. Deutsche Universitiitsentwicklung. Vorzeit, Gegenwart, Zukunft, 1874. (Deutsche Zeit und Streitfragen.) H. Helmholtz. Ueber akademische Freiheit, 1877. Rektoratsrede. E. Zeller. Ueber akademisches Lehren und Lernen. 1877. Rektoratsrede. M. Kahler. Die Universitiiten und das offentliche Leben. 1891. I call attention also to the chapters concerning universities in the following works : C. F. Dahlmann. Politik, 2. A., 1847. R. v. Mohl; Polizeiwissenschaft, i, 3. A., 1866. H. Marquardsen in: Bluntschli und Brater, Deutsches Staatsworter- buch, Bd. x, 677, Art. Universitiiten. Among foreign books I mention : J. M. Hart. German Universities. A narrative of personal experience. New York. 1874. Edmond Dreyfus-Brisac. L’universite de Bonn et Penseignement superieur en Alle- magne. Paris. 1879. B. — History. A complete historical presentation is not yet in existence, for the work of Meiners, Geschichte der Entstehung und Entwicklung der hohen Schulen unseres Erdtheils (4 vols. 1802) can not be considered complete. Some fragments of the history of German universities are found in the fourth volume of Karl v. Raumer's History of Pedagogy. A true history has only become possible since extensive publications from the archives have made the material accessible and since the publications of the chronicles of individual universities have prepared the way for a comprehensive his¬ torical presentation. Such a work is contemplated by G. Kaufmann. Thus far only the first volume has been issued, which treats of non-German universities : Ges¬ chichte der deutschen Universitiiten, Bd. i, 1888. Something of the history of instruc¬ tion, especially that of the jjhilosophic faculties, is found in Fr. Paulsen’s Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen Schulen und Universitiiten, 1885. L. v. Stein, Das Bildungswesen des Mittelalters (1883); Die Zeit bis zum 19. Jahrhundert (1886), offers chiefly a review of the history of the state’s management of education in the different countries of Europe. Among the presentations which, in regard to time and extent, treat certain limited fields of the subject, we mention: H. Deuifle. Die Entstehung der Universitiiten des Mittelalters bis 1400. 1885. Vol. i of a work on the universities of the Middle Ages. Otto Kiimmel. Die Universitiiten des Mittelalters, in : Schmid, Geschichte der Erzie- hung vom Anfang an bis auf unsere Zeit. u., 1. Abth. (1891.) Fr. Paulsen. Griindung, Organisation und Lebensordnungen der deutschen Uni- versitaten im Mittelalter, in v. Sybel’s Historischer Zeitschrift. 1881. Th. Muther. Aus dem Universitiits- und Gelehrtenleben im Zeitalter der Re¬ formation. 1866. A. Tholuck. Das akademische Leben des 17. Jakrkunderts mit besonderer Bezie- hung auf die protestantisch- theologischen Fakultaten Deutschlands. 2 Bde. 1853-4. R. v. Stitzing. Geschichte der deutschen Rechtswissenschaft. 1880-1884. L. Goldschmidt. Rechtsstudium und Priifungsordnung. 1887. Th. Pusclim'ann, Geschichte des medicinischen Unterrichts. 1889. 328 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. ‘ From among the historical presentations of individual universities we select : Berlin : R. Kopke. Die Griindung der Universitat zu Berlin. 1860. Erfurt: F. W. Kampschulte. Die Universitat Erfurt in ihrem Verhaltniss zum Humanismus und zur Reformation. 2 Bde. 1858-1859. Gottingen: G. Rossler. Die Griindung der Universitat Gottingen, 1855. Yersuch einer akademischen Gelehrtengeschichte von Gottingen von Z. S. Putter, fort- gesetzt von Saalfeld and Osterly. 4 Thle. 1756-1838. Greifswald: Kosegarten. Geschichte der Univ. GreifswaJd. 1857. Halle: J. C. Hoffhauer. Geschichte der Univ. Halle. 1805. Heidelberg: J. F. Hautz. Geschichte der Univ. Heidelberg. 2 Bde. 1862. More- promising will he A. Thorbecke. Geschichte der Univ. Heidelberg. Abth. i. 1886. Konigsberg: D. H. Arnoldt. Historie der Konigsbergischen Universitat. 2 Bde. 1746. Miinchen : C. Prautl. Geschichte der Universitaten Ingolstadt, Landshut, Miinchen. 2 Bde. 1872. Tiibingen: K. Kliipfel. Geschichte der Universitat Tubingen. 1849. Wurzburg: F. H. v. Wegele. Geschichte der Universitat Wurzburg. 2 Bde. 1882. Wien: J. Aschbach. Geschichte der Wiener Universitat im ersten Jahrhundert ihres Bestehens. 2 Bde. 1865-77. R. Kink. Geschichte der Universitat Wien. 2 Bde. 1854. . C. — Organization and statistics. J. F. W. Koch. Die preussischen Universitiiten. 3 Bde. 1839-40. L. v. Ronne. Das Unterrichtswesen des preussichen Staates. Bd. n. 1855. Wiese-Kiibler. Yerordnungen und Gesetze fur die hoheren Schulen in Preussen. 2. A. 1887. Bd. ii. F. Ascherson. Deutscher Universitiits-Kalender. Seit 1872. In jedem Semester erscheinend und die Yorlesungsverzeichnisse enthaltend. R. Kukula u. K. Triibner. Minerva, Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt. 2 Jahrgang. 1893. (Gives a review of organization, names of professors and officers, insti¬ tutes, expenditures, etc., of all the universities in the world.) J. Conrad. Das Universitatsstudium in Deutschland wahrend der letzten 50 Jahre. 1884, D . — Instruction and student life. F. W. J. Schelling. Yorlesungen iiber die Methode des akademischen Studiums. 1803. J. E. Erdmann. Vorlesungen iiber akademisches Leben und Studium. 1858. Fr. Harms. Die Methode des akademischen Studiums. 1885. R. Keil. Jenaisches Studententhum. 1858. Part II. STATISTICAL REYIEW OF THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. [Written for the World s Columbian Exposition by Prof. J. Conrad. Halle.] 1. GENERAL REVIEW. Germany has at present twenty complete universities, one royal academy at Munster with only two faculties, and the Lyceum Hosianum at Braunsberg, which has the character of a Catholic school of theology. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 329 Of the universities only Bonn and Berlin have their origin in this cen¬ tury, while the foundation of the others date back to former centuries ; some, like Heidelberg, are 500 years old. The total attendance at German universities is at present about 28,000, or about 57 students to every 100,000 inhabitants. This number is not easily compared with that of other countries, since other requirements for admission are in vogue there, hence the composition of the mass of university frequenters not being alike, a numerical comparison is obvi¬ ously unfair. Especially the theologic faculty causes a disturbing ele¬ ment in statistical comparison, since in some countries it is separated from the university, or supplied by independent seminaries quite dif¬ ferent in organization and management. Sweden had at the close of the eighth decade about 63 students, Norway 85 to every 100,000 inhabitants, Holland 51, Switzerland 63, of which 5*2 were women. Hence several countries show a greater number of students than Germany, a fact that may be owing to the greater length of the course. Leaving the theological students out of consideration, we find in the countries we are especially interested in, the following average numbers for the years 1886-1889. To every 100,000 inhabitants — Germany had 48 students. Austria had 55 -9 students. Italy had 51'3 students. France had 42 -6 students. Belgium had 82-3 students. Holland had 45 ’4 students. Switzerland had 50-4 men students. Switzerland had 5 '2 women students. Denmark had 47 -1 students. Norway had 76 '6 students. Sweden had 57 -3 students. Russia had 9’9 students. From this list it is obvious that the number of students in Germany, compared with that of other leading countries, is by no means very large. Naturally the attendance has varied considerably in the course of time. As early as the beginning of the thirties we find more than 52 students in every 100,000 inhabitants, a number that considerably exceeded the demand. This number decreased in the following decades to 33, but rose again during the eighties, until it reached 63, the high¬ est point ever reached; since then it has decreased again. At the end of the third decade the universities enrolled 11,500 students, at the close of the sixth decade the number was 13,000, and in the summer semester of 1890 it was 29,382. Especially from the beginning of the seventh decade a very rapid increase took place. These fluctuations may be explained by the economical circumstances of the times. A phenomenal progress in the general activity of the nation attracts talent with magical power towards industrial pursuits ; economical depression, on the other hand, invites youth more toward the secure career of civil officers. During a depression all professions turn towards academic culture. During the fifth and sixth decade, the extremely low salaries paid to all categories of civil officers deterred many from professional study, while in later years the general improvement in the payment of 330 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. salaries has had the contrary effect. The distribution of the students in the various universities shows great differences. The great univer¬ sities (Berlin, Munich, and Leipsic, representing the three states Prus¬ sia, Bavaria, and Saxony) during the last three semesters attracted 5,000, 3,400, and 3,260, or, together, 11,GG0, that is, 41 per cent of all the students, while during the first few decades of our statistical expose they enrolled only 31 to 36 per cent. It is plain that the concentration in chief centers of commerce in large cities has made great progress. The small universities also have shown a perceptible increase. The smallest German university, Ros¬ tock, has 390 students; this institution had barely 100 students during the thirties and forties. Konigsberg, Kiel, Jena, Giessen, with 500 to 700 students, maybe still counted among the smaller, the others among the middle-sized universities. In the smaller universities, as experience shows, the younger students are chiefly represented, while the older ones prefer the larger universities, and in middle-sized univer¬ sities both freshmen and seniors are found. However, each university exhibits varieties that have their cause in its peculiar features. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. ®o a Oi Ph < 3S H °0 fef Cl o i w rfl "l o <30 °0 >-S w H Q § o 5 1 ’I fc H Q •I ” g, I I I & Er £ o 3 g 3 S H g H 8 o ?A2 .92 ^ H11^J •§jnqssfej}g O O 00 (NCOOOiOkOiO^O i I i iiiiiiili I I II SI Is SIS SI Is CO i-T of csl el co co” o' o’ UO 00 t~ oo t~ •Jioo^soy: •U0SS8ir> 1II§I1SIS1111S3 •Enap l§3IS§§il§!Ssls •SizdiaR Sis Ills Ills IS s § ,-7 i-T i-T cf co" co co" co co" co" •gjnqpjj ISlSSslsISIIlli •gjaqiopraH IllSIlsiSlIIISi •uggniqni IgllglpslssSSSs •naSirBpig; ISsISISillSIlsI r-Tr^rH ■Sanqzjn^ migiisiiisiii •qomnpt 2,550 1 1, 392 1 1,329 2, -096 1,701 1,292 1,245 1,245 1,142 1.582 2,545 3, 495 3, 292 3, 538 3, 380 ’FIX 275 242 208 151 141 149 194 172 175 262 419 538 480 612 488 ■SjnqjBj\[ SsillllllllllSI •aaSat^qr) IllsilggllslsSg •Saaqsun'BJaC \i91STitij\[ IsillSIlllllllS •uaox ISJlisilssSIsSI •SjaqsSxnqx SSSI1I11I81IIII •pieAVSjpjo 208 198 218 190 214 274 345 420 508 538 820 907 708 821 778 •9IPH 810 655 712 671 639 710 768 839 968 1,017 1,509 1, 577 1, 540 1, 477 1,472 ■mqsajR sggiiss&SEssaaa •nRJ9a . 1,821 . 1,726 . 1,715 . 1,426 . 1,599 . 1,593 - 1,972 . 2,219 . 1,948 . 3,102 . 4,660 . 5,185 . 5, 414 1 . 4,619 . 5,040 Years. Pp'PppPpiF'PPPp ■ ■ ‘ ig slllllllilllll! 331 332 o&SgS _ ^S'oJ A $ O H EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. (MOO 0(N0HiflM(X)»pip g k k ssfegggigj eOcic^'i-J'i-i'Nci’cai-HrH CO to CO CO ■qoo^soji •H9SS9lf) esgsgs-sssssssssag •cnap 230 160 110 98 90 118 135 101 85 73 127 126 95 116 102 ■gizdiex lg§s§§s§I§lI§Ss •Sauqrajji •gjaqppiajj j •(ia.7?aiqnx ■noSuBpig; ElsS3lalII.I!S!l ssssssssigsiiiag •Sanqzan^ ■qotanj^r ’FIX ■SjnqjBpt O5t£t^c2888c25ogocogg ■aeSuxwof) ■SjaqsunB.ijx MO^ennj^; S5S8S8838£Si82Sc? 'SaaqsSiuox 8gt?^5>gSaoio§oco5 j> c© 8 o ! slssIlsiSlill: STUDENTS OF CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 333 ■H A j CO CO O5C0 ooowipcooo fels | 3 g £ g-^o j T~ IslIallslIIlSlSs O I rH r-7rHiHT-Tr-7 .-T^l-Tl-T •SjnqssBJ^g ■^o^soa; ; : : : •n8SS9I-0 | rccocO^i •Biigp ■SrzdiQT •Sjnqi9Jj[ i-l HHHHH HNNN •§J9qi9pt9H •raSTO j SSggSHliSlissgSS j •uaStrepig; •§mqzjTiA\ •qoTanpj; CO CO 00 tJ rH CO O 05 t? 00 S CO CO CO 'WK •Sinq.iBj^[ •U9§ttr^qr) •Sa9qstmBjg j •J91«un]A[ ; sia3s§gSa3S!i!I •uuoa •3.i9qs.§iuq;s[ •PVBAVSJI9JQ -9IIBH •tviqsojq; 218 171 198 219 230 180 170 1 139 95 65 151 180 181 211 189 • ur[J9g[ jp giiliiliiiiliii 334 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. &-2.S2-2 Co ^ _<5J O HI m t H I I I g S H e m > ^ =w w O fl Ofl L-5 HMC t~ « CO -sfU> g 2ff§SS-S8SS Totals. «OH^OH^OOOrt^iO(Nl>005 CO CO CO CQ of COTjiiOOCOO'© •SjnqssT?j^g j i i : : i i : iSsssISl •j[oo;soy; •TI9SS9TQ 1 g&sggssssssssas •cnof' -4?jSgoooSoooSooo>gg •Sizcll9rl SglSlSsSsilSSSi •Sanqia.qj | SgSSSg^gSStgg|§|g •SaoqppiOH 328|Sgl|lgS||Sl •U9§aiqnj, 8siss.s*?sfiasa'8s •agSaufag; gg§g-gsgg§sgg||g •Sanqzan^ 75 74 92 171 181 133 121 124 108 1 116 147 281 267 256 260 •q.)innW 490 427 439 640 722 451 439 418 251 463 195 1, 280 1,214 1, 312 1, 161 ■ppx SSSSSSSSSSSSSigi? | •SanqjBpj 109 94 90 76 56 37 41 28 50 90 84 118 155 155 187 •ngSai^of) ISlIlSsliSgsSss ,Sj9qSUTl'BJ£[ I i; i j M i :.l M i : ; i M9;sanp[ ............... •anog; Isslsssallsllll •SigqsSrno^]; §C^t?§iSj|o6§Sio8t2cqcoSg§ •piT3AiSJI9JO •9HBH 137 87 96 144 147 75 46 56 139 110 113 126 191 184 173 •Tve[sajg; 1 Bssagsaaigasssa •anagg; 560 496 524 572 640 476 483 589 614 1,073 1,133 1,317 1, 557 1, 150 1,470 p p si p p 5 p p p p p p § CC r-< |> CSICIOOJHHCO^CO k $ k bkszhkkks SllSSSSlIllllsS WWH HWN(NWnCO®»»XO() ;;;; 157 162 209 289 356 333 327 &£8?3g3gS3fgg-ggg ONt't'COOWQOOOlfliOIMW OOiOiOt^iOOCOCOOOiOHHHO H (N IN (M M 120 145 149 152 168 182 189 210 380 395 757 830 901 834 899 §gg§3SS3§gggS§§ 219 149 130 116 109 113 91 77 92 109 213 266 245 278 249 g|2gggg2|g|E||g 193 143 120 145 317 239 253 268 446 431 681 910 770 680 738 338 196 94 149 277 • 133 151 2.13 287 378 849 1,151 1, 081 1,192 1,155 61 51 41 35 41 35 50 57 59 88 171 273 259 335 245 75 42 42 49 65 62 38 112 114 122 215 252 258 256 247 204 201 207 189 197 162 172 150 142 132 186 223 217 200 181 2SS§§sgg3SS|s|g ssssss^sgggsrggff a8se^SSII3!SSi ggggs^sggg^ S§sSS§S§iill|g 3£s88Si9S3S5S13 gqis.ssgs.sgsg! p p p p p p p p p p p p § STUDENTS OF PHILOSOPHY, INCLUDING PHARMACY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 335 ■P 9s sg g & sSSsssSis lglllll!!la!51l cq wn 05 in co rjT io oo os oo i> t> 98 312 345 292 266 247 278 “slSssSsii'SIlSiS gSIgSSHspsIsl &g.ia*as.sn55asg8gg| SSSS^|gg§gggg|g 232 261 257 222 220 173 212 162 167 213 322 252 264 179 170 gssssgssgjjsgsgg S5|gS§||||gg|g|| llllllllissaill S3S3S$5SSfgii8i 3*3SS$aa$sgS383 • ■ . . . W O M H ESg!8Sg!3gg§§.g§§gg §!?§58§§l!il§i§3ii §|ig§SIg:ggjg§ggggg «8ISEi*3M$S8S«8 sagsiiimisiis ssssssssss^sss 836 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 2. THE DIFFERENT FACULTIES. The German universities had, during the last few semesters, 3,850 students of Protestant theology, which is equal to 12-3 to every 100,000 Protestant inhabitants. This number far exceeds the demand, although not many years ago the number had risen to 4,500, or almost 15 to every 100,000 Protestants. This high tide did not begin until the eighth decade, while during the seventh the number of such students was between 1,700 and 1,900, which number was insufficient to fill all the vacant pulpits. The number of students of Catholic theology falls short considerably of that of the Protestants, both in absolute and relative numbers. There were only 1,300, or 7-4 to every 100,000 Catholics, during the last few semesters. During the last years an increase is noticed, but it is not quite sufficient at present to meet the demand. At the close of the seventies, at the time of the u Culturkampf ” in Prussia, the num¬ ber had decreased to 700, or 4-2 to every 100,000 Catholics, while as early as the fifties, and still earlier, in the thirties, the number had been more than 1,300, or between 9*3 and 10 to every 100,000 Cath¬ olics. The chief centers of Protestant theology are Berlin and Halle with over GOO students each, Leipzig with 500, Tubingen with 400, while Kiel, Heidelberg, Giessen, and Rostock have scarcely 100 each. For Catholic theology Breslau and Bonn, Munster, and Freiburg, with over 200 students each, are of special importance, while Brauns- berg lias only 28. The number of law students was 6,850 during the last two semesters, or 13-8 to every 100,000 inhabitants, which is almost twice as large as circumstances demand. At the beginning of the seventh decade, there were only 4,000; between 1856-?66 the average number was 2,800, a number which proved inadequate. The law students crowd into large cities, and this tendency has shown itself more prominently than in former years. Thus we find in Berlin, Munich, and Leipzig over 1,000 law students, and in the winter semester of 1891-’92 as many as 1,557, or 52 per cent of all law students, inscribed in three universities. Greifswald, Kiel, and Kostock have considerably less than 100, while the other universities have between 100 and 350. The law faculty of some universities shows remarkable differences between the attendance in summer and winter. Berlin naturally has greater attrac¬ tion in winter than in summer; this explains why in winter the number of law students is greater by 400 than in summer. The southern Ger¬ man universities with beautiful surroundings, such as Tubingen, Kiel, and Freiburg, double their number of law students in the summer. The medical faculty also shows an extraordinarily strong attendance in late years, namely, 8,600 or 17*4 to every 100,000 inhabitants. Dur¬ ing the seventh decade, the number of students was scarcely half of GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 337 what it is now, namely, 3,600 or 8-4, while in the forties the number did not reach 2,000 or 5-5. The greatest attraction for medical students Berlin seems to have with over 1,500 students during the last year. Munich with 1,000, then follow Leipzig with 860 and Wurzburg with 730; Rostock has the lowest number, 138; the other universities have between 170 and 370. The philosophic faculty which, for a long time, was the best attended faculty in all German universities, has recently fallen somewhat behind the medical. It has now 7,400 students, or about 15 to every 100,000 inhabitants. Since the beginning of the eighth decade, when it had an attendance of 9,000, of about 20 to every 100,000 inhabitants, it has gradually gone back, so that now it has reached a normal number. During the sixties this faculty numbered 4,500, from 1846-’56 not quite 3,000 students, or about 8-8 to every 100,000 inhabitants. The rather mixed composition of the philosophic faculty makes it necessary to analyze it and to judge each group separately. It contains, first of all, the large group of students of philology and history, who numbered during the last year 2,800, or 37-8 per cent of all the students of the philosophic faculty. How remarkably this number has decreased seen from the fact that in 1881 this group had 4,546 students, or about 53 per cent. Then comes the second group, that of students of mathe¬ matics and natural sciences, which had 2,150 students during the last year, or 28*6 per cent. In this group the number has decreased less than in the first, for in 1881 it had 2,682, or about 31-30 per cent. Still the decrease is quite perceptible. The third group comprises the students of political science, agriculture, forestry, mining, etc., which group is not easily analyzed. The number of students in this group fluctuates frequently and therefore offers no measurement for comparison, many of these students finishing their studies in other special schools which, though on a par with universities, are not distinctively universities. Thus, for instance, the special schools of agriculture in Berlin and Hohenheim, the forestry schools at Eberswalde, Miinden, Tharandt, the mining academies at Freiberg and others, and the nine technical universities (polytechnica) for civil and mechanical engineering. While many of the students of agriculture attend universities in north¬ ern Germany, especially Halle, the students of forestry attend those of southern Germany, Munich, Tubingen, and Giessen. Students of political science also are found there more frequently because they find there a technical preparation for specific classes of civil offices, for which a thorough study of law is required in northern Germany. The third group, then, taken together, comprises 1,013, or 13-4 per cent which number shows a considerable increase which is probably owing to the organic connection of some academies of agriculture and for¬ estry with universities, institutions which formerly had an independent existence. In the lists of students we now generally find another category : the ED 92 - 22 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Q O Q ODO students of pharmacy and dentistry. That these two classes of stu¬ dents are thrown together, is owing to the fact that their admission to the university is not dependent upon graduation from a gymnasium. Where this category was not specially mentioned, we went back of the summaries in order to complete our statistical analysis. Only for Tiibingen we failed to do so, since the official report of that institution omits to state to what profession each student devotes himself. This source of error, however, is quite insignificant. The number which is withdrawn from observation in Tiibingen, is replaced by 28 veterinary students in Giessen, the report of which enrolls them in the philosophic faculty. During the last two semesters 1 ,480 persons, or 20 per cent of the students of the philosophic faculty, belong to the group of stu¬ dents of pharmacy and dentistry. The greatest number is exhibited by Berlin, which has 27G, Munich 258, Leipzig 186. By far the greatest number of them are students of pharmacy, only Berlin has the large number of 154 students of dentistry ; Leipzig has only 3G, Munich in the summer of 1892 only 3, Ralle 7, Wiirzburg 8, Giessen 5. Altogether we count more than 330 students of dentistry in German universities. There are consequently about 1,150 students of pharmacy, while during the period of 18G1-’71 there were only 470, which shows that this number of students has increased nearly 300 per cent. 3. THE RELATIVE STRENGTH OE THE FACULTIES. The relative strength of the faculties has changed very essentially in the course of time. At the beginning of this century, up to the fourth decade, theology played the most important part in German universi¬ ties, for it enrolled nearly one-half, later on, one-third, of all the students. But during the forties the percentage fell to one-fourth, and during the seventies it receded to 13 per cent 5 since then it has increased to 18 per cent. In the Protestant theological faculty, the proportion of 16.8 per cent gradually decreased to 10 per cent, at the end of the seventies. In later years it fluctuated between 13 and 15 per cent. The fluctua¬ tions in the Catholic theology are much greater. At the beginning of the thirties it absorbed 11 per cent of all the students ; after various changes during the years 187G to 188G, it sank to its lowest point, 3.4 per cent, since then it has increased to 4.8 per cent. The law faculty fluctuated between 20 and 33 per cent, taking the average by decades. At present it absorbs a little less than one-fourth of all the students, which would seem a normal state of affairs. The medical faculty had, up to the year 1881, between 15 and 21 per cent, but since then it has increased remarkably, and now stands in the fore¬ ground with over 30 per cent. Students of the philosophic faculty, pure and proper, have been counted as such onty during this century. Pormerly they were absorbed by the other faculties, especially by that of theology, in which the teach¬ ers were being prepared, while the students of natural science completed GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 339 tlieir studies in the medical faculty. At the beginning of the thirties the philosophical faculty had already been consolidated so well that 18 per cent of all the students were enrolled in it, and they were all stu¬ dents who were not enrolled in any other faculty. Up to the year 1861 this proportion rose to 30 per cent, and up to 1881 to 41 per cent; in late years it has returned to a more normal state, and enrolls only 26*5 per cent, since both, the study of mathematics and natural' science, as well as that of philology, have considerably decreased. Table II. — Relative strength of the different faculties in all the German Universities. Year. Protestant theology. Catholic 1 theology. Law. Medicine. : Philosophy. * Total. Per cent. Per cent. 1 1 Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 1830 ’31 . 26 ‘8 11 -4 28 -3 15-8 I 17-7 100 1831- 32-’3G . 23 9 9-9 28 -2 19 -8 18-2 100 1836-’37-’n . 20 -1 8 1 28 -2 19-8 23 7 100 1841-’42-’46 . 18 -3 8 6 29 -7 16-8 26 6 100 1846-’47-’51 . 15 9 10 -5 33 -6 15-2 25 7 ICO 1851-’52-!56 . 14 -2 10 -2 33 -8 18-6 23 • 2 100 1856-’57-’61 . 19-6 10-0 23-1 17 -8 29-5 100 1861-’G2-’66 . . 18 -3 8-5 21 -5 18 -2 33 -5 100 1806 ’67-!71 . . . 15-9 7 1 22-1 20 -9 34 -0 100 1871-72-76 . . 11 5-1 25 -5 21-7 36 7 100 1878-77-’81 . 10 3-4 26 19-1 41-5 100 18Sl-’82-’SG . 15 3-7 19 -4 26 -6 35-3 100 1886- 87-91 . 15-8 4-3 21 -6 30 -4 28 100 1891-92 . 13-8 4-6 24 -2 30-6 26 100 1892 . 13 6 4-8 24-6 30 -6 20 -4 100 4. THE PREPARATION OF GERMAN STUDENTS. By far the greatest number of students have graduated from the gym¬ nasium, for only the graduate of a gymnasium has the unlimited right to be matriculated in all faculties, and after having attended the lectures, be admitted to the state examinations that open the way to the learned professions in so far as they are, directly or indirectly, connected with official duties. Only in the philosophic faculty an exception from the requirement mentioned is made. Here the graduates of other high schools, with a nine years7 course, are on equal footing in certain branches of science, and as ubona fide77 students they are admitted to the examinations for academic degrees also. All others who aim at the acquisition of general culture only, or are preparing themselves for practical pursuits without claiming the right to state appointments, such as agriculturists, chemists, pharmacists, dentists, etc., are matric¬ ulated without having graduated from the gymnasium or real-gym¬ nasium. In Prussia such young men are admitted if they have acquired the right to the one-year voluntary service in the army. The statistics of Prussian universities give us very minute information concerning the number of graduates. Of the 10,825 German students who, on an average, studied during the six semesters from 1887-’88 to 1890 in Prussian universities, there were 85.2 per cent graduates of gymnasia, 6.7 per cent graduates of real-gymnasia, 8.1 per cent had not graduated. Hence in the total number these last two items are not yet of considerable importance. For the philosophic faculty, though, these 340 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. small percentages are of vital importance, for it is in tliis faculty that they matriculate almost exclusively. Among the students of Protestant theology there was but one graduate of a real-gymnasium, and two had not graduated, probably because they were preparing for missionary service. Among the Catholic theologians there was but one graduate of a real-gymnasium. Among the students of law there were two, and one who had not graduated. Among the medical students 3 were graduates of a real-gymnasia, and 16 had not graduated. The philo¬ sophic faculty had on an average 1,816 German students, of whom only 49.1 per cent were graduates of gymnasia: 23 per cent were graduates of real-gymnasia, chiefly students of modern philology, mathematics, and natural sciences ; 27.9 per cent had not graduated, these were chiefly agriculturists, chemists, pharmacists, and dentists. From the other German universities outside of Prussia we have not such minute information. Only a few universities can be mentioned here. In the summer semester of 1892 Leipzig had 3,104 students, of whom 2,431 were graduates of German gymnasia, 119 graduates of real gymnasia, and 320 Germans and 234 foreigners had been admitted without having graduated from such schools. Expressed on the scale of 100, and leaving the foreigners out of consideration, we find that 84.8 per cent were graduates of gymnasia, 4.2 per cent of real-gymnasia, and 11 per cent had not graduated. Of 612 German students in the philo¬ sophic faculty 320, or more than one-half had not graduated. In Giessen 425 of the 570 German students were graduates of gymnasia, 96 graduates of real-gymnasia, 50 had not graduated — that is, less than one-fourth of the 216 members of the philosophic faculty. 5. NATIONALITY OF THE FOREIGN STUDENTS. During the last two semesters there was an average of 1891 foreign¬ ers, or 6.7 per cent of all the students in German universities. This number has gradually increased, although it has somewhat fluctuated. In 1835-’36 there were only 475, or 4.02 per cent; in 1870-?71 there were 753 or 6.1 per cent; in 1880-’81 the proportion was 5.16 per cent; at present it is 6.7 per cent. By far the greatest number of foreigners naturally flock to large cities. Berlin had 626 in winter of 1891-’92, and 568 in summer of 1892; Munich had 18 in winter, 190 in summer; Leipzig 296 and 241 — that is, together the three universities had on an average 1,052 — or much more than one-half of all the foreigners. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 341 Table III. — Nationality of the foreign students. Countries. Austria . ? Hungary . . 5 Switzerland . . ... Russia . Great Britain . Prance# . Sweden and Norway . Belgium . ? Netherlands . j Bulgaria . Denmark . Greece . Italy . Luxemburg . Portugal . Roumania . Servia . : . Spain . . Turkey . , United States of America. . . America . 1 Asia . I Australia . [ Afri<;a . : . J Total . 1335- ’36. 1860- '61. 1880- ! ’81. 1891- '92. 1892. No. P.ct. No. P. ct. No. P. ct. No. j P. ct. No. P. ct. 41 9 114 15 178 16 \ 127 131 | 6-4 | 6-6 82 176 4-6 9-8 233 50 236 31 213 19 ^ 267 j 13-4 230 12-8 64 14 156 21 204 18 407 20-5 367 20 -4 26 6 42 5 71 6 137 6-9 130 7-2 21 4-5 9 1 21 2 34 1 -7 29 1-6 21 4-5 14 2 22 2 19 1 31 1-7 16 3 23 3 34 3 1 20 47 1 • 2-4 16 41 | •9 2-3 ' 34 1 1-7 35 1-9 6 •3 6 •3 56 2-8 46 2*5 34 1-7 29 1-6 30 7 77 10 -5 167 | 15 . 25 2 j 1-3 •1 19 2 1 •1 27 1-4 25 1*4 22 1 1,1 19 1 5 •3 5 •3 [ 33 1-7 37 21 4 1 77 10-5 173 15-5 r 446 22 -5 383 21 -3 6 1 8 1 42 3 -5 • ^’•2 s '&&§ < Pharmacy, dentistry." Other branches. | Under 18 years . . . j 08 8 1 23 13 23 8 1 Under 20 years . 1,546 307 43 436 338 422 208 125; 24 Oil 1 1 From 20 to 23 years . . 0,229 1,446 286 1,434 1,559 1,504 182 445 149 124 4 From 23 to 25 years . 2,935 626 158 378 909 864 384 264 86 129 1 From 25 to 30 years . - _ 1.766 215 68 112 599 772 236 211 71 253 1 Over 30 years . 233 19, 16 9 79 110 40 31 21 18 Total . 12, 709 2,613 1 571 2, 309 3,484 . 3. 672 1 1, 650 1,076 | S52 588 7 [Expressed in percentages.] Under 18 years . Under 20 years . From 20 to 23 years From 23 to 25 years From 25 to 30 years Over 30 years . Total . 0 -54 0 -31 12 -171 11-75 49-01 55-34 23-091 23-95 13 -SO' 8 -23 1 -83' 0 -73 i 0-18 7 -53 50-09 27-67 11 -61 2-80 0-97 18 -40 60 -53 15 -96 4-73 0-38 0-37 9-60 44-75 26 -09 17 -19 2-27 0-63 11 -49 40 -96 23 -53 21 -02 3-00 0 -48 0 -65 12-61 11-62 47 -40 41 -36 23 -27 24 -53 14-301 19-61 2-42 2-88 0-28 1-19 6-84 10-88: 4*2-45; 21-09 24 -50 21-94 20 -23 43 -03 5. 98; 3 -06 100 TOO I 1 100 100 100 jioo 1 100 jioo jioo jioo Table Y a. — Statistics of Prussian universities . AGE OF ALL NATIVE GERMAN STUDENTS, EXCLUSIVE OF STUDENTS OF AGRICUL¬ TURE, PHARMACY, DENTISTRY, AND ALL SPECIAL STUDENTS. [Averages per semesters.: Winter 1887-’88— summer 1890. Ages. Totals. :| Theology. 1 | i Philosophy. Protes- i tant. Catho¬ lic. Law. Medi¬ cine. Total. P^'“?0-|M'athc- W- 5SS& history. |8cicnce' Under 18 years . 58 8 1 23 13 13 8 1 5 Under 20 years . 1, 424 307 43 436 336 302 204 98 From 20 to 22 years . 3,809 938 176 1, 015 965 715 | 487 | 228 From 22 to 25 years . 4,693 1,133 268 796 1,493 1, 003 643 360 From 25 to 30 years . 1,371 214 68 112 597 380 222 158 Over 30 years . . . 178 19 16 9 78 53 33 23 Total . 11, 475 1 1 2, 611 1 571 2, 368 j 3, 469 2,456 1,589 867 [Expressed in percentages.] Under 18 years . 0-51 0-31 0-18 0-97 0-37 0 -53 0-50 0-58 Under 20 years . 12 -41 11-76 7-53 1 18 -41 9-68 12-30 12 -84 11-30 From 20 to 22 years . 33 -19 35-92 30-82 | 42-86 27-82 29T1 30 -65 26 -30 From 22 to 25 years . 40 -90 43-39 46-94 1 33-62 43 -04 40 -84 40 -47 41 -52 From 25 to 30 years . 11 -95 8-20 11-91 j 4-73 ;7 -21 15 -47 13 -97 18-23 Over 30 years . l -55 0-73 2-80 0-38 2-85 2-28 2-07 2-65 Total . 100 100 100 1 i 100 1 100 100 100 | 100 348 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 9. OCCUPATION OF THE FATHERS. It is not without interest to inquire into the professions and occupa¬ tions of the fathers of the students, and to see what faculties the vari¬ ous categories choose. Twenty-one per cent of the students in Prus¬ sian universities came from social strata having academic culture; we determine this from the professional occupations of the fathers. But beside these, there are men of means, army officers of high rank, landed proprietors, many of whom also have academic culture. Hence it may be presumed that not less , than one-fourth of all the students have fathers who have had higher education. This percentage may be taken to be very nearly correct, since agricultural students, pharma¬ cists, and other special students are not excluded from the calculation. Seven per cent are sons of civil officers of high rank, including clergy¬ men. Fully one-tliird are sons of merchants, manufacturers, and landed proprietors. It is to be regretted that no distinction is made between artisans who own a little shop and owners of factories; neither has there been a distinction made between great merchants and small trades people, so that we can not distinguish the degree of wealth rep¬ resented by them. Local inquiries in Halle have resulted in the follow¬ ing figures: Of the 14-8 per cent of industrial people only 3*4 per cent were owners of factories, and 11 *4 per cent singly artisans who had a shop, which number shows that the small people were much better rep¬ resented. Likewise among the landed proprietors not 2 per cent could be classed among the wealthy; 12*7 per cent were peasants, gardeners, and other agriculturists on a small scale. The number of students who were sons of subaltern officers and teachers without academic culture was 23 per cent, while 0-1 per cent were sons of day laborers and ser¬ vants. Almost 20 per cent of the students of theology followed the pro¬ fession of their fathers, and 58 per cent of the sons of clergymen attend¬ ing universities studied theology. Comparatively speaking, very few theologians are sons of high civil officers, about 6 per cent, more than one-third who are sons of officers of low rank and elementary school teachers. Farmers sent 14 per cent to study theology; industrial peo¬ ple 13 per cent, of whom 12 per cent are to be classed as coming from artisans and mechanics (if the results of local inquiries are taken as a standard). Statistics of Prussian universities. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES, 349 1 CO H 05 ^ (M h co oo co co to co h co (M CM CO CO 1650 1076 946 1 ° ° | cm •pegissnpafj I (NWHOlO CM H CM CO lO O HTji CO tH rH C5 Hi ■s.mjoqij'j (M ■ i— 1 lf5 : CO CM • CM •SJ9ogjo umjpjqng H <’ >(MCO CM • rH 05 •smqonea qooqos £rBju9ui9|;i£ rCONHOO rf t>CO CO l> H< CM CM rH Hi CO OO tO 660 ‘I ’uoijnoupe j?l.isj9Ainri pio -qii^i sioopgo jiaiq t^CD^CMM CO 00 00 CO oo H1 CM Hi tO | t- CO 05 CO rH rH 05 •spunj jo ep990 -o.id uioij SniAiq ! 05 O lO H CO WHXOM j rH CM CO | H Hi to CO •SJ9d99q |9;ojj rH Hi tH 05 ^ H (M CO O i OO tO CO rH rH 00 CM •SJ9ui,tBq; LO co CO CM CO CO OOWH U- CO 00 C5 05 CO 05 t- CO Hi CO 00 Faculties. Theology : Protestant . .. Catholic . Law . Medicine . Philosophy in general . Philosophy, philology, and his¬ tory . Mathematics and natural sciences Agriculture, pharmacy, etc . Total .. . VI.— Statistics of Prussian universities. — Continued. 350 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 8 S a o q <2 P Cw a b 3 §3 GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 351 Among the Catholic theological students 29 per cent come from the humble homes of peasants, about as many are sons of subaltern officers and teachers of the lower grade, 22 per cent are sons of industrial people, chiefly from artisans. A different state of affairs is noticed among the law students; 18-5 per cent are sons of high civil officers, and nearly one-half of the sons of such men attending the university are enrolled in the law faculty. Of all the students of law 29 per cent have fathers who had acquired a higher education, 11 per cent are sons of officers and teachers of a low grade (the pecuniary means of teachers are rarely sufficient to meet the costs of preparing for the law), 9*5 per cent are sons of farmers, G per cent are sons of large landed juoprietors (the latter exhibit a great inclination for the study of law), 18-5 per cent are sons of merchants, and 5-5 per cent are sons of industrial people. The sons of physicians preferably follow the profession of their fathers (55*2 per cent), but, owing to the comparatively small number of physicians, the medical profession furnished only 7-5 per cent of the medical students: other strata of academic culture furnished 20 per cent, about as many came from subaltern officers and teachers, while merchants and industrial people furnished 38 per cent. Almost iden¬ tically the same percentage of the students of the philosophic faculty was sent by merchants and industrial people, but only 13 per cent had fathers possessing academic culture. Subaltern officers and teachers supplied 23*5 per cent of the students of philosophy, of whom the greater number devoted themselves to philology. From the foregoing we notice an upward tendency in all strata of society; then, on the other hand, we notice that those classes who'have the advantage of birth or wealth are not able to meet the demand of the country for q>eople of academic culture. 10. THE RELIGION OF GERMAN STUDENTS. With regard to this important question we regret to be obliged to resort to the statistics of Prussian universities exclusively. The whole population of the state contains 64.24 per cent Protestants, but the per¬ centage of Protestant students in universities is somewhat larger, namely 72-11 per cent. About the same percentage of students is found in the middle schools, but 80*88 per cent in the secondary schools, and 63*13 per cent in the elementary schools. The Catholic population amounts to 34.15 per cent. In the elementary schools the percentage of Catholic pupils is 33*71 per cent. In the middle schools the number sinks to 10*4 per cent, while in the secondary schools it rises to 17*5 per cent, and in the universities to 18*62 per cent. Hence Catholics do not aspire to higher education so much as the Protestants. This is partly explained by the fact that in the eastern provinces of Prussia the rural laboring class consists of Poles, who belong to the Catholic faith, and among whom a university student is a remarkable exception. The diametrical opposite is noticed among the Jews, who constitute only 352 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 1-28 per cent of the entire population. They are represented in ele¬ mentary schools by 0-74 per cent, in the middle schools by 8-3 per cent, in the secondary schools by 9*7 per cent, in the universities by 8*9 per cent. Among the law students the percentages vary little from the general average; the philosophic faculty also shows small variations from the average. In the medical faculty the Protestants recede a lit¬ tle from their average, showing only 59*5 per cent; the Catholics rise to 21*7 per cent; the Jews exhibit the remarkably high percentage of 18*5 per cent, for over one-half of all the Jews studying in the universities are enrolled in the medical faculties. Table VII. — Statistics of Prussian universities RELIGION OF THE GERMAN STUDENTS. [Winter semester 1887-’88— summer semester 1890 inclusive. Absolute numbers.] Theology. Philoso¬ phy- Religious confession. Totals. Protest¬ ant. Catholic. Law. Medicine. Evangelical . 9, 168 2, 613 1, 738 438 2, 072 2, 745 Catholic . _• 2,366 1,136 39 571 757 600 Jewish . 187 643 306 Others. . 6 12 21 Total . 12, 709 2, 613 571 ! 2,369 3,484 3, 672 1 [Percentage of faculties.] Evangelical . 100 100 100 100 28 -50 18 -96 18-51 16 -46 15 -38 22-60 32 -00 56-60 30-77 29-94 25-36 -26 -94 53-85 Catholic . 24 T3 J ewish ............. .... .......... Others . . . Total . 100 20 -56 4-49 18-64 27 *42 28 -89 [Percentage of religions.] Evangelical Catholic Jewish . Others . Total . 72-13 100 73 -37 59 -47 74 -76 18 -62 100 18 -49 21 -73 16-34 8 -94 7-89 18-46 8-33 •31 •25 •34 •57 100 100 100 100 100 100 11. PROFESSORS IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. A distinguished Englishman, James Bryce, M.P., professor in Oxford (in his preface to The German Universities for the Last 50 Years, by Dr. J. Conrad, Glasgow, 1885), has said that the great capacity for work of the German universities is chiefly owing to the great number of professors, which allows an extensive division of labor, and gives the teachers a chance to restrict themselves to comparatively few lectures in order thereby to gain time for independent scientific work or private instruction to the students. These considerations make it appear nec¬ essary to observe the present number of professors, and to subject it to analysis and comparison. Altogether there are in German universities 2,275 professors, to whom must be added 26 teachers of modern languages, and a number of teachers of agriculture, dentistry, etc., also teachers of drawing, GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 353 dancing, fencing, gymnastics, and riding, who are not of equal rank with the professors. During the last fifty years the number of profes¬ sors has nearly doubled, but it has not increased in the same ratio in which the students increased, for the average number of students to a professor, which was 9*5 in 1840, and 8-9 in 1870, is now 12*2. Not one-half of all the professors, or 1,029, are regular salaried professors, 591 are extraordinary, and 655 private lecturers. The number of reg¬ ular professors has increased least of all, namely, from 633 fifty years ago to 1,029. While in 1840 the regular professors had on an average 18 students each, they have now 27 each. The number of extraordinary and private professors has more than doubled, but on the whole the proportion between these two classes has not essentially changed. Fifty years ago the number of regular professors amounted to 52 per cent of the total number, and that number was maintained until very recently, when in 1892 it sank to 45*2 per cent. The extraordinary professors gradually rose from 20-8 per cent to 25*9 per cent; the pri¬ vate lecturers numbered in 1840, 26-9 per cent; in 1880, 24*9 per cent, while in 1892 the number rose to 28*9 per cent. The great number of 655 young professors, who, without receiving salary, devote themselves to teaching and scientific work, and from whom the regular professors are recruited, form, as is well known, the essential fountain for the con¬ tinuous influx of new life into our university system, and also for the promotion of science, since they lay most stress upon writing on scientific subjects, through which alone they can hope to rise to higher positions. Table VIII. — Professors in German universities. Year. Theology. Law. . Medicine. Protestant. Catholic. Reg¬ ular. Ex- tra- ordi- nary. Pri¬ vate. Reg¬ ular. Ex- tra- ordi- nary. Pri¬ vate. Reg¬ ular. Ex- tra- ordi- nary. Pri¬ vate. Reg¬ ular. Ex- tra- ordi- nary. Pri¬ vate. 1840 . 83 28 35 37 3 6 108 32 59 135 66 84 1850 . 79 30 26 40 4 7 114 34 46 146 64 105 1860 . 72 24 18 36 5 4 96 31 36 131 63 97 1870 . 87 24 15 43 9 7 126 30 41 166 100 146 1880 . . 96 26 19 47 3 7 139 29 25 194 139 191 1892 . 102 30 23 49 9 5 148 31 43 211 189 238 Year. Philosophy. Total. Total number of professors. Theology. Law. Medi¬ cine. Phi¬ loso¬ phy. Grand total. Reg¬ ular. Ex- tra- ordi- nary. Pri¬ vate. Reg¬ ular. Ex- tra- or di¬ nary. Pri¬ vate. Prot¬ es¬ tant. Cath- oli 3. 1840 . 270 124 142 633 253 326 146 46 199 285 536 1,212 1850 . 304 161 146 683 293 330 135 51 194 315 611 1,306 1860 . 270 195 137 605 318 292 114 45 163 291 602 1, 215 1870 . 383 175 169 805 338 378 1 126 59 197 421 727 1, 521 1880 . 477 236 217 947 433 459 141 51 193 524 930 1, 839 1892 . 519 332 346 1,029 591 655 155 63 222 638 1, 197 2, 275 ED 92 - 23 354 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table Villa. — Xumber of students to 1 professor. [Includes all kinds of professors.] The faculties. Year. Aver¬ ages. ■ Theology. Catholic. Law. Medicine. Philoso¬ phy- 1840 . 9 i oo i 15 76 20-22 16-31 8-05 5 -07 1850 . 9 11 13-32 | 24-61 j 20 -77 5-84 5-04 1860 . . . . . 9 86 20-64 j 26-71 12 -39 7-32 6-52 1870 . 8 84 17-10 16-32 15-24 0-89 6 -37 1880 . 10 81 13-91 13-02 j 26-35 7-56 8-72 1892 . .• . 12 L_ 44 24 -74 21 -74 ! 31 -33 12-03 t 6-23 Table VIIU. — Xumber of students to 1 regular professor. Year. 1 Aver¬ ages. The faculties. Theology. Philoso¬ phy. Protes¬ tant. Catholic. • Law. Medicine. 1840 . 18-15 27-81 25 T4 30-05 16-96 10-06 1850 . 17-55 22 -76 31-37 35-34 12 -52 10 -12 1860... . . 19-81 32-68 33-40 28-78 16-27 13-10 1870 . . 16-88 24-76 22 -40 23-84 17 TO 12-10 1880 . . 20 -22 20 -43 16-20 36 -60 19 -25 17-00 1892 . . . 27-50 37-59 28 -02 47-00 41 -10 14-37 Table Yllle. — Relative number of regular, extraordinary , and private prof esson Percentage of the total nun.- I Percentage of the total number of professors of theology. - Year. her ot protessors. Protestant theology. Catholic theology. Regular. : Extraor- : dinary. Private. Regular. Extraor¬ dinary. Private. Regular. Extraor¬ dinary. | Private. I 1840 . 1850 . 1860 . 1870 . 1880 . ! 1892 . 52-23 52-30 1 49 -80 52-93 51 -49 44 -23 20-87 j S 22-40 26-17 . 22-22 23-55 25-98 ! 26 -90 25-30 24 03 24 -85 24-96 28-79 I 56 -85 58-52 63 -16 69 -05 68 -08 65-81 19-17 22-22 21 -05 19 -05 18 -44 19-35 23 -98 19-26 15-79 11-90 13 -48 14 -84 80 -43 78-43 80-00 72-88 1 80-39 77-78 6- 52 7- 84 11-11 15-25 5-88 14 -28 | 13 -05 13 -73 8-89 11 -87 13-73 7-94 Year. Percents, her of ] ge of the total num- i professors of law. Percentage of the total num¬ ber of professors of medi¬ cine. Percentage of the total num¬ ber of professors of phi¬ losophy. Regular. Extraor¬ dinary. Private. Regular. Extraor¬ dinary. Private. Regular. Extraor¬ dinary. Private. 1840 . : 54 -27 16-08 29 -65 47 -36 23-16 29 -48 50 -37 23-13 26 -50 1850 . 58 -77 17-52 23 -71 46 -35 20-32 33 -33 49-75 26 -35 23 -90 1860 _ 58 -89 19 -02 22-09 45 -01 21 -66 33.33 44 -85 32-39 22 T6 1870 . 63-97 15-23 20 -80 40-29 24 -27 35 -44 52-68 24 -07 23-25 1880 . 72 -02 15-03 ! 12 -93 39-27 28-14 ! 32 -59 51 -29 25 -37 23 -34 1892 . 63 -67 i 13 -96 19-37 33 -07 29-62 37 -31 43 -36 27-74 28 -90 More than one-half of all the professors are engaged at present in the philosophic faculty, namely 1,197 ; and in this faculty the greatest increase is noticeable, especially in late years. In 1840 we find 536, or 1 professor to every 5 students; at present 1 to every 6. The propor¬ tion of the three classes of professors in this faculty is about the same that we find in the sum total. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 355 The smallest increase is found in the faculty of Protestant theology, where the number of professors has risen from 146 to 155 within fifty years ; however, the number had fallen to 114 in 1860. In this faculty the regular professors constitute the greater percentage, namely, 66 per cent, against 19*3 per cent of extraordinary and 14 per cent of private professors. This circumstance has often proved annoying, so that it has been found necessary to call to chairs in universities ordained min¬ isters who had distinguished themselves by scientific x>ublications. In this faculty the number of students to 1 professor is 25; in 1880 it was 14; the number of students to 1 regular professor is now 37-6; twelve years ago it was 20*4. The Catholic faculties have at present 63 professors, with an average of 21*8 students each. Since in this faculty private professors are exceptions, the number of regular professors, 78 per cent, is greater than in any other faculty. In 1880 the proportion was 80 per cent, with only 6 per cent extraordinary professors. The law faculty has at present 222 professors, 1 for every 31 students. This is by far the greatest relative number of students noticed anywhere, and is owing to the enormous throng attracted to the study of law. In this faculty the percentage of extraordinary profes¬ sors, 14 per cent, is below the average; also the number of private pro¬ fessors is smaller than the average, at present 20 per cent, while in 1880 it was 13 per cent. The division of labor has taken place in the medical faculty more than in theology and law. The number of professors has increased to more than twice the number it bad fifty years ago. However, we must consider the fact that the aspiration of practical physicians in large cities is to obtain a position in the university in order to gain the con¬ fidence of the public. Hence the number of private professors is larger than in any of the other faculties. It is at present 37 per cent of the whole number of the medical professors. Also the number of ex¬ traordinary professors is comparatively large, namely, 30 per cent, which may be owing partly to the cause mentioned before, partly also to the fact that more specialties have been developed in the study of medicine than there are regular chairs. Only few universities have regular chairs for aural diseases, dentistry, psychiatry, hygiene, chil¬ dren’s diseases, etc. Therefore the number of regular professors is at present only 33 per cent, whereas it was 47 per cent fifty years ago. However much the number of professors has increased the number of students has increased much faster; while formerly the average num¬ ber of students to a professor was 6 to 8, now it is 12, and while the regular professor had 12 to 19, now he has 41. Naturally the number of professors in the different universities varies very much. Berlin has the most, namely, 341 professors, 3 language teachers, and 3 teachers of dentistry. The number of regular professors is 83, or less than one-fourth of the whole number, the number of extra- 356 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. ordinary and honorary professors is 198, the number of private professors is 160, or nearly one-half of all the professors. It is easily seen that the metropolis, with its many scientific institutions and the great num¬ ber of advanced students who form the chief audience for special lec¬ tures, attracts men of scientific aspirations more than the small towns. Besides, what we said concerning the medical profession holds good particularly here, where we find 15 regular, 30 extraordinary, and 66 private medical professors, a proportion that can not be duplicated by any other university. The philosophic faculty has the enormous number of 76 private professors (the theologic faculty only 4, the law faculty only 8), 51 extraordinary, and only 50 regular professors. The other large universities fall considerably behind Berlin. Leipzig has 168 professors, Munich, 152. The difference is explained, in the first place, by the smaller number of private professors, Leipzig has 59, Munich, 64. In Munich the number of extraordinary professors falls behind that of Leipzig (29 as against 78). The smallest university, Kos- tock, has 44 professors; that is 31 regular, 8 extraordinary, and 5 private professors. Giessen has 58 professors, among whom there are 39 regu¬ lar. Jena with a few more students is better supplied with professors, namely, with 82, many of whom are extraordinary and honorary pro¬ fessors (36). A similar proportion is found in beautiful Heidelberg, that has 45 regular, 44 extraordinary, and 20 private professors. Very much different from this proportion is that of Erlangen, which lias 41 regular, 7 extraordinary, and 8 private professors. From all this we see that in proportion to the students the smaller universities are better provided with professors than the larger ones, hence that they afford a more intimate personal intercourse between teachers and students, which is the chief advantage they offer. In these smaller universities, seminaries, practical exercises and other pri¬ vate instruction are frequently found; in them the students receive special inducements for scientific investigation, and the professor can impress his personality better upon his hearers than when he stands before a large assembly. 12. DEGREES GRANTED IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. The close of a university career is marked by state examinations prescribed by law for the various professions. We leave them out of consideration, since they do not interest us at this juncture, and turn to the examinations that are exclusively university affairs, that is, examinations for degrees. Degrees are granted only as an acknowl¬ edgment of purely scientific achievements; they secure no professional rights. The requirements for degree examinations depend upon the constitu¬ tional provisions of each university, hence differ considerably in various institutions. The examination fees, also, vary greatly, and this is one reason why some universities are preferred by candidates, who need not GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 357 have attended the full course of the institutions in which they wish to receive a degree. A great number of degrees conferred in a univer¬ sity may be an indication of active scientific aspiration and of great development of certain studies in that institution, but not necessarily so; it may be that the fees are lower, the requirements easier, or that the execution of the rules and regulations is laxer than mother univer¬ sities. Table IX. — Number of degrees granted in German universities Protestant theology. Catholic theology. Law. Medicine. Philosophy. Total. c? Sj revious to 1877-’78. Since then the salaries have been raised considerably. Beside the regular and extraordinary expenses tabulated in Tables X and Xu, other funds should be considered in which the professors have an interest. They are partly derived from the universities’ own property, and partly from state subsidies for the benefit of widows and orphans of professors. In order to place the widows and orphans above want and treat them all alike the Prussian state makes a con¬ tribution of 160,000 ($38,400) per annum to this fund. According to the law concerning pensions for widows and orphans of university pro¬ fessors the pension of the widow of a regular professor is 1,400 marks ($336) per annum ; that of a widow of an extraordinary professor 1,000 marks ($240). The pension paid to an orphan is 600 marks ($144), to every additional orphan 400 marks ($96), to a half orphan 400 marks, to every additional half orphan 250 marks ($60). In some universities local funds for the support of widows and orphans of professors are maintained by societies. The Prussian minister of public instruction disposes annually of the sum of 60,000 marks ($14,400) in aiding private professors and other young persons of scientific attainments who prove of value to the universities. Likewise the universities themselves have funds for the support of such men who draw no salaries, and at first have but a scanty income from lecture fees, but these local funds are insignificant. 14. THE COSTS OF UNIVERSITY STUDY. The expenditures of students are different in the various universities. Xaturally the differences arise from personal wants and from the dura¬ tion and extent of the study chosen. Since minute statistics, or general statements concerning the cost of university study, do not exist, we are again obliged to resort to an example. We choose the Prussian uni¬ versity of Gottingen as an institution of medium size. The matriculation fee is 15 marks (about $4), the auditory fee 2 marks (50 cents), and contribution to the sick fund 7 marks ($1.75). 364 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Medical and chemical students pay special fees for the use of institutes (such as laboratories, clinics, hospitals) about 5 marks ($1.25). When a student severs his connection with the university he also pays a small fee to have the fact entered opposite his name on the rolls. Other fees for the practical use of institutes amount to only a few marks. The accounts of a few students have been carefully sifted, and an annual average calculated ; these then are multiplied by the average number of years to determine the total average cost of a university career. Students of theology pay 7 marks matriculation and other fees, 53 marks lecture fees (which vary between 21 and 110 marks), together 60 marks per semester. This gives for 7-2 semesters a total of 432 marks ($104). Law students pay almost the same sums : 7 marks matriculation and other fees, 62 marks lecture fees (the maximum paid was found to be 122 marks), together 69 marks per semester. This gives for 6*75 semesters a total of 466 marks ($112). Medical students pay 17*5 marks matriculation and other fees, 125*5 marks lecture fees (maximum 343 marks), and other trifling fees, to¬ gether 145 marks per semester. This gives for 10*2 semesters a total of 1,479 marks ($355). Students of philology pay 7 marks matriculation and other fees, 51 marks lecture fees (maximum 110 marks), together 58 marks per sem¬ ester, or for 30 semesters 580 marks ($130). Students of mathematics and natural science pay 9*75 marks matric¬ ulation and other fees, 56*22 marks lecture fees (maximum 144 marks), together about 66 marks, or for 9*5 semesters a total of 627 marks ($150). Students of chemistry pay 27*23 marks matriculation and other fees, 87*20 marks lecture fees (maximum 172 marks), together 114*50 marks, or for 9*5 semesters a total of 1,083 marks ($260). In Halle the matriculation fee for a student just coming from a secondary school is 17*25 marks ($4.14), and 13*75 marks ($3.29) for a student who comes from another university. The fee for ex-matric¬ ulation is lowest for the students of philosophy, 10*50 marks ($2.52), the highest fee for the law students, 16*50 marks ($3.96). Fees as hearers are paid per semester 5 marks ($1.20), institute fees likewise 5 marks ($1.20). Regarding the cost of medical study we have the result of an inves¬ tigation embracing all the Prussian universities which exhibits great varieties. In Konigsberg the study costs 1,515 marks ($363.60), in Berlin 2,049 marks ($491.70). In order to obtain still another item by which to judge the cost of university study we mention, that in Halle, with 1,525 students, the fees for matriculation and examination, auditory fees, etc., amounted to 26,683 marks ($6,404) in one year, which is 17*5 per capita, or not quite 30 marks for every new student. The lecture fees paid amounted to 175,300 marks (41.072), or 114 marks ($27.36) per capita, or 57 GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 365 marks ($13.68) per semester. To this item should be added 31,206 fees for degree examinations, and habitation fees (the latter are quite insignificant) amounting to 2 marks (48 cents) per capita of the studeuts. The fees for state examinations can not be mentioned here, because they rarely get into the hands of the professors. In the Bavarian universities the lecture fees during the years 1869-70 were on an average 165,012 marks ($39,603), that is, 13 per cent of the total income of these universities. It was equal to 74*3 marks ($17.83) per capita of the students, and 175 marks ($42.00) for every student who paid lecture fees. It would be hazardous to make any definite statements concerning the personal expenditures of the students, that is, cost of life, since much depends upon the mode of life of the students in their parental home, and upon personal taste and inclinations, etc. We know of cases in which the students did not spend more than 700 marks ($168) per year; of course, the payment of lecture fees in this case was post¬ poned, and living at home during vacation was a necessity. On an average the great majority of students pay between 1,000 and 1,500 marks per annum, while for the the wealthier students an average of 1,800 to 2,000 marks may be assumed; the very wealthy of course go much beyond that. 15. BENEFICES. Since time out of date pecuniary aid has been offered to students, in order to facilitate their attendance in the university; this has been done in three ways. First, by postponing the payment of lecture fees; second, by granting free dinners, and third, by benefices in cash. It is to be regretted that complete statements concerning these benefices are not available; it is only in recent years that the Prussian university statistics offer any information under this heading. How the lecture fees are to be paid, as well as their amounts, for what period the paying of the fees may be postponed, are questions settled by the professors themselves. In Prussian universities indigent students are relieved temporarily from the payment of these fees, if they petition for postponement and furnish the questor with documen¬ tary evidence of poverty, signed by home authorities. Usually the pay¬ ment is postponed for six years, after which the questor attempts to collect the fees, unless the debtor has no fixed employment or regular source of income. Frequently the final settlement is set aside, if the debtor’s financial condition remains unsatisfactory. In late years the petitions for postponement of payment of fees have considerably de¬ creased in number; they are found almost exclusively in the theologic and philosophic faculties. The postponement of payment is not granted with the same liberality in all the universities. The principle has been adopted lately of not postponing the payment of any fees during the first semester; in other universities the postponement holds good only for the time of study in that particular institution. Where postpone- 366 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. ment is customary, release from payment is excluded, while in some universities a commission examines each case and releases the student from payment; but in such institutions postponement is not customary. During the year ISST-’SS the payment pf fees was postponed in 3,010 cases, or 22 per cent of all students; 2,891 of these students were native Prussians, 94 had come from other parts of Germany, 25 were foreign¬ ers. During that year 25-63 per cent of the Prussian students enjoyed this kind of benefice (in 8 semesters an average of 26-1 per cent). The proportions varied in different universities: while in Berlin, Bonn, Halle, Kiel, and Kdnigsberg the percentage was 20-4 and 20-9 per cent, it was only 7-6 per cent in Marburg, 9*3 per cent in Gottingen, 10 per cent in Braunsberg, 17-6 per cent in Munster, but 54-5 per cent in Greifswald. Some of those who enjoyed these benefices were sons of professors, who according to the charter of the institution are exempt from lecture fees, but their number is very small. There are also cases of professors who do not charge for private instruction to foreigners, but such cases do not come under observation. Some students pay part of their fees and postpone the payment of the other. All in all, it maybe said that fully one-fourth of all the students are in needy circumstances, and furnish proof of this fact, whereupon the benefice mentioned is accorded them. This percentage is considerably increased if we add those who receive benefices in cash in addition to the postponement of lecture fees, or depend upon aid in cash only. In Prussia 2,430, or 17-9 per cent, of all the students received cash benefices; 76 of these were foreigners, 236 were Germans, but not native Prussians. Free dinners were given to 1,052 persons, or 7-7 per cent of the students. But since these dinners were frequently given to the same persons, it will not do to add the total numbers of the three classes in order to arrive at the number of those who enjoy benefices. If each one is counted but once, we get a total of 4,510, or more than one-third of all the students. Among these were 88 foreigners, 414 Prussians, and 308 other Germans. The Prussians represent a per¬ centage of 36-48 per cent of the students; 18-74 per cent received bene¬ fices in cash and 8-77 per cent free dinners. There can be no doubt that the number of beneficiaries is actually greater than stated in the fore¬ going, because many are not counted who receive aid from private sources in their native towns. This phase of the question is of greater importance in regard to the amount of benefices than in regard to the number of beneficiaries. Altogether 2,868 German students received cash aid and free dinners amounting to a value of 441,619 marks ($105,989), which is equal to 154 marks ($37) per semester. Since the number of benefices given was 3,346, it is plain that a number of students receive several kinds of benefices. However, this statement falls much behind the actual truth; the causes of this are found in the foregoing. Seventy per cent of 3,346 cases of aid consisted of cash gifts and 30 per cent free dinners. The 70 per cent in number had a value of 87 per cent. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES. 367 A word concerning- the sources of these benefices may be welcome. We state that 1,341=40 per cent, valued at 134,745 marks ($32,339),= 30*5 per cent were derived from funds of the universities: 1,470=42*9 per cent, valued at 212, 70S marks ($51,050) =48 percent were derived from funds appropriated by municipal governments, corporations, etc., and 535=17*1 per cent, valued at 94,166 marks ($22,600) =21*5 per cent were derived from family endowments. Concerning the last men¬ tioned item we may say that, owing to want of information, it may be very much too small. The Prussian minister of education paid in 1891-*92 the sum of 68,766 marks ($16,704) to needy students and beside that had at his disposal a fund of 100,060 marks ($24,000) for such students of German parentage who consented to accept govern¬ ment positions in the Polish provinces. The foregoing numbers are distributed among the faculties as follows : Benefices in cash and free dinners were given in 1887-’88 per semes¬ ter to students of the— Protes¬ tant theolog- j ical faculty. Catholic theological faculty. T aw facultv 1 Medical fac- 1 Philosophic Paw faculty. nlty. faculty. 1 Stu¬ dents. Marks. | Stu¬ dents . Marks. 1 Stu- 1 dents. i Marks. Absoluto numbers . 1,093 37-7 | 41 -1 ' 1 151,950 | 34-4 244 8-5 44-6 34, 897 7-9 265 9-3 11*8 62,136 1 614 14*1 21-4 1 . I 17-6 88,760 653 j 20-1 22-7 1 . 1.17 ! j 103,876 23-5 Per cent of faculty . Per cent of the students of the faculty . _ Per capita . 140 143 234 ' . 144 1 . ! 159 i ! i 1 From the foregoing table we see that the students of theology are the most numerous of those receiving aid, partly because they are mostly in needy circumstances ; partly, also, because for such students the largest benefit funds are in existence. The percentage of the philosophic fac¬ ulty, which used to be much larger, has decreased in late years in conse¬ quence of the addition of students who did not formerly have the right of citizenship in the university, such as agriculturists, pharmacists, etc., and for whom very few endowments for scholarships and benefices exist. The amounts paid to individuals is generally very small. Almost one half the number of cash benefices amounted to 100 marks ($24) or less per semester. Only 38 amounted to 500-800 marks ($120-$192). Only 9 amounted to 800 marks and more. The statistics of public instruction in the Kingdom of Bavaria, embracing the years 1869-1892, contain the statement that of every 100 students, 20 were completely exempt from the payment of lecture fees; 25 partially so; together, 45 per cent. Of the students of the¬ ology 59 per cent Delong to that class; of the law students, 40 per cent; of the medical students, 39 per cent; of the students of philosophy, 50 per cent. Fifteen per cent of the students (330) received aid in cash (54,298 marks or $13,132) =164*5 marks ($39.38) per capita. It is reasonable to suppose that in Bavaria as well as in Prussia the 368 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. number of needy students has diminished during the last twenty years, in consequence of which the cases of exemption from payment of lecture fees are now less numerous than at the beginning of the seventies. SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR PART 2. (1) Personal-Verzeichnisse, published by each university semi-annually. (2) Sta- tistik des Unterrichts im Konigreich Bayern. Th. i. Munich, 1873. (3) Statistik der Universitat Tubingen. Stuttgart, 1877. (4) J. Conrad, Das Universitats studium in Deutschland wakrend der letzten 50 Jahre. Jena, 1884. (5) J. Conrad, The Ger¬ man Universities for the last 50 Years. Translation by John Hutchison. Glasgow 1885. (6) Preussische Statistik, herausgegeben vom Konigl. preuss. statist. Bureau in Berlin. Preussische Landesuniversitaten. Berlin, 1892. (7) Statistische Mit- theilungen iiber das hohere Unterrichts wesen im Konigreich Preussen. (Supplement to Centralblatt der gesammten Unterrichtsverwaltung. Berlin W. Hertz.) APPENDIX. The following table is added by the translator as a valuable summary of secondary school statistics, showing the number of boys in Germany who are predestined by their parents at an early age (10 or 11) to pur¬ sue higher studies. These students are all boys; for girls who aim at entering the higher seats of learning, no provision in form of prepara¬ tory secondary schools is made as yet in Germany. Efforts are being made of late to establish gymnasia (or classical schools) for girls, and the government has the question under advisement. Number of boys in schools leading up to universities, polyteclmica , and other professional schools, in Germany, in 1890. States of Germany. Population. Number of students in tk6 age between 11 and 19 or 20. Population to one student. 1. Prussia . 29, 957, 367 5, 594, 982 3,502,684 2, 036, 522 1, 657, 867 135, 337 29, 412 13, 834 17, 018 10, 587 221 2. Bavaria . 190 3. Saxony . . . 253 4. W iirttemberg . 84 5. Baden . 157 6. Alsace-Lorraine. .. .* . 1, 603. 506 992, 883 622, 530 7,426 6, 782 5,389 3, 401 3, 619 1,401 1,806 1,620 808 215 7. Hessia - ...... . . . . . . 147 8. City of Hamburg . 116 9. Mecklenburg-Scliwerin . 578, 342 170 10. Brunswick .... . . . . . . . 403, 773 112 11. Oldenburg _ _ _ - ..... . . . . 354. 968 296 12. Saxe- W eimar .......... . . . . . 326, 091 189 13. Anhalt _ _ - . . - . 271, 963 168 14. Saxe-Meiningen . . . . . 223, 832 277 15 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . . . - . 206, 513 1,465 141 16 City of Bremen . 180. 443 2,681 67 17 Saxe-Altenburg . - . . . . 170, 864 804 212 18 Lippe . 128, 495 444 289 19 Reuss junior lino . . . . . . . 119. 811 706 170 20 Mecklenburg Strelitz . ------ . - . 97, 978 779 128 21 Schwarzb -Rnrlols tariff . . - . 85, 863 380 226 76, 485 1,256 61 23 Schwarzb -Sondershausen . . . . . 75.510 999 75 24 Reuss senior line - . . - . - . 62. 754 198 170 25 W aldeck-Pyrmont . . . 57, 281 267 213 26 Schaumburg- Lippe . . . . 39, 163 251 j 155 T nffpl _ _ _ _ _ _ 49, 428, 470 1 248, 670 198 1 _ 21 universities of Germany have 28,000 students ; 22 polytechnic, forestry, veterinary, and mining schools have 8,853 students . agricultural, *36, 853 1 1,341 ' Average age, 19-24. CHAPTER XL SCHOOLS F OR RECRUITING THE CIVIL SERVICE IE FRANCE, AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE CIVIL SERVICE REQUIREMENTS IN PRUSSIA. By W. F. Willoughby, a. b., and W. W. Willoughby, ph. d. PART I.— FRANCE. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. — Introduction. II. — The polytechnic and affiliated schools: (1) Polytechnic School (ffcole Poly technique); (2) Superior School of Mines ( Ecole Superieure cles Mines); ( 3 ) School of Bridges and Roads (ffcole des Ponts et Chaussees); (4) Superior Professional School of Posts and Telegraphs (Fcole Professionnelle Superieure des Posies et Telegraphes ); ( 5 ) School of Manufactures of the State ( Fcole des Manufactures de VFtat); (6) School of Application of Powder and Saltpeter (Fcole d’ Application des Poudres et Salpetres); (7) School of Hydrography (Ecole d’ Hydro graphie). III. — The national agricultural institute and affiliated schools: ( 1 ) National Agricultural Institute ( Institut National Agronomique); ( 2 ) National Forestry School ( Ecole Nationale Forestiere) ; ( 3 ) School for Horse Breeding ( Ecole des Haras). IV. — Other schools: ( 1 ) School of Archives ( Ecole des Charles); ( 2 ) Colonial School (ficole Coloniale); ( 3 ) Special School of Modern Oriental Languages ( ftcole Spticiale des Langues Orientates Vivantes); Schools in connection tvith the national manufactories, at {1) Sevres, porcelain; ( 2 ) Gobelin tapestry, Paris; {3) Mosaics, Beauvais. V. — Efforts towards a school of administration. VI. — Conclusion. INTRODUCTION. The subject of special schools, preparing young men for the service of the state in the various positions of the civil service, is of interest from a double point of view — that of education and that of an efficient personnel of Government employes. Of the two, the latter interest is probably the more important. Of the number of movements looking towards the improvement of the general conditions of society under which all must live, the move¬ ment for better government is prominent. Good government can be said to be the result of two conditions — that of a good system and that of the capacity and honesty of those who administer it. The first of these can to some extent be absent. The latter is a sine qua non. Hon. ED 92 - 24 369 370 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. James Bryce lias shrewdly said that such is the capacity for govern¬ ment of the New Englanders that they can make a had system of gov¬ ernment give good results. But, however good the system of govern¬ ment may be, the results can not be good unless it is honestly and efficiently administered. Whatever efforts are made in other direc¬ tions every effort should also be made to secure the best men for the most important and responsible positions in government administra¬ tion . It is difficult to see why the government service should not be con¬ sidered as a profession to be as deliberately chosen as any other. There is no one institution in which the people are so vitally interested. Certainly every movement which will tend to raise the position of ser¬ vant of the state to a more honorable standing and to attract to it the best men of the country is a step in the right direction. The purpose of the present paper is to present a sketch of the efforts which have been made by France to secure an efficient personnel for the higher branches of government service through the establishment of special government schools preparing for particular services of the state. France more than any other country affords us material for the study of the results of the policy of recruiting the civil service through the establishment of special government schools preparing for particular branches of the service. Two conditions in the character of the French life have contributed powerfully to this result — the great centralization and increase of governmental activities and the specialization in the system of public instruction. In America the average youth attends school and on the completion of his studies determines in what direction he will turn his energies. Fortuitous events determine, in a majority of cases, the occupation of each. In France quite the reverse is true. So difficult is the establishment of a position in business that the French boy must at the very earliest opportunity make a selection of the pro¬ fession he wishes to follow and then direct all his energies toward attaining this goal. As a result the system of technical education has received a development unequaled by that of any other country of Europe, Switzerland possibly excepted, and to an extent which it would take years of growth for American and English technical schools to equal. There is not a trade, and one might almost say not a branch of a trade, which does not have special schools devoted to preparing students in the acquisition of the technical knowledge necessary for its efficient prosecution. What is true of private business is not less true of governmental activities. The technical branches of govern¬ ment administration have been considered as professions to be prepared for as for any other profession. The second condition which has been mentioned, that of the great in¬ crease in governmental activities, has contributed no less to this result. One must have his residence for some time in France to realize the im- CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 371 portant part which government plays in the life of the French people. Not only has there been during the present century a constant develop¬ ment of the duties usually performed by a central government, but the domain of private business has been entered, and numerous serv¬ ices have been added to the state. Political and social conditions have led to the assumption of the telegraphic, telephonic, and, in part, the railway system of the country. Economic conditions have long caused the French Government to busy itself with such important interests as forestry and the cultivation of improved breeds of domestic animals. Financial and other considerations have led to the assumption by the Government of the manufacture or exploitation of salt, tobacco, matches, powder, saltpeter, special tapestry and porcelain products, etc. Enormous sums have been spent within recent years on public improve¬ ments, roads, bridges, and canals, and these improvements are made much more directly by Government enrployes than is the case with us. All of this has not only required a great development of the civil service, but also the employment by the state of large numbers of men of whom a high degree of technical skill and ability is required. Such industries as forestry and the manufacture of products which are state monopolies can necessarily have no similar establishments from which to draw their employes, and a training by the state thus becomes almost a necessity. Among a people where government plays such an important part as in France and where the government service necessarily absorbs a not inconsiderable part of the workers of the country, the whole school system must have in view to a greater or less extent the preparation for this service. The greater number of positions, especially the subor¬ dinate ones, require little of what we call technical instruction, at least other than that which must be gained by actual experience in the posi¬ tions in question. There are, however, a considerable and ever increas¬ ing number of positions for the proper filling of which a previous special training is absolutely essential. For the recruitment of these two kinds of positions the Government of France has taken into considera¬ tion this difference. For the first the Government has instituted com¬ petitive examinations, which relate only to matters of secondary and in some cases only to primary education. In a certain number of services more severe examinations have been established for the employes occu¬ pying somewhat higher positions, as, for example, with the minister of the interior, the minister of finance, the prefecture of the Seine, etc. These examinations, as well as other tests established for admission to the service of inspection of the finances, imply a careful and to some extent special preparation The preparation for these examinations is left to the general school system. For the positions requiring a technical preparation the Government has established a system of purely Government schools, specially pre¬ paring for these services. It is to these schools that this paper relates. 372 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. A division must be made at tbe start between those technical schools which prepare exclusively for the army and navy and those preparing for other Government services. The first have been carried to a high degree of perfection, and special schools exist for the recruiting of each special branch of the army and navy. These schools are, however, of interest, chiefly from the military and naval standpoint, and' their con¬ sideration does not come within the scope of this report. Also, such schools as the primary and superior normal schools, which prepare only indirectly for the Government service, scarcely come within the strict meaning of special schools preparing for Government employment. After these Introductory remarks, which have been necessary to enable us to appreciate more fully the description of the French system, we will commence the consideration of the individual schools. the polytechnic school — JEcole Polytechnique. The idea of special preparation for Government employment through the aid of special schools is an old one in France. Francis I. projected the establishment of a school where 600 youths should be carefully trained to fill positions chiefly in the foreign service. In 1672 the Mar¬ quis de Torcy, secretary of state for foreign affairs, founded, under the name of Academie Politique , a diplomatic school to instruct young men to become secretaries of legations. These two enterprises, however, had but short lives. The real modern system of technical Government schools owes its origin chiefly to the military needs of the country, which were felt in the few years preceding the French Revolution . This period saw the establishment of a number of schools which are in active operation at the present day. The School of Bridges and Roads {JEcole des Pouts et Chaussees) was founded in 1747, the School of Mines ( JEcole des Mines) in 1783, and the military school ( JEcole Militaire de Paris) in 1851. These beginnings are, however, of more historical than practical interest. The system of government schools as it exists to-day really begins with the French Revolution and the establishment of the Poly¬ technic school. The history of the establishment of this school is interesting, as being the outcome of a deliberate plan for securing employes for the Government who should have had a careful preparatory scholastic training. The polytechnic is one of the products of the French Revo¬ lution and is one feature of the new regime. Towards the end of the year 1793 all public instruction in letters and sciences had practically ceased. All colleges were deserted. A few national schools, in which officers were educated for the army and navy and for the construction of bridges, maintained an uncertain existence. Of these the School of Bridges and Roads, founded in 1747, excited the most solicitude and was the most important of the Government schools. But so many of its scholars and teachers were drawn to the war that it was practically CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 373 inactive. These schools, however, established in different places, ac¬ complished but little as regards real higher scientific instruction; they were isolated, and conducted without regard to their relationship to the services. Finally, scholars were drawn wholly from the privileged classes. The state was in desperate need of skilled men to take charge of various Government works, the manufacture of guns, powder, etc. It was then, as the result of this need, that M. Lamblardie, the director of the School of Bridges and Roads, conceived the idea of a central school which should generally prepare students for entering all the more technical branches of the Government service. The proposition of M. Lamblardie met with a favorable reception by the convention, and, after a considerable discussion as to the relation the projected school should bear to that of Roads and Bridges, there was created by decree of March 11, 1794, the Central School of Public Works ( Ecole Centrale des Travaux Publics). Lamblardie was made director of the school. The number of students was fixed at 400, who should be, on entrance, between the ages of 16 and 20. By a law of September 1, 1795, the name of the school was changed to its juesent one, JEcole Poly technique. The school itself was reorganized and placed under the direction of the minister of the interior. The number of pupils was reduced at first to 350 and then to 250. From its foundation to the present time the school has passed through a number of reorganizations. These changes, however, have generally resulted in its constant strengthening, until now it is one of the most important scholastic institutions of France. During the exciting times consequent upon the various changes of Government, the students on many occasions took an active part, and the school has a rich military history. By the side of this JEcole Centrale des Travaux Publics or JEcole Polytech¬ nique, , the convention allowed to live, at least provisionally, until “the new school should attain an assured position,” the former national schools, which had until then furnished the state with engineers and officers for its army and navy. These schools formed the natural complement to the Polytechnic and the transition, almost indispensa¬ ble, between it and the public service. They were definitely preserved by the law of 30 Yendemiaire, An IY, which made them, under the title of schools of application, the complement of the Polytechnic. This system, adopted in the year IY (1795), has been religiously preserved, and in all or nearly all the branches of the Government service to which the Polytechnic conducts, the students going out from it receive spe¬ cial instruction in schools of application before actually entering upon their professional duties. This has not at all lessened the importance of the Polytechnic. On the other hand, it has made it the center of the system of schools pre¬ paring for the Government service. The Polytechnic more than any 374 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. other school stands in the same relations!^ to the civil service as do the military and naval schools to the military and naval services. It is not merely the most important, it is the keystone to the whole system, since it is through it that admittance is gained to the more important of the other schools. The Polytechnic school is thus, in a way, the trunk of a tree, the separate branches of which are the special schools of application. In this way tfie following schools of application are wholly or in part recruited through it: The School of Bridges and Boads (Ecole des Fonts et Ghaussees). The School of Mines ( Ecole des Mines). The Forestry School (Ecole Forestiere). The Telegraph School ( JEcole de Telegraphic). The School of Hydrography ( Ecole d1 Hydro grapliie). The School for the Manufactures of the State [Ecole des Manufactures de VEtat). The School of Application of Powder and Saltpeter ( Ecole d1 Appli¬ cation des Foudres et Salpetres). In addition to these are the numerous military and naval services, the corps of army and navy artillery engineers, the army and navy engineers, and the- national marine. It will be seen from this statement that the Polytechnic to some extent supplies instruction for those who subsequently enter the army and navy. This, however, but relates to those positions requiring a high grade of scientific acquirements, and it in no way does duty as a military or naval school, properly so called, of which there are a great many other special schools, each relating to a special branch of the service. The important function of the Polytechnic is the supx>ly- ing to the state of trained employes for the management of public works, the construction and inspection of roads and bridges, the man¬ agement of the state forests, the supervision of the exploitation of state mines, the direction of the manufacture of tobacco, matches, gunpowder, etc., by the Government, the recruitment for technical scientific j>osi- tions in the telegraph service, the furnishing of expert hydrographers for the construction of charts for the army and other purposes, etc. The administration of the school is thoroughly democratic. Scholars are chosen solely through a competitive examination. This examina¬ tion is open to all, under the following conditions : The candidates must be native or naturalized Frenchmen. They must be at least 16 and not more than 21 years old on the 1st of January preceding the examination. An exceiition is made for those at the time in the army, the maximum age being in their cases raised to 25 years. They must also possess the diploma of bachelier es lettres ,l or of bache¬ lier es sciences , or bachelier de V enseignement secondaire special , or a cer¬ tificate of the first proof of baccalaureat de V enseignement secondaire ]An advantage of 15 points is given on the examinations to those in possession of the diploma of bachelier es lettres. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 375 elassiquej or a, certificate relative to the first proof of the ancient bacca- laureat es lettres .' The candidates must also present various other papers, showing that all military duties have been performed, the ability of the parents to support their child while at school, etc. Finally, a physical examina¬ tion, similar to that for entrance into the military schools, must be passed before the examinations can be taken. The entrance examinations consist of three separate examinations: (1) written compositions, (2) oral examinations of the first degree, and (3) oral examinations of the second degree. The written compositions are in the nature of a preliminary examina¬ tion. They consist of a composition in French, drawing and coloring, the elements of arithmetic, geometry, and trigonometry, and the ele¬ ments of physics and chemistry. The examination is held in Paris and in the chief cities of the various provinces. Candidates successful in this examination are permitted to attend the oral examinations of the first and second degrees, which are held in the twelve chief cities of France. These examinations relate to alge¬ bra, tiigonometry, analytic geometry, descriptive geometry, physics, chemistry, the French language, the German language,* 2 geometrical drawing, sketching, and imitation drawing. All these requirements are obligatory. The failure in any one incapacitates the candidate for entrance. The extensive knowledge of mathematics required by these examina¬ tions necessitates a laborious and special preparation during several years prior to the taking of the examination. For this purpose many of the intermediate schools and lyceums have organized special courses looking towards this end. There are also a number of special schools whose object is to prepare students for these examinations. These schools are the colleges Rollin, Chaptal, and Stanislas, and the schools Sainte Genevieve, Sainte Bar be, and Monge, at Paris, and the Prytanee Militaire de la Fleche and Saint Sigisbert School at Raney, in the provinces. There is thus here a distinct departure from the method pursued in the United States for the recruitment of our military and naval schools. With us the selection of students is placed in a few hands — the Presi¬ dent and the members of Congress. In France, owing to the technical knowledge required for entrance, actual training commences on an average three years before the school is actually entered. With us the special training only commences after admittance to the school.3 . An advantage of 15 points is given on tlie examinations to those in possession of the diploma of baclielier cs lettres. 2 A sufficient knowledge of a modern language other than German gives the pos¬ sessor an advantage of 5 points out of 100. 3It is not intended to assert that one of these methods is preferable to the other. A descriptive paper like the present can not go into a discussion of methods. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. It can scarcely he desirable for a large 376 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Another important difference consists in the length of studies. The course at the Polytechnic lasts but two years. This, however, as we shall see, is supplemented by the training received in schools of appli¬ cation which the graduating students afterwards enter. The programme of studies consists almost entirely of mathematics and applied science. A brief statement of the subjects of instruction is as follows : Calculus. — Differentia] and integral — two years. Descriptive geometry. — Different methods for the representation of bodies ; a study of the principal geometrical surfaces ; the construction of models — oue year. Stereotomy. — Carpentry and stonecutting — one year. Mechanics and machinery. — Theoretical study completed by the con¬ struction of models, the designing of new machines, etc. — two years. Physics. — Thermodynamics, electricity and magnetism, acoustics and optics, laboratory practice — two years. Chemistry. — Organic and inorganic, accompanied by experiments — two years. Astronomy and geodesy. — Practical work — one year. Architecture. — Theory and the drawing of designs and plans — two years. Military art. — Two years. History , geography , and literature. — The military, political, and moral history of the principal nations of Europe during modern and contem¬ poraneous times; compositions on historical topics — two years. German language , drawing from objects , coloring.-- Two years. Laboratory and workshop practice, the designing and construction of models, are required whenever possible. The instruction in draw¬ ing and designing is an object of especial care. In addition to the school instruction, students are also taken on visits of observation to the observatory and to manufacturing establishments in and around Paris. The regime of the school is military. All the students are exercised in military tactics, in horseback riding, fencing, and general gymnastics. The military training and conduct while at the school, however, is much less severe than that at the special military schools. The students board at the school and wear a school uniform. The cost to the students is about $200 (1,000 francs) for tuition and board number of youths to devote their time iu preparing for a certain school when but a small portion of them will succeed in entering. With us, ou the other hand, many youths enter the academies of West Point and Annapolis who are unable to meet the requirements and are dropped, thus not only to some extent losing a year, but receiving in a way a stigma upon their ability. From the standpoint of the school, however, it would seem that the French system of preparatory schools would pro¬ duce the best results. As long, however, as the position of cadet at our academies remains, as it is, a coveted position, we need have no fear of obtaining good material. Certainly the past history of these institutions affords no ground for solicitude in this respect. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 377 per year. The outfit aucl incidentals cost each year from $140 to $150 more (700 to 750 francs). The school, however, is quite liberal in the granting of scholarships. Four grades of scholarships are granted: (1) Full scholarships ; (2) half scholarships; (3) scholarships carrying relief from outfit (and incidental) expenses; (4) scholarships carrying half relief from outfit (and incidental) expenses. The number of such scholarships is not limited. As the result of the examination of 1891, there were granted 142 scholarships with outfit, 1 scholarship with half outfit, 2 scholarships without outfit, 5 half scholarships with outfit, and 1 half scholarship with half outfit. The students rise at 6 o’clock, breakfast at 8 :30, dine at 2, and take their supper at 9. Lights must be out at 9 :30. The greater portion of the studies courses are between the breakfast and dining hours. From 2:30 to 5 o’clock in the afternoon the time is devoted to recreation, military drill, fencing, gymnasium practice, etc. The school is located in Paris, on the south bank of the Seine. In general it is well provided with all the necessary equipment and facili¬ ties. Its library includes 30,000 volumes. The position of student in the Polytechnic is one much sought after. The number admitted each year varies somewhat; in 1892 it was 250; contesting for these places, 1,715. The number now admitted forms a great increase over that of former years, in consequence of the very great extension of Government employment since the Franco-German war. Before that event the annual admissions were from 130 to 140. The Polytechnic, as we have seen, does not prepare directly for the Government service, but only for certain schools of application, each giving instruction preparatory to entering a special service. The choice of the particular branch of Government service to be entered is thus not made by the students until their graduation from the Polytechnic. This choice is made according to respective ranks at graduation. In principle the number of places open in the Government service may be less than the number of graduates, but in fact all the graduates have during the past years had a place in the Government service assured to them. The following tabulation will show the various services entered by graduates during the past six years (1886-1891) : School of Mines . School of Bridges and Hoads . . School of Manufactures of the State . School of Telegraphy . . : - School of Application of Powder and Saltpeter School of Forestry . Land Artillery . Marine Artillery . Commissary for the Marine Service . Marine Engineering . . Military Engineering . . . - Marine Hydrography . . . . National Marine. . . Total . 1886. 1887. 3 2 18 10 1 1 1 119 20 1 10 35 1 6 149 12 5 20 9 214 209 1888. 1889. | 1890. 1891. 8 1 154 10 5 30 4 214 8 4 134 15 5 36 8 4 1 145 15 2 33 8 4 1 1 188 15 5 20 1 4 250 378 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Each year two places are reserved in the School of Forestry for grad¬ uates of the Polytechnic, but these places have not been taken in recent years. The graduates who enter the service of the land or sea artillery or military engineering enter the school of application at Fontainebleau. On entering they are called cadet sublieutenants ( sous-lieutenants eleves ) of artillery or engineering, and in this capacity pass two years at Fontainebleau. When their course is finished there they are appointed sublieutenants and placed in a regiment. Those entering a military service other than through this school at Fontainebleau form an insig¬ nificant number each year. The Fontainebleau is not what we call the military school of France. That is the school of Saint Oyr. The former is rather an engineering or technical school, as its name, School of Application, implies. That the military services take so large a number of the graduates of the Polytechnic is owing to the technical knowledge required in various branches of the military service other than that offered by military training. Those entering the service of the mines or of roads and bridges enter the School of Mines or School of Poads and Bridges, where they continue their studies for three years. While at these schools they are named student engineers [eleves -ingenieurs) of mines or of roads andbridges. On completing their courses they are appointed engineers of mines or of roads and bridges (third class). Those entering the service of marine engineering pass two years at the School of Marine Engineering as student engineers, and on graduation receive appointments as assistant engineers ( sous-ingenieurs ) of naval constructions. Those entering the manufactures of the state service also receive the title of eleve ingen- ieur (student engineer) and are attached to the manufacturing estab¬ lishments of matches and tobacco. Those going into the service of powder and saltpeter are attached to the central depot at Paris. Those entering the postal service enter the the superior professional school of posts and telegraphs. Although the Polytechnic was specially created and is maintained for the purpose of training engineers and others for the service of the state, the school is not without influence upon the private industries of France. A number of the graduates usually at once resign and enter into private undertakings, while many who were originally govern¬ ment employes resign after some years of service and enter private manufacturing and other concerns. The certificate of graduation from the Ecole Poly technique gives the right to holders to contest for the positions of auditeur of the second class at the Conseil dEEtat, or to admission into the service of inspection of the finances. Superior School of Mines ( Ecole Superieure des Mines). The Ecole Rationale Superieure des Mines is one of the most impor¬ tant of the schools of application to which the Polytechnic conducts. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 379 With rare exceptions, it is the first choice of those graduating at the head of the list from the Polytechnic. Unlike the practice in the United States, the central Government in France is directly interested to a greater or less extent in the exploitation of the mines of the coun¬ try, and exercises over all mines the duties of inspection to a consid¬ erable extent. The school of mines is organized in connection with this service, and, to quote Article I of the decree under which the school is now administered: It has for its object tlie forming of student engineers for the purpose of recruit¬ ing the national corps of mining engineers, and the giving instruction to external students who wish to obtain the superior diploma of civil engineer of mines which this school confers. Until near the end of the eighteenth century France possessed no institution giving instruction in the science of mining engineering. For the exploitation of her mineral resources, wherever technical skill was required, she was dependent upon English and German science. It was not until the beginning of the last quarter of that century that any attempts were made to provide technical instruction in the art of mining. Under Louis XV, in 17G9, the acts granting mining conces¬ sions stipulated that the concessioners should annually pay a sum for the maintenance of a school of mines. The true promoter of a scholastic instruction in mining was M. B. G. Sage, a mineralogist, who received letters patent in 1778 to establish a public and free school of mining at Paris. Soon after, in 1783, a School of Mines was definitely created by royal decree. Two chairs were established, one in chemistry, mineralogy, and mineralogical investi¬ gation ( aocimcisie ), the second in physics, underground surveying, hydraulics, the ventilation of mines, the use of machines necessary for the working of mines, the erection of metallurgical forges, etc. Assist¬ ant instructors were also provided for. The length of course was three years ; it included theoretical instruc¬ tion during the winter, and practical operations during the summer, when the students accompanied the Government inspectors in their tour of inspection, or Avere placed at work in the mines. At the out¬ break of the Revolution, however, this school was swept away with other schools. But the policy of educating for the public service was not abandoned. The committee of public safety created, in the place of the school which had been destroyed, an agency of mines ( Agence des Mines), which, in a measure, carried on the instruction. The cele¬ brated law of October 22, 1795, by which the Rational Con\Tention organized anew the great public services, transformed this makeshift into a true school of mines. From a school of primary instruction it was made a school of application. The number of students was fixed at 20, to be drawn from among the graduates of the Polytechnic. Ten private or special students were also admitted, who were destined to become chiefs of private mining industries. In order to satisfy the 380 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. conditions of tliis law, a consular decree, of February 12, 1802, abolished the School of Mines at Paris and established in its place two schools, one at Geislautern for the iron and coal mining- industries, and the other at Pesey for the exploitation of lead, copper, and silver mines. This system did not succeed, and during the years 1814 and 1815 the schools were practically inoperative. September 5, 1816, a royal ordinance reconstituted the JEcole Sv/peri - eure des Mines at Paris. From this ordinance of 1816 dates the true origin of the present School of Mines. Since then the school has con¬ tinued without interruption to exercise a most beneficial influence on the operation of all mines, public and private. It exists to-day with but few modifications of its organization in 1816. The decree of 1856, though reorganizing the regime of the school, wrought but few fundamental changes in its structure. The school, as at present carried on, is organ¬ ized and conducted pursuant to the decree of July 18, 1890. This institution is under the administration of the minister of public works. Though the main object, the raison d'etre, of the school is that of a school of application to recruit the corps of Government engineers of mines, it yet has other important objects. M. Maternes d’Ocagne, in his work, Les Grandes ficoles de France, makes the following enu¬ meration of its functions, which shows in as condensed a form as pos¬ sible, both the administrative and general educational importance of the school. The enumeration of these objects is : (1) To form engineers destined to recruit the corps of Government engineers of mines. (2) To diffuse among the public a knowledge of the sciences and arts relating to the mining industry, and in particular to form men having the practical knowledge necessary for the exploitation of mines and metallurgical establishments belonging to private enterprises. (3) To gather and classify all the material necessary for the completion of a sta¬ tistical survey of the mineral resources of the departments of France and of the French colonies. (4) To maintain a museum and a library specially devoted to the mineral industry, and to keep these collections on a level with the progress of the mining and metal¬ lurgical industries, as well as the sciences relating to them. (5) Finally, to execute either for the public administrations or for individuals assays and analyses which may aid the progress of the mining industry. In a word, the school is intended to serve as a general bureau of in¬ formation concerning matters relating to the mineral industry of the country. In a way it thus includes a part of the duties which, with us, has been intrusted to the Geological Survey Bureau of the Interior Department. To carry out these objects the school receives four classes of students. (1) The student engineers ( eleves ingenieurs ), destined for the recruit¬ ment of the corps of mining engineers of the Government, and who are taken entirely from among students going out from the Pcole Polytech¬ nique. (2) Private or special pupils ( eleves externes). ^These are admitted CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 381 through competitive examinations. On the completion of the course of studies they are declared capable of directing the exploitation of mines or metallurgical establishments, aud to this effect receive a diploma and title of u Sieve breveted (3) Foreign pupils ( Sieves Strangers ), admitted on the application of their Governments, after having passed a satisfactory examination. (4) Free auditors ( auditeurs libres ), those simply receiving permis¬ sion, on their own request, to follow a part or all of the courses. They cannot take part in the practical work or in the examinations. The school possesses a rich library, including, in addition to books of science, a valuable collection of designs and models relative to the mining engineer’s art. It possesses, in addition, magnificent geological and mineralogical collections in its museum. The school is connected with that of the geological survey of France, where are centralized all the documents and information collected by the engineers for the execution of this survey. Like the School of Loads and Bridges, the School of Mines possesses, annexed to its laboratory, a bureau of assay intended for chemical anal¬ yses. Manufacturing establishments, the chiefs of foundries, the exploiters of mines, etc., who desire to have mineral substances ana¬ lyzed can send them to the school for this purpose- They are only made when it is believed that they will render a real public service, but when undertaken are entirely gratuitous. The first class of students, student engineers, are recruited solely, as we have seen, from the graduates of the Polytechnic. The second class, the special students, are admitted after examina¬ tion. Extraordinary precautions are taken to insure the admittance of only those fully prepared to follow the courses of the school. Can¬ didates must, with some exceptions, first pass an examination admitting to a preparatory course of one year, which must be taken before the school proper can be entered. The examination for admittance to the preparatory courses includes tests of writing and spelling, drawing, geography, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, plane trigonometry, analytic geometry of two dimensions, the elements of analytic geometry of three dimensions, descriptive geometry, physics without electricity or magnetism, and inorganic chemistry. Candidates must be Frenchmen and between the ages of 16 and 22. The preparatory courses include (1) the elements of infinitesimal cal¬ culus and rational mechanics. (2) Descriptive geometry and its appli¬ cations to shadows, to perspective, stone-cutting, and carpentry. (3) Physics. (4) General chemistry. These courses last from the beginning of November to the end of May. There is an additional examination for admittance to the school itself, which others than those having taken the preparatory courses can take. 382 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Candidates for this examination must first deposit a page of French written under dictation and five designs of a specified character. The examination itself consists of four oral examinations on infini¬ tesimal analysis, mechanics, descriptive geometry and its applica¬ tions, physics and. general chemistry, geometrical drawing and color¬ ing ( lavis ). Candidates must be between the ages of 18 and 22. An exception is made for those in the military service, the maximum age limit being raised to 25 years in their cases. The number of special pupils admitted varies from year to year. The average number is probably twenty. The instruction lasts three years. It is entirely gratuitous. The character of the courses is designed with special reference to the knowl¬ edge required for the exploitation of mines and the treatment of min¬ eral substances. It has also for its object the study of steam engines, the management and materials of railroads, the investigation, preser¬ vation, and regulation of mineral waters, etc. The instruction is divided among the three years as follows : First year. — Exploitation of mines ; general metallurgy, iron; ana¬ lytical chemistry (metalloids); industrial chemisty of the minerals; min¬ eralogy; zoological and vegetable paleontology; topography and level¬ ing; drawings and projects of exploitation and of metallurgy; exercises in the analysis of minerals; exercises in mineralogy and paleontology; exercises in topography. Second year. — Metallurgy, different metals;- analytical chemistry, metals; geology and petrography; machines and the resistance of materials; railroads; industrial economics; projects of metallurgy and machines; exercises in mineral analysis; exercises in petrography; visits to industrial establishments, and geological courses. Third year. — Applied geology; construction; construction of ma¬ chines; legislation concerning mines; applications of electricity; artil¬ lery; plans for the exploitation of mines; use of machines, and metal¬ lurgical work. In addition, each scholar is required to pursue during the three years a course in English or G-erman, or he may pursue both. Independently of visits to manufacturing establishments and numer¬ ous excursions and of the courses which the students are required to master in order to complete their professional instruction, each student is required to make a sojourn of about a month during the summer vacation in a mining or metallurgical district of France or Belgium. At the end of the third year the student engineers make a second voyage of instruction of about one hundred days in some foreign coun¬ try. This trip is optional for the special pupils. On the return from these trills the students must furnish a description of the establish¬ ments visited, and of the different subjects to which their attention has been directed. The school year lasts from the first of November to the middle of April. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 383 On the completion of their courses the student engineers are appointed “ ordinary engineers of the third class of the corps of mines,” with a salary of $500 (2,500 francs) per year. They receive while at the school a salary of 1,800 francs per year. The actual organization of the corps of mines dates back to the year 1810. In order to appreciate the role of the corps of mines, it is neces¬ sary to see it under its triple scientific, industrial, and administrative aspect. The engineers are charged with the inspection of mines, quar¬ ries, sources of mineral waters, etc., with the control of the manage¬ ment of railroads, and the study of the geological and mineralogical formatio'n of France in detail. A certain number also devote them¬ selves entirely to the sciences and to giving instruction. A few, under certain circumstances, can obtain leave and enter private establish¬ ments. The personnel of the corps and the salaries paid are as follows: Francs, i Francs. Inspector-generals: j Engineers, ordinary : First class . 4,500 Second class . . . 3, 500 Third class . 2, 500 Student engineers . . . 1,800 Second class . . 6,000 I The special pupils who receive the title of civil engineer of miues readily find advantageous positions in private mining establishments, metallurgical woiks, railroad company shops, etc. school OF bridoes AND roads (Pcole des Ponts et Chaussees). Among the public services of France which enjoy a high reputation that of the management of roads and bridges occupies the first rank. French engineers have acquired just renown throughout Europe for their skill. This reputation naturally redounds to the credit of the school in which many of them have received their training. The School of Eoads and Bridges is the most important, and at the same time the oldest, of the schools of application, the students of wMicli are recruited through the medium of the Polytechnic School. It is this school and the School of Mines which are the more often selected by those having the first choice of Service to which they are entitled by their rank at graduation. The School is located at Paris, and is under the suiter vision of the minister of public works. Its object is to educate civil engineers to recruit the national corps of engineers, which has charge of the con¬ struction and maintenance of the great public works of France — the railroads, bridges, can als, highways, harbors, etc. The creation of a corps of engineers to have the management of pub¬ lic works dates from the reign of Louis XV. In 1716 Louis created the first body of Government engineers. The first trace of the principle First class . 15, 000 Second class . . 12, 000 Engineers in chief: 5 8, 000 . ) 7,000 First class. 384 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. of specially training young men for these positions is found thirty years later, in 1747, when a state engineer, named Perronet, was called to Paris to undertake a considerable work in connection with the system of public works generally, and was authorized to have a number of young men specially instructed to assist in the work. As a result, Perronet organized what he called a Bureau des Pouts et Ghaussees . Force of circumstances«soon transformed this into a true school. The employes were divided into three classes : the first composed of sub¬ inspectors or assistant engineers, the second of students, and the third of candidates or young men less instructed, who were permitted to work in the bureau as assistants until they were appointed students. This, as can be seen, was the creation of a system of regular instruc¬ tion, and various documents left by Perronet speak of these employes as under the direction now of the Bureau and now of the Ecole , using the two terms interchangeably. In 1775 Minister Turgot confirmed officially the institution which existed de facto. He published an instruction concerning the Ecole des Pouts et Ghaussees. Perronet was continued as director of the school. The number of students was fixed at GO. During the summer the scholars were employed on the various Government works. This organi¬ zation was productive of good results. This was the condition of the school at the outbreak of the Devolution. •January 19, 1791, the Assembly passed a law decreeing that — There shall he a School of Bridges and Roads. It shall include 60 students, divided into three classes of 20 each. All shall be appointed. Nevertheless, during the Devolution the school remained completely disorganized, and the members went into the various armifes. In 1794, Lamblardie, who, on the designation of Perronet, had suc¬ ceeded to the directorship of the school, as we have seen, conceived the idea of creating a grand school preparatory to all the technical branches of the public service. This idea took shape in the creation of the Ecole Geutrale des Travaux Publics , which very soon became the Ecole Polytechuique. For sometime it was uncertain whether the crea¬ tion of this school should carry with it the suppression of the schools already existing. Finally, however, it was determined to retain the School of Bridges and Doads in connection with the Polytechnic as a special school of application ( Ecole Bpeciale d’ Application). The number of scholars was fixed at 36, to be wholly drawn from the Polytechnic. Little further change was made in the school until 1804, when an impe¬ rial decree, reorganizing both the corps of engineers and the school, fixed the number of students at 60, to be divided into three classes. The scholars of the first year were to receive a salary of 700 francs, of the second year 800 francs, and of the third year 900 francs per year. Various acts and decrees were made in 1830, 1839, and 1851, regulat¬ ing the regime and the conditions of entrance to the school, but without materially affecting its work and character. The school is at present carried on under a decree bearing date July 18, 1890. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 385 The School of Bridges and Boads is under the administration of the minister of public works. It is situated at Paris, on the left bank of the Seine. In general, the organization and character of the school is the same as that of the school of mines, except as to the subject-matter of the instruction given. It stands in the same relation to the Govern¬ ment service of roads and bridges as the School of Mines stands to the service of mines. The school has for its primary object the instruction of students who are intended to recruit the national corps of engineers of roads and bridges. But, like the School of Mines, it employs the organ¬ ization, which has to be made for this purpose, to give instruction to others than those intended primarily for the Government service. With these objects in view, it admits the same four classes of stu¬ dents as are admitted to the School of Mines, viz : (1) The student engineers ( eleves ingenieurs) recruited from the Poly¬ technic and intended for the Government service of roads and bridges. (2) The private or special students ( eleves externes) admitted on competitive examination — a certain number each year. (3) Students of foreign nationality admitted on the application of their governments after a satisfactory examination $ and (4) Students admitted on their own application to follow a part or all of the oral courses. The school is well equipped for its work. In its library of over 50,000 volumes it possesses one of the most valuable collections of books relating to the engineers art which is in existence. It is well cata¬ logued. Its museum of models includes a large number of models and designs of the more remarkable engineering works which have been executed during the past fifty years, such as bridges, viaducts, harbor improvements, etc. A great many of the models possess considerable value on account of the fineness with which they have been executed. Its experimental laboratory affords facilities for engineering experi¬ ments of all description, the testing of the strength of materials, stone- cutting, carpentry constructions, forging, etc. In its physical and chemical laboratory are made analyses of all kinds, which are sent to the school by engineers throughout the country. It is estimated that over 30,000 such analyses and tests have been made at the request of private engineers and establishments. The student engineers are recruited entirely from the Polytechnic. The number of places varies each year, but is generally between the numbers 10 and 20. The new decree organizing the school distinguishes between the pri¬ vate students, who must be French citizens, and foreign students. The latter are now only admitted when there remain places after the others have been provided for. As at the School of Mines, a prepara¬ tory course has been organized by which most of the private students gain admittance to the school. Admittance to this course is gained by means of competitive examinations. # Candidates must be between the ed 92 - 25 386 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. ages of 17 and 20 years, except for those having completed their mili¬ tary service, in whose cases the maximum age is raised to 25 years. Knowledge is required of arithmetic, algebra, elements of geometry, plane trigonometry, analytic geometry of two and three dimensions, descriptive geometry, the elements of physics and chemistry, linear drawing and coloring. Seventeen students were admitted to the preparatory course during the year 1892. The course lasts one year, and consists of instruction in differential and integral calculus, rational mechanics, physics and chemistry, de¬ scriptive geometry, stereotomy, the elements of architecture, drawing and coloring. Those passing the examinations at the end of the year do not have to take the examination for admittance to the School of Bridges and Hoads, but are placed at the head of the list of candidates for admit¬ tance. Another examination is held for external pupils who have not taken the preparatory course. The age limits for this examination are 18 and 22, or 26 years in the case of those having completed their term of active military service. The programme of studies covered by the examination consists of arithmetic, elementary geometry, algebra, plane trigonometry, analytic geometry of two and three dimensions, descrip¬ tive geometry with its applications to stonecutting and carpentry, ele¬ ments of differential and integral calculus, mechanics, physics, chem¬ istry, and architecture. The places of private students can be granted to conducteurs des pouts et chaussees who have passed the examination and have been in the service at least six years. During their stay at the school they are considered as in the active service and receive the regular salary with the indemnity usually allotted to conductors of roads and bridges while residing at Paris. On the completion of their courses they are placed at the disposition of an engineer -in -chief, to be employed in active service in the same way as the student engineers. At the begin¬ ning of the scholastic year of 1892 there were admitted to the prepara¬ tory course 7 students, to the school itself 2 conductors of roads and bridges, and 5 public functionaries of foreign nations. The foreign students are admitted in the same way as in the case of the School of Mines. At the end of their studies the external students receive a diploma of an engineer. They usually find little difficulty in securing good positions in private industrial establishments. The instruction is entirely gratuitous, as in all the schools of appli¬ cation. It lasts three years, generally from the 16tli of November to the 31st of May of each year. The method of instruction followed is in part theoretical and in part practical. The courses of studies accord¬ ing to years are: First year. — Applied mechanics (resistance of materials) 5 construe- CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 387 tion (roads) ; mineralogy and geology ; architecture (employment of wood and iron in constructions, decoration of bridges); political economy; general processes of construction; applied chemistry. Second year. — Applied mechanics (hydraulics) ; construction (internal navigation); construction (bridges); steam engines; architecture (em¬ ployment of wood and iron in constructions, decoration of bridges) ; administrative law (first part). Third year. — Construction (railroads) ; construction (maritime works) ; administrative law (second part) ; fortification. The instruction also includes for each student a study of the English and German languages, experiments in laboratories, graphical works, drawing of plans, coloring, the testing of the strength of materials for the purposes of construction, the construction of machines and build ings, etc. In addition to the above regular instruction, information is given through conferences to the students on electrical telegraphy, photog¬ raphy, the exploitation of railroads, pisciculture, or new discoveries and important public works. At the end of each year’s course of study at the school the student engineers are sent on missions into the departments and are attached to works in process of construction, in order to exercise themselves under the direction of the chiefs of the service in the practical duties of the engineer. At the end of the third year missions to foreign countries can be given to students who have particularly distinguished them¬ selves during their stay at the school. While attending the school the student engineers receive a salary of 1,800 francs. On graduation they enter the national corps of engineers of roads and bridges. A few words regarding the character of this service of the Government will not be out of place. The decrees which organized the corps of roads and bridges bear the dates October 13, 1851, March 28, 1852, and June 17, 1854. The service is divided ipto (1) the ordinary service, (2) extraordinary service, (3) detached services. The ordinary service is further divided into (1) the general service, (2) special service, (3) divers services. The general service includes the direction and execution of ordinary works relating to roads and bridges in the departments. The special service relates to such special services as the draining of marshes, the regula¬ tion of establishments located on water courses, the canal service, and maxi tine works. A law of the date of July 12, 1865, created a division of “railroads of local interest.” This law requires that projects of work which ought to be executed by the departments in connection with the communes must first be submitted to an examination by the engineer in chief of roads and bridges; and in a certain number of departments the ordinary engineers of roads and bridges have been intrusted with the preparation of the plans for the works and their execution, such was the confidence placed in their ability by the prefects and general councils. 388 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The clivers services include the secretaryship of the council general of roads and bridges, the school, the depot of maps and plans, missions, scientific works, etc. The extraordinary service includes the direction and the execution of large public works not requiring permanent oversight, such as rail¬ roads, canals, marine works, etc. The detached services include all. the services not specially specified, but which must, nevertheless, be performed by the corps, such as the service of water and paving in the city of Paris, the chairs of instruction in special governmental schools, etc. The personnel and salaries of employes of the service are as follows : Inspector-general : First class . Second class . . . Engineers in chief: First class . Second class . . . Francs. 15, 000 12, 000 S 8, 000 \ 7, 000 . 6,000 Ordinary engineers : First class . Second class . Third class . fileve ingenieur . Francs. 4, 000 3, 500 2, 500 1,800 Superior Special School of Posts and Telegraphs ( Ecole Professionnelle ISuperieure des Posts et des Telegraphes). In France the telegraphs and telephones belong to the central gov¬ ernment, and are administered in connection Avitli the postal system as a single service. A school of telegraphy was established in 1878 to recruit the higher positions in the ser\Tice. It has since been enlarged in scope and now is divided into two sections. It is situated in Paris, and is under the minister of commerce, industry, and the colonies. The first section is open only to employes of the service Avho are at least 25 years of age and have had five years of service. They are admitted after a competitive examination bearing upon the following subjects: The postal and telegraphic services; the management and study of telegraph instruments; mathematics — arithmetic, algebra, and geometry; physics — mechanics, heat, acoustics, optics, electricity, and magnetism; chemistry; general history and geography. This course is intended to train employes for the higher positions of the service other than the engineering branch. The instruction lasts two years. It consists during the first period (October to July) of the history of social relations and of scientific progress; administrative law and civic duties; the legislation and management of telegraphic systems; the applied sciences (elementary mathematics, mechanics, physics, and chemistry); a study of telegraphic and telephonic appa¬ ratus; the construction and materials of telegraph lines. During the second period (July to. the following April) the scholars pass their time successively in the four services of construction, overseeing, and maintenance of air lines; the construction, overseeing, and mainte¬ nance of subterranean lines, pneumatic conduits, and telegraph lines; the exploitation of the great telegraph and telephone systems; the establishment of special telegraphic and postal services. • CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 389 At the end of tlieir courses the successful students receive a diploma of capacity, which furnishes the only means of admittance to the following positions: Administrators, chiefs and assistant chiefs of bureaus, head agents of the central administration, comptrollers, directors of the departmental and nonstationary services, inspectors and assistant inspectors, receivers of first and second class bureaus, chiefs of the central depot, section chiefs. The second section is exclusively for the training of engineers for the service of posts and telegraphs. There are admitted to this course the graduates of the Polytechnic who select this service, and others through a competitive examination. Those permitted to take this examination are the agents and subagents of posts and telegraphs having had two years of service — bachelors of science and graduates of the following schools: ecole polytechnique, eccle normale superieure , ecole des mines, ecole des pouts et cliaussees, and ecole centrale des arts et manufactures. Candidates must be between the ages of 20 and 30 years. The examinations embrace mathematics, physics, chemistry, history, and geography, drawing, and English or German. The duration of studies in this course is two years. The instruction includes: (1) Theoretical electricity ; the management of telegraphs ; the management of the jmstal system ; the construction of lines-; elec¬ trical measurements; practical telegraphy; chemistry applied to teleg- • raphy. (2) Conferences on: administrative law; architecture; military telegraphy; optical telegraphy; pneumatic telegraphy, apparatus for rapid transmission; telephones and microphones; the application of electricity to railroads, and to the transmission of force. (3) The study of the English and German languages; drawing. Government scholars in this section take the title of ueleve ingenieur des telegraphese and receive a salary of 1,800 francs per year. After graduation they enter definitely into the service as assistant engineers (sous-ingenieurs) of the corps of telegraph engineers at a salary of 2,500 francs per year. Free private students, both French and foreigners, are also admitted to this course after satisfying the administration that they have received a suitable preparation. At graduation they receive a simple diploma. school of manufactures of the state ( Ecoles des Manufactures de VJStat.) The Government of France has from time to time taken charge of the entire manufacture of various commodities, and made of their manufac¬ ture state monopolies. Tobacco, matches, gunpowder, saltpeter. Gobelin tapestry. Sevres pottery, etc., are solely manufactured in state factories. The monopoly of the tobacco manufacture was established by a decree of December 29, 1810. These manufactures form one of the public 390 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. services which recruit their engineers from among the students going out of the Polytechnic. Prom the beginning there has been a marked distinction in the procedure between the methods for recruiting the technical direct¬ ors of the manufactures and the employes charged with the accounts. We are interested only in the first class. Until 1824 this special personnel was recruited from young men who, with the title of student of manufactures (eleve des manufactures) received an instruction in the art, under the direction of higher grade employes. At the epoch of which we speak, the administration recog nized that this mode of recruitment did not take sufficient account of the scientific knowledge required. It instituted, in consequence, an 44 Ecole a la manufacture de Paris” Different functionaries were charged with the special instruction, and two members of the Institute, Mathieu and Gay-Lussac, received the mission to deliver courses in applied mechanics and organic chemistry at the school. It was decided that no scholar should be promoted to the position of 44 sous-inspecteurf a grade equivalent to that of 44 sous-ingenieurf unless he had passed a satisfactory examination giving proof of his scientific knowledge. They even recalled the under-inspectors already employed, and required them to attend the courses. Those who were not able to come up to the requirements in science were transferred to the administrative and clerical force. In 1831 a royal ordinance required all the scholars for the state manu¬ factures to be recruited from among the students of the Polytechnic. It was determined that after the instruction received in the Polytech¬ nic, the eleves des manufactures should receive two more years of training in the special school of application at Paris before becoming 44 sous-inspecteurs.” It is easy to understand that the instruction given in 1831, which was then almost entirely in pure theory, has changed in character since that time. The instruction to-day is almost entirely devoted to the numerous applications of science to the special and various processes of the serv¬ ice. This instruction of employes has brought about in different ones of the establishments important mechanical changes, showing the desira¬ bility of engrafting on the practical and technical training of employes instruction in the higher theoretical studies. The higher grade employes are not only chiefs of industries as in former times, but their position as engineers is frequently utilized for the designing or improvement of material and methods. This instruction is the more necessary since there are no analogues in private industry, the state having a monopoly of the manufacture of the special tools and methods. These engineers who alone know the needs of the manufacture, who alone have at their disposition the material to be worked up, are the only ones who can be looked to to invent or perfect apparatus, to modify methods, and con¬ struct the establishments, and, as a result, a high degree of preparatory instruction is absolutely essential to efficient service. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 391 The actual organization of the school dates from 1861. The courses of study include: (1) Analytical chemistry and agricultural chemistry as applied to the cultivation of tobacco ; (2.) the manufacture of tobacco; (3) the industrial administration and accounts; (4) the manufacture of powder; (5) applied mechanics; (6) special machines and tools; (7) the resistance of materials; (8) construction. The duration of study is eight months. During the remaining four months the students are sent on missions into the tobacco and. powder manufactories in order to commence their practical instruction. The Sieves ingenieurs receive 1,800 francs a year salary. After leaving the school they enter the following graded service: Francs. Student engineer . . . 2, 000 Assistant engineers : Second class . 3, 000 First class . 4, 000 Engineers : Third class . • . 5, 000 Second class . 6, 000 First class. . . . 1,000 Francs. Engineer in chief or director: Third class . 8, 000 Second class . 10, 000 First class . 12, 000 Administrator . 15, 000 Director-general . 25,000 SCHOOL OF APPLICATION OF POWDERS AND SALTPETERS (Peole d? Application des Poudres et Salpitres.) This is not a school in the ordinary sense of the word. The corps of engineers of powder and saltpeter includes only 36 engineers (2 inspec- teurs-generaux, 8 chief engineers, 14 engineers, and 12 subengineers), and vacancies are rare. These vacancies, however, are exclusively filled from among the graduates of the Polytechnic. When a scholar is required, he follows a course at the School of Mines, and participates in the work at the central laboratory of powder and saltpeter. The salary of the subengineers is 2,400 francs per year. School of Hydrography ( JEcole W Hydrographic). There exists, under the minister of marine, a small corps of ingenieurs- hydrograpJies , whose duties consist in the construction of charts, the compilation of instructions for navigators, the publication of results of scientific investigations made by the marine departments, and in gen¬ eral those duties which with us are performed by the Hydrographic Office. They may also be stationed at naval stations for the execution of hydrographic works, either in France or in foreign countries. This service is entirely recruited from graduates of the Polytechnic. They are required to have had a two years’ course of preparatory training before entering the service. The number required being so limited, not more than one in every two or three years, a true school of hydrography does not exist, but I do not knowhow better to designate the two years of instruction required than as a school. While pursuing this course 392 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. the scholars receive the title cleve-ingenieur and receive a salary of 1,800 francs per year. On leaving they enter the following graded service: Number. Salary. Number. Salary. Assistant engineers : Third class . 2 Francs. 2, 539 Engineers : Second class . 4 Francs. 6, 669 8, 185 10, 000 Second class . 3 3, 069 First class . ' . 4 First class . 3 3,486 Engineer in chief . 1 The salaries given are received while the engineers are employed on land. When at sea the salaries are somewhat higher. National Institute of Agriculture (. Institut National Agro- nomique.) Among the various spheres of governmental activity there are a number which have a more or less close connection with the practice of agriculture, using this latter term in the broadest sense of the word. Such, for instance, as the management of the national forests, the man¬ agement of the stud farm at Pin, the inspection of agriculture, the service in connection with the phylloxera pest, etc. Partly with the purpose of recruiting the various Government services, but more partic¬ ularly to create one center of higher education in all matters relating to the exploitation of the agricultural resources of the country, the French Government has established and now maintains at the expense of the state the Institut National Agronomique , at Paris. To some degree it stands in the same relation to the classes of service which have been enumerated as does the Polytechnic to the more strictly engineering sciences. In both, the school is used as a recruiting agency to supply students for more special schools leading up to the Govern¬ ment service. In the case of the Institute of Agriculture the prepara¬ tion of students for other careers than the service of the state is much more developed, and tbe school is not so distinctly a school preparing for the Government service. For this reason we can not give it as much attention as in the case of the Polytechnic, but must limit ourselves to giving, as briefly as possible, a general idea of the work of the school as preparing for the Government service. The objects of the school are, to quote from the Journal Officii , of April 20, 1891, to form — (1) Agriculturists and proprietors possessing tbe scientific knowledge necessary for Ibe best exploitation of the soil. (2) Special professors for agricultural instruction in the national schools, the practical schools of agriculture, in the departments, in the normal schools, etc. (3) Educated and competent administrators for the various public or private services in which enter the interests of agriculture, such as the inspection of agri¬ culture, horse breeding, the phylloxera, etc. (4) Agents for the administration of tbe forests, in conformity with tbe decree of January 9, 18*88. (5) Directors of agricultural stations. CIVIL SERVICE IX FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 393 (6) Chemists or directors for agricultural industries. (7) Agricultural engiueers. The institute is composed of two sections: The Ecole Superieure de V Agriculture (Superior School of Agriculture) at Paris, and the Ferine Experimental de Vlnstitut National Agronomique (Experimental Farm of the National Institute of Agriculture), an establishment for experiments and researches established on a farm of about thirty hectares at Join- ville-le-Pont. The school receives students, properly so called, and free auditors, or those not intending to complete the whole course but wishing to follow a part of the courses. Candidates for idaces as students must be at least 17 years old, and pass an examination bearing upon the following subjects : Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, descriptive geometry, mechanics, cosmography, physics, chemistry, natural history, physical and eco¬ nomic geography. An advantage of a number of points is given to those having cer¬ tificates. of bachelor of sciences, or diplomas of certain schools. The following table will show the number of candidates and the num¬ ber of students admitted during recent years: Year. j Number of can¬ didates. ! Number admitted. Year. Number of can¬ didates. Number admited. French. Foreign¬ ers. French. Foreign ers. 1876 . . . 32 I 20 6 1884 . 70 49 5 1877 . 33 20 7 1885 . 46 35 6 1878 . 32 21 7 1886 . 65 39 5 1879 . . 35 ! 24 5 1887 . 91 46 1C 1880 . 51 35 8 1888.. . . 120 86 10 1881 . 58 40 6 1889 . 98 61 1 1882 . 72 51 7 1890 . 158 79 1 1883 . 80 48 15 1891 . 292 79 1 Foreigners can be admitted either as Sieves or auditeurs libres. The regime of the school is that of a day school. The cost of tuition and expenses is 560 francs per year. Scholarships, however, are liberally offered to those unable to bear this expense. Ten of these carry a remission of the payment of this sum of 560 francs, 6 give in addition to this 1000 francs, and 4 give 500 francs. There are also two scholarships worth 1,000 francs and free tuition maintained by the Department of the Seine. The instruction lasts two years and consists of: First year . — First semester : Mechanics, general physiology, general chemistry, zoology, physics and meteorology, mineralogy and geology, botany, mathematics. Second semester : General chemistry, mineralogy, and geology, me¬ chanics, zooteehnie , physics and meteorology, general agriculture, rural engineering, zoology, political economy, botany. Second year . — First semester: Agricultural technology, rural eco¬ nomics, agricultural chemistry, rural engineering, zooteehnie , special agriculture, arboriculture, comparative agriculture. 394 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Second semester : Colonial and meridional husbandry, comparative agriculture, administrative law and rural legislation, vegetable physi¬ ology, economic forestry, study of the horse, agricultural hydraulics, hygiene, and accounts. The scholars are exercised in chemical manipulations, the analysis of earths, plants, and seeds, the management of the microscope, the determination of plants, the drawing of plans, carpentry, leveling, the the calculation of the flow of water courses, etc. Excursions are made once a week to interesting agricultural and industrial establishments. During vacation the students whose parents are not farmers are sent to important farms in France or abroad. The two students graduating at the head of the list are sent at the expense of the state to study in foreign countries during a i>eriod of three years. The nine next on the list are allowed to remain a third year to work in the laboratories of the institute, during which they receive 1,200 francs a year. Four places are reserved m the School of Pin for training managers of the National Stud Farm. Finally, the School of Forestry annually takes from 10 to 12 of the students graduating from the Institute of Agriculture. These last two schools, the Forestry School and the School for Managers of Stud Farms ( JEcole des Haras), we shall now consider, being schools directly preparing for the Government service. national school of forestry — (Ecole Nationale Forestiere.) In no service of the State has the good influence of the establishment of a special school for the training of employes for the State been more apparent than in that of the administration of the national forests. For years this service had been the most inefficiently managed of any under the Government. Formerly it was the great resort for the exercise of favoritism. It was here that the influential placed their proteges without the least regard to their fitness or capabilities. This was prior to the year 1820, at which date the forestry administration was reconsti¬ tuted under a normal regime and made a special service. The school of forestry itself is of comparatively recent origin as compared with the other schools of application. For some unexplained reason, while provision had been made in other sections of the State for the training of employes, the administration of the forests had been neglected. The reorganization of the service in 1820 was not sufficient. The entire creation of an honest and capable administrative corps was necessary. A deputy of the administrative corps, M. Yan Eecum, in speaking of the service in 1807, said: The small amount of instruction of tile forestry administration is the principal source of the evil which exists in the administration of the forests. I speak not only of the subordinates but of the superiors as well, who have rarely the knowledge required for their positions. As the means of improving the service, the School of Forestry was established in 1824 at Nancy, where it has since remained. Its estab- CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 395 lishment had the almost immediate effec t of raising what had been one of the most inefficient services of the State to one of the most efficient. The school is at present under the administration of the Minister of Agriculture. Its object is the education of young men destined for the higher positions in the administration of the national forests. Previous to January 1, 1889, scholars were admitted only by compet¬ itive examination, with the exception made for the yearly reception of two students each from the Polytechnic and the Institute of Agri¬ culture. Since that date all the students have been received from among those receiving diplomas from the Institute of Agriculture, with the exception of the two places annually reserved for graduates of the Polytechnic. This change was made because the knowledge required for a good administration of the forests had become so varied and extended that all the subjects of instruction could not find a place in the two years of study originally established, and it was thought better that such instruction should be obtained in the Institute of Agricul¬ ture, an institution already in existence, than through the lengthening of the course of study at the School of Forestry. The number of Government students admitted each year is fixed at 12. The two places reserved for graduates of the Polytechnic are not often taken; from 1883 to 1891, only 13 scholars having passed from the Polytechnic to School of Forestry. The Institute of Agriculture therefore furnishes either 12, 11, or 10 students each year. These places are offered to graduates in the order of their rank at graduation. Candidates must, however, be not more than 22 years of age, unless they have had military service, in which case the age limit is raised to the extent to which they have been in such service. In addition to the regular Government scholars of which we have been speaking, the school also receives day scholars, both natives of France and of foreign countries. This is in accordance with the regu¬ lar policy of the French school administration in regard to the schools of application. These students are admitted on the authorization of the Minister of Agriculture without any preliminary examination. The high reputation of the school is attested by the presence of a large number of scholars from different foreign countries who come to attend its courses. Certain governments have special conventions with France for the admittance of their subjects. As regards England, a special order, bearing date of 1867, provides for the instruction each year of five or six English youths whom the English Government desires to prepare for service in the administration of forests of India. The duration of instruction is two years. The Government students board at the school, but the other students are day scholars. Each school year is divided into two parts. Six months and a half are employed in theoretical and practical studies, and two months and a half in practical field operations. During the first period, the winter semester, one day each week is devoted to the practical instruction of 396 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. the students $ the remaining days are occupied by class-room exercises and study. During the shorter period, the summer semester, the stu¬ dents are given practical instruction in the country and forests in the neighborhood of Nancy or in other regions of France. During these terms the scholars visit the Yosges, the Jura, or the basin of Paris. They prepare reports on the utilization of forest products, concerning the conditions in the Alps as relating to the regulation of torrents, etc. The courses of regular instruction consist of — (1) Forestry Sciences , comprising the culture and management of forests, forest technology, tree measurement, economic forestry, statis¬ tics of forestry, the estimation of forest properties, and finally the his¬ tory of the science of forestry (150 lectures of an hour and a half each). {2) The Applied Natural Sciences , consisting of the applications to forestry of botany, mineralogy, geology, and finally the ethnology and zoology of animals, birds, and insects useful or injurious to forests (150 lectures of an hour and a half each). (3) Forestry Legislation , which extends much beyond that of the for¬ estry code of 1827, and embraces important parts of civil law, adminis¬ trative law, and penal law, the legislation concerning public works, especially that relating to the restoration of forests on mountain sides, the hunting and destruction of undesirable animals (100 lessons of an hour and a half each). (4) Applied Mathematical Sciences , as relating to topography, the means of transport in forests (wagon roads, railroads, etc)., the ele¬ ments of applied mechanics, the construction of bridges, sawmills, and forest constructions generally, the regulation of torrents, the prevention of floods, etc. (5) The German Language , so as to be able to read and understand German works on forestry (60 lessons of one hour each). (6) Military Art , in order to have the necessary knowledge to become efficient officers in the national army in case of war. Previous to 1889, when scholars were not drawn from the Institute of Agriculture, there were a number of other courses. Important mod¬ ifications were made in certain of these which were retained. The courses on agriculture, political economy, general chemistry, and mete¬ orological physics, which had formerly found a place in the curriculum, were dropped entirely, sufficient instruction in these branches being obtained at the Institute of Agriculture. The school contains important collections of natural history, of wood and forest productions, which are utilized in the courses of instruction. A library contains the majority of French and foreign works relating to the subject of forestry. In connection with the school, there is also a station for investi¬ gation and experiments, the directors of which are two inspecteurs- adjoints. This station, which is administered in connection with the school, lias for its object to supplement the theoretical instruction by experiments and operations in which the scholars can participate. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 397 With this object in view, the technical management of about 2,600 hectares of forest domain belongs to it, the greater part of ivhieli is sit¬ uated in the environs of Nancy. Here are put into practice the differ¬ ent methods for the treatment and exploitation of forests in conformity with the methods approved by the administration. It should be remembered that no more expense is caused the Government than if it were administered in the ordinary method, and the receipts from the sale of wood and privileges are equally large. In addition to the management proper of the tract, observations in forest meteorology have bee.n taken during a period of twenty-five years, which have been productive of quite valuable results. Various other experiments and investigations conceruiug agriculture and forest physiology are also carried on in connection with the management of this tract. While at the school the Government students receive a payment of 1,200 francs each year, but they are required to make a payment at the beginning of the first year of 1,200 francs to defray the expenses of their equipment, and 600 francs each year for riding lessons, and the expenses of their tours of observation. On graduation from the school of forestry, the scholars who have passed with success the examinations are placed with the grade of garde-general stagiaire under an inspector charged to initiate them into the practical details of the service. They then receive a salary of 1,500 francs. After about a year of this service they are named gen¬ eral foot guards ( gardes generaux en pied) and have the direction of a certain district designated a cantonment. They receive in this capacity a salary of 2,000 francs and an indemnity for traveling expenses of from 300 s to 500 francs. The grades which succeed in the service of the forest administration are as follows: General guards : Francs. 1 Guardians : Francs. Third class . . . 2, doO Fourth class . ^QO o V o Second class . .... .... .. 2,300 Third class . . . 9, 000 First class . . . 2, 600 Second class . . 10,000 Assistant inspectors : First class . . . 12,000 Third class . . . 3, 000 Inspector-generals : Second class . . . 3, 400 Third class . _ _ _ 12,000 First class . . . 3, 800 Second class . . . . . 13,500 Inspectors : First class . . 15,000 Fourth class . . . 4, 000 Directors . . 18,000 Third class . . . 4, 500 Second class . . . 5, 000 First class . . . 6, 000 Students entering the service in this way usually attain the grade of inspector, at 4,000 francs a year, at about the age of 42. Almost all become in time inspectors of the first class, at 6,000 francs per year, and the more favored reach the grade of conservators of the first class, with a salary of 12,000 francs. In conclusion, it may be said that the school at Nancy has fully answered all the requirements of a school recruiting for the Govern- 398 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. ment service. It lias been very successful, and is to-day one of the best, if not the best, schools of forestry existing anywhere on the con¬ tinent of Europe. There are also a number of other schools which aid to some extent in the recruitment of the service for the management of the public forests. Thus the Institut National Agronomique , as we have seen, pre¬ pares for the ficole Forestidre , besides recruiting other public services relating to forestry and agriculture; the Fcole Secondaire Forestiere des Barres and the JhJcole Pratique de Sylviculture , which prepare for the lower grades of the forestry administration. SCHOOL FOR MANAGERS OF THE STUD FARMS ( Fcole des Raras). The Government of France has for a great many years interested itself largely in the breeding of horses and the maintenance of stud farms. It maintains for this purpose a fine tract of ground of 809 hectares at LePin (Orve), a central breeding farm (haras), where there are from 2,500 to 3,000 stallions. This haras was established at the commencement of the reign of Louis XV. It was suppressed by the gov¬ ernment of the revolution, reorganized in 1806, instituted on a new basis in 1810, suppressed again in 1842, and finally reestablished in 1874. It was at this last date that the school at Pin was put upon its basis and provision made that the service in regard to the haras should be recruited entirely from this school, which itself is recruited from the National Institute of Agriculture. Candidates for the position of student must be between the ages of 19 and 25 years. The number admitted each year is 3. External students to the number of 12 each year may also be admitted. The latter pay a tuition fee of 600 francs. The duration of studies is two years and consists of: (1) General study of the horse; (2) natural history of the horse, anatomy, physiology, hygiene, pathology, principles of shoeing; (3) maintenance and admin¬ istration of haras , accounts, principles of administrative law; (4) theory and practice of riding, harness, training of horses, etc.; (5) Eng¬ lish language, drawing. The students proper, on graduation, are appointed overseers ( sur - veillants ), at a salary of 1,800 francs per year. The grades of the service with salaries are: Overseers : Francs. Second class . 1, 800 First class . 2, 000 Sub directors : Third class . 2, 500 Second class . 3, 000 First class . 3, 500 Directors of the depot of stallions : Third class . 4, 000 Directors of the depot of stal¬ lions— Continued. Francs. Second class . 5, 000 First class . 6, 000 Inspectors-general : Second class . 8, 000 First class . 10, 000 Director-general . 15, 000 to 18, 000 CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 399 school of archives (Ecole des Chartes). Since the beginning of the eighteenth century more or less successful efforts have been made by all the governments which have succeeded each other in France looking toward the preservation and publication of the national archives. Tn 1708 a royal decree created the offices of guardians of the archives (< gardes des archives). In 1733 secretaires-greffiers were created, to have charge of municipal and communal archives. The government of the revolution continued these traditions and required all administrators to take the greatest possible care for the preservation of the records of the governments which it displaced. A law of 1795 required all such records to be collected together in the chief place of each of the 86 prefectures which had been created. Nevertheless the collections suffered considerably from the indifference of the administrators during the years 1795 to 1838. The year 1838 marks the beginning of a new era for the national archives of France. Several years before, in 1834, M. Guizot, then the minister of public instruction, had obtained the grant of an annual sum of 120,000 francs with which to make researches into and to publish documentary material relative to the history of France. He desired also to carry the work into the departments, and for this purpose secured, in 1838, the passage of a law requiring all departments to collect together, house, and classify their archives. In the same year the minister of the interior created the Commission des Archives , com¬ posed of the most prominent men in the field of education in the country. Previous to 1853 the departmental archives administration was attached to the bureau of statistics. In that year the service was made a special bureau, and two inspectors- general of archives were appointed. The work in connection with the care and publication of these archives required considerable special knowledge, both concerning the past his¬ tory and government of France, but more especially of the forms of the French language employed at different epochs of her history. To recruit this service with those having this knowledge a school of archives ( Ecole des Chartes) was created in 1821 by royal ordinance, which fixed the number of students at 12 and gave to each a small salary. A decree of 1829 created the office of paleograph- archivist ( archivists - \ paleogrdphe ), and assured to the students of the school, on their gradu¬ ation, employment in this position in the public libraries of the state and the national archives. The actual organization of the school, however, dates from the decree of 1846. The school as now organized is intended solely to educate young men for the position of paleograph-archivists at the national and departmental archives and the public libraries of the state. The com¬ pletion of their courses gives the students entrance to the following 400 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. positions: Archivist at the national archives ; archivist at the depart¬ mental archives; employment in the public libraries as assistants in the publication of documents relative to the history of France; employ¬ ment at the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres , and to professor¬ ships at the School of Archives. A yearly appropriation of 3,000 francs is made for the payment of graduates who do not obtain positions immediately on graduation, but are employed temporarily in works of classification, cataloguing, and other departments of work in connection with the archives and manu¬ scripts. Students are selected by means of a competitive examination. Can¬ didates must be less than 25 years of age and have received the bache- lieres-lettres. The maximum number of scholars admitted each year is 20. Sixteen were admitted in 1890 and 18 in 1891. The scholars board outside the school. The school is located at Paris, and is under the administration of the minister of public instruction. Eight schol¬ arships bearing 000 francs each are yearly granted to the students most deserving. The course of studies extends over three years. It is public and gratuitous. The instruction is in the following subjects: First year . — Paleography, philology (Romanic), bibliography, and classification of libraries. Second year . — Diplomacy; history of the political, administrative, and judicial institutions of France; sources of the History of France; clas¬ sification of archives. Third year. — History of civil and canonic law of the Middle Ages ; sources of the history of France. Each year the school sends one of its pupils to the JEcole Frangaise de Rome . Though the school is intended but for the recruitment of special services of the state, it has become in reality a true school of the his¬ tory of France, and the position of student at the school is one much sought after. During recent years the following number of students have been graduated: 1884 1885 1886 1887 13 15 15 14 1888 1889 1890 13 13 16 Colonial School (Ecole coloniale). In 1885 the governor of Cochin-China sent to France, at the expense of the colony, twelve young Cambodians and one Siamese to learn the French language and institutions, so that they could be employed in responsible places on their return. In 1888 it was determined to add a French section to the school which had been created for the education of the Cambodians, in order to prepare young men for the colonial serv- CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 401 ice, the character of the personnel of which at that time left much to be desired. This section was opened to students in 1890. Its object is the recruitment of the following administrations and colonial corps: Central administration of the ministry of the colonies; colonial magistrates; corps of the colonial commissariat; service of the bureaus of the general secretary of the government of Cochin-China; administration of native affairs of Cochin-China; the personnel of the resident officers in Cambodia, Annam, and at Tonkin; the corps of colonial administrators ; the penitentiary administration at Guiana and New Caledonia. The duration of studies is three years, unless the student is a bachelor of law, in which case but two years are required. Students pay a tuition fee of 120 francs per year, and 100 francs for fencing and riding lessons, which are obligatory. Forty students are admitted each year. Candidates must be between the ages of 18 and 25 years, and are selected after a competitive examination. The course of instruction is as follows: First year. — Foreign colonial systems (first part); French coloniza¬ tion (first part); history, customs, and religions of Indo-China; a course specially preparing for the colonial commissariat service; English lan¬ guage; Annamite language; Chinese characters. Second year. — Foreign colonial systems (second part); French coloni¬ zation (second part); legislation and administration of Indo-China; a course specially preparing for the colonial commissariat service; Eng¬ lish language; Annamite language. Third year. — Organization of the colonies; acclimatization and prac¬ tical medicine; topography; accounts; ethnography; practical construc¬ tion; colonial productions; legislation and administration of Indo- China; English language; Cambodian language. Only those intending to adopt careers in Indo-China are required to follow the courses in the Eastern languages. A considerable development is expected in the sphere of activities of this school; and in measure as it develops a separation will be made of the studies into groups corresponding to the different colonies and kinds of services. Six scholarships, each bearing 1,200 francs, are offered in favor of students of the second and third year classes. At the end of the third year the number of places at the disposal of graduates of the school are indicated to them. The students then select their places in the order of their standing at graduation. Since the first of January, 1892, three-fourths of the vacancies which have occurred in the services which have been enumerated have been reserved to students of this school. Those admitted into the Government service are at first appointed to the position stage retrihue , with a salary of 2,400 francs, in Europe. Then as vacancies occur they are drafted into foreign administrative positions at increased salaries. ED 92 - 26 402 ' EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. SPECIAL SCHOOL OE MODERN ORIENTAL LANGrUAGrES. JEcole Speciale des Langues Orientales Vivantes. — This school has been created in order to give instruction in modern oriental languages so as to prepare young men to fill the positions of consuls and interpreters in these countries. It is located at Paris and is under the administra¬ tion of the minister of public instruction. The courses are public and open to all. But the regular students intended for diplomatic and administrative positions must be between the ages of 16 and 24 and possess the title of bachelor of letters or bachelor of sciences. The courses of studies last three years and consist of instruction in the following languages and subjects : Written Arabic, common Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Malayan and Javan, Armenian, modern Greek, Chi¬ nese, Japanese, Annamite, Hindostanese and Tnnoul, Russian, Rouma¬ nian languages; geography, history, and legislation of countries of the extreme East; geography, history, and legislation of Eastern countries under Mussulman dominion. After the first year, scholarships may be awarded ranging in value from 250 to 1,200 francs. The graduates who are the most distin¬ guished on account of their aptitude may be sent at the expense of the state to the countries whose languages they have learned, to perfect themselves in the use of these languages and to acquire a knowledge of the political and commercial interests of the countries. During recent years 66 students have been graduated from this school, of which 12 were in 1887, 14 in 1888, 6 in 1889, 19 in 1890, and 15 in 1891. SCHOOLS IN CONNECTION WITH THE NATIONAL MANUFACTURES. As is well known, the French Goverument carries on as state enter¬ prises the manufacture of various articles belonging to the decorative or fine arts department. Among these the most important are the manufacture of porcelain at Sevres, the manufacture of Gobelin tapes¬ try at Paris, the national manufacture of mosaics, and the manufac¬ ture of tapestry at Beauvais. In connection with these establish¬ ments, and for the purpose of recruiting more especially the artist- workmen required at these manufactories, the Government has estab¬ lished at each apprenticeship schools in decorative art. Of these the one at Sevres is the most important. The instruction here lasts two years in a preparatory school, and two years in the first division and three years in the second division of a special school. The number of students is limited to 20. When admitted they must be at least 12 years old. They are selected preferably from among the chil¬ dren of employes of the manufactory. After the second year they receive a salary of 100 francs a year. In the special school, 300 francs CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 403 per year are j)aid in the first division and 60d francs per year in the second division (during the last year 1,000 francs). The instruction relates to drawing, modeling, coloring, decorating, and the technique of the art of porcelain manufacture as practiced at Sevres. At the Gobelin manufactory students are received without examina¬ tion in a preliminary course, where they compete for entrance into the school of tapestry. At the end of a year the successful ones are named apprentice students and receive a salary of 600 francs a year. They are next appointed apprentices at 900 francs and commence work in the factory itself. Starting from this moment until they are 20 years of age they follow during the winter the superior course at the academy. The school at the national manufactory of mosaics was founded in 1878. Its object is mainly to educate skillful workers in mosaics for private establishments, as only a few of the students are received in the national factory, whose entire force of artists numbers but 10. The instruction given is partly received at the School of Decorative Arts (Ecole des arts decor atifs ), the school in connection with the Gobelin factory, and partly in the mosaic factory itself. The instruction lasts two years. During the second year the students receive 500 francs. The instruction at Beauvais is organized on the same model as that at the Gobelin and Sevres manufactories. Scholars are appointed, who must be at least 12 years old, to attend a preparatory course, and after¬ wards a superior course in connection with work in the factory. With the foregoing we must terminate our consideration of the par¬ ticular schools preparing for the civil service of France. Not that these schools which have been considered are the only ones preparing for the civil branch of government service. In a country where governmental duties are so varied and play so important a part in the industrial economy of the nation it is inevitable that the whole school system of the country should be in a measure affected, and there are a number of schools which have not been included in our survey which directly or indirectly prepare their students for government employ. But all those schools whose main object is such instruction have been consid¬ ered. A large class of schools which have been omitted is that of schools which are to some extent connected with the military and naval services, though not constituting what we would call military or naval schools. In the United States we have but two schools where all mil¬ itary and naval instruction is given. In France, with its enormous standing army, and the great detail and efficiency to which each service has been brought, specialization has been carried to an extreme limit. There thus exists, in addition to numerous schools preparing each for a special branch of the service, schools for surgeons, for military and naval pharmacists, for administration of the army and navy, for veter¬ inary surgeons, for mechanics and engineers of the war vessels, etc.; positions whose duties are mainly civil, though performed in connection 404 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. witli the military and naval services. No little difficulty has been experienced by the writer in determining what schools should properly be treated in this paper. It is hoped, however, that the main purpose of the paper, to give a broad idea of the general system of scholastic preparation for the serv¬ ice ot the state in France has been accomplished. We shall conclude our work with some account of the attempt, dur¬ ing several years successful, to maintain a civil academy in the more restricted meaning of the word, i. e., an academy giving instruction in national economy, public finance, administration, and in general the imparting of that information the possession of which is the sine qua non of enlightened statesmanship. In many respects the history of this effort, though as yet unsuccess¬ ful in France, is the most interesting and instructive of any feature of the subject which we have been considering. EFFORTS TOWARD A SCHOOL OF ADMINISTRATION. In the foregoing schools the services to be recruited have, without exception, been such as require a special knowledge on the part of their employes. School after school has been created until all of the tech¬ nical and scientific branches have been more or less well provided with special schools for the recruitment of their jiersonnel. The service of administration, a service requiring not less of a higher and special train¬ ing, has alone been left unprovided for at the present time. This has not been because France has not given considerable attention to the subject, but because the benefits, though they might be as great, do not admit of as clear a statement, and because such preliminary training can in a measure be acquired either in existing schools and colleges or after admittance to the service is obtained. France has nevertheless made important efforts to fill this gap in the preparation for the service of the state, and on more than one occasion it has been proposed to crown her system of government schools by the creation of a special school of administration, in which students should be prepared for positions in the administrative departments and in the foreign diplomatic and consular services. Since the first creation of the Polytechnic, a school having special reference to the engineering services of the state, the creation of a similar school for the recruit¬ ment of administrative positions has been more or less discussed by educators and has been before the French legislature in one form or another. The idea finally assumed a definite form towards the end of the Government of July. A special commission' appointed to inquire into the advisability of the establishment of such a school made a favorable report in 1847. After the revolution of 1848, a new commission made its report favoring such a school in the year of the revolution. As the result of this report M. Hippolyte Carnot, then the minister of public instruction, recommended, and March 8, 1848, the Government decreed, CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 405 “that there he established a school of administration destined for the recruitment of the various branches of administration, on the same plan as that of the Polytechnic.” An entirely new school, however, was not at first created. Dictated largely by motives of economy the new institution was annexed to the College of France. A decree of April 7, 1848, created at the college for this school new chairs of instruction in the following subjects: French politics, private, public, and criminal law, general economics, statistics of agriculture, mines, arts, and manu¬ factures, public works, finance, commerce, administrative law, the history of French and foreign administrative institutions. In addition the school made use of existing chairs of history, literature, etc. The term of studies was fixed at three years and the number of students at 200. A complete organization was made and the school opened in that year. In November, 1848, the school was separated from the College of France. The school, however, had but a short life. It was unable to maintain its existence during the political changes of the period, and was sup¬ pressed in 1849. Though the project has been repeatedly revived, and attempts have been made at different times, as in 1869, 1876, and 1881, to reestablish the school, it has as yet never been pushed to a suc¬ cessful conclusion. This failure to reestablish a school of administration is not due to a rejection of the principle that such a school would be valuable in increasing the efficiency of the service. It is due to the inherent diffi¬ culties of the case. It is a much more delicate matter to prepare for the services of pure administration. In the administrative services the knowledge required is so various that it is much more difficult to determine the exact character of the instruction to be given. It is not sufficient to establish a school preparing generally for administrative positions. Particular services must be designated as ones which can be profitably recruited through it, such as positions in the diplomatic and consular services, attaches of the chiefs of departments and bureaus, statistical experts, examiners, etc. These difficulties, though inherent, are by no means insurmountable. The Lcole Libre des Sciences Politiques , of Paris, though a school organ¬ ized and carried on as a private undertaking, furnishes a brilliant demonstration of this. Though, as I have said, this school is not a Government institution, it yet has such close relations with the Government service, that to omit its consideration would be to omit the description of one of the most admirable scholastic institutions of France as regards the furnishing of trained servants for the higher administrative positions of the French Government. It has the additional claim to recognition in that it is the lineal successor of the school of administration which came to its premature end in 1849. 406 EDUCATION REPOET, 1891-92. In 1866, M. de Malar ce, a former pupil of tlie school of administration, sought, through his personal efforts and through the press, to prepare for the re-establishment of this school as a private establishment. This idea was realized in 1872, when M. Boutmy, also a former student of the school of administration, created at Paris the Lcole Libre des Sci- ences Politiques. A notice, published by the school at the time of its organization, declares the objects of the school as be as follows: As a whole the instruction given by the school of political sciences forms the natural crowning of all liberal education. Its program embraces the principal branches of knowledge to which no cultivated man should be a stranger. From the special point of view it proposes the same object as the old school of administration. Each of the grand divisions of its instruction constitutes a complete preparation for one of the following careers, and for the examinations through which entrance to them is obtained: (1) The diplomatic service, the ministry of foreign affairs, legations, consulships; (2) counsel of state (conseil d’etat), auditor of the second class; (3) administration, central and departmental administrations, under-prefects, secretary- generals of the departments, prefecture councils; (4) inspection of the finances; (5) court of accounts; (6) colonial employment. The statement of the various courses included in the curriculum will best show the important branches of education covered. The instruction is organized in five sec¬ tions. I . Administrative section. — Comparative administrative organization; administra¬ tive matters ; financial systems of the principal states ; public revenues and taxes ; political economy; statistics; external commerce and customs legislation; consti¬ tutional law ; the constitutions of Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy; parliamentary and legislative history of France since 1789; the English or German language. II. Diplomatic section. — Geography and ethnology; diplomatic history; descrip¬ tion of contemporaneous Europe and Eastern affairs; economic geography, foreign commerce, and customs legislation; rights of nations; international law; compara¬ tive commercial and maritime legislation; comparative military organization; the English or German language. III. Economic and financial section . — Political economy ; the financial systems of the principal states; public revenues and taxes; statistics, foreign commerce, and cus¬ toms legislation; economic geography; comparative administrative organization; administrative matters ; comparative commercial and maritime legislation ; interna¬ tional law; the English or German language. IV. Colonial section. — Organization of the central power; administrative matters; markets of the state; revenues and taxes; international law; economic geography; foreign commerce and customs legislation; colonial systems; law and administra¬ tion of Annam vs. Turkish law; French colonial legislation; history of the relation of Western powers with the extreme East; colonial geography; political economy; money, exchange, and credit; the English language. V. General section (public law and history). — Comparative civil legislation; con¬ stitutional law; parliamentary and legislative history since 1789; diplomatic history from 1789 to the present time; description of contemporaneous history and Eastern affairs; law of nations; history of political ideas and public thought; political economy; finance; geography and ethnology ; the English or German language. The faculty and corps of instructors includes twenty-two professors, taken from the Conseil d^Ltat, the Institute, the law faculty of the university, the heads of administrative departments, etc. The school receives regular students, who follow the whole course, and auditors who attend only special-lecture courses. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 407 The duration of studies is generally two years. It can be extended to. three years where a specially careful preparation is required. The tuition fee for a fully registered student is 300 francs per annum $ for attendance on a single course of one lecture a week, 60 francs. A traveling scholarship of the value of 5,000 francs is offered once every five years to students having graduated during the preceding five years. The success of this school as a school of administration has been remarkable. M. H. Yuibert, in his excellent description of French schools for 1892, says: From the special point of view of preparation for the government service the school of political science has replaced the old school of administration. Since 1880 all the candidates received at the department of the inspection of the finances have been prepared by this school. The great majority of candidates admitted to the Conseil d’J^tat, the court of accounts, and to the ministry of foreign affairs, have attended this school. Commissioner Chamberlain, in his report on Education at the Paris International Exhibition of 1878, said of it: Although a private institution, it is likely to be, in its scope and efficiency, the great civil-service school of the state. The greatest proof, however, of its success in preparing for the gov¬ ernment administration lies in the fact that much of the discussion concerning the establishment of a government school of administration has taken the form of making of this school a national school, rather than attempting to create a new institution on new foundation. The good work which has been done, is due in part to the great pains taken to keep the school in intimate relation with the government serv¬ ices to which its instruction relates. In large part its professors are drawn from those occupying the chief places in the departments. CONCLUSION. It is not difficult to discover the spirit which has inspired the creation of the different schools considered by this report. As is the case in all governmental institutions, systems of administration are rarely created. They are a growth. As a need makes itself felt, an instrumentality is devised to satisfy such requirement. Individual features are thus created, and the combination of these features, the system, is the aggre¬ gation of these units as they are created from time to time. The stu¬ dent no doubt prefers to find as the result of his studies a completed system which can be described as a harmonious whole, but in the field of administration this is a desire rarely gratified. In our present study we have found much of interest relating to our search, but we end by saying that no system complete either in theory or practice has been found. Though France has done more than any other country in the fitting of young men for the service of the state 408 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. through a scholastic training, she has not done it as the deliberate elaboration of a scheme previously conceived and worked out. Each school has been created to meet the wants of a particular service as the needs of that service became prominent enough to demand that some action be taken. Though the foregoing schools have not been created on a uniform plan, they have many features in common, which permit of their being studied as a whole. Though not correlated into a single system, it is evident that their organization has in many respects been along the same lines, which enables us to select certain features as indicating the policy which has dominated in the creation of all the schools. The most prominent, and at the same time the most important simi¬ larity, is found in the nature of the services which have been selected to be recruited through special Government schools. Without excep¬ tion they have been such as require a quite special previous prepara¬ tion on the part of their employes. In the various engineering services of roads and bridges, mines, etc., a considerable knowledge of higher mathematics has been a sine qua non of good services. In others, such as forestry, the manufacture of tobacco and other products, the super¬ intendence of the haras , etc., the duties were of such a nature that the ordinary schools did not, nor was it advisable that they should, attempt to give instruction in the particular branches of knowledge required. In general we may say then that France has found it advisable to organize a special system of instruction in all those services, in which a special, and in general a scientific, training is required of the employes. So completely has this idea been carried out to all services in any way partaking of this nature, that there can be but little doubt that the system has furnished better results than that of recruiting in the ordi¬ nary way from among those not having received such special training. Another distinctive feature of the system is the policy of grouping special schools of application around larger and central academies, as with the Polytechnic and National Institute of Agriculture, and giving in these academies all the general instruction required, leaving the professional instruction to the more special schools. This system has many undoubted advantages. For two or three years it gathers together a large number of students at just that age when the students themselves are least fitted to determine what career they are best adapted to undertake. The important point here is that the students on entering do not know what particular service they are going to enter. It is only on graduation that their rank entitles them to a choice. Thus in the preliminary training they are constantly in con¬ nection with those preparing for all the services* in a measure they examine the character of each position iii order to make a satisfactory choice, and at the end of their studies are much better qualified to select a Government career most advantageous to the Government service. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 409 The third feature which we find common to the whole list of schools is the simultaneous instruction of Government pupils, intended for employment by the State/and free students, or those desiring a similar instruction to that given in the Government schools. There is no one feature which to me seems so happy a conception as this. In many cases it has been found necessary to create a system of instruction for the education of but a comparatively small number of students. The system once organized, little or no extra expense is entailed by allow¬ ing additional pupils to attend the courses. In this way these schools have become important parts in the system of schools for technical edu¬ cation, which France has so perfectly organized. But especially must this practice exert a good effect on the Government pupils themselves. The}7 are then not so isolated from outside influences. The danger of a few students taken apart and subjected to a fixed course of studies, becoming impervious to outside suggestions and dropping into ruts — a danger by no means absent from schools of this class — is largely averted, and the pupils, at least as long as they are pupils, are kept in touch with the outside world. The competition displayed for opportunity to attend these schools as free pupils furnishes us at the same time the best evidence of the high estimation x>laced on the character of the training there to be obtained. A final feature common to most of the schools is one which has not been brought out in our consideration of the individual schools. This is that the direction, and in large part the instruction, is in the hands of chief officials of the services to be recruited, who are detailed for this service on account of special aptitude and attainments. The effect is to insure that the instruction given is always exactly of that character which the services require. At the same time this system is. not without its dangers. If too closely adhered to, narrow-mindedness, conservatism, and unwillingness to accept improvements coming from outside suggestions maybe the result. It is not for a moment desired to convey the impression that such has been the case in the present instance. The writer did not have such opportunities of observation as to warrant him expressing his opinion on this point. As can be supposed, both advocates and opponents of the system of Government service schools were encountered, and this point was mentioned more than once by those not favoring the schools. In conclusion, the writer must say that he regrets that the school of administration established in 1818 did not have a continuous life to the present time. The history of the School of Political Sciences has shown that there are certainly a number of services coming under the head of administration, to which such a previous training is applicable, such as the positions of consular clerks, diplomatic attaches, certain legal officers, employes of the department of foreign affairs, statistical employes, etc. In these cases their duties admit of clear definition, and the character of the instruction to be given can not be in doubt. In 410 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. some respects a school of administration would be the keystone to the whole system, and for us would possess more features of interest than any other one school. In the foregoing sketch of schools of France preparing for the Gov¬ ernment service, though I have made no reference to similar services and conditions in America, I have nevertheless kept constantly in mind the consideration that if studies such as the present are to be of value they must be prepared not as a mere historical inquiry, but as a description of conditions which may be of service to the people in considering kindred questions. The establishment of a scheme of scholastic preparation for the Government service can scarcely be called a live one at the present time. It nevertheless involves ques¬ tions worthy of careful consideration, and is not altogether neglected by those most interested in educational questions. As showing the views of at least one of our most prominent educators, I insert the remarks of Prof. Herbert B. Adams, of the Johns Hop¬ kins University, on this subject, as expressed in his History of William and Mary College.1 He says: Tlie Government is compelled to patronize institutions of learning from self-interest, for the reputation of its departments and its scientific bureaus, some of which are constantly turning to colleges and universities for special work. The War and Navy Departments have detailed no less than ten men for further scientific training or for the conduct of necessary Government investigations at the Johns Hopkins Univer¬ sity. Various members of the university staff have been employed upon special commissions in the interest of the Geological and Coast Surveys, Bureau of Educa¬ tion, etc. This comity between science and the Government ought not only to con¬ tinue, hut to he promoted, especially with reference to political science. IDEA OF A CIVIL ACADEMY IN WASHINGTON. While the National Government will continue to seek special service wherever it can best he found, and while its public servants will continue to seek special train¬ ing wherever they prefer, it is not inexpedient to suggest that the Government might easily secure for the civil service what West Point and Annapolis have so long pro¬ vided for the Army and Navy, viz, well-trained men for administrative positions requiring expert service. There is in these times as great need of special knowledge in civil science as in military and navy science. A civil academy for the training of representative American youth would be as great a boon to the American people as the Military and Naval Academies have already proved. The West Point and Annapolis idea of educating representative young men from political districts is already abroad in nearly every State in the American Union. A combination of this idea with the merit system in appointment is frequently made by Congressmen in the institution of a competitive examination to discover whom they shall appoint as cadets. The joint system has long been established in the State of New York, the center of political gravity in these United States. The system should be taken up by the present administration, which sprang from New York and which represents the New York idea in administrative reform. The West Point plan of taking student appointees from Congressional districts, and the Cor¬ nell University plan of student appointment for merit, should be transplanted together to the city of Washington. From each of the three hundred and twenty- Circular of Information ISo. 1, 1887, of the United States Bureau of Education. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 411 five Congressional districts there should he appointed by the respective Congress¬ men, upon competitive examination held by the State or leading university, or by some other impartial examining board, one student of the grade of bachelor of arts, to enjoy Government tuition in Washington for two years at a civil academy, as hereafter described, with an allowance of $600 a year for necessary expenses, as is now done for cadets at West Point and Annapolis. As at these two Government acade¬ mies, so in the civil academy, if properly constituted, undoubtedly a large propor¬ tion of the appointees would be “ found deficient ;” many would resign for profes¬ sional reasons or from dissatisfaction with the civil service, but a choice remnant would surely be saved to the State; the fittest would survive. Even if all returned to their own homes after two years’ public training, the cause of good citizenship would be greatly promoted. Men thus educated would prove of great service to the Bureau of Labor or to the Bureau of Statistics. They wrould be capable of doing much of the special work now required in the taking or elaboration of the United States census. At present special economic or statistical work is sometimes done by men selected upon political recommendation and not always thoroughly fitted for the task required. That this idea is in the air of Washington and is not deemed impracticable by practical politicians, is seen in the recent remark of Mr. Trenholm, Comptroller of the Currency, who is reported to have said : “ It is my intention to take young men from various parts of the country and give them a preliminary training in this office ; fit them for bank examiners, and then appoint them. By this arrangement I think I will be able to have in these positions men who have excellent qualifica¬ tions for their duties, and thus make a most efficient force of bank examiners. Besides, it will be the best kind of civil service reform.” 1 The system might be applied also to the training of picked young men for the consular, diplomatic, and other branches of the public service which require special knowTedge. European Governments foster their civil and diplomatic services by sys¬ tematic training in connection with Government offices and schools of administra¬ tion. The practice is already beginning to evolve in connection with the State Department and the training of consular clerks.2 It might easily be extended in connection with other departments and the various scientific bureaus. The Government commission for the civil service academy or Government college should not be appointed in the interest of party, but of scientific politics and good administration. It should be as trustworthy as the three commissioners for the government of the District of Columbia, and it should work in perfect harmony with the administrative offices of the Government. 1 “ The Civil Service Commission and the heads of bureaus.” Baltimore Ameri- ican, January 16, 1887. 2The consular. clerk system was inaugurated by act of Congress approved June 20, 1864 (see 15 Statutes at Large, p. 139; Revised Statutes, sections 1704 and 1705). Consular clerks, not exceeding thirteen in number at any one time, are appointed by the President. They are assigned to such consulates as the President shall direct. At present they are assigned to the consulates at Havana, Paris, Rome, Kanagawa, Bordeaux, Turin, Liverpool, Berlin, London, Cairo, Chemnitz, and Honolulu. Before appointment it must be satisfactorily shown to the Secretary of State, after examination and report by an examining board, that the applicant is qualified for the duties to which he may be assigned. A consular clerk can not be removed, except by cause stated in writing, which must be submitted to Congress at the session first following such removal. Consular clerks hold office during good behavior. They usually receive instructions at the Department of State before going to their posts. The idea underlying this system is that of training young men for consular positions of the higher grade. One consular clerk, not now in the service, was promoted to a consulship; many of them have been made vice-consuls, and some of the present incumbents fill the vice-consular office in addition to the consular clerkship. 412 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. These considerations are of great importance. To one not living at Washington a realization of the amount of purely business work requiring the highest degree of special and technical instruction is impossible. An inspection of the great range of duties now performed by the central government reveals a great many services requiring the most special description of training, the possession or nonpossession of which determines whether it will be well or badly performed. The mention of but a few of the scientific bureaus, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Geological Survey, the Bureau of Ethnology, the Nautical Almanac Department, the scientific bureaus of the Department of Agriculture, and such services as the diplomatic and consular serv¬ ices, the corps of examiners of patents, etc., will, to some extent, illus¬ trate the varied and special information required. It is in such posi¬ tions as these that improvement might be looked for through the creation of special schools. Each year the necessity for specialization in knowledge becomes greater. In this the administration of govern¬ ment is no exception. The necessity for expert knowledge in the serv¬ ice of the Government becomes yearly greater. Personal aptitude is without doubt the first condition for success in any profession, but natural aptitude has need of special instruction in order that it may obtain its fullest development. In the Government service, as in every occupation, there must always be a difference between employes chosen at hazard and those specially trained for the performance of the duties which they are called upon to discharge. The determination of the desirability of special training must be made for each service on its own merits. It is safe to say that an effective school of administration can only be obtained through the designation of a few services, the recruiting of which should be solely through the school of administration to be established. Then, from time to time, as the system develops, additional services can be put under the same regime. What services should and what should not be so treated can only be decided by the practical administrative heads of the departments, and not by outside educators, however much they may here give the subject attention. The experience of a foreign nation whose system is as complete as that of France can not but be of service to us in considering these questions as relating to our own Government. Civil Service Requirements in Prussia. INTRODUCTORY. It has been thought that the value of this report will be enhanced by subjoining to the account of schools for recruiting the civil service in France, a condensed statement of the extent and character of the scholastic requirements for admission to the civil branches of the public services of the Prussian Kingdom. Though the conditions for admis- CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 413 sion to governmental service liere are no less severe than we have found them to be in France, in neither Prussia nor Austria has the French method been followed of establishing schools for the special and almost exclusive purpose of i>roviding instruction whereby the youth of the land may be enabled to meet these scholastic conditions. The schools of Prussia and Austria being already under the control of the general government, the plan has been followed, rather, of consciously modify¬ ing the curricula of existing institutions, and of considering these needs in the establishment of new technical institutions. That is to say, we do not find in Prussia or Austria schools of an exclusively civil service character, such as, for example, the JScoIe Polytechnique and its affili¬ ated schools, but in their place find the courses at the universities framed so as to meet civil service requirements, and discover through¬ out the land a large number of technical schools where instruction is given to all those desirous of obtaining such special knowledge, with¬ out reference to whether or not they intend upon graduation to enter the public service. At the same time those who do desire to stand the examinations set by the State for appointment to office, have thus the means of preparing themselves in the necessary special branches. Besides her ten universities, her gymnasia, and common schools, Prussia possesses the following technical schools : Polytechnica in Berlin, Hann¬ over, and Aachen- academies of forestry at Eberswalde and Miinden; agricultural academies at Berlin and Poppelsdorf, besides departments for study of agriculture connected with several of the universities ; high schools for veterinary surgeons at Berlin and Hannover; school for architecture at Nienburg; mining academies at Berlin, Clausthal and Saarbriicken ; and pomological institutes at Proskau and Geisenheim. This being the condition that prevails, it has not seemed practicable to describe all these schools, which would obviously necessitate a description in detail of the general school system of Prussia. Bather, it has seemed best to content ourselves with a simple statement of the character and amount of scholastic and practical preparation required of candidates for office. Naturally only the higher administrative offices will be considered, where the requirements are significant, and these as a rule only in large groups, the conditions being given that govern the appointments to all positions of a given character or rank, and the detailed requirements for individual offices being stated only where of special interest as illustrating the preparation demanded of a class to which such position belongs. - In the first section of the account which follows is given in some detail the fundamental law which regulates entrance to all the higher offices where special judicial knowledge is required, and in the second section the law governing appointment to all positions which fall in the higher branches of the public service generally, technically known as u Per libhere Verwaltungsdienst .” In the remaining sections are given in less detail the special requirements demanded of officials intrusted 414 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. with duties of a technical nature, and the lesser requirements set for subordinate functionaries. There will be noticed the important fact that all public officials in the higher administrative branches, whether they be judicial officers or not, are required to possess a very considerable knowledge of public law, including administrative and constitutional law, an acquaintance with the practical operation of government in all its details, the legal and administrative relations between different governmental departments, and, finally, a knowledge of political economy and political science in general. Thus it will be seen that there is guaranteed on the part of the prospective functionary such a breadth of political knowledge as will enable him intelligently to understand his duties, to appreciate his legal rights and responsibilities, and thus to make his efforts harmonize with those of his coordinate or superior officials. As regards subordinate positions it will be noticed that though appropriate examinations are set, many of them are open preferably, if not exclusively, to those who have completed the full term of military service. In all but the lowest positions it will be found that a period of pro¬ bationary practical service is required. Thus is joined scholastic train¬ ing with practical knowledge. The introductory remark should also be made that as in France, so in Prussia, the General Government has in its hands the control of material interests which require for their management officials with technical and special knowledge. Among these industries under State control are the public domains and forests, the state bank, the Naval Commercial Institute ( Seehandlung ), royal porcelain works, salt mines, state railways, the lottery, and various other less important interests. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. The general requirements for admission to all offices is the possession of the civil honor ( Elire ). Those who have served terms in penal institutions, or have been in houses of correction, are disqualified. Whether a civil officer must be by birth a Prussian is not provided for by public law, but one of foreign birth must obtain the special approba¬ tion of the King, and in certain cases of the head of the department in which employment is sought. Keligious beliefs do not enter as a condi¬ tion, except that those who have to do with ecclesiastical affairs must be of the Christian religion. All candidates must have performed the required military duties. In most cases the candidate is required to show that he has means sufficient of his own to support himself during the time he is preparing himself for permanent employment. The King appoints all officers, either himself, or by delegation. Since the development of the state’s service into a regulated organ¬ ism the method has arisen of selecting functionaries by means of exam¬ inations. As the complexity of the public service has increased, and CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 415 the variety and importance of tlie interests placed under public man¬ agement have become greater, pari passu lias tlie importance of these scholastic tests augmented and the standard of their requirements been raised. Embracing all branches of the service is the theory fol¬ lowed in Prussian administration, that no man shall receive an office who has not proved his mental qualifications and given a practical test of his fitness and aptitude. The examinations for different positions are naturally different* There is a distinction between the higher and lower branches, and between the legal offices ( Justizbeamten ) and the ordinary administrative offices ( Verwaltungsbeamten ), and especially between the offices in the various technical branches. In the higher offices is in general required a high scientific education, and a complete knowledge of the special branches ( Fdcher ) in all their parts. In the lower ranks is required a common education and a knowledge of the special work in their indi¬ vidual fields of activity. JUDICIAL OFFICERS. For the higher judicial service ( Justizdienst ) existed formerly three examinations, viz, (1) for the position of Auskulator {zum Auskulator ), (2) for the Eeferendariate {zum Refer endariate ), and (3) for the Asses- soriate {zum Assessor iate). Following the reorganization of the kingdom in 1849 and 1866 con¬ siderable changes were introduced. Through the law of May 6, 1869, were finally and legally settled and verified for the whole kingdom (the Bhine provinces excepted) the rules regarding the examinations for the higher legal offices, and the minister of justice was given charge of these matters. This law1 provides inter alia as follows: (1) A three years’ study of law at a university and the passage of two juristic examinations are required. Of the three years to he spent at a university, at least three semesters must he in attendance at one of the German universities. (2) The first examination is given hy an Oberlandesgericht (superior state court). The second examination — the u great examination of the state” — is for the whole monarchy, and is set hy the examination committee { Jiistiz-priifungs-lcommission). Before presenting himself for the first examination the candidate must submit a petition showing (1) the evidence of the required study at the university, (2) the proof of military service, and (3) a short autobiography in the candidate’s own handwriting, showing especially the courses of studies pursued at the university. After the examination of the petition, the president of the court has the power to dispose of it as he sees fit, hy consenting that the examination shall he taken or sending the candidate hack if all the requisites have not been properly presented and the conditions fulfilled. The first examination is both written and oral, and embraces the following subjects: Public and private law, legal history, and the 1 Gesetz fiber die juristisehen Prfifungen und die Vorbereitung zum hciheren Justiz- dienste, vom 6 Mai, 1869. Somewhat modified subsequently, especially hy law of August 22, 1879. 416 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. fundamentals of political service ( Staatsicissenschaft ). The candidate must exhibit such an insight into the theory and historical develop¬ ment of legal relations (Rechtsverhaltnisse) as will evidence his thorough comprehension of general legal and political rights. The candidate must further prepare a written theme for the commission, and has his choice of subject from the field of civil law, church law, civil procedure, and criminal law. Six weeks’ time is allowed for the preparation of this essay, which period can be extended to eight weeks at the discretion of the commission. At the end of his work the candidate affixes his oath that he himself has prepared it, and without assistance from others. After this work comes an oral examination, which is not public. The question as to whether the examination has been satisfactorily passed is determined by a majority vote of those forming the commis¬ sion; if the vote is equally balanced, the candidate is turned down. If turned down, he is sent back for six months additional preparation. If by the unanimous vote of the commission the candidate has passed very well, the oral examination is much abridged. When, after the additional time for preparation, the second examination is not satisfac¬ torily passed, the candidate is henceforth and forever disbarred from entrance into those classes of the public service that require such pre¬ vious preparation. Upon passage of this first juristic examination, the candidate receives a certificate from the commission. Upon this evidence he goes to the president of the district (Bezirlc) in which he wishes to perform his practical preparatory servic e (Vorbereitungsdienst). By this president he is named a referendar, and with this begins his Vorbereitungsdienst. Beferendars, before being allowed to take the second examination, are required to spend four years in practical preparatory service. Dur¬ ing this period they are engaged in the transaction of legal business, and are associated with a state’s attorney (Bechtsanwalt) or notaries under whose supervision they are. During this period the candidate’s work is so arranged that he is initiated into the practical workings of these affairs. Among other duties the referendar is allowed to attend to the duties of clerk of a court ( Gerichtssclireiber ). At the end of this four years’ service there is submitted an account of the manner in which the candidate has performed the work allotted to him. This report is in detail and is very complete. In some cases the four years’ limit is somewhat shortened on account of excellence of work. The u Great Examination of the State ” (die grosse Staatspriifung) is given by a commission composed of university professors and certain State legal officials, is both written and oral, and is of an eminently practical character. The purpose is to discover whether the candidate has a fundamental knowledge of the public and private law of Prussia, and is prepared for practical service as a Justizdiener. Here again there is a legal essay to be written, and a six week’s period allowed for CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 417 its preparation. The report must contain the complete exposition of some legal subject in all its relations and can be founded upon either past or current laws. If this written work be not satisfactory the can¬ didate is sent back to the superior state court ( Oberlcindesgericht) for further preparation. The oral examination is before three members of the commission. There is allowed only a single repetition of this states’ examination, the candidate who fails the second time being forever shut out from the higher judicial service. Those successful in the “states examination” are appointed legal asses¬ sors ( Gerichtsassessoren ) or attorneys ( Bechtsanwalte ) by the minister of justice. Under the law of May 6, 1869, the minister of justice was empowered to issue the necessary ordinances for properly carrying out in detail the general provisions of the law itself, and some of the foregoing con¬ ditions which have been stated have been taken from ordinances issued under said authorization. HIGHER ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICES. The fundamental law upon which rests the general system of civil- service examinations for entrance to the higher administrative branches of the Prussian Government is that of March 11, 1879, entitled “A law governing the requirements for the higher administrative service.” The provisions of this law are very similar to that of the law regu¬ lating higher judicial appointments, the essential difference being in the manner in which the period for political preparation is employed. The law1 applies to the appointment of functionaries in the following branches of the service : Section chiefs ( Abtheilungs dirig enten ), associates in the u administration” ( Eegierung ), and the higher positions under the presidents of the provinces (Oberprdsidenten) and the president of the “ administration ” ( Regierungsprdsidenten ), with the exception of justices and technical positions, as, for example, in forestry, public works, med¬ icine, and as teachers. Also under this law are appointed certain functionaries under the superior administrative courts (Oberverwctl- tungsgerichte) and the administrative courts of the district (BezirTcsver- waltungsgericliie). Those candidates desiring to enter the department of finance are required, in addition to the qualifications prescribed under this law for the higher administrative service in general, to have as well, a previous practical preparation in financial administration ( Steuerverwaltung ). The requirements imposed by this law for appointment to the above- mentioned positions are: (1) A three years’ study of law and political science at a university; (2) a juristic examination, governed by the law of May 6, 1869 ( ante ); (3) a two years’ preparatory service with a lGesetz betreffend die Befahigung fur den lioheren Verwaltungsdienst vom 11. Miirz 1879. ed 93- - 27 418 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. judicial authority ( Oerichtsbehorde ) and two years with an executive authority (Verwaltungsbehorde). (4) The candidate is now named a Referendar and is ready for a second examination, denominated a “ great examination of the state,77 and set by an examination commis¬ sion (“ Prufungs-Kommission f ur hohere Verwaltungsbeamte 77). This examination is both oral and written, and embraces Prussian public and private law, especially constitutional and administrative law, and political economy and finance. Upon the successful passage of this examination the Referendar is appointed by the minister to the position of assessor1 ( Regierungsassessor ) and is thereby judged to be qualified for entrance into the higher administrative service, including the posi¬ tions that have been enumerated above. The details of this law are largely regulated by the ordinance of May 29, 1879, issued by the ministry of State (Staatsministerium).2 THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE ROYAL FORESTS.3 * * * For appointment as “head forester77 (Oberforster) two examinations are required; (1) a forestry examination ( Forstreferendar-Examen ); (2) a state forestry examination (Forstassessor-Fxamen). The preparation for the forestry examination (No. 1) is by a course of systematic scientific study, and a practical service in forestry, in which is gained a knowledge of all branches of the science of forestry and phases of forestry administration. The candidate must show: (1) That he has taken a course as scholar ( Abiturient ) at a gymna¬ sium of the German Empire, or a Prussian school of exact science ( Realschule ). (2) That he is not over 22 years of age. (3) That he has the necessary physical qualifications — sight, hearing, speech, and muscular strength. (4) That he has led an upright and blameless life. (5) That he has spent the necessary time in service under a royal head forester, and that he has the certificate of that office to that effect. (6) A two years7 course at a forest academy or at a university which has joined to it a forestry institute ( Forstlehrinstitut ). ]A lateral or assistant judge. 2 The minister of the interior and of finance has the power to decree ready for the higher administrative service such persons as have been qualified for the higher Justizdienst and have performed three years’ service as a Justitiar, or with one of the Auseinandersetzungsbehdrde, as Spezialkommissarius, or in Kollegium ; or who have filled the place of Landrath, Kreis- or Amtshauptmann in the Hohenzollern domains. "Regulating appointment to this branch of the service are the following: Bestimmungen fiber Ausbildung u. Prfifung ffir den koniglichen Forstverwal- tungsdienst, _ vom 1. August 1883; Regulativ fiber Ausbildung, Prfifung u. Austel- lung ffir die unteren Stellen des Forstdienstes in Verbindung mit dem Militardienst im Jiigerkorps, vom 1. Februar 1887 ; Schriften ffir die Forsterprfifung,vom 3. Februar 1887. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 419 (7) Besides this, the candidate must have attended two semesters at a university in the study of law and political science. (8) Upon the completion of these studies and, at the latest, six years after the beginning of his preparatory period, the candidate is ready for the first examination. This examination embraces, besides forestry, cognate sciences (zoology, botany, mineralogy, chemistry, and physics), pertinent laws, and the necessary mathematics. The purpose of this examination is that thereby the evidence shall be obtained “that the candidate possesses the necessary general education and intellectual comprehension to pursue his specialty with satisfactory results, and that he has laid a sufficient scientific foundation for further practical development, and that upon the whole he exhibits just grounds for the belief that he will become a useful administrative officer in the royal forestry service.”1 (9) If successful in this examination the candidate becomes a Forst- referendar , and is allowed to continue his preparation, which consists largely of further, actual forestry service, though the theoretical study is continued. This period is spent under the supervision of a head forester and lasts two years, during which time is kept a detailed record of work done, observations actually taken, and progress made. (10) This period having been satisfactorily passed, the candidate is now ready for the state examination. This test is largely of a practical character, though the aspirant’s knowledge of political economy, finance, forestry administration, and forestry and hunting statistics is also inquired into. Upon a satisfactory showing in this last test, the candi¬ date becomes a “forest assessor” and is now placed upon the list (Amo drier) for the position of head forester. Until appointed, as oppor¬ tunity affords, the assessor is employed upon miscellaneous duties in the forestry service. A position in the royal forest administration can also be obtained through service in the field hunting corps (Feldjagercorjps or Jager- bataillon).2 The appointments which can be obtained in this way are forester (. Forster ), forest inspector (For st-Hulfsauf seller), and such other forestry officials whose salary is at least 750 marks yearly, but from whom there is not required a scientific education higher than that of royal forester (Konig- Forster). For entrance into the Hunting Corps there is required a certain amount of training in forestry, together with the necessary scientific knowledge. The practical service lasts two years. During service in the Hunting Corps the education in forestry matters is continued, not only by practical service in the woods, but by class-room instruction, and intermediate and final examinations are held, which must be passed 1 Law of August 1, 1883, section 12. 2Regulativ iiber Ausbildung, Priifung und Austell ting fur die unteren Stellen des F orstdienstes in V erbindung mi t dem Militardienst im J iigerkorps, vom 1. Februar 1887. 420 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. if the candidate, at the end of his military service, is to be given a position in the administration of the forests of the kingdom. Upon the passage of higher examinations, which are set from time to time, candidates can attain the degree of Forstassessor , and are eligible for appointment as head foresters. The acquirements for appointment as 1 1 patrolmen” and “under foresters” (Schutzbeamte and Unterforster , etc.), are naturally not so great as those for the higher positions. These are selected according to length of military service, and service as “head hunters” ( Oberjdger ) or ser¬ geants ( Feldwebel ). For these there are also appropriate examinations. THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE PUBLIC RAILROADS.1 The general conditions for admission to the railway service of the kingdom are as follows: (1) That the candidate shall not be over 40 years of age. For the positions of station policemen and firemen and locomotive engineers, they must be at least 21 years of age. (2) Suffi¬ cient bodily strength. (3) School education sufficient to enable the candidate to read and write plainly and to perform the simple examples in arithmetic. For such positions as locomotive firemen and engineers, telegraph agents, etc., special knowledge in matters pertaining to the duties of such places is required. (4) There is generally a year’s pro¬ bationary service before a permanent position is obtained. (5) Pro¬ motion is generally according to length of service and ability displayed. Examinations for promotion are held from time to time. (6) Those who have passed the higher State examination for the other branches of the public service can also qualify for the royal railroad service. public works ( Baufcich ). Entrance into the higher branches of this division of the public service is through a preliminary examination, and two chief examina¬ tions (Hauptpriif ungen). The Department of Public Works is in gen¬ eral divided into three divisions, architecture, engineering, and machin¬ ery (. Hochbaufach , Inge nieu r b a ufacii , and MascMnenbaufacJi ), and for each of these the examinations are different and distinct, and the other conditions also not the same. Previous to the preliminary examination there is required two year’s study in the division of Maschinenbaufa eh , an extra year’s service under a machinist. Following the preliminary examination is demanded two year’s further study before the first chief examination is taken. Following the first chief examination is needed a further period of preparation of three years in the case of architects and engineers, and two years in the case of machinists. This consists of genuine practical work. 1 Priifungsordnung fur die mittleren und unteren Beamten der Staatseisenbahn- Verwaltung, sowie Bestimmungen iiber die Annabme von Civilsupernumeraren fur den Staatseisenbabndienst. Vom 26. Marz, 1887. (Abgeiindert durcli Erlass vom 12. Miirz, 1890. CIVIL SERVICE IN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA. 421 The first and second periods of study are taken at a technical high school. The first chief examination is held in Berlin, Hanover, or Aachen, where there are examination commissions composed of teachers from technical schools, and selected practical workmen. The second chief examination is set by the head examination commission ( Ober Priifungs- Kommission) in Berlin. All of the examinations are of a highly tech¬ nical character, and are very thorough and exhaustive. The last examination includes: (1) The preparation of a special drawing of some plan or machine according to given data. (2) The performance of other written tasks. (3) An oral examination lasting two days in which is tested the knowledge of the candidate in all the branches of architecture and engineering, and has the further purpose in view of determining just what special character of work the prospective func¬ tionary is best fitted to perform ; whether in the divisions of streets and highways, of railways, of bridges, of waterworks, of machinery, or in the office. STATE MEDICAL OFFICES. These must have received the degree of m. d, from the medical faculty of a German university, after nine semesters’ study and a permitted dissertation. After this there is at least two year’s further prescribed work. Finally, there is the state examination, which is divided into the following seven divisions: Anatomy, physiology, pathology, sur¬ gery, materia medica, gynecology, and hygiene. The examination also includes practical bedside tests at a hospital. For state veterinary surgeons there are also appropriate examinations. MISCELLANEOUS. In the remaining branches of the public service, the same system of examinations for appointment is followed. The higher positions are awarded according to the tests described under the law of March 11, 1879, governing the requirements for the u higher administrative service” (fur den hoheren Venvaltungsdienst). Where special knowledge of a technical character is demanded, suit¬ able examinations are held, and for the subordinate positions appropri¬ ate educational tests are required. Thus the principle is everywhere followed, that there shall be no appointment made to a public position until the candidate has demonstrated his intellectual fitness, by a writ¬ ten or oral examination, and has proved his ability and aptitude by a probationary service ( Probedienst ). As a rule promotion is also largely determined by written examina¬ tions, the other determining element being excellence of service in the subordinate position. Thus, in the post-office, the “ collector of letters” is required to have had a course at a university, gymnasium, Realschule. After three years’ experience as collector, he may take an examination which embraces among other subjects a certain amount of knowledge 422 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. of foreign languages, and if lie passes, is appointed Postpraktikant or practitioner. After three years’ further service another examination can be taken, which being passed, the higher positions of the service are open to him. The choice of functionaries in the diplomatic service lies with the minister of foreign affairs, and appointments are regulated by the general requirements that prevail in other branches of the public service. None are appointed save those who have had a three years’ course at a university, have successfully taken an examination, and have had a year’s service with a judicial administrative authority (. Justizverwaltungsbehorde ) or state administrative authority ( Landes - verwaltungsbehorde). In addition there is also a special examination determining the candidate’s knowledge of the inner workings of the administrative methods and an acquaintance with the social and mate¬ rial conditions of the Fatherland. A complete knowledge of French is required, also a probationary service of one year or as an attache to one of the greater foreign missions. Most of the subordinate civil positions under the state are open to those who have completed the full term of from nine to twelve years’ service in the army. Yet all are required to pass suitable exam¬ inations and to perform a probationary service, except in the cases of those positions where the work is of a purely mechanical character. Those upon the retired or invalid military list are also eligible to posi¬ tions suitable to their physical capabilities. The right to appointment upon the police force ( gendarmerie ) is regulated by the ‘following con¬ ditions: (1) Nine years’ service in the army; (2) unstained reputation for truth, morality, and honesty; (3) bodily strength; (4) passage of an examination. This examination includes a ready reading and writ¬ ing knowledge of German script in the German or Latin letters, mental arithmetic, writing according to dictation, and two short essays upon suggested topics. Following the examination is in most cases a period of probationary service before a permanent position is awarded. The system of examinations for public-school teachers is carried out in detail, strict educational tests being required for appointment. In all the higher grades only those are allowed to present themselves for examination who have certificates of attendance at a university and gymnasium. It has not been thought advisable to detail the different subjects embraced in the examinations, which naturally vary accord¬ ing to the position to b§ filled.1 1 For details regarding appointment as teachers, see Ordnung der Priifung fur das Lehramt an hoheren Schulen, vom 5 Feb., 1887. Abgeandert bezw. erganzt durch Erlasse vom 31 Dec., 1887, 11 Mai u, 4 August, 1888, 2, 21, u. 26 Januar, 1889. CHAPTER XII. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN.1 GENERAL VIEW OF THE SYSTEM. The report of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1888-89 contained a statement of the system of education in Sweden in extenso. The general features of the system are here reproduced, with addi¬ tional information received since that date. The early history of both elementary and secondary schools may be traced in Sweden to the Reformation period, although the most earnest effort to establish people’s schools dates from 1640, when it was decreed that a school be established in each city. In 1649 a division into people’s and higher schools was made, and in 1686 the G-overnment was called upon to aid the peasantry through state subsidies for school purposes. The impossibility of supporting a sufficient number of sta¬ tionary schools for the people was soon demonstrated, and till 1786 the ambulatory school was deemed the only means of bringing children under the jurisdiction of a teacher, who himself was oftentimes hardly fitted for such a position. The influence of the church over the school is a special feature in Swedish educational history and many of the secondary or “ learned” schools, which date from the time of Gustavus Adolphus, were under control of the clergy, and by law of 1724, no one outside of the diocese could be employed as teacher. A distinct division into classical and non classical schools was made in 1820, but, as the result of prolonged discussions, a reuniting of u learned” schools and gymnasia was accom¬ plished in 1845. The burgher school and the ancient trivium , or Real school, have, in one form or another, been in existence two hundred years ; from 1807 the course of study in the trivium tended towards training for practical life ; in 1849 the two classes of schools were united. In the year 1824 the Bell-Lan caster, or monitorial system was introduced, and the year 1842 was notable for an entire reorganization of the school system. As it now stands the system embraces the ambulatory school, in sparsely settled districts ; the preparatory divisions (smaskolor) lead¬ ing to the stationary schools of each district or parish ; the normal schools of each chief town of the diocese; the higher elementary schools (since 1858) of villages and districts having more than 60 pupils; the secondary 'Prepared by Miss Prances Graham French, specialist in the school systems of Northern and Eastern Europe. 423 424 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. schools, consisting' of classical and modern schools (gymnasia and Real schools) which admit pupils from 9 years of age on; the universities, technical schools of higher and lower grade, agricultural, military, nav¬ igation, and medical schools. Illiteracy is almost unknown in Sweden, the very latest data showing that among the conscripts mustered there were only 0.27 per cent who were unable to read. Education in Sweden is essentially a concern of the state; the church, too, exercises super¬ vision, for the local school boards are expected to submit their reports to the bishops and consistory; the inspectors are often clergymen and so are the chairmen of the district or palish councils. There are central boards of officials connected with the different ministries, and in connec¬ tion with the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs there are two divisions — the one having charge of elementary schools, the other of secondary schools, and there are special inspectors who take charge of elementary schools in each diocese. Every school district has its school board — to which women are eligible for membership — for the superintendence of ele¬ mentary schools, and there is also a council of teachers for secondary in¬ stitutions, subject to the bishop or ephor of the diocese. Formal schools are directly supervised by the diocesan authorities, but all these grades of schools, through the system of inspection, are brought into direct com¬ munication with the central authorities, who in turn report to the King. Elementary schools are maintained by the parish, but since 1842 state subsidies are given for the payment of part of the teacher’s salary and for the pur chase of school material. The state maintains secondary and normal schools, and there are special subsidies for technical and Slojd training. The cities of Stockholm, Giiteborg, Malmo, Jdnkoping, and Forrkoping have special laws governing their schools. Swedish children are expected to be in school 1 from the seventh to the fourteenth year of age, and instruction is obligatory after the age of 9 years is reached, and it is also nominally free of charge. The average school year is thirty-six weeks. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The stationary and ambulatory schools, with their preparatory divis¬ ions (fasta folkskolor, flyttande folkskolor, and smaskolor), serve the purpose of giving an elementary education to children of school age in Sweden. As far as possible with the mountainous condition of the country there is intended to be a four-class central school of this grade, According to law of 1881, which is still in force regarding the employment of minors at factory work, manual labor, and other trades, children of 12 years of age are permitted in craft and factory labor if they have acquired the lowest standard of instruction of the people’s school. The period of labor for children to 14 years of age is six hours; for children from 14 to 18 years ten hours a day; uight work for children is prohibited. The observance of the law is controlled by the communal authorities. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 425 with a general grouping of smaller schools around. When this plan can not be carried out the ambulatory school fills its purpose, and lower grade schools or preparatory divisions give the first impetus to the child’s education. Where six-class schools are found the lowest classes are usually under the instruction of a woman teacher, who may be considered to be more in sympathy with the little children of from 7 to 9 years of age. For the young people of agricultural districts who have passed the school age, but who wish to obtain practical information which will be generally useful to them, there are the hogre folkskolor, which in 1891 numbered 25, with 927 pupils — men 622, women 305. Institutions for giving elementary instruction to working men have sprung into exist¬ ence within the last few years. Due at first to private initiative, they were found to be of so much value that the state has appointed higher grade teaehers to take charge of the instruction. In each school district the elementary grades are under the direct sur¬ veillance of the school board or council, presided over by the pastor of the parish. This board formulates regulations appertaining to instruc¬ tion, discipline, days and hours of study. It also endeavors to organize a parish library suited to the needs of the schools and it attends to the rental or construction of suitable buildings for school purposes — each building to be well ventilated, surrounded by a garden in which horticulture and arboriculture may be taught. The board also has to make annual report to the diocesan authorities as to the status of education in the district. In 1889 the number of children who were of school age was 764,909: boys, 388,539 ; girls, 376,370, that is, 16 per cent of the population ; the number of pupils who were under instruction was 715,878 ; those who had already left school after examination, 23,847. Hence we obtain the number 739,725, or 96 per cent of school age who were receiving or had received instruction. In 1891 out of 777,610 children of school age there were but 26,574 not availing themselves of tuition, either on account of illness, physical defects, or other causes. Besides these there were 29,803 who had completed the required course in the schools, and were thus exempt from further tuition. Of the remaining 721,233 children 656,947 received instruction in the elementary grades, 16,532 in private schools (13,470 in either secondary or technical schools, hence are not really to be included under this head), and 34,284 in their own homes, but under control of school boards. A child can not be admitted into school without a certificate of vaccination unless he has had small pox; all children are to be vaccinated before they are 2 years of age. In the primary schools coeducation is usual, although in some of the higher classes in the large towns boys and girls are instructed separately. 426 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. THE TEACHER AND THE GENERAL PLAN OF TEACHING. The following conditions are required of those who desire to obtain a position as instructor in primary schools : The candidate must lie 20 years of age, of good standing morally and religiously, have a normal school diploma, and be selected for the position by the school board from the candidates decided upon by the consistory of the diocese. University study, graduation diplomas from the normal schools, and attendance at a practice course in the normals are required of those desiring to teach in higher grade schools. Eegular teachers receive at least $160 a year ($188 after five years), with a small plot of land, lodging, fuel, fodder for a cow; this amount is increased in towns and cities to between $300 and $500, but in such case free lodging is not given, nor other material assistance. Pensions are accorded to all teachers, their widows and children. There are 12 normal .schools — 7 for men and 5 for women — with a four years’ course in each. The studies, which include among other branches, pedagogy and methods, gymnastics, horticulture, music and singing occupy thirty-four hours a week each in the first and second classes, thirty-three and twenty-six in the third and fourth classes. Six hours in the third and sixteen in the fourth class are devoted to practice teaching. In 1891 there were 470 men under instruction, 133 of whom had a diploma, and 361 women, of whom 145 had a diploma. The Swedes have endeavored not to encumber the primary school program with too many studies, the main effort seeming to be to give instruction tending to prepare for a practical life.1 The school board arranges as to duration of studies in the district over which it has con¬ trol. It is expected that there will be at least an eight months’ school and that the school-day be from five to six hours in length. In the two preparatory classes the maximum is five hours a day; in the primary school proper it is six hours. After each lesson the pupils have ten to fifteen minutes recreation — that is, fifty minutes of work, ten or more of recreation; during one recess lunch is partaken of. This regularity is due to Mr. Meijerberg,2 former inspector of primary schools in Stock¬ holm, who during his twenty-five years in that position made many improvements along pedagogical lines. In rural districts instruction is given five days of the week and Saturday is reserved for manual train¬ ing or Slojd in some form; in other localities from four to six hours a week are devoted to Slojd. 1 In the early part of 1891 a bill was passed by Parliament by which a new subject, that of the effects of alcoholic drink on the human organism, was to be introduced in the schools. JCarl Jonas Meijerberg was born on October 8, 1816, in Brumflo-Jamtland. He was educated at Upsala; became a school inspector at Bohuslan in 1861, thence to Stockholm in 1863, where during his years an inspector he saw the schools increase from 59 to 480, teachers from 60 to 500, pupils from 2,500 to 16,000. Mr. Meijerberg was Swedish Commissioner to the Philadelphia Exhibition in 1876. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 427 Instruction each week. Preparatory di¬ visions or Sma- skolor. Elementary schools. Hours. \ Hours. Hours. 3 Hours . Hours, j Hours. 3 a 1 a Biblical history _ _ .......... _ .... _ _ 5 1 5 1 2 1 ' 2 2 Heading . . . . . . . . . 6 7 6 5 1 4*. 2 2 4 Orthography . . 2* 2* 2 2 Cali graph v . . 6 | 4 2 j H 2 2 1 Geography . 1 History . . i . 2 2 Natural history . I . 2 2 2 Object lessons . 1* 1 1* ^2 1 4 Arithmetic . 4 4 ; 3 3 Geometry ................................... _ 2 Drawing . . . . . . . . 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 Singing . 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 Gymnastics . 1 2 2 I 2 2 i Total . . . 23 | 23 i 28 28 | 28 28 TRAINING IN SLOJD. 1 Sweden occupies an important position in a movement wlncli, during the past twenty years, has made manual labor a factor in all national education, a movement directed against the old-fashioned one-sided system of mental overwork. .The great interest in such movement manifested by many persons led to the introduction of Slojd in the Swedish schools; definite steps were also taken in the early seven¬ ties to establish special schools for a similar purpose. At first indi¬ viduals, provincial councils, and agricultural societies supported the work, but in 1877 Parliament voted $4,000 per annum for advancing Slojd instruction, which amount was increased to $30,000 in 1891, in addition to that which was given by provincial councils, agricultural societies, and parish authorities. The schools receiving the benefit of governmental stipends increased as follows : Tear. Schools. , Year. 1878 . 103 1885 . 1879 . 163 1886 . 1880. . 234 1887 . 1881 . 300 1888 . . 1882 . 377 1889 . 1883 . 463 1890 . . 1884 . 584 1891 . Schools. 727 872 991 1, 167 1, 278 1,392 1,492 As many schools are not aided by governmental subsidies it is con¬ sidered that the number reaches about 1,800 in all. Slojd is only obli¬ gatory in a few schools, but is generally encouraged by inspectors of the public schools and by special examiners. The “ Swedish Slojd system” is that form of Slojd worked out at the Kaas Normal College, or Seminary, which is a private institution described by O. Salomon, director of the Slojd Seminary at Naas, in “Swedish Catalogue, ii, Statistics prepared by Dr. Lofstrom for the World’s Columbian Expo¬ sition at Chicago in 1893.” 428 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. founded and maintained by August Abrahamson, near Goteborg. Many of tlie teachers of this branch in the public schools are graduates therefrom, and hence have introduced this form of manual work, although no particular system is enforced in the schools. Instruction at Naas is gratis. It consists of lectures and discussions concerning the methods, system, and history of educational Slojd, and also the making of a series of models in wood. There are now four courses a year at this Seminary, of six weeks’ duration each, attended by 270 students. From 1875 to 1892 there were 1,808 teachers on the rolls. The aim of educational Slojd is not so much to impart technical skill as to develop certain powers, physical, moral, and mental 5 to increase the pupil’s love for work, his love for independence, and to strengthen his physical powers; to teach precision, cleanliness, order, and attention, and to give him a knowledge of the value of manual labor. The Swedish system has limited itself in a measure to Slojd-carpentry, although in some of the Swedish public schools instruction is given in paper and metal-Slojd, wood-turning and wood-carving; it is intended for children between ten and fourteen years of age. Under the Slojd system small objects or models are made, and the so-called u form-work” offers opportunity for the development of the eye, fomt becomes in reality a modeling in wood, which like that in clay or wax is a complement to free-hand drawing. In Slojd- training the knife, the ax, the spoke-shave, and the shave-iron are used, the knife being especially characteristic of Slojd. The positions and movements required in Slojd exercises unite it in a measure with gymnastics, so that specialists in both lines have aided each other materially in producing a series of exercises which insure a harmonious development of the body. The pupil is made to use the tools in Slojd alternately with the right and left hand, so that the muscles of both sides of the body are equally exercised. Thoroughness is one of the requisites of Slojd-training, and the pupil is expected to work not only with exactness but with independence of reflection and execution. He is taught to think about what he is doing, and the teacher is not allowed to put his hands to the work, so that habits of self-reliance are also inculcated. The Naas series of exercises are 88 in number, and the intention is to have the models combine practical utility and aesthetic form. The pupil is taught to make objects which are useful at home, and as the natural development of the individual is the chief aim, all artificial competition is to be assiduously avoided. The methods employed in teaching Slojd according to the Naas system have made this phase of “ teaching” in the primary schools a most attractive one, and the same system has already been introduced in three or more normal schools. Girls are not neglected in this kind of training, although the skilled handiwork takes a different form. The aim of the instruction in fem¬ inine Slojd (as described by Miss Hulda Lundin, who is the inspect¬ ress of feminine slojd in the Stockholm schools, and who has made EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 429 this almost a life work) is, as stated in the prospectus, to exercise hand and eye, to quicken the power of thought, to strengthen love of order, to develop independence, to inspire respect for carefully and intelligently executed work, and at the same time to prepare girls for the execution of their domestic duties. Miss Lundin states that the desired results may be reached by practical demonstration of the subject, by progres¬ sive order with regard to the exercises, and class instruction. The practical demonstration is accomplished by means of a sewing-frame; in knitting, by means of large wooden needles and colored balls of yarn; by blackboard drawings. Progress from the simple to the complex may be best observed by a study of the work in the class divisions in the public schools of Stockholm with girls from 7 to 14 years of age. There are seven standards: in the first, two hours a week instruction in needle- work is given ; in the second, third, and fourth standards, four hours a week; in the fifth and sixth standards, five hours; in the sev¬ enth, six hours a week. Standard I covers plain knitting; II, plain knitting, and practice in different kinds of stitches, such as running- stitching, hemming, and overcasting; III, simple darning on canvas, making aprons; IY, plain and purl knitting, plain sewing; Y, knit¬ ting stockings, drawing patterns, and cutting out undergarments; YI, patching on colored material, stocking- darning, making button holes, and making thread buttons, sewing on tapes, hooks, and eyes; drawing patterns and cutting out undergarments; YII, fine darning and mark¬ ing, drawing dress patterns, cutting out of articles mentioned under II- IY, cutting and making dresses. The models are frequently drawn upon the blackboard by the teacher in charge of feminine Slbjd ; the girls receive the materials necessary for the work, and they copy the designs furnished, the teacher simply overseeing them to see that the ideas are properly carried out. In the lowest classes the ordinary teacher carries out the so-called Lundin method, but in the higher-grade primaries there are special teachers employed for the teaching of feminine skilled handiwork. There are 14 courses or standards before completion of this class of work, and a series of models is found in each school, in addition to those in charge of the inspectress of feminine Slojd. The pupils receive the work done in standards I to YI, II to XIII free of charge, and in the other standards only have to pay for the thread, material furnished, etc. THE SCHOOLS OF STOCKHOLM.1 The school laws are the same for all parts of Sweden and yet, as heretofore stated, there are city schools which are governed somewhat differently from those of the country at large. For this reason the organization of the Stockholm schools is here presented. The num¬ ber of districts or parishes in Stockholm is eight, each parish has its school, and its school council appointed by the inhabitants. In the 1 Revue Pedagogique, October, 1893. 430 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. rural districts tlie conformation of the country requires, in general, the establishment of various schools; in the city a parish, may have its one educational center with all grades under one roof, or whenever there are as many as 4,000 pupils in a single parish a subdivision is made by which the preparatory divisions, or smaskolor, were in separate buildings regarded as annexes to the central school. A central school board or higher council, composed of- a dozen mem¬ bers, including one member from each of the eight subsidiary coun¬ cils, a member appointed by the administrative authorities, a phy¬ sician, and a member of the consistory, has the general control of school affairs. The school board of each parish is presided over by a clergyman; its duties are to keep the school buildings up to the proper standard, to watch over the school attendance, and to suggest to the central board what reforms are needed. All expenditures are decided by the central board; the parish board proposes the candi¬ dates for teachers, the central board appoints them; the central board also appoints an inspector who submits to it the most important ques¬ tions appertaining to elementary education. It is noticeable that the central board has the controlling voice in Stockholm school affairs, while the parish boards are subordinate to it. The school year is of forty-one weeks, from August 15 to December 20 and from January 8 to J une 15. The school day is from 8 to 1 o’clock, or a five hours’ period. The youngest children have four hours. In all there are sixty minutes’ recreation, three times amounting to ten minutes each, with a thirty minutes’ period for lunch. Each class has its own instructor or instructress who teaches the ' different branches and supervises the discipline of that class. The highest classes, however, have special teachers for singing, drawing, and feminine Slojd. Mr. Meijerberg brought women teachers into the corps of instructors, an innovation which has had noticeable results, as far as the training of the youngest pupils is concerned, and to-day there are five women teachers to one man in the teaching corps of Stockholm schools. In the lower classes especially the woman teacher is preeminent, as well as in the classes for girls. If she has shown herself to be a good dis¬ ciplinarian there is no hesitancy in placing her in charge of the classes for boys of 10 to 12 years of age. In leaving the schoolroom for recreation the children march two by two, and a monitor chosen from the ranks, keeps order; in leaving for home after school hours the chil¬ dren are formed into squads, according to the district, a corporal has the squad in charge and each boy drops out near his home. The course of study differs only in extent from that given for the same grade of school throughout Sweden. In history, for instance, class three has ancient history, class four, the history of Sweden from 1060 to 1611; class five, from 1611 to 1818; class six, from 1818 to the present with a repetition of ancient history and that of the Middle Ages; class seven, repetition of history since the Reformation, also universal history. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 431 Slojd instruction has already been touched upon under that head¬ ing. The schools of Stockholm have 92 men and 431 women as regular teachers, all of whom have normal school diplomas, and each one of whom gives thirty hours’ instruction a week. At the head of each school is a director who gives from eight to a dozen hours instruction a week. Special teachers number 14 (7 men and 7 women) for singing and drawing, and 16 teachers for feminine Slojd. The salaries are grad¬ uated as follows : Men teachers. Women teachers. Crowns/ Crowns. Crowns. Crowns. Crowns. When first appointed . After five years . 1, 400 1, 600 1, 800 1,800 2, 000 2,200 2, 000 2,200 2, 400 1 1, 100 ' 1, 200 1,300 1,400 1,500 1,600 After ten years . * 26-8 cents to a crown. The director (or principal) receives in addition to his salary a supple¬ mentary amount which varies according to the number of pupils in school, from 500 to 1,300 crowns ($134 to $348). The number of pupils in Stockholm schools is about 20,000 (20,312 in 1892) j1 in 1862 there were only 2,500. In 1890 the proportions of absentees from various causes were: Sickness, 4*9 per cent: no causes assigned, 2 per cent; lack of shoes or garments, 0*7 per cent; author¬ ized absence, 3 per cent. This last enumeration comprises the chil¬ dren who are required to be at home to care for younger children, or who, during the warm season are sent into the country for their health. In 1890 there were 1,800 pupils in night schools, their services being required during the day by their parents. The authorities attend to the school attendance, requiring the own¬ ers or landlords of houses to furnish the police with information (presented on January 1 of each year) regarding the age, profession, or trade of their tenants. The police registers have consequently de¬ tailed knowledge of the people. The principal of each elemen tary school obtains from this source the number of persons of school age in his dis¬ trict, and information being also furnished as to the attendance at private schools, the necessary measures are taken for school attendance. Expenditures in 1890. Crowns. Men and women teachers . . . . . 664, 588 Slojd instruction . . 61,886 School material (or apparatus) . . 56, 351 Baths . 9,000 Heating and lighting . 98, 243 Pension fund . 12, 418 Pensions . 7, 450 Inspection, secretaries, cashiers . . . 13,000 1 Stockholins Stads folkskolor : Berattelse for ar 1892. 432 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Rentals (for the directors and central hoards) . . . 2, 400 Extras . 10, 154 Total . 935.493 For school houses . 260, 000 Grand total . 1,195,493 Note. — The totals do not always agree with the amounts given, hut it is impossible to know wherein the variance lies. That is, tlie sum of $320,392 was spent for the Stockholm schools, the Government contributing $58,156 towards that amount. The new school buildings are most luxuriously arranged ; particularly is this said to be the case with the .Frederic Adolphus and the Catha¬ rine schools, which resemble museums in their inner decorations. Each pupil has a separate desk, and neatness is observable everywhere, not the slightest ink spot being visible to the casual observer. The build¬ ings are several stories high, all class rooms open upon the same broad corridor, the windows being at the opposite sides. Bath rooms are so arranged that more than 4,500 pupils can be bathed every two days, each pupil receiving a douche and a warm-air bath. In all the par¬ ishes the poorest school children receive free dinner. In the Catharine parish 200 boys dine at school on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and 200 girls the intermediate days. The extremely impoverished receive also a glass of warm milk and a bit of bread. Cooking schools or classes are connected with some of the schools; in these regular instruction is given in simple diet. Vacation colonies (due to Mr. Meijerberg’s initiative), comprising each from 20 to 30 pupils, and in charge of a society with the princess royal as president, are sent into rural districts, near the sea if possible, during the vacation period, between June 15 and August 15. Each group has an instructress in charge, or the family of an instructor. There are daily occupations for bo th boys and girls ; the district physician looks after the health of the children. Stockholm districts support 44 of these rural homes, and in 1890 there were 498 children sent out. The expenditures were $4,288, not including gifts. SECONDARY EDUCATION. The secondary schools “do not form a direct continuation of the pri¬ mary schools as in the United States,”1 although they are preparatory to university education. These schools are all complete in their organ¬ ization, although they are usually considered to be of two kinds, the higher or complete schools with nine classes, and the lower or incomplete schools with two, three, or five classes. Yet “the teaching in these classes agrees precisely with that of the corresponding classes of the complete secondary schools.” The secondary schools consist of the information obtained from a thesis of Dr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt, Ph. D., of Stock¬ holm, presented at the International Congress of Education in Chicago in 1893. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 433 classical and u modern” (Real) scliools. The curriculum comprises nine years and the boys (girls are not admitted to these schools) must be 9 years of age before entering. The plan of instruction is the same for the first three years ; during that period German is the only foreign language taught. Then a bifurcation takes place, some pursuing the Latin (classical) course, others the English (modern) course. u Still, in all subjects other than Latin and English, instruction is as a rule the same for the two following years. French is taken up in the fifth year, both in the modern and the classical side.” The last four years, the sixth to the ninth, the pupils of the modern and classical lines are separated, and at the same period-— the sixth year — a new division takes place on the classical side. Greek is taken up by some, English by others — that is, there is u a full classical section and a half classical sec¬ tion.” At the close of the secondary course the maturity, or gradua¬ tion, examination takes place; the diploma attained, the student may then pass to the university, to military or forestry schools, or to low- grade positions in the Government service. This maturity examination is quite a severe one, and the boys of the modern (Real) side, not hav¬ ing studied Latin, must give special evidence “of greater knowledge in mathematics, natural sciences, and modern languages than the boys on the classical side.” The question has been broached in Sweden of bringing the elemen¬ tary and secondary schools into closer connection by eliminating one or more of the lower classes of the secondary schools, and making the elementary directly preparatory to the secondary school, thus, in a measure, forming a common school for all classes. Further reforms have been suggested which will take Latin and Greek out of the secondary schools to a great extent, and will place them in the univer¬ sity as a special department. Secondary education for girls wTas for¬ merly almost entirely of a private character, or was the result of aid from municipal authorities, but the present progressive movements have brought about State subsidies for such schools. As an outcome of the discussions concerning the great influx of students at the universities, and the need of more practical instruction of a secondary character for both boys and girls, the Palmgren Practical Work School was founded in 1876. While Slojd is a main feature of its curriculum, the aim of the school is to train both sexes in those studies which lead to practical life, and there is no special limit as to the elementary or secondary character of the school, nor as to the age of applicants for admission. The aesthetic side is not neglected, for the schoolrooms are ornamented with art works of various kinds, and even the desks and chairs have the style of the old Norse, the Gothic, or the German Renaissance period. The success of the school has been noticeable, and, in 1888, the maturity examination was successfully passed by two boys and two girls. The school has two divisions, the one for a cultivation of manual dexterity and the other for studies tend- ed 93 - 28 434 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. irig towards intellectual progress; in its preparatory classes children from 6 to 9 years of age haying no previous schooling are admitted. After passing through three classes they are fitted for the lowest classes of the Eeal schools or the gymnasia. The next division is that of a Eeal gymnasium with nine classes, then there is a seminary or normal school for the training of teachers of Slojd. The course is most comprehensive in character, giving, as it does, a liberal education and a most thorough training in Slojd. Slojd is obli¬ gatory upon all, and it includes feminine Slojd as well as that in which boys particularly are trained. Pupils who do not attend the school are admitted to Slojd instruction at a moderate fee. The three-months courses for the training of Slojd teachers include also lessons in draw¬ ing and the pedagogics of Slojd1. The number of secondary schools is 70, of which only about 30 fulfill the requirements as preparatory schools to the universities. The instruc¬ tion is nearly free, amounting to only about $8 or $10 for each pupil. In 1891 there were 14,474 students, and in the same year 650 students had passed the required examination for admittance to the universi¬ ties, among them 15 women. The expenditures for secondary educa¬ tion amount to nearly $1,000,000 a year. Students who wish to pursue a mercantile career attend the com¬ mercial schools (or colleges) of Stockholm and Goteborg, which have two-year courses and an average of more than 100 pupils, and which receive governmental subsidies as well as private donations. The stu¬ dents pay tuition fees also. Then there are private commercial schools which give excellent instruction. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. The presentation of the public educational system of Sweden would be incomplete without mention of the university, which is thus aptly described by Dr. Lagerstedt : The public universities of Sweden are two, the University of Upsala and the University of Lund. Besides these there is a faculty of medicine, or a “ medical col¬ lege,” in Stockholm. There are two other universities of Sweden, those of Stock¬ holm and Goteborg. They are only a few years old, and were founded and are maintained wholly by j>rivate means without aid from the state. But they will both, in all probability, soon be brought into the system of education. It is proper, therefore, that they be mentioned in this place. Each of the old state universities, the universities of Upsala and Lund, comprises four faculties or departments, the faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philoso¬ phy. The faculty or department of philosophy is divided into two sections, one for literature, history, philosophy, philology, and allied branches of knowledge; the other for mathematics and the natural and physical sciences. The original and chief object of a university is the promotion of knowledge. The teachers have to disclose and elucidate to the students the treasures of literature and the results of scientific investigation, as well as to direct the students’ own study. It is also expected of the professors that they shall themselves contribute to the advancement of human knowledge by observation and research. The proficiency of See Palmgrenska Samskolan i Stockholm. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 435 students in Swedish universities is, as elsewhere, ascertained by examinations, which are of a twofold character. The universities of Europe, generally, are expected to nil certain requirements demanded by the state. The state requires from its officials and from private citizens proposing to enter certain important vocations — that of medicine, for instance — that they give evidence of possessingthe knowledge and skill necessary to their special call¬ ing. Now, in some cases, the university teaching and the ordinary examinations have been considered as serving this additional public end. In other cases the universities have had to undertake the organization of courses of instruction required by the state for the purpose just mentioned, and the testing of proficiency therein by special examinations — civic or state examinations, as they may be called. This part of uni¬ versity work naturally has a less scientific character, it is more elementary, and the object of the examination is to ascertain that the students have attained certain fixed standards of knowledge rather than to ascertain the results of deep scientific study. The practical importance of this part of the universities’ work may some¬ times offer temptations subordinate to their strictly scientific wrork, and make the higher -examinations, the university examinations proper, by technicalities or regulation, too much like the civic or state examinations. The present regulations and arrangements of the Swedish universities seem to avoid this clanger. The faculties of theology and of law have both kinds of examinations, scientific and civic. Most of the students of theology and of law pass the civic examinations only, and thus become entitled to enter the service of the state as judges or other offi¬ cials of that of the state church as ecclesiastics. Some, however, of the law and theo¬ logical students take the university examinations proper, success in which, in some cases, gives them a preference in the matter of appointments over those of their colleagues who have been content to pass the civic examinations only. The department of medicine offers examinations of the higher grade only. As may be inferred from this, the studies of the Swedish medical students are very thorough. Generally it takes students eight to ten years of hard work after matriculation to com¬ plete their university studies. There are two examinations in the faculty of medi¬ cine. The first is merely preparatory to the second. The fourth of the faculties or departments is that of philosophy. Like the faculty of medicine, this faculty has no civic examinations. Neglecting some minor prepara¬ tory examinations that are passed by students wishing to enter the other depart¬ ments, there are two examinations in the faculty of philosophy, namely, the exami¬ nation for the rank of candidate of philosophy and that for u licentiate of philosophy.” To become a candidate of philosophy the aspirant must be examined in five different subjects, at least. These subjects may be chosen quite freely among the branches of knowledge that belong to both sections of the department of philosophy. The can¬ didate must give proof of complete mastery of one of these subjects, or, if he so pre¬ fer, of excellent attainments in two. If a candidate of philosophy wishes to obtain the rank of licentiate, he must be examined in at least two branches of knowledge, quite freely chosen from the curric¬ ulum of the department, and he must give evidence that he has acquired a deeper and scientific knowledge of them. A student is, however, not obliged to be a candi¬ date of philosophy before he attempts to obtain the licentiate’s degree, but may proceed immediately to the latter degree, though in this case he has to give evidence of his scientific study of at least three sciences or branches of knowledge. A licentiate of philosophy wishing to become a doctor of philosophy, in lieu of further examination, has to publish a scientific treatise, based on his own independent researches, and to defend this treatise publicly. If the thesis and the defense of it are considered to be satisfactory, the licentiate is admitted to the degree of doctor of philosophy. Each of the two university examinations may be considered to demand, as a rule, three or four years of study in preparation. There are two points to which attention is especially directed. The first is the 436 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. absolutely unlimited choice of studies open to the students within the limits of the department. It is quite lately that the examinations now in question have been so arranged as to permit such choice. Formerly some subjects were optional, others remaining compulsory, and there were rather intricate regulations with regard to the combination of subjects; some might be combined, others not. The allowing of this unlimited choice of subjects is considered in Sweden to be a decidedly pro¬ gressive step, and one that will prove of great use in advancing deep and true scientific study. The other point is the regulation permitting students who have passed the entrance examination to the university without Latin to bo nevertheless admitted to the examinations for candidates and licentiates of philosophy, provided that the sub¬ jects chosen for examination are chiefly mathematics and natural sciences. This is quite different from the plan at the German universities. But Latin is still required in Sweden of all who wish to pass other university examinations. Most of the students who pass the examinations for candidate or licentiate of philosophy afterwards become teachers in the secondary schools. There are two classes of such teachers — a higher and a lower one. The former class chiefly instructs the senior students in the secondary schools; the latter teach the lower classe's. The teachers of the higher order must be licentiates or doctors of philoso¬ phy ; those of the lower class at least candidates. It is required, moreover, of both that they so pass their examinations that a cer¬ tain number of the school subjects, four or five, shall have been included, in accord¬ ance with special regulations, which need not now be specified. The two younger universities of Sweden, those of Stockholm and Goteborg, will probably in a short time be allowed to hold examinations of the same kind as the old state universities, and students passing such examinations will have the same rights as if they had passed those of the old universities. No applicants but those who have passed the maturity examination will be admitted to these university exami¬ nations, just as is now the case in the other and older universities. There will, how¬ ever, be an important difference between the old state universities and these new independent ones. While the former admit no other students than such as have passed the examination of maturity, the latter will also admit other students, such as are called in America special students. These are only required to give some proof, generally by a special examination, that they are capable of receiving the instruction in the subject or in those subjects which they propose to follow. After having completed such a special study at the university, the student, if he wishes, is examined therein, and, if successful, receives a certificate indicating the result of his work. To this kind of examination, as a matter of course, every student of the universities may be admitted. It may be seen, then, that it is the aim of the young universities to compete with the old ones as centers of higher scientific teaching, and, at the same time, to make their instruction and resources accessible to wider circles of students. Women have been admitted to the Swedish universities for about twenty years. The number of women students, however, has been, and still is, comparatively small, and only a very few, hardly ten, have left the universities after having passed a complete university course. The number of students at Upsala may be estimated at from 1,800 to 2,000; at Lund from 900 to 1,000; at Stockholm, 200; in Goteborg, 100. The university at Goteborg has, at present, a department for the humanities. The one at Stockholm also has the humanities, departments of mathematics and natural sciences, and will soon start a department of law. The Pharmaceutic Institute in Stockholm imparts the knowledge requisite for practicing pharmacy. Its students average about 70. In order to practice dentistry the so-called student’s examination has to be passed, also two special examinations in the presence of examiners appointed by the Royal Medical Board. The course is about three years. There are dental colleges in Stockholm and Goteborg. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 437 TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. Iii Sweden the interests of technical education are promoted by means of many colleges of greater or less importance, as is stated by Herr Rector Y. Adler in the u Swedish Catalogue, n, Statistics, by Dr. S. A. Lofstrom, World's Columbian Exposition, at Chicago, in 1893.” The Technical High School stands foremost in this work, and the noted Technical School of Stockholm holds a place of its own. For the training of engineers, pos¬ sessing, however, fewer resources than the high school, are Chalmer’s Technical Institute in Goteborg and the four state elementary technical schools in Malmo, Norrkdping, Orebro, and Boras. To these intermediate schools must he added the Technical Professional School at Eskilstuna, and the 29 lower technical professional schools, which are supported by the state. There are, besides, the Slojd Society’s School in Goteborg and a newly-established school in Lulea, which, to date, have worked without Government support. The Technical High School at Stockholm/ which is the principal polytechnic institute in Sweden, has for its object the scientific training of young students who intend to devote themselves to some technical occupation. “The subjects of instruction at this high school are: Mathematics, geodesy, topography, descriptive geometry, elementary mechanics, higher theoretical mechanics, descriptive mechanics, the theory and practice of machine construction, mining mechanics, the study of steamship construction, mechanical technology, gen¬ eral and applied physics, general and analytical chemistry, chemical technology, laboratory work, mining chemistry, general and special metallurgy (of iron, etc.), mefc- allurgic laboratory work, mineralogy and geology, mining, building, building esti¬ mates, architecture, history of architecture, construction of roads and waterways, linear drawing, free-hand drawing, ornament modeling, political economy, and fac¬ tory work.” The high school includes the following five technical departments, viz. : (I) Machine construction and mechanical technology, with from three to four years’ course; (II) Technical chemistry, with a three years’ course; (III) Metallurgy, in three subdivisions, the first for mining mechanics, with a four years’ course, the second for metallurgy and smelting, the third for mining; the two latter divisions being courses of either three or four years; (IV) Architecture with a course of four years; (V) Road and waterway construction, with equal courses of four years’ dur¬ ation. The course of instruction during the first year is the same for all the ordinary pupils at the school; then special studies are pursued. The students at the high school are: (1) Ordinary, who attend until they have acquired the amount of skill requisite to the obtaining of a full certificate after a complete course; (2) Special, who, when they show themselves possessed of the skill required by the directors, enjoy instruction in a lesser number of subjects, and may obtain certificates of their attainments in those branches; and (3) extra pupils who need not give any previous proof of their ability by passing an entrance exami¬ nation, and who may enjoy the instruction, but are not entitled to receive any testimonial from the college as to their attainments. For ordinary students the instruction is free; special and extra pupils pay a fee fixed by the directors and varying between 10 kr. and 50 kr. ($2.68 — $13.40) per term. The management of the high school is under the direction of a governing body appointed by the King. The high school has, moreover, a library of about 23,000 volumes, and above 500 manuscript reports of technical matters furnished by traveling students, and it owns in addition a valuable collection of models, instruments, etc., used at lectures on the various branches of study. The Technical School in Stockholm has for its aim to give a clear and practical training in the knowledge requisite for an intelligent and accurate execution of 438 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. industrial -work, and by this means to further Swedish handicrafts and the develop¬ ment and improvement of art industry. The departments are five in number, viz : (1) The Technical Evening and Sunday School, intended for pupils (above 14) and men, more particularly those who are already engaged in factories and handicrafts. The pupils have free choice of subjects, and the scheme of study is so arranged that they may make a selection from eighteen branches of industrial education; (2) the Technical School for Women (students above 14 years of age) seeks to develop that intelligent and artistic insight and skill which are the bases of such technical employment as may be most profitably pursued by women. The subjects of instruc¬ tion are nine in number, and are according to the students’ choice ; (3) the Higher Art Industrial School for both men and women students (above 16 years of age), and the three years’ course of instruction demands the whole or the greater part of the school day during the term. In the first section of this school is taught pat¬ tern drawing (both for eabinetmaking and artistic metal work, etc.) ; in the second, the branches pursued are decorative painting, lacquer work, etc; in the third, mod¬ eling, ornament, etc. ; in the fourth, wood carving, chasing, engraving and work in the finer metals ; and in the fifth section are trained the future teachers of drawing, modeling, and lettering in the schools for secondary instruction, technical element¬ ary schools, and normal colleges for teachers; (4) the school of building, with a three years’ course and an obligatory scheme of instruction, gives the training requisite for the strict accuracy demanded in the preparation of building plans; it receives pupils above 16 years of age; (5) the school for machine work (founded 1890) gives such instruction as is required for the extremely accurate knowledge demanded by mechanical technical work, and it receives pupils who are above 16 years of age. The first section is for the training of chief engineers, machinists, and draftsmen in mechanical workshops; in the second, foremen of mills receive instruction ; the third deals with assistant engineers and machinists, workers of metal plate for steam boilers, smiths, makers of mechanical instruments, makers of clocks and watches, etc.; in the fourth, shipbuilders receive their training; the fifth gives instruction to metal plate workers for house, bridge, and railway construction, and to constructors of water and gas systems, etc.; the sixth, to founders, and the seventh is for the training of electro-machinists. An additional day school gives daily instruction in professional and decorative painting. aThe ordinary subjects of instruction at the technical school are: Geometrical construction, descriptive geometry, linear drawing, perspective and free-hand draw¬ ing, industrial art designs, figure and landscape drawing, painting (after ornamental and detached objects, bas-reliefs, drapery, plants, animals, etc.), modeling (from ornaments and figures), arithmetic, algebra, geometry, analytical and applied mechanics, mechanical drawing and mechanical technology, experimental physics, chemistry and chemical technology, knowledge of commercial objects, instruction in tools, building construction, architecture and design, elements of field survey¬ ing and leveling, composition, bookkeeping, ornamental lettering, together with caligraphy, advanced industrial art designs, wood carving, embossing, chasing, engraving, making of plaster casts, elementary history of art, estimates and (since 1887) special designs and applications for embossed leather work and painting on porcelain and glass. Of no small importance is the instruction in the extraordinary subjects of training, for Avhich division of work a special Government grant of $1,070 is received. The subjects taught include knowledge of styles and ornamental design, decorative and professional painting, art needlework, photography, hygiene of dwelling houses and workshops, and gymnastics.” The lecture rooms contain valuable collections of such models and engravings as are of illustrative importance in the instruction. The library numbers 10,000 vol¬ umes, mostly technical literature, and a well-arranged collection of more than 18,000 j design engravings. The school museum embraces many thousand models, consist- j ing in great part of plaster casts and metal castings from famous monumental con¬ struction; a collection of copies of Italian decorative paintings, models for wood EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 439 carving, fine metal work, art textiles, etc., a technical collection of dyestuffs, metals, weaving material, all the kinds of wood usually emjiloved in various branches of carpentry, etc. Ch aimer’s Technical Institute in Goteborg is for the training of such young students as are intended for those industrial professions which demand a knowl¬ edge of natural science and especially an acquaintance with technical chemistry ; the institute gives such teaching in a higher and in a lower division. The higher or technical scientific division embraces three classes of a one year’s course and then divides after the first year’s training into four different sections, viz : the mechanical-technical, that for technical chemistry, the section for construction of roads, waterways, and buildings, and, finally, that for shipbuilding. The lower division, in which the teaching is of a general comprehensive and practical character, embraces two one-year classes. There are, besides, in Sweden, four technical elementary schools — in Malmo (founded 1853), in Norrkoping, Orebro, and Boras. Their object is to impart ele¬ mentary technical knowledge to young pupils wishing to fit themselves for indus¬ trial occupations. The subjects taught are mathematics, mechanics, physics, chem¬ istry, mineralogy, and geognosy, the Swedish language, the principal modern lan¬ guages, according to choice, commercial bookkeeping, architecture, free hand draw¬ ing, modeling, and factory work. The technical school in Eskilstuna consists of two departments. The older of these, the Sunday and evening school, is intended for instruction in the most neces¬ sary elementary technical knowledge, of such persons who are already engaged in industrial pursuits, especially in the iron and steel manufacture. The subjects of instruction (all optional) are mathematics, descriptive geometry, linear drawing, general mechanics, mechanical technology, practic-al mechanics, machine drawing, physics, chemistry, freehand drawing, modeling, professional drawing, good hand¬ writing, the Swedish language and bookkeeping. The instruction is given in a higher and in a lower course, both of two years. The Sunday and evening school is in yearly receipt of a grant of $2,144. The second department is for instruction in finer smith’s and metal work; it receives (since 1889) a yearly grant of $402 from the town of Eskilstuna, and an annual grant from the Government of $1,072. The subjects are freehand drawing, modeling, wood carving, engraving in metal, metal casting, chasing, embossing, etching, galvanizing, smithing, filing, turning, letter¬ ing and knowledge of styles. In 1892 there were 29 lower technical work schools in various large towns, and intended principally to give young people, engaged in handicrafts and manufac¬ tures, the necessary instruction in their native language, good writing, arithmetic, freehand drawing, linear drawing, professional drawings, modeling, and various forms of instruction in professional painting, building design, machine and build¬ ing drawing. The number of teachers and pupils at the technical schools during the spring- term of 1892, and the amount of Government and communal subsidies in the same year, is shown in the following table: Schools. Subsidy for 1892. Pupils. Teachers. Government. Communal. Men. Women. Technical high school, Stockholm . $39, 316 i 272 : . 26 Clialmer’s Technical Institute, Goteborg . 10, 666 212 ... 13 Technical school, Stockholm . 25, 212 $2, 010 981 | 451 70 Technical elementary schools (4 in number) . . . 25, 406 a 134 240 . 38 Technical school at Eskilstuna . 3,216 402 155 4 11 Technical professional schools (29 in number) . 9. 326 17, 500 2,915 851 201 Total . 113, 142 20,046 4,775 i 1,306 359 a Besides free local. 440 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Besides tbe above-mentioned subsidies, tbe schools bad the nse of donated funds as follows: Technical high school, $33,500; Chalmer’s Technical Institute, $93,800; technical school at Stockholm, $16,884; technical school at Eskilstuna, $7,370. AGRICULTURAL, DAIRY, FORESTRY, AND MINING SCHOOLS. There are twenty-five agricultural schools in different parts of the kingdom which are aided both by the Government and by agricultural societies. They give practical education to young men, such as will enable them to carry on farms of their own. There are also higher schools of agriculture at Ultima, near Upsaia, and at Aluarp in Skane, connected with both of which are extensive farms. Instruction in gar¬ dening is also given at all these schools, at the normal schools, and there are school gardens in connection with the common schools, the parish granting the necessary ground. The Government also supports a dairy college, which is intended to train teachers and dairymen in the management of a dairy ; this college has a twelve months’ course. There are also two dairy schools having yearly courses, and 18 stations with two-year courses for training dairymaids. A higher grade forestry school was established in Stockholm, in 1828, with the object of diffusing more general knowledge of the economy of forestry and the chase, and also for giving practical training to for¬ esters. Tuition is gratis, and the requisites for admission are a strong Xihysique and the passing of the university- entrance examination with a preparatory one-year course at the Omberg School of Forestry. The course of study is two years. The teaching corps consists of a director, two professors and five teachers ; the students numbered 22 in 1892. The Omberg school is preparatory to the Stockholm school, and there are five other schools devoted to the training of foresters or rangers. Total number of students, 60 in 1892. Mining schools are three in number. The higher grade school forms a division of the technical high school in Stockholm; the lower grade mining schools are in the mining districts of Falun (dating from 1822) and Filipstad (from 1830). The Government and the Association of Ironmasters defray the expenses; the association provides for the practical instruction in the Stockholm school, and there is an equal division between the Government and Association as regards the cost of teaching in the other schools. TRAINING FOR THE ARMY AND NAVY. The Royal Military Academy, founded in 1796, has as its object the promotion of military science. Then there are the staff and military colleges, the military riding school and the artillery and engineering school. The staff college in Stockholm has a two-year course and is chiefly designed to train staff* officers; it numbered 38 pupils in 1892. The high school for the royal artillery and engineers in Stockholm numbers 51 pupils; the military college at Karlberg, near Stockholm, EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 44 1 trains young men wlio desire to become officers in the army. Fifty-six pupils passed their final examination in 1892. The military riding school at Stromsholm, and schools for corporals, cadets, noncommis sioned officers, and gunnery schools complete the army training. The Royal Naval School in Stockholm trains officers for the navy and had 73 students under instruction in 1892. For the ordinary forms of navigation and engineering there are schools of navigation in Stockholm, Goteborg, Gefle, Malmo, Kalmar, Hernosand, Yisby, Karls- hamn, Yestervik, and Stromstad, the aggregate number of pupils being- 338 in 1892. During the year 126 pupils passed the mate’s examination, and 74 that of master: 55 passed as ordinary engineers, and 32 as chief engineers. THE DEFECTIVE CLASSES. By law of May 31, 1889, the education of deaf-mutes of school age is made compulsory, and Sweden has been divided for this phase of edu¬ cation into seven districts, each one being responsible for the education of the deaf-mutes within its jurisdiction. Prior to such law the deaf were educated at the Manilla Institute in Stockholm, which was founded in 1809. For adult deaf-mutes there are asylums in Yadstena, Bollnas, and Skara. A governmental subsidy of $53,600 is granted annually for the education of the deaf-mutes. The census of 1890 enumerated 5,307 deaf-mutes in Sweden — 2,952 of them men, 2,355 women. The blind are under instruction at the Royal Institute for the Blind at Tointeboda, near Stockholm, and in two smaller institutes which also receive governmental aid ($3,000 in 1891). The Royal Institute receives an annual subsidy of $13,500 and has to date 76 pupils. For the printing of reading matter for the blind $700 was granted during 1891 and $300 for the support of pupil teachers. The blind people of Sweden numbered 3,948 in 1890 — males, 1,880 ; females, 2,068. In Skara an asylum for blind and deaf-mute children had 11 pupils. The more seriously afflicted — the idiot — is also* well taken care of, for there are 16 educational institutions, with 432 places, for this class, 6 industrial homes capable of housing 84 pupils, and 8 asylums affording place for 106 children, besides a number of private asylums. The school for idiots in Stockholm has a training department for female teachers and nurses. The number of idiots of school age, according to a late estimate, is 2,000. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE CHARITIES. The Swedes take good care of their poor, for, in addition to what is done for the adult population, there are special regulations for the care of poor children of school age, as heretofore mentioned ; and more, there are children’s homes and institutions for the relief of the poor. The 442 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. public hospital for infants in Stockholm is especially noteworthy for its furnishings and general arrangements, and there are other public hos¬ pitals which may be counted among the charitable institutions, as they admit poor people at public expense. Private charities are conducted by private societies, among which may be named the Charity Organi¬ zation Society of Stockholm. The Masonic fraternity also supports a large orphan asylum in Stockholm. Charitable institutions, endow¬ ments, etc., bring the amounts contributed for the help of the poorer classes to about $130,000 annually, and nearly twice that sum is given for infant education and care. Counted among the aids to the poor are the people/s kitchens, where, when there is scarcity of work, plain and substantial meals are given for nothing, or for a merely nominal sum, to those who are in need of assistance. EDUCATIONAL AIDS. Under this heading may be grouped the libraries, museums, art and archaeological societies, conservatories of music, academies and learned societies, college gf antiquities, and anthropological and geographical societies. For the higher development of civil engineers there are the Royal Boards for Public Buildings and for Road and Water Works, which under governmental contracts give opportunity for technical advance¬ ment. The Economic Survey of Sweden and the Royal Board of Land Surveying furnish accurate knowledge as to the land area, boundary lines, etc., of the country. The Topographical, Geological, and Hydro- graphic Surveys are each in turn carrying on technical work of great value, but which can only be touched upon incidentally here. There are lectures in schools and associations upon the development of photographic art, and there are clubs and societies which have exhibitions of photography. This art is also taught in the technical schools, and for technical execution there are special schools of photo¬ graphy established, from which selected pupils go to the Academy of Fine Arts. The public libraries of Sweden, dating from 1886, have, under the auspices of the Royal Library in Stockholm, annually issued a cata¬ logue wThich includes the foreign accessions to the libraries in Stockholm, to those of the universities at Lund and Upsala, to the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Literature, History, and Antiquities, to the Academy of Fine Arts, to the Academy of Agriculture, to the Caroline Medico-Surgical Institute, the Swedish Society of Physicians, the Tech¬ nical High School, the Stockholm Technical School, the Central Bureau of Statistics, Library of Parliament, and to the libraries belonging to the students and to the Society of Sciences in Upsala. This catalogue is furnished, in accordance with the Swedish copyright law, to the first three libraries, and by means of this cooperation the value of all these libraries is greatly enhanced. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 443 The Royal Library in Stockholm numbers 230,000 volumes, 7,800 MSS., and thousands of portfolios containing maps, engravings, etc. In 1892 there were 1,194 foreign works received and 13,162 from the Swedish press. The libraries of the universities number 220,000 vol¬ umes at Upsala, and 130,000 volumes at Lund; of late years they have received increased subsidies for purchase of new works, and have enlarged their reading rooms. The Academy of Sciences owns about 50,000 volumes. There are school libraries in Strengnas, Vesteras, Skara, Linkoping, and Vexjo, Popular and parish libraries are devel¬ oping rapidly both in Stockholm and in rural parishes. The museums and collections may be enumerated as follows: The National Museum in Stockholm, with 1,450 oil paintings, 100,000 engravings and sketches, 850 works of sculpture of marble and bronze, besides antique vases, terra-cottas, Egyptian antiquities, a historical division and a cabinet of medals; the Museum of Natural History, divided into six sections and under the supervision of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Stockholm; the Historical Museum of the University of Lund, with 10,000 objects on exhibition, the Stone Age being especially well represented; the Nordiska Museum, with its Scandinavian ethnographical collections; the College of Antiquities, which cares for manuscript, antiquities, with special interpretation of Icelandic manuscripts concerning Scandinavian history; collections of art, historical portraits, etc., at the royal castles of Gripsholm and Drottningholm; important collections of natural objects at the Uni¬ versities of Lund and Upsala, in Goteborg, and in many of the schools for secondary education. The academies and learned societies include the Swedish Academy, established in 1786 for the purpose of giving the Swedish language a definite form, and which commenced “the dictionary of the Swedish language” in 1893 — this dictionary to be completed in forty years; the Royal Academy of Sciences, established in 1739 by Linne and other scientists, and which has for its object the promotion of physical sciences and mathematics; the Royal Academy of Literature, History, and Antiquities, founded in 1753, and dealing largely with archaeological matters; the Royal Aca,demy of Fine Arts, founded, in 1735, for the development of painting ; the Royal Academy of Music, founded in 1771, which receives a governmental subsidy of $12,000, and $1,600 for encouraging composers, and which has a conservatory of music con¬ nected with it; the Royal Academy of Agriculture, and the Royal Mili¬ tary Academy, both described previously. The learned societies are: TheRoyal Society for Publishing Manuscripts Relating to Scandinavian History, founded in 1817 at Stockholm; the Royal Society of Sciences, in Upsala, founded 1710; the Royal Physiographical Society, at Lund, in 1778; the Royal Society of Sciences and Belles Lettres, at Goteborg, founded in 1778; and the Royal Naval Society, at Karlskrona, in 1771; the Society for Publishing Swedish Mediaeval Literature, the Swedish 444 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Society of Physicians, the Society of Apothecaries, the Pedagogical Society, the Society for Promoting Fine Arts, the Anthropological- Geographical Society, which annually presents a medal to a geographi¬ cal explorer j the Geological Society, and the professional unions at the universities. SWEDISH GYMNASTICS.1 One of the most important adjuncts to education is conceded by the Swedish people to be that of gymnastics, and so many have been the adherents in Sweden and other countries to the system now in vogue as to give it the title of Swedish gymnastics. Training of this kind is obligatory in every school, and its influence is noticeable in the fine bearing of the Swedish children. The Swedish system was founded hy P. H. Ling 2 (1777-1839), a patriot, gym¬ nast, and poet, who was inspired with a desire to revive the ancestral spirit in the Swedish people by the help of sport and song, to draw out once more the great qualities, the strength, the courage, and the will, which, in old times, had distinguished the Scandinavian race. After a hard struggle he succeeded, in 1814, in founding the state institution, known as the Royal Central Gymnastic Insti¬ tute, where all teachers of gymnastics throughout the country receive their train¬ ing. To this establishment are due the uniformity and homogeneity which mark Swedish instruction in this subject. The institute has a threefold purpose: it teaches ordinary gymastics for pedagogic purposes, as well as military and medi¬ cal gymnastics. A complete training in all three branches entails a course of three years. Ling’s creative genius produced a system based on ordinary physio¬ logical laws, which was afterwards developed by his pupils and successors. The great end and aim of the system was general social education from a physical, moral, and disciplinary point of view. Its distinguishing qualities are simplicity, natural¬ ness, and truth. Its exercises may be adapted to every individual disposition and measured so as to suit varying degrees of strength, even the sickly and deformed being able to take part, as special exercises are arranged for them. Daily exercises, according to the Swedish system, are intended to promote a symmetrical growth of the body, and only such movements permitted as, according to anatomical and phys¬ iological laws, would bring about this aim. Bodily health and a harmonious devel¬ opment are the end and aim of instruction in this branch. For this reason the movements arc divided into classes according to their effect upon the human body, while the individual movements of each class are arranged in order of progression to follow the growing strength and proficiency of the pupil. The same system is followed throughout the country in public and private schools alike, as well as in the army and navy. In the state schools, in which the teaching of gymnastics is required by law, the instruction is subject to the inspection of the Central Institute. The larger towns have gymnastic clubs and associations, which enable young men to continue their exercises after they have left school. These clubs are generally under the guidance of instructors who are graduates of the Cen¬ tral Institute, and, while the same system is followed as elsewhere, they often extend their practice to what may be called applied gymnastics, the object being to intro¬ duce a more sporting and recreative element and to obtain information as to the ’Information obtained from the article by Capt. V. Balck, Dr. A. Wide, and Dr. A. Levertin, as j>resented in “Swedish Catalogue n, Statistics, 1893,” prepared by Dr. Lopstrom for the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, 1893. 2 Gymnastikens Allmiinna Grunder af Ling. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 445 individual development and strength. Fencing, sword, and bayonet exercises are practiced in the army and navy 1 and in the schools attached to both services, as well as in the amateur clubs of the larger towns. Fencing and sword exercises are taught in the higher grade public schools. Medical gymnastics and the art of mas¬ sage have served to bring the Swedish system to the knowledge of the people of other countries. Of late years gymnastic associations for women have been formed, and among those especially to he noticed are the associations for women of the working classes.1 The mode of treating diseases aQfording to Ling is derived from and founded on his iiedagogical system, and this special form of training is taught both in the Cen¬ tral Gymnastic Institute and the Gymnastic Orthopedic Institute (both in Stock¬ holm), the latter a state institution since 1827. The course for the kinesipathists — embracing educational gymnastics also — occupies a three years’ period for men and two years for women; the requirements for admission being, for men, the pre¬ scribed course for matriculation at a university, and for women a corresponding high school examination. For physicians there is a twelve months’ course. At the Gymnastic Orthopedic Institute physicians and medical students are instructed, special educational courses being held for this purpose in the autumn and spring. As about 80 persons can attend each course, every Swedish physician becomes versed in medical gymnastics. In addition to the two state institutions there are institutes for manual gymnastics in almost every town, and during the summer at every watering place in Sweden. Every kinesipathist who has passed his final examina¬ tion and been acknowledged by the Royal Medical Board may open a kinesipathic institute in conjunction with a physician. The Swedish kinesitherapy, or move¬ ment cure, embraces active, passive, and so-called resisting movements; it embraces the usual massage treatment — massage being simply an integrate part of the move¬ ment cure. According to Ling’s system it is more especially used in treating nervous disorders; it is also used by young people of weak development, who possibly can not endure educational gymnastics, and it is regarded as an excellent therapeutic agent. To further develop the study of gymnastics there is the Scandi¬ navian Gymnastic Instructors7 Association, meeting monthly in Stock¬ holm from September to May, when lectures and discussions are held in regard to all branches of gymnastics. Every two or three years there are also special meetings in Stockholm or some one of the towns of Sweden. The endeavor is made to bring about the development of national gymnastics as a science, and the organ of the association — T'idskrift i Gymnastik — published since 1874, is an important factor in this matter. GENERAL TREND OF EDUCATION.2 The following gleanings from periodicals serve to indicate the latest educational movements in Sweden. At date of November, 1891, the appointment of Mr. Gilljam as minister of ecclesiastical affairs was announced. He was for the usual ten years7 period head teacher of the complete gymnasia of Stockholm and afterwards sat in the upper house. His natural bias is said to be in favor of classical studies rather than 1 Reglemente for Gymnastik, Gymnastik-Reglemente. 2Svensk Lararetidniug, 1892, 1893. Revue internationale del’enseignemeut, 1891- 1893. Allgemeiue deutsche Lehrerzeituug, 1892, 1893. Oesterreichische Schulbote, 1893. 446 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. the more modem branches, so that, in the reform movements apper¬ taining to secondary education, the weight of his influence may be assumed to be against the modern-language movement. He, in cooper¬ ation with other members of the governing bodies, has the weal of the teacher at heart, so that his appointment as head of the educational department will be of benefit to that profession. Of the 375 members of the Storthing in 1891-’92, six had formerly been teachers. University examinations. — A reorganization of the system of exam¬ inations in Swedish universities was reported in the winter of i891-’92 : (1) Latin ceased to be an obligatory part of the examination for admittance to the faculties. (2) The number of obligatory studies was essentially reduced, and the candidates were allowed to choose between certain special studies. (3) A curious custom had been per¬ mitted in connection with university examinations, namely, the so-called tentamina privata , or examination at the professor’s house, the public examination becoming, then, a mere formality. Now, all examinations will be public an d before a competent board of examiners. Education of women. — For the secondary education of young girls the subsidies heretofore allotted were generally from the municipalities, and there were also donations from private individuals. But witlrn a few years the Government has accorded assistance, and by request of the minister of ecclesiastical affairs (education being a division of this ministry) the subsidy now amounts to 70,000 to 100,000 crowns ($18,760 to $26,800). The committee which has ben engaged in dis¬ cussing the subject of secondary education of girls, especially pointed out the need of hygienic regulations and the necessity of avoiding over¬ pressure. It also stated that the course of study should be especially adapted to the special vocation of woman, and hence should include rules of hygiene and sanitation, and theoretical and practical lessons in domestic economy. School organization. — On the 18th of June, 1892, was celebrated the anniversary of the establishment of the present system of education in Sweden. It owes its gradual development to the compulsory obliga¬ tion and to that of free instruction, to the combined financial interest of State and local authorities, and to the fact that the State has taken meas¬ ures to establish normal schools for the proper preparation of teachers. The whole country celebrated this auspicious event, and at Goteborg the rejoicing was especially manifest on account of the establishment of a university there. Coeducation. — An association was formed in the early part of 1893, with the object of establishing a coeducational school, on the American plan, in Stockholm. The intention is to employ the very best methods, to lay stress on developing individuality, to limit the number of reci¬ tations, to give practical instruction in skilled handiwork, and to have regular gymnastic training. The school is to include children between 6 and 16 years of age, and is to give training similar to that of EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 447 a burglier school. A higher division is to train for the higher educa¬ tional institutions of Sweden. This nya samskola (new coeducational school) is to avoid what may be considered to be useless studies ; it is to develop the self-reliance of the pupils ; practical work and physical training are to take precedence of mere text-book instruction; the classes are to contain a limited number of pupils, and there is to be a gradual blending together of studies so as to form a complete whole. Whether a commencement has in reality been made is unknown to date of going to print. Training of teachers. — At a meeting of normal-school directors in Stockholm in June, 1893, four questions were discussed: (1) Should there be any change in the statutes concerning the organization of nor¬ mal schools, so far as the statutes relate to time required in military service? (2) Should there be any change in regard to examinations for graduation from the normals ? (3) Should examinations for admittance be made more rigid? (4) Is a revision of the programme of study in the normals desirable, and to what extent? The second question was answered in the negative. The third ques¬ tion called for lengthy discussion, and it was decided that in natural sciences, writing, and singing there should be no change; in arithmetic knowledge of common fractions should be the criterion ; in geography that of Sweden, with a general oversight of European and universal geography; in history, more general questions as to knowledge of Swedish history. The fourth question was discussed even more fully, as follows : As far as religious instruction was concerned, it was decided that in the first class it should be from five to six hours a week, the read¬ ing of the history of the apostles should be placed in the third class, the letters to the apostles in the fourth class. Beading of select pieces from Swedish literature should come in the third class. Compositions, as a means of bringing about uniformity in the various seminaries, should be written (between eight and twelve of these each year) in the recitation rooms and not at home. The number of hours for the study of the mother tongue was decided upon as seven in the first class, five in the second class, four in the third and fourth classes. For arithmetic and geometry the. number of hours was to be four in the first class, four in the second, three in the third, and two in the fourth class. Penmanship should be finished in the second class. History of pedagogy and methods should be taught in the third and fourth classes. The principles of composition should be taught in the fourth class. In connection with natural sciences, instruction in regard to anatomy and physiology should be finished in the first class; in the third and fourth classes the chemical properties of the body should be taught. In regard to military exercises it was not deemed advisable to increase the amount, but one-half hour’s “turnen” would be required. The question of adding German to the curriculum was decided in the nega¬ tive, as the programme was full without additional matter. Teachers’ institutes were held during the vacations (commencing in 448 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. June) in all districts, and pedagogical questions were discussed. The public and the press manifested great interest in the meetings. One of the questions discussed, in Solleftea, was whether the catechism, in its present form, was a text-book for children. Most earnest was the discussion, and a resolution was adopted that religious instruction should not be limited to head and mind, but should be a matter of heart and soul. A revision of the catechism was deemed necessary. At Linkoping the subjects discussed were vacations, amount of instruc¬ tion, right of teachers to punish, teaching of temperance principles in the common schools. It was decided to carry out the decree of Novem¬ ber 4, 1892, which required the teaching of the nature and effect of intoxicants upon the system, by instructing the children in every grade as to such matters — a time period to be set apart for this. In Stock¬ holm it was decided to introduce the principles of domestic economy into the Swedish schools for girls. Vacation study. — Summer courses for advanced study are held in different parts of Sweden. The aim is to train more thoroughly in special lines of study. These courses, in 1893, covered general sub¬ jects for the benefit of the people at large, more specific subjects for teachers of the common schools and for those in attendance on the higher schools for girls. The reports, as presented in the Svensk Lar- aretidning, indicate great interest among those under instruction. Excursions were undertaken in the interests of geological study; muse¬ ums, libraries, and general fine- art collections were visited. Lecture course. — University lectures1 at Upsala in 1893 covered ancient history ( Israels dlsta historia ); Scandinavian history; Sweden during the Eeformation period ( Sveriges Statistic under Reformations- tider , 1520-1611); the earth’s evolution from the geological standpoint; psychology; the mother tongue, from the grammatical and scientific standpoint; the Eeformation period; mammalia; evolution at different periods of the earth’s history. The time plan included the dates August 14 to 26, and, after the general presentation of the thesis, there was dis¬ cussion. These lectures seem also to include visits to museums and other points which would add to. the general understanding of the sub¬ ject presented. EDUCATIONAL LITERATURE AND REPORTS. The publications, of each year add to the general educational progress of a nation, and the regular reports furnish information for special study. Classed among the pedagogical works for the years 1889-1893 are the following: Avhandlingar ocli program utgivna vid Svenska ocli Finska Akademier ochskolor under aren 1855-1890. Bibliograli av Aksel G. S. Joseplison. ( Bibliography of pub¬ lications of Swedish and Finnish academies and schools, 1855-’90.) 4°. Upsala, 1891. 1 Grundlinger till foreliisningcr, 1893. EDUCATION IN SWEDEN. 449 Forellisningar och ofningar vid Kongl. Universitet i Upsala, host-terminen 1892. (Lecture course iu Upsala University.) 8°. Upsala, 1892. Foreningen for skollofskolonier. Centralstyrelsens beriittelse for ar 1890. (Vaca¬ tion-colony associations.) 12°. Stockholm, 1891. Gymnastika dagofningar for folksskolan af C. H. Liedbeck. (Gymnastics for peo¬ ple’s schools.) 4°. Stockholm, 1891. Inbjudningsskrifter till de hogtidligheter hvarmed trehundraarsminnet af Upsala mote kommer att firas i Upsala f en 5-7 September 1893. (Tercentenary at Upsala.) 4°. Upsala, 1893. Kants transscendentala deduktion af kategorierna. I. Akademisk afhandling af Hans Larsson. (Kant’s Categories.) 8°. Lund, 1893. Naas modellserier. Metodiska anvisningar for modellernas utforande till tjiinst for larare och vid sjalfstudium, af Alfr. Johansson. (Slojd according to Naas methods, for home study.) 8°. Stockholm, 1890. Normalritningar till folkskoletradgardar jamte beskrifning och kortfattade anvis¬ ningar rorande tradgardsskotsel sasom undervisningsamme i folkskolan, utgifna pa foranstaltande af Stiftelsen Lars Hiertas minne. (On teaching of horticulture in the public schools.) 4°. Stockholm, 1890. Palmgrenska Samskolan i Stockholm. (Description of Palmgren’s School.) 12°. Stockholm, 1892. Rationella gymnastikofningar och sund idrott inom landets olika uppfostrings- anstalter, af Kapten C. H. Norlander. (Rational gymnastics and their effect.) 8°. Lund, 1893. Utlatande af fakulteter och sektioner samt det storre konsistoriet vid Universitet i Upsala angaende den s. k. Universitetskomitens forslag och betiinkande. (Faculty examinations.) 8°. Upsala, 1889. The reports issued regularly are quite numerous. Among them may be mentioned : Acta Universitatis Lundensis, 1891-92. 8°. Lund, 1892. Beskowska skolan i Stockholm, lasearet 1891-’92. (Report of Beskowska School.) 8°. Stockholm, 1892. Inbjudning till ofvervarande af arsexamen vid hogre realliiroverket i Stockholm, varterminen 1893. (Realschool report.) 4°. Stockholm, 1893. Inbjudning till ofvervarande af arsexamina vid hogre Latinliiroverket a Norr- malm samt Jakobs och Ostermalms liigre allmanna liiroverk, varterminen 1893. (Latin and secondary school reports.) 4°. Stockholm, 1893. Kongl. tekniska hogskolan i Stockholm. Program for lasearet 1892-1893. (Tech¬ nical school report.) 12°. Stockholm, 1892. Nya elementarskolan i Stockholm. Arsreclogorelse, 1892-’93. (Secondary school report.) 4°. Stockholm, 1893. Reclogorelse for verksamheten vid hogre lararinne-seminarium och den darmed fiirenade normalskolan for flickor under lasearet 1892-1893. (Normal school report.) 4°. Stockholm, 1893. Redogorelse for Kongl. Universitetet i Upsala under det akademiska aret 1890-1891. (Report of University at Upsala.) 8°. Upsala, 1891. Stockholms stads folkskolor. Beriittelse for iiren 1890, 1891, 1892. (Report of Stockholm’s people’s schools.) 8°. Stockholm, 1890-1892. Sveriges officiela statistik. Beriittelse om statens allmanna liiroverk for gossar, lasearet 1889-1890. (Burgher school reports.) 4°. Stockholm, 1893. Sveriges offentliga bibliotek, Stockholm, Upsala, Lund. Goteborg: Accessions- katalog 7, 1892. (Accessions to public libraries.) 8°. Stockholm, 1893. Upsala Universitets katalog for varterminen 1891. (Catalogue of Upsala Univer¬ sity.) 8°. Upsala, 1891. ED 92 - 29 CHAPTER XIII. PHYSICAL TRAINING.1 1. Historical sketch. — (I) Physical training in G-reece — (II) In Borne — (III) In ancient Germany; the Middle Ages ; the period of neglect, and the transition from ancient to modern gymnastics; the renascence of physical training in Germany and other European countries; gymnastics in Saxony — (IV) In America in general ; in three typical cities, viz, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Boston. 2. Essential features of thb principal systems of physical training represented in this country, viz, the Swedish system, the German system, Dr. Sargent’s system, and the Delsarte system. 3. Suggestions concerning school gymnasiums. 4. Statistics of physical training in American city school systems, including (a) cities which have regular systems and employ specialists (Tables 1 and 3), (b) those which employ no specialist, but require instruction by class teachers (Tables 2 and 4) , and (c) those which formally permit gymnastic exercise ( Table 5). I.— IN GREECE. THE OLDEST DESCRIPTION OF ATHLETIC GAMES. During the siege of Troy, when Achilles had slain Hector after a mighty combat and had stripped from him the bronze armor which he had taken from the body of Patroclus, Achilles’ first thought was for his dead comrade, who still lay unburied and unbewailed. Dragging the corpse of Hector with them, the Greeks proceeded to their ships, and there made lamentations around the dead Patroclus, Achilles leading their mourning. A funeral feast was prepared, and oxen, sheep, goats, and boars were killed until blood flowed on all sides of the corpse. After they had eaten their mournful meal, they retired to their tents to rest. The dawn of the morning found the Grecian chiefs once again weeping around their dead. Agamemnon sent men and mules to gather wood, and built a funeral pyre, to which the body was borne with extravagant manifestations of woe, the flowing-haired Greeks cutting off* their locks and heaping them upon the corpse. After the pile had been consumed by fire and the bones of Patroclus had been gathered up and placed in the urn, Achilles -detained the multitude there and from his ships brought forth, as prizes for the This paper was prepared by Mr. James C. Boykin. 451 452 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. funeral games, caldrons, and tripods, and horses, and mules, and strong oxen, and fair-girdled women, and shining steel. For the first in the chariot race he offered a maid of peerless form and an eared tripod; for the second, a 6-year-old horse, unbroken; for the third, a goodfy caldron yet untouched by fire ; for the fourth, two talents of gold ; and for the fifth, a two-handled urn. As the prize in the boxing match he promised a 6-year-old mule, and to the vanquished a goblet. Next in order came the wrestling match, in which the victor was to be rewarded with a tripod for the hearth, which the Greeks valued at 12 oxen, and the vanquished was to receive a damsel, skilled in house¬ hold arts, whom they esteemed to be worth 4 oxen. For the winner in the foot race there was set forth a silver-wrought bowl, in beauty by far the best in all the earth; for the second, an ox, and for the third, half a talent of gold. Then Achilles brought into the ring a ponderous spear and a caldron embossed with flowers ; for these the throwers of the javelin contended. The contests which these prizes and this occasion evoked were of the most exciting description, and anything less than a full transcription of Homer’s stirring lines would fail to do them justice. Such fullness is impossible, but a few of the details may be given to further indicate the antiquity and character of the funeral games. In the chariot race Eumelus, Diomedes, Menelaus, Antilochus, and Meriones took part, but the fifth prize was not claimed. Achilles placed it in Nestor’s hands as a memento of the games, since age lay heavy on Nestor’s limbs and forbade him to contend. He took the prize and said : Son, thou hast spoken rightly, for these limbs Are strong no longer; neither feet nor hands Move on each side with vigor as of yore. Would I were hut as young, with strength as great, As when the Epeians in Buprasium laid King Amarynceus in the sepulcher, And funeral games were offered by his sons. Then of the Epeians there was none like me; Nor of the Pyian youths, nor yet among The brave iEtolians. In the boxing match I took the prize from Clytomedes, son Of Enops, and in wrestling overcame Aucaeus, the Pleuronian, who rose up Against me. In the foot race I outstripped, Fleet as he was, Iphiclus, and beyond Pliyleus and Polydore I threw the spear. Only the sons of the Actor won the race Against me with their chariot, and they won Through force of numbers. * * * * * Such was I once. Now feats like these Belong to other younger men, and I, Though eminent among the heroes once. Must do as sad old age admonishes. 1 1 The translation is that of William Cullen Bryant. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 453 Iii the boxing match the unsuccessful contestant against the skilful Epeius was Euryalus, whose father was the king Mecistens of Talaion’s line, the same Who went to Thebes and overcame of old, In all the funeral games of (Edipus, The sons of Cadmns. Such is Homer’s description in the twenty-third book of the Iliad of the first athletic games of which we have a record ; and such were their surroundings. Nor is this the only instance in which sports of this character are mentioned in the Iliad. In the second book it is related that Ajax “lay idle among his seafaring ships, in sore wrath against Agamemnon, Atreus’ son, shepherd of the host; and his folk along the shore sported with quoits and with casting of javelins and archery; and the horses, each beside his own chariot, stood idle, * * * while the men yearned for their warrior chief and wandered hither and thither through the camp, and fought not.” The mention of quoits, which are certainly non warlike implements, shows that even at that early period the Greeks had games whose only objects were amusement and diversion. Nevertheless, the loud lamen¬ tations and doleful surroundings generally of the games described in the other passages, together with references to the games in honor of King Amarynceus and those of Thebes, in which Mecisteus was the victor, clearly show the solemn aspect of the more formal contests. Indeed, among the Greeks all the regularly organized games partook of a religious character. THE PERIODICAL GAMES. Though the earliest instances of the celebration of the games were in connection with the obsequies of great men, there is no reason for the belief that they were confined to such occasions, but, on the contrary, it appears that they were employed to add dignity and interest to all hnportant ceremonials. The establishment of the regularly recurring games, which were the most conspicuous feature of Greek life, probably occurred at a time not much later than that in which the Trojan war is supposed to have taken place, and none of the traditions relating to their origin connect them with funeral rites. These traditions are useful to us in indicating some of the connections in which formal games were customary, and it is important to know the stories which found general belief. The Olympian games, the oldest and most famous of them all, were said by some to have been established by Zeus after his success over Chronos in the contention over the sovereignty of heaven. But the more general belief, according to Pausanius, was that the Idsean Hercules, the eldest of the five brothers to whom Bhea confided Zeus after his 454 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. birth, instituted the contests and gave them their name. Wild olive trees were abundant in th^ir vicinity, and the victor was crowned with a branch of it. The games were, according to this account, held at the beginning of every fifth year 1 because Hercules and his brothers were five in number. The Delphian, or Pythian, games were believed to have been insti¬ tuted by Theseus in honor of Apollo in thanksgiving for his safe return from his encounter with the Minotaur of Crete. The contests held near Corinth, called the Isthmian games, were in honor of the boy Melicerta, or Palaemon, who was said to have been carried by a dolphin to the Isthmus of Corinth after his mother Ino had thrown herself and him from the Molurian rock to escape the wrath of Athamas. * The Neuman games were originally introduced by Adrastus, but fell into desuetude and were restored by the Epigoni. They were held in honor of Zeus and Hera. All these games arose from very simple beginnings. The first of the Olympian contests consisted of a foot race, to which Hercules playfully challenged his four brothers. The most ancient of the contests at Delphi was the singing of a hymn in honor of Apollo. The straight- aw ay foot race continued to be the only Olympic game till the fourteenth Olympiad, when a second contest, the u double course,” was introduced, i. e., to the end of the course and back again. In the eighteenth Olympiad they added wrestling, and the pentathlon, a five-fold contest in leaping, throwing the discus, wrestling, and hurl¬ ing the javelin.2 Twenty-five years later boxing was made part of the exercises, and four-horse chariot races, the pancratium,3 and riding races were introduced soon after. To the hymn that was the beginning of the exercises at Delphi there were added in the forty-eighth Olympiad the music of instruments and singing with the pipes. Athletic contests were introduced at the same time or soon after, making the games very nearly the same as those of Olympia, excepting that the competitions in music and poetry always retained their preeminence. V aluable prizes were at first awarded in ’the Pythian games, but after the second or third celebration a crown of laurel only was awarded, in imitation of the practice at Olympia. Similarly, the victors at Nemea were crowned with parsley, and those at the Isth¬ mian games with pine. In fact, so little difference was there in the ^hey were, therefore, four years apart. 5 In the pentathlon all the contestants were first admitted to the leaping contest, and those who crossed a certain space proceeded to throw the javelin. The four most successful in this took part in the foot race. The last man in the race dropped out and the best three threw the discus. Again the least successful retired and the better wrestler of the two 'remaining won the prize. 3In the pancratium almost any method of throttling an opponent and of compel- ing him to acknowledge himself vanquished was permitted. Wrestling, boxing, hugging, choking, aud even the deliberate breaking of bones were allowed. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 455 essential features of these festivals, for such they became, that a description of those at Olympia will suffice for all. They were held every four years, and all the exercises originally took place in one day, but in the twenty- seventh Olympiad, after the deci¬ sive victory over the Persians, the Greeks, desiring to do greater honor to the gods, so extended the games as to fill five days. The games had already acquired great celebrity, and this extension of their scope added immeasurably to their popularity and to the wonderful hold which they had gained upon the people. Contestants gathered from all parts of Greece and the colonies as well, and men of the highest rank were found striving for the olive wreath that was the pinnacle of Greek ambition. The month during which the celebration took place was a holiday time throughout .all Greece, and even hostile armies disbanded and attended the games as brothers. The names of the victors began to be recorded about 776 B. c., and soon it became customary to reckon time by Olympiads. No more striking proof can be found of the transcend¬ ent importance of the contests to the Greek than this, for all peoples have used as their basis of reckoning time that event which is to them the most momentous. Christians refer all time to the beginning of the Christian era, Mohammedans to the flight of their prophet, Romans to the founding of their city, but the historians of Greece used expres¬ sions like this: “This battle was fought in the fourth year of that Olympiad in which Eurybotus, the Athenian, won the prize in the course;” or, “This war came to an end in the first year of the four¬ teenth Olympiad, in which Dasmon, the Corinthian, was victor in the stadium.” A war and its attendant circumstances might soon be forgotten, but the Olympic foot race, never ! And it was only neces¬ sary to mention the name of the victor at any particular celebration to instantly recall to the Grecian mind the exact period to which refer¬ ence was made. Naturally the honors accorded to the victors in games of such impor¬ tance were of the most extravagant description. They were escorted to their homes by their enthusiastic countrymen amidst unbounded expressions of delight; they received the first seats at the games and theatrical performances; poets of the highest merit sang their praises; they were exempt from taxation; they were accorded the posts of honor on the battle field; the cities in which they lived were proud to erect statues in their honor, both at home and in the sacred groves of Olym¬ pia. So numerous did these become that, though the conqueror Mum- mius had sent to Rome all he cared to carry away and had ruthlessly destroyed many more, there still remained such a number that Pausa- nias, in his chapter on Elis, describes 230, and even then he says that he mentions “ only those who had more renown or finer statues than others.” When victory meant so much, it is not surprising that dishonorable 456 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. means were sometimes used to secure it. But tlie games were religious ceremonies ; unfairness was sacrilege, and the guilty ones were not only contemned by all those whose praise they sought, but were subjected besides to heavy penalties in money, and for some offenses to scourging in addition. There are several instances of attempted bribery on record, but in every case the fine was promptly imposed and collected. With the money so obtained, statues were erected to Zeus, upon which were placed inscriptions of denunciation and warning. Deliberate wounding and other species of brutality were not unusual and do not seem to have been severely condemned, since Pausanias men¬ tions one man who, though an inferior wrestler, won several contests by breaking the fingers of his opponents. Nevertheless, he who killed his antagonist forfeited the prize. In the pancratium on one occasion a contestant hugged his opponent to death with his legs and arms, but the dead body was crowned victor, though the other had suffered no other injury than a broken finger. Damoxenus, the boxer, was likewise deprived of his prize because he had struck Oreugas under the ribs with his open hand with such force as to pierce his side and drag his bowels out, immediately killing him. Iccus, of Epidanous, was killed also in boxing, by Cleomedes, who, in a frenzy of grief at being deprived of the expected prize, pulled down the roof of a schoolhouse upon the 60 pupils inside. THE GREEK GYMNASIA. The influence of the national games upon the Greek character was incalculable. The periodical congregation of the people of all the states and their friendly competition in the games gave rise to a feeling of brotherhood and of mutual interest that would otherwise have been impossible between independent states. The games from the first naturally gave a great impetus to the inter¬ est in physical exercises generally, and this interest, together with a realization of the necessity for thorough and intelligent preparation for the contests, gave rise to the establishment of the gymnasia, which in time became u the center points of Greek lifp,” and the sources from which emanated, directly or indirectly, all that was best in Greek civ¬ ilization. Being the place at which the most intelligent men spent a great part of their time, they fostered conferences and an interchange of ideas whose effect was the general spread of intelligence the highest type of which is seen in the dialogues of Plato and Socrates and the teachings of Aristotle. Naturally these discussions, held in the gym¬ nasia by men who were themselves, enthusiasts in physical exercises, largely turned upon gymnastics and led to the wonderful perfection of the Greek system of bodily culture. The ideal toward which their efforts were directed was the perfection of the intellect, the moral PHYSICAL TRAINING. 457 nature, and the body, and they considered the last but little less important than the other two. How high their ideal was of physical perfection, and how well they attained it, is attested by the marble and bronze statues of their# gods, heroes, and athletes that have sur¬ vived the ravages of time. They did not understand the true func¬ tions of the muscles and they knew nothing of the circulation of the blood. They were, in fact, totally ignorant of the science of physiology in its true sense. But they were close and intelligent observers, and were aided by an artistic sense more strongly marked in them than in any other people under the sun. Undoubtedly the gymnasia did much to foster art by supplying models that closely approached perfection, and the artists in turn exercised a strong influence over the gymnasia by selecting the most perfect parts of different individuals, and uniting them, presented new ideals, of truer perfection toward which the prac¬ tice of the gymnasia might tend. The gymnasia at first were kept by private persons only and were simply open spaces £or exercising. Later, buildings especially designed for the purpose were used. They were originally very simple in their character, but finally they became state affairs, carefully planned for the purposes in view, and minutely regulated by law. In Athens there were three only that acquired great celebrity, the Academy, the Lyceum, and the Cynosarges, but there were others, at least four, of less note. Every city of importance in Greece had at least one gymnasium, and no .doubt every hamlet was provided with a palestra or wrestling place, if nothing more. Naturally the gymnasia differed in completeness and elegance, but the following description, taken from St. John’s History of the Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece, conveys an excellent idea of the gen¬ eral plan, which was common to all: The gymnasia were spacious edifices, surrounded by gardens and a sacred grove. The first entrance was by a square court, two stadia in circumference, encom¬ passed with porticoes and buildings. On three of its sides were large halls, pro¬ vided with sfeats, in which philosophers, rhetoricians, and sophists assembled their disciples. On the fourth were rooms for bathing and other practices of the gymna¬ sium. The portico facing south was double, to prevent the winter rain, driven by the wind, from penetrating the interior. From this court you could pass into an enclos¬ ure, likewise square, shaded in the middle by plane trees. A range of colonnades extended round three of the sides. That which fronted the north had a double row of columns, to shelter those who walked there in summer from the sun. The oppo¬ site piazza was called the Xystos, in the middle of which and through its whole length they continued a sort of pathway, about 12 feet wide ana nearly 2 deep, where, sheltered from the weather and separated from the spectators ranged along the sides, the young scholars exercised themselves in wrestling. Beyond the Xystos was a stadium for footraces. 1 The principal parts of the gymnasium were: (1] The porticoes, furnished with seats and side buildings where the youths met to converse. (2) The Ephebeion, that part of the edifice where the youth alone exercised. (3) The Apodyterion, or undressing room. (4) The Konisterion, or small court in which was kept the haphe, 1 This paragraph is taken from the Travels of Anacharsis. 458 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. or yellow kind of sand sprinkled by the wrestlers upon themselves after being annointed with the ceroma, or oil tempered with wax. An important part of the baggage of Alexander in bis Indian expedition consisted of this fine sand for the gymnasium. (5) The Palestra, when considered as a part of the gymnasium was simply a place set apart for wrestling ; the whole of its area was covered with a deep stratum of mud. (6) The Sphaeristerion, that part of the gymnasium in which they played at ball. (7) Aleipterion or Elaiothesion, that part of the Palestra where the wrestlers annointed themselves with oil. (8) The area, the great court and certain spaces in the porticoes were used for running, leaping, or pitching the quoit (9) The Xystoi have already been described. (10) The Xysta were open walks in which, during fine weather, the youths exercised themselves in running or any other suitable recreation. (11) The Balaneia, or baths, where in numerous basins 'was water of various degrees of temperature, in which the young men bathed before annointing themselves or after their exercises. (12) Behind the Xystos and running parallel to it lay the stadium, which as its name implies, was usually the eighth part of a mile in length. From the area below, where the run¬ ners performed their exercises, the sides, whether of green turf or marble, sloped upwards to a considerable height and were covered with seats, rising behind each other to the top for the accommodation of spectators. The gymnasium and all the proceedings therein w*ere under the control or supervision of a number of officials, of whom the gymnasiarch was the chief. Each of these had his special duties to perform, one being especially deputed to look after the conduct of the boys. THE EXERCISES PRACTICED. As would be naturally inferred, the exercises of the gymnasium closely followed the contests of the national games, but there were others useful in affording muscular development and agility, which were accorded a full share of attention in the gymnasia but very lit- #tle in the games. Of these, the most important were the games at ball, for which, as we have seen, a special space was reserved in the gymna¬ sia. These games were played according to fixed rules, but were very simple and spiritless as compared with our modern ball games. They were practiced by both sexes, but men accustomed to such vigorous exercises as wrestling and leaping xnobably played ball for a reason similar to that which would prompt an athlete of our time to u skip the rope.” Dancing as a physical exercise was frequently extolled by the Greek philosophers, but it was never generally practiced for that purpose. The following conversation is reported by Xenophon in The Banquet, and is introduced in support of both these statements: Tlie boy then began to dance, and Socrates remarked : “ See liow this boy, natu¬ rally beautiful as he is, nevertheless appears still more beautiful when he puts him¬ self into graceful attitudes than he appeared when he was at rest.” “ You seem to me,” rejoined Charmides, “to be inclined to praise the master who taught him to dance.” “ Such is the case, indeed,” replied Socrates, “for I was thinking of even something more; I mean that no part of the body is inactive in dancing, but that the neck, and the legs, and the hands, are alike exercised, so that he who would have his body improved in suppleness should learn to dance; and I,” he continued, addressing himself to the Syracusan, “would gladly learn the movements of the PHYSICAL TRAINING. 459 dance from you.” u What profit, then, will you gain from them?” asked the Syra¬ cusan. “ I shall dance, certainly,” replied Socrates. At this reply all the company laughed. But Socrates, with a very serious countenance, said, “Do you laugh at me? Is it then for this reason that I wish, hy exercise, to enjoy better health, or to eat and sleep with greater pleasure, or because I desire such a kind of exercise, that it may not he with me as with the runners in the foot race, who become stout in the legs and narrow in the shoulders, or as with boxers, who become broad in the shoul¬ ders and thin in the legs, but that, exercising my whole Ibody, I may render every part equally strong? Or do you laugh at this, that I shall be under no necessity of seeking for a companion in my exercise, or to unrobe myself, being an old. man, before a number of people, but that an apartment which will hold seven couches will be large enough for me (as this apartment has now been sufficient for this boy to heat himself even to perspiration), and that I shall exercise myself under a roof in the winter, or when heat in the summer is excessive, in the shade of the trees? Or do you laugh at this that, having a belly somewhat larger than js becoming* I wish to reduce it to a more moderate size? ” In the gymnasia., as well as'in those games, the athletes in perform¬ ing their feats were entirely naked. Some recent writers appear to doubt this, but numerous vase paintings and references by ancient authors conclusively prove it to be true. The following paragraph of Thucydides would be sufficient even if no other evidence were avail¬ able : The Lacedaemonians were the first to undress themselves in public in the gymnas¬ tic exercises and smear themselves with grease. And formerly, even at the Olympic games, combatants contended with girdles around their middle, and it is not many years since it ceased to be so. Nay, even now amongst some of the barbarians, espe¬ cially those of Asia, prizes for boxing and wrestling are given, and they wear girdles when they contend for them. MEDICAL GYMNASTICS. The medical side of gymnastics was not overlooked. Galen declared him to be the best physician who was the best teacher of gymnastics. Herodicus, of Selymbria, was the first to discover the relation between exercise and health, and by a happy combination of exercises prolonged his own life to a ripe old age though he suffered with a mortal disease. Plato described the treatment as u educating the disease,” and testifies to its efficacy by the complaint that Herodicus was un statesmanlike in keeping alive persons who ought to die because they were no longer able to pursue their vocations. Hippocrates claimed the honor of being the first to bring the system of medical gymnastics to perfection. GYMNASTICS FOR THE YOUNG. It is uncertain at what age gymnastic exercises were begun by the Greek youth, but undoubtedly the beginning was made very early. Plato even expresses the belief that the bodies of unborn infants should be exercised by the shakings and movements that may be imparted by the mother in walking and riding. Very young children, too, [he says] should be constantly moved about by day and night, and the younger they are the more they will need it. But at 3, 4, 5, and 6 460 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. years the childish nature will require sports. * * * Children at that age have certain natural modes of amusement which they will find out for themselves when they meet. * * * But after the age of 6 years the time has arrived for the sep¬ aration of the sexes, the hoys live with hoys, and girls in like manner with girls. Now they must begin to learn, the hoys going to teachers of horsemanship, and the use of the how, the javelin, and the sling. In the thirty-seventh Olympiad prizes were instituted in the Olym¬ pic games for boys in running and wrestling, and in the following Olympiad the pentathlon was also introduced for them. The latter was soon discontinued, however, because it was deemed inadvisable to subject the youth to the severe training necessary. Boxing was added to the contests for boys in the forty-first Olympiad, and the pancratium in the one hundred and forty-fifth.- One of the first steps in the gymnastic training was to accustom the youth to endure, naked, the cold of winter, which, by the way, is by no means so severe in Greece as with us, and the fiercest rays of the summer sun. The Spartans carried this hardening process to extremes, and were accustomed to send their boys, clad in a single garment, to the mountains to hibernate. THE TRAINING OF WOMEN. The Spartans, too, paid more attention to the physical education of women than did the people of any other Grecian state, their central idea being to train men to be soldiers, and women to bring forth sol¬ diers. Lycurgus, accordingly, instituted gymnastic exercises and con¬ tests for the women no less than for the men. Aristophanes gives us an example of an exercise in free gymnastics practiced by the Spartan women in the following: Lysistrate, compli¬ menting Lampito’s beauty, says: “ My beloved Lampito, how hand¬ some you are; your complexion is so fine, and your person so full and healthy; why you could strangle a bull.” “Yes,” replies Lampito, “I fancy I could, for I exercise myself in jumping till my heels touch my back.” Such strength and such exercises were probably not universal, but the statement that no Spartan woman was permitted to marry until she had given public evidence of her proficiency in gymnastics is all that should be necessary to show that they pursued their exercises with great energy and success. Plato was a strong believer in gymnastics for women, and frequently calls attention to its importance. In his Laws he says : Many things have been said by us about dancing and about gymnastic movements in general; for we include under gymnastics all military exercises, such as archery and all hurling of weapons, and the use of the light shield, and all fighting with heavy arms, and military evolutions, and movements of armies and encampments, and all that relates to horsemanship. Of all these things there ought to be public teachers, receiving pay from the state, and their pupils should be the men and boys of the state, and also girls and women, who are to know all these things. While PHYSICAL TRAINING. 461 they are yet girls they should he practiced dancing, in arms, and the art of fighting. When they are grown-up women, applying themselves to evolutions and tactics, and the mode of* grounding and taking up arms, if for no other reason, yet in case the whole people should have to leave the city and carry on' operations of war on the outside, that the young who are left to guard and the rest of the city may be equal to the task; and on the other hand (what is far from being an impossibility), when enemies, whether barbarian of Hellenic, come from without with mighty force and make a violent assault upon them, and thus compel them to fight for the possession of the city, great would be the disgrace to the state if the women had been so mis¬ erably trained that they could not, like birds, fight for their young against some fierce animal, and die or undergo danger, but must instantly rush to the temples and crowd at the altars and shrines, and pour upon human nature the reproach that of all animals man is the most cowardly. THE DECLINE OF GREEK GYMNASTICS. But Greek gymnastics, though one of the most wonderful of human institutions in its rise, progress, and effects, was nevertheless a human institution, and finally perished. To a ssign a cause for its decay is not a difficult task; for its birth and its death had their origin in the same source, the Olympic games. The glory ol the victor and the substantial rewards that followed victory became too great. The crown of green leaves, indeed, was still the only reward directly given, but that was an empty honor compared with the substantial ones showered upon the victor by his fellow-citizens. It then trans¬ pired that men gave themselves up wholly to preparation for the games, and three distinct classes of exercises came to be recognized, namely, the gymnastic, which had in view simply the development of the body or of any of its parts; the agonistic, in which two or more persons con¬ tend against each other; and the athletic, whose sole object was the preparation for the national games. We have Plato’s authority for it that those who practiced for the Olympic games had no time for anything eise. In short, participation in them was reduced simply to a profession, the votaries of which were by no means of a type which commended itself to the more intelligent of the Greeks. The games in which kings and nobles had been proud to contend were at last contested only by men u who never cultivated the muses, and having no taste of any sort of learning or inquiry, or thought of music, even' that intelligence which may have been in them became feeble and dull and blind, because never roused or sustained, and because the senses were not purged of their mists. And they ended by becoming haters of philosophy, uncultivated, never using the weap¬ ons of persuasion; they were like wild beasts, all violence and fierce¬ ness, and knew no other way of dealing, and they lived in all ignorance and evil conditions, and had no sense of propriety and grace.” The better class of the Greek youth, therefore, gradually withdrew from the contests, and, being thus deprived of the strongest incentive 462 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. to bodily exercise, neglected it. And that neglect paved the way for the successive conquests that made Greece a subject nation from the time of Philip of Macedon until the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. With the spread of the Macedonian influence over Greece the decline of gymnastics was a question of only a short time, for the Macedo¬ nians, more like Thracians than Greeks, were fond of the chase and warlike sports and despised culture for the sake of culture alone. The Olympic games continued, indeed, until they were prohibited by an edict of Emperor Theodosius in A. D. 394, but the spirit in which they were latterly conducted was far different from the spirit that pre¬ vailed when warring states reconciled their differences under the fraternizing influences of the festivals of old Greece in her prime. The spectators witnessed the games merely as professional shows, feeling no interest in the combatants further than the desire for an exciting spectacle. The most commendable of their contests, the pentathlon, fell into disuse, and boxing, the most barbarous of all, became the favorite. The old rule that none but men of pure Greek blood should contest was disregarded, and any who were able to amuse the populace were freely admitted. If men in power chose to enter, the other contestants would servilely allow themselves to be beaten with scarcely an effort in their own behalf. The Roman Emperor Nero, in one celebration, was thus permitted to take every prize offered. It is nb wonder that Theodosius considered the games unworthy to continue. II.— IN ROME. ORIGIN OF THE ROMAN GAMES. That the Romans and the Greeks sprang from kindred stock is indi¬ cated in nothing more clearly than in the similarity of their religions and in the coincidence of many of their offerings and ceremonies. It is not necessary to dwell upon an enumeration of these coinci¬ dences, but among the most important of them is that the agones of the Hellenes and the ludi of the Romans were alike acts of worship. The occurrences that led to their establishment as periodical events were, however, of different character. In the early days of the city the Roman generals, in starting out upon a campaign, always performed certain religious rites, such as the offering of sacrifices, etc., to gaiu the favor of their gods. At last an old general, more shrewd than his predecessors, conceived the idea that the gods might be more attentive to his welfare if, instead of tendering all his offerings at the beginning of his campaign, he would promise them other acceptable ceremonies as a reward in case of his success. His campaign was a victorious one, and, true to his promise, he hon- PHYSICAL TRAINING. 463 ored the gods with games and festal processions as soon as he returned to the city. The artifice, for such it undoubtedly was, commended itself to other commanders, and the vow to celebrate games upon the successful issue became a regular part of the ceremonies at the opening of every campaign. The Roman armies were usually victorious in those days, and in time the games at the end of a summer’s campaign came to be a matter of course, and were celebrated whether a signal victory had been achieved or not. Finally they became a fixed and legalized institution, called “ ludi Romani,” and to provide for such a contingency as a peaceful year, in which there would be no departing general to make the usual promise, the vow was made on the 1st of January of every year by the newly elected consuls. EARLY CHARACTER OF THE GAMES. The games themselves in many respects resembled the Grecian agones , as the following description of them shows: A festal procession proceeded toward tlie circus staked off between the Palatine and the Aventine, and furnished with an arena and places for spectators; in front all the boys of Rome, arranged according to the divisions of the burgess force, on horseback and on foot; then the champions and the groups of dancers, each with .their own music; thereafter the servants of the gods with vessels of frankincense and other sacred utensils; lastly the biers with the images of the gods themselves. The spectacle itself was a counterpart of war as it was waged in primitive times, a contest with chariots, on horseback, and o‘n foot. First, there ran the war chariots, each of which carried in Homeric fashion a char- rioteer and a combatant; then the combatants who had leaped off; then the horse¬ men, each of whom appeared after the Roman style of fighting, with a horse which he rode and another led by the hand, and lastly, the champions on foot, naked to the girdle round their loins, .measured their powers in racing, wrestling, and boxing. In each species of contest there was but one competition, and that between not more than two competitors. A chaplet rewarded the victor, and the honor in which the simple branch which formed the Wreath was held is shown by the law permitting it to be laid on the bier of the victor when he died. The festival lasted only one day, and the competition probably still left sufficient time on that day for the real carnival, at which groups of dancers displayed their art and above all exhibited their farces ; and, perhaps, other representations also, such as competitions in juvenile horsemanship, found a place. The honors won in real war also played their part in this festival; the brave warrior exhibited on this day the equipments of the antagonist whom he had slain, and was decorated with a chapiet by the grateful community just as was the victor in the competition.1 Notwithstanding the likeness of the exercises of the Roman games to those of the Grecian, they differed radically in the character of the participants. In the first days of the existence of the games these were undoubtedly Romans of the better kind, but as soon as the festi¬ vals began to be events of more than ordinary importance the pro¬ fessional element became prominent. 1 Mommsen’s History of Rome, book 1, Chapter xv. 464 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. * Dancing became a common trade at a very early period, and dancers were employed at all important religions ceremonials, marriages, and funerals. The games being called into requisition upon similar or even the same occasions, it was perfectly natural that the performers should soon acquire a professional status similar to that of the dancers. This prevented the games from attaining the preeminently social aspect that they presented in Greece, and led the Romans to despise the training whose sole object was, according to their idea, the prepa¬ ration for puerile games that were beneath the dignity of a warlike people. MARTIAL EXERCISES. Their youth indeed did not lack vigorous muscular development, but it was attained incidentally in the practice of military exercises, and not by reason of any appreciation of a symmetrically developed body for its own sake. The Roman boys ran, wrestled, threw the spear, and learned to swim, to fence, and to manage horses, simply because these things were useful in battle or in a campaign. After reaching man¬ hood and entering the military life for which the earlier education had been a preparation, their training began in earnest. The Romans regarded it as requisite that the soldiers of the legion should he fur¬ nished with arms, both offensive and defensive, which were heavier and stronger than those of any other people whatever. In order. that they might he able to wield arms which were heavier than those of other men, it was necessary that they should render themselves more than men. This they accomplished by incessant labor, which increased their strength, and by exercises which were calculated to give them dexterity — which is nothing other than a just application of the natural force with which men are endowed. They were accustomed to the military step ; that is to say, to make 20 miles in five hours, and sometimes 24. During these marches they had to carry weights of 60 pounds. They were inured to the habit of running and leaping fully armed. In their exercises they used swords, javelins, and arrows which were double the ordi¬ nary weight, and these exercises were continual. The camp was not the sole military school. There was a place in the city where the citizens assembled for martial exercises. This was the Campus Martius. After the exercises were over they threw themselves into the Tiber, in order to acquire the habit of swimming and to free themselves from dust and sweat.1 It was not until toward the end of the Republic, when the Romans began to understand Grecian customs, that their ideas of physical edu¬ cation underwent a change. Aemilius Paulus, the conquerer and despoiler of the Macedonian Empire, was one of the first to provide specifically for the physical development of his sons upon a plan not strictly military. He was not, indeed, so fully converted as to adopt the Greek gymnastic exercises, but he secured the same end by careful and systematic instruction in the chase. In other respects he adopted Grecian methods in the education of his boys, and even employed Greek philosophers, sculptors, and paintefs to instruct them. His example Montesquieu’s Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, Chapter n. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 465 had much to do with the popularity of Hellenic culture which fol¬ lowed. Greek slaves were soon universally employed by the wealthier Romans to instruct their children, not only in the language of the Greeks, but in their literature and general culture as well. INTRODUCTION OF GREEK GYMNASTICS. Under the influence of this new fashion the contempt for gymnastics rapidly passed away and small gymnasia were frequently attached to the villas of well-to-do citizens. The first public gymnasium after the Grecian plan was erected by the Emperor Nero, and another was built by Commodus. The imblic thermae , or baths, were, however, the favorite places of resort, and it was in them that the leisure class of Romans passed a great part of their time. These thermae were among the finest structures of Rome, and in the magnificence of their appointments surpassed even the Athenian gymnasia. All of them had spaces reserved for running, wrestling, walks, and games at ball, etc., and men, as well as youths, were expected to take part in the exercises, unless some good reason existed for not doing so. GROWTH AND LATER CHARACTER OF THE GAMES. Notwithstanding all this the essential character of the public games as sources of amusements was not changed. Even their religious fea¬ tures became less prominent, and finally were a mere pretext on the part of the rulers for catering to the absorbing passion of the people for ceremonials and amusements. Every important event in the progress of the city was assigned as a reason for adding to the length of the celebration of the “ludi Romani.” A day was added after the expulsion of the Tarquins in 509 B. C.; another after the secession to Sacred Mount in 494 B. C., and still another, making four days in all, after the great revolution of 397 B. 0. The occasions for extending the time still further are not precisely known, but evidently no opportunity for doing so was lost, for in the second century B. 0. they occupied ten days, and this number had been still further increased to sixteen during the life of Cicero. This festival, be it remembered, occurred every autumn, and though the most extensive of all, was, nevertheless, but one of many of similar character. The regular festivals established by law occupied even in the time of the Republic no less than sixty-four days every year. Among these the most important were the ludi plebei , the Apollinares, the Cereales, the Megalenses, the Floralia, and the ludi victorice Sul- lanae , none of which was of less duration than five days. In addition to these permanently -established games every extraor¬ dinary event, public or private, was made the occasion for the giving of shows and the celebration of games which the whole people witnessed. ed 92 - 30 466 EDUCATION REPOET, 1891-92. The birthday of the emperors, victories in battle, funerals of great men were marked in this way, and in later times not even these occa¬ sions were required to unlock the coffers of the state for the- amuse¬ ment of the populace. One hundred and seven ty-five games were cele¬ brated in the year 354 A. D. alone. The paragraph on a preceding page showing the order of exercises in the earlier celebrations is very inadequate as a description of the games as they were conducted in later times, and utterly fails to con¬ vey any idea of their character as they appeared w hen the passion for such exhibitions was at its height. The old Etruscan belief that human blood should be spilt on newly- made graves led eventually to combats between condemned victims as a part of the funeral games, and these developed into the well-known gladiatorial contests that became the favorite amusement of the Romans. Hares and foxes had often been chased in public for the entertain¬ ment of the spectators, but such tame sport was not relished long after the people had grown accustomed to the bloody fights of gladiators, and the venationes were transformed into desperate encounters be¬ tween men and wild beasts brought from all quarters of the world to gratify the passion for variety in methods of shedding blood. Julius Caesar introduced sea fights upon artificial lakes, and each such exhi¬ bition that followed surpassed its predecessor in magnitude, until the climax was reached in the games of Claudius on Lake Fucinus, in which there fought 19,000 men with 100 ships, 50 on each side. Probus, in the search for novelty, made an artificial forest in the circus and filled it with a thousand ostriches, a thousand stags, a thousand deer, and a thousand wild boar. The whole people were then admitted and allowed to capture and carry away wTkat they pleased. Chariot racing never lost its place as a favorite spectacle, and after the gladiatorial combats had been suppressed by the Christian emperors it became the absorbing passion of the multitude. The races were always between the chariots of u factions,” which were legalized corporations of undetermined origin, which owned the chariots, bred the horses, and trained the charioteers. Each faction was known by the color of its livery, and the people espoused the cause of their favorites so eagerly that they formed themselves into parties which took the names of the colors of the several factions. So immoder¬ ate was their enthusiasm and so fierce was the enmity between the parties that serious conflicts often took place. The most remarkable of these occurred in Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern empire, in the reign of Justinian. It lasted five days, and in that time caused the loss of 30,000 lives, and but for the spirit and firmness of the Empress Theo¬ dora would have deprived Justinian of his throne. With such im temperate ardor for professional exhibitions and with the love of luxury and ease that followed the increase of national wealth, the desire for personal physical power on the part of the great mass of PHYSICAL TRAINING. 467 the Roman people dwindled away. And this must receive a prominent place among the causes that led to the decay and downfall of the Roman Empire. III. — THE MIDDLE AGES AND MODERN GYMNASTICS. BODILY EXERCISE PRACTICALLY UNIVERSAL. To enumerate the other nations of antiquity that valued and practiced physical exercises would be not only a difficult but a fruitless task. War was the principal occupation of those days and individual skill and bodily strength were the most important elements of success in battles, which consisted almost wholly of series of individual conflicts. That people was most powerful whose soldiers possessed these qualities in the highest degree. Defeat and national extinction followed the lack of them just as surely. It naturally followed that he who displayed the greatest prowess was favored with the most conspicuous honors which his people could give, and the broadest avenue open to ambition lay in the cultivation of martial skill and of physical strength, which was its necessary concomitant. It is therefore reasonably certain that among all, or nearly all, ancient peoples bodily exercises of a warlike kind were practiced with more or less enthusiasm, although their physiological aspect was of minor concern. Sports and games, too, requiring to a greater or less extent bodily activity may be assumed to have existed among the youth of all races and all times. Child nature is the same, whether it is seen in the aboriginal forests or in the refinements of modern civilization, and play is the natural instinct of childhood. The games of the children of the forest are, To be sure, simple and rude, but they nevertheless perform as important a part in bodily development as the more complicated sports of the British' or American boy. Then, since u men are but children of a larger growth,” there have been few nations in which the sports of childhood have not been continued in some form in the diversions of maturer years. This is especially true of nations in the earlier stages of civilization, for civilization is but the process of removing man from the state of nature, and man in his natural state is essentially child-like in many of his characteristics. But in all sports and games the primary object in view was amuse¬ ment, and the effects upon the physique, although considerable and in the main beneficial, were accorded even less attention than were the physiological effects, as such, of martial exercises. In many cases undoubtedly the influences of Hellenic ideas were seen among tribes which had been brought by war or commerce in contact 468 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. with the Greeks,1 but these influences were probably only temporary, for there could be no true and lasting appreciation of Greek gymnastics where there was not Greek civilization and Greek love of the beautiful. On account, therefore, of their practical universality and the general lack of a definite and rational plan, it is not necessary to the present purpose that an extended description be sought of the methods of mar¬ tial training or of games pursued for diversion among any other of the earlier nations. ANCIENT GERMANY. But a brief mention of some of the customs of the warlike tribes of Germany is not only necessary to an understanding of the transition to the peculiar institutions of a later period, but possesses a value of its own. Tacitus is, of course, our principal source of information concerning the early Germans, and it is to him that we must turn. The Germans, he says, were men of large bodies, powerful in sudden exertions, but impatient of toil and labor, deeming it base and spirit¬ less to earn by sweat what they might purchase by blood. So warlike was their character that they transacted no business, public or private, without being armed, and qu arrels that arose amongst them generally ended in bloodshed. It was not customary for anyone to bear arms till his ability to use them had been approved by the state. Then in the presence of the assembly he was formally invested with a spear and javelin by the chief, or his father, or a near relative. By this ceremony he gained a position as a member of the tribe and was no longer considered merely one of his father’s household. There was only one kind of public spectacle among them, and that was characteristic of a warlike people, namely, the dancing by naked young men amid drawn swords and presented spears. Women were treated with consideration, almost amounting to adoration. Their advice was freely sought and usually followed, even in such matters as joining battle or declaring war. They were not exempt from the dangers and privations of war, nor did they desire to be, for it was their custom to attend their husbands and sons in battle, encouraging them to feats of bravery, binding up their wounds, and sometimes even actually taking part in battle themselves. It was the custom for each chief to surround himself with a large body of young men, the flower of the tribe, who devoted themselves constantly to his service. They deemed it their duty and their privi¬ lege to aid and protect him in battle, to ascribe to him all their gallant deeds, and to deliver to him the fruits of their victories. 1 Such instances may be found in the gymnastic games at Chemmis, in Egypt, men¬ tioned by Herodotus, and the games of the Asian tribes mentioned by Thucydides. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 469 The chief armed his companions, for such they were called, but their only pay consisted of repasts, homely indeed, but plentiful. After the invasion of the Gallo-Roman territory many of the customs of the Germans underwent a gradual change. Most of the companions left the chiefs and occupied lands allotted to them, but were neverthe¬ less expected to render military aid when called upon. Some were expected to serve on horseback, equipped with a coat of mail, and were called u caballarii.” CHIVALRY. From these practices arose the feudal system and the institution of chivalry, the name of the latter being obviously derived from the term applied to the mounted companions of the German chiefs. During the crusades chivalry acquired its full vigor, and its connec¬ tion with the feudal system gradually ceased, while the religious and moral features became prominent. The investiture of the knight was a survival of the old ceremonial, but its nature was changed in accordance with the change that the influences of religion had wrought. The candidate for knighthood was bathed and clad in a white robe as a symbol of purity; was required to fast, to make confession, receive communion, and attend mass; he was then questioned as to his purpose in entering the order. The answers being satisfactory, his arms were blessed and put upon him. The offi¬ ciating lord then gave him three blows upon his shoulder, saying, uIn the name of God, of Saint Michael, and of Saint George, I dub thee knight.” Along with the strong element of religion that crept into the sup¬ posed principles of knighthood the old German veneration for women was retained, and an extravagant devotion to the ladies was insepara¬ bly associated with the love of God in the duties of a knight. But these two were but the beginning of a long series of noble qualities that were enjoined. Guizot recites no less than twenty-six oaths that were imposed at different times between the eleventh and the fourteenth centuries, covering altogether nearly the whole gamut of human perfection, but insisting more than all else upon bravery, the defense of the weak, faithfulness, courteousness, humility, and truthfulness under all circum¬ stances. EDUCATION OF A KNIGHT. A regular scheme of education was a necessary accompaniment to such an institution. Here, too, may be seen the remains of an ancient Ger¬ man custom. As soon as they reached the age of seven years the sons of gentlemen were placed in the castles of the superior lords to be reared in the very atmosphere of chivalry. They learned the lessons of love from the ladies of the court, and received from them and from the castle chaplain whatever of intellectual and religious training was deemed 470 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. fitting and necessary for them. They rendered constant personal serv¬ ice to the lord and his lady, waiting upon them at the table, and accom¬ panying them in their excursions, whether of pleasure or of war. During the same time a beginning was made in the training for the military life that lay before them. They were taught to leap over trenches, to launch or cast spears and darts, to sustain the shield, and in their walk to imitate the measured tread of the soldier. They fought with light staves against stakes raised for the nonce as if they had been their mortal enemies, or met in encounters equally perilous their youthful companions of the castlq,1 This course of life continued for seven years, during which the boys were called pages or valets • after the age of 14 they bore the name of squire. The domestic duties of the squire gradually grew less exact¬ ing, and as he approached manhood the^were entirely laid aside, and his military exercises were assiduously pursued. He practiced every mode by which strength and activity could be given to the body. He learned to endure hunger and thirst; to disregard the season’s changes, and like the Roman youths in the Campus Martins when covered with dust, he plunged into the stream that watered the domains of his lord. He accustomed him¬ self to wield the sword, to thrust the lance, to strike with the ax, and to wear armor. The most favorite exercise was that which was called the Quintain ; for it was par¬ ticularly calculated to practice the eye and hand in giving a right direction to the lance. A half figure of a man, armed with a sword and buckler, was placed on a post and turned on a pivot, so that if the assailant with his lance hit him not on the middle of the breast but on the extremities, he made the figure turn round and strike him an ill-aimed blow, much to the merriment of the spectators. The game of Quintain was sometimes played by hanging a shield upon a staff fixed in the ground, and the skillful squire riding apace struck the shield in such a manner as to detach it from its ligatures. But of all the exercises of chivalry, none was thought so important as horsemanship.1 TOURNAMENTS. The tournaments, however, are the features of chivalry around which the most of romance dwells. These were elegant pastimes of Europe through all the centuries in which chivalry pervaded it, and as u splen¬ did and graceful shows 77 they continued to animate and delight the on lookers long after the decadence of the institution that gave them birth. Tournaments may be considered to have risen about the middle of the eleventh century; for though every martial people have found diversion in representing the image of war, yet the name of tournaments and the laws that regulated them can not be traced any higher. Every scenic performance of modern times must be tame in comparison with these animating combats. At a tournament, the space inclosed within the lists was surrounded by sovereign princes and their noblest barons, by knights of established renown, and all that rank and beauty had most distinguished among the fair. Covered with steel, and known only by their emblazoned shield, or by the favors of their mistresses, a still 1 Mills’s History of Knighthood. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 471 prowler bearing, the combatants rushed forward to a strife without enmity but hot without danger. Though their weapons were pointless, and sometimes only of wood, though they were bound by the laws of tournaments to strike only upon the strong armor of the trunk, or, as it was called, between the four limbs, those impetuous conflicts often terminated in wounds and death. The church uttered her excommunications in vain against so wanton an exposure to peril ; but it was more easy for her to excite than to restrain that martial enthusiasm. Victory in a tournament was little less glorious, and perhaps at the moment more. exquisitely felt, than in the field; since no battle could assemble such witnesses of valor. “ Honor to the sons of the brave” resounded amidst the din of martial music from the lips of the minstrels as the conquerer advanced to receive the prize from his queen or mistress; while the sur¬ rounding multitude acknowledged in his prowess of that day an augury of triumphs that might, in more serious contests, be blended with those of his country.1 DECLINE OF CHIVALRY AND OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE. Chivalry continued to command the respect of Europe until the fifteenth century, during which a number of causes conspired to accom¬ plish its downfall. The most potent of these was undoubtedly the invention of gun¬ powder, or, to be more accurate, the appreciation of its importance by the nations of Europe, for at least two centuries elapsed after its inven¬ tion before it was effectively employed in European warfare. But even before the days of firearms chivalry had passed the zenith of its usefulness, for the English archers had demonstrated the vulner¬ ability of the lighter armor and had compelled the adoption of suits of massive steel plates that well nigh rendered the knights powerless to strike a blow, 2 while the Swiss and Bohemian pikemen had proved the faultiness of their mode of attack. Further, the high character of knighthood had been lowered by injudicious sovereigns who conferred the order promiscuously upon civilians as well as soldiers. Standing armies of mercenaries, too, had arisen, to the great detriment of the system whose soldiers had fought for love and glory. In conjunction with these circumstances, which deprived the occupa¬ tion of war of so much of its romance and attractiveness, came the revival of ancient literature and the invention of the art of printing to turn men’s minds into new channels. A reaction followed, and physi¬ cal strength received as much contempt as it had been accorded honor. It was associated with the victories of the flesh when the time demanded the conquests of the intellect. The system of education that arose under the new order of things was characterized by an ardent pursuit of classical literature. Latin 1 Hallam’s Middle Ages, Chap, ix., part II. 2 The truth of the remark attributed to King James I, that “ armour protected its wearer from injury, but at the same time prevented him from injuring anyone else,” is demonstrated by numerous instances in history of warmly-contested battles in which the loss was insignificant. In an action between Neapolitan and Papal troops in 1486, lasting all day, not a man was killed. 472 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. was the means of communication between the learned of all nations, and the knowledge of Latin that one possessed was his measure of edu¬ cation. In the school of Sturmius, the most famous pedagogue of the time, “ the boys gave five years to the acquirement of pure Latin style; then two years more were devoted to elegance; then five years of collegiate life were given to the art of Latin speech.” 1 Greek received some¬ what less attention, but little else was thought of than literary instruc¬ tion, and bodily exercises were utterly neglected. SATIRES OF RABELAIS. Among the first to protest against this order of things was Fran§ois Rabelais, the French satirist, whose writings are barred from polite society by their unrestrained grossness, but whose serious utterances place him in the front rank of early educational reformers. His work, Gargantu a and Pantagruel, was first published in 1532. The hero, Gargantua, is first confided to the care of tutors who instruct him after the manner of the time in Latin and the arts of disputation. Gargantua studies hard, but for all that profits nothing and becomes a fool, a dolt, and a blockhead. His father, therefore, engages the wise Ponocrates as his tutor. Ponocrates administers a drug which causes his pupil to forget all that he had learned under his former preceptors, and proceeds with his training after his own fashion. That portion of his system which is concerned especially with the mind is not applicable to our sketch, and must be omitted. The description of Gargantua’s physical exercises embraces not only Rabelais’s ideal of physical culture, but, in the author’s usual pedantic style, a catalogue, apparently, of all the gymnastic exercises known at' that time. After the morning lecture Gargantua and Ponocrates “went forth into a field near the university, called the Brack, or into the meadows, where they played at the ball, tennis, and the pelitrigone, most gallantly exercis¬ ing their bodies, as before they had done their minds. All their play was but in liberty, for they left off when they pleased, and that was commonly when they did sweat all over their body, or were otherwise weary. Then they were well wiped and rubbed, shifted their shirts, and, walking slowly, went to see if dinner was ready.” After the afternoon’s lectures had been heard they again proceeded to the fields, this time in company with a young gentleman named Gymnast, under whose direction Gargantua practiced exercises on horseback, in armor, in running, hunting, throwing, climbing, etc.2 JSee Sturmius in Quick’s Educational Reformers. 2 The exercises in detail were as follows: “ He rode a Naples courser, a Dutch roussin, a Spanish gennet, a barbed, or trapped, steed, then a light fleet horse, unto whom he gave a hundred carieres, made him go the high saults, bounding in the air, free the ditch with a skip, leap over a stile or pale, turn short in a ring both to the right and left hand. There he broke PHYSICAL TRAINING. 473 Thus was Gargantua governed, and kept on in this course of education from day to day, profiting as you would understand such a young man of his age and good sense, so kept to his exercises, may well do, which, though at the beginning seemed difficult, became a little after so sweet, so easy, ahid so delightful that it seemed rather the recreation of a king than the study of a scholar. MONTAIGNE’S ESSAYS. Rabelais’s ideas on education bore little fruit, if any, at the time, so far as tlieir practical application was concerned, but in the essays of Montaigne, published a few years after, we find many of them divested of the filth with which Rabelais overwhelmed them, and placed in sur- not his lance; for it is a greatest foolery in the world to say I have broken ten lances at tilt, or in fight; a carpenter can do even as much; but it is glorious and praiseworthy action vdth one lance to break and overthrow ten enemies; therefore, with a sharp, stiff, strong, and well-steeled lance would he usually force up a door, pierce a harness, beat down a tree, carry away the ring, lift up a cuirassier saddle, with the mail coat and gauntlet; all this he did in complete armor from head to foot. As for the prancing flourishes and smacking poppisms, for the better cher¬ ishing of the horse commonly used in riding, none did them better than he. The great vaulter of Ferrara was but an ape compared to him. He was singularly skill¬ ful in leaping nimbly from one horse to another, without putting foot to ground, and these horses were called desultories ; he could likewise, from either side, with a lance in his hand, leap on horseback without stirrups, and rule the horse at his pleasure, without a bridle, for such things are useful in military engagements. Another day he exercised the battle-ax, which he so dexterously wielded both in the nimble, strong, and smooth management of that weapon, and that in all the feats practiceable-by it, that he passed knight of arms in the held, and at all essays. “Then tossed he the pike, played with the two-handed sword, with the back¬ sword, with the Spanish tuck, the dagger, poniard, armed or unarmed, with a buckler, with a cloak, with a target. “Then would he hunt the hart, the roebuck, the bear, the fallow deer, the wild boar, the hare, the pheasant, the partridge', and the bustard. He played at the balloon, and made it bound in the air, both with fist and foot. “He wrestled, ran, jumped, not at three step and a leap, not at the hare’s leap, nor yet at the almanes; 1 for/ said Gymnast, ‘ these jumps are for the wars alto¬ gether unprofitable, and of no use;’ but at one leap, he would skip over a ditch, spring over a hedge, mount six paces upon a wall, ramp and grapple after this fash¬ ion up against a window, of the full height of a lance. He did swim in deep waters on his belly, on his back, sideways, with all his body, with his feet only, with one hand in the air, wherein he held a book, crossing thus the breadth of the river Seine, without wetting it, and dragged along his cloak with his teeth, as did Julius Caesar; then, with the help of one hand he entered forcibly into a boat, from whence he cast himself again headlong into the water, sounded the depths, hollowed the rocks, and plunged'into the pits and gulphs. Then turned he the boat about, gov¬ erned it, led it swiftly or slowly with the stream and against the stream, stopped it in its course, guided it with one hand, and with the other laid hard about him with a huge great oar, hoisted the sail, hied up along the mast by the shrouds, ran upon the edge of the decks, set the compass in order, tackled the bowlines, and steered the helm. Coming out of the water he ran furiously up against a hill, and with the same alacrity and swiftness ran down again; he climbed up trees like a cat, and leaped from one to the other like a squirrel; he did pull down great boughs and branches like another Milo; then with two sharp, well-steeled daggers, and two tried bodkins, would he run up the wall to the very top of a house, like a rat; then 474 EDUCATION REPORT, 1*91-92. roundings better calculated to influence tlie minds of later and more refined generations. Montaigne has this to say of physical education: Mothers are too tender and their natural affection is apt to make the most dis¬ creet of them so overfond that they can neither find in their hearts to give them due correction for the faults they commit nor suffer them to he brought up in those hardships and hazards they ought to be. They would not endure to see them return all dust and sweat from their exercises, to drink cold water when they are hot, nor see them mount an unruly horse, nor take a foil in hand against a rude fencer, or so much as discharge a carbine, and yet there is no remedy; whoever will breed a boy to be good for anything when he comes to be a man must by no means spare him, even when so young, and must very often transgress the rules of physic. It is not enough to fortify his. soul; you are to make his sinews strong, for the soul will be oppressed if not assisted by the members, and would have too hard a task to discharge two offices alone. I know very well, to my cost, how mine groans under the burthen, for being accommodated with a body so tender and indisposed as eter¬ nally leans and press^i upon her. * * * Our very exercises and recreations, running, wrestling, music, dancing, hunting, riding, and fencing, will prove to be a good part of our study. I would have his outward fashion and mien, and the disposition of his limbs, formed at the same time with his mind. Tis not a soul, tis not a body we are training up, but a man, and we ought not to divide him. And, as Plato says, we are not to fashion one without the other, but make them draw together like two horses harnessed to a coach. * * * Inure him to heat and cold, to wind and sun, and to dangers he ought to despise. Wean him from all effeminacy and delicacy in clothes and lodging, eating and drinking. Accustom him to everything, that he may not be a Sir Paris, a carpet knight, but a sinewy, hardy, and vigorous young man. suddenly came down from the top to. the bottom with such an even composition of members, that by the fall he would catch no harm. “He did cast the dart, throw the bar, put the stone, practice the javelin, the boar-spear, or partisan, and the halbert ; he broke the strongest bows in drawing, bended against his breast the greatest cross-bows of steel, took his aim by the eye with the' lfand-gun, and shot well, traversed and planted the cannon, shot at but marks, at the papgay from below upwards, from above downwards, then before him, sideways, and behind him, like the Parthians. “They tied a cable rope to the top of a high tower, by one end whereof hanging near the ground he wrought himself with his hands to the very top; then upon the same track came down so sturdily and firm that they could not, on a plain meadow, have run with more assurance. They set up a great pole, fixed upon two trees, there would he hang by his hands, and with them alone, his feet touching at nothing, would he go back and fore along the aforesaid rope, with so great swift¬ ness that hardly could one overtake him with running; and then, to exercise his breast and lungs, he would shout like all the devils in hell. “Then, for the strengthening of his nerves or sinews, they made him two great sows of lead, which they called alteres; those he took up from the ground, in each hand one, then lifted them up over his head, and held them without stirring with an inimitable force. “ He fought at barriers with the stoutest and most vigorous champions; and when it came to the cope, he stood so sturdily on his feet that he abandoned himself to the strongest, in case they could remove him from his place, as Milo was wont to do of old, in whose imitation likewise he held a pomegranate in his hand, to give unto him that could take it from him. The time being thus bestowed, and himself rubbed, cleansed, wiped, and refreshed with other clothes, he returned. ” PHYSICAL TRAINING. 475 But the wisdom of Montaigne was as ineffectual as the satire of Rab¬ elais to check the tendency of the time toward verbalism. The teach¬ ings of Stunning and the Jesuits molded the education of that period, and in that education all the attention that the body received, aside from negative precautions for the preservation of the health, consisted of walks and occasional excursions. MULCASTER AND THE MERCHANT TAYLORS’ SCHOOL. There were, to be sure, a few exceptions to this general rule, the most notable of them being the Merchant Taylors’ School in London, during the time in which the famous Richard Mulcaster was at its head; that is, from 1561 to 1586. If the ideas of the master were even par¬ tially carried out, and it is reasonable to suppose that they were, as they are expressed in his Positions for the Training up of Children, his pupils must have received a course of physicaldraining that would compare favorably with anything that is offered in the present genera¬ tion . Mu leas ter s book seems to have been heretofore entirely overlooked by students of physical training, although it is one of the most remarkable of the early works upon the subject. It is more directly in the line of modern thought and practice than any contemporary work, since it relates especially to exercises for schools and scholars. It is the pio¬ neer work on school gymnastics. Mulcaster was no more learned in classic literature than many other pedagogues of his time, but strangely enough of all those who perused the descriptions and praises^ of the ancient gymnastics he was the only one who appreciated their force sufficiently to reecho the suggestions and recommend their application to the schools. He devised no new system of exercises, and most of the best ideas are quoted directly from Galen, Hippocrates, and other anejent authors, but in the application of them he certainly deserves the credit of originality. His plan of treating the subject is set forth as follows: First, I will note somewhat generally concerning all exercises. Secondly, I will choose out some special exercises which upon good consideration I do take to he the most proj>er and propitious to schools and scholars. Thirdly, I will apply the cir¬ cumstances required in exercise to every one of them so near as I can, that there be no error committed in the executing. For the better the thing is, if it hit right, the more dangerous it proveth if it miss that right. Last of all, 1 will show' the train¬ ing master how to furnish himself thoroughly in this professed exercising, because he must both apply the mind with learning and the body with moving at divers times, refreshing himself with variety and changes. Under the first head the author showed, as well as his deficient knowledge of medical science permitted him to show, “ wherein health doth consist and how diseases do come; then how health is maintained and disease avoided, and how great a part is appointed for exercise to play in the performance thereof.” He divided all exercises into those 476 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. that are athletical for games, martial for the field, and physical for the health. For health [he says] it is most manifest that exercise is a mighty great mistress, whether it he to confirm that which we have by nature, or to procure that which we have not by nature, or to recover that, by industry and diligence, which we have almost lost by misfortune and negligence. The exercises which do serve to this healthy end do best serve for this my purpose, and though an healthy body be most apt and active, both for gaming to get wagers and warring to win victories, yet in my exercises I neither mean to dally with the gamester nor to fight with the warrior, but to mark which way I may best save students who have most need of it, being still assailed by those enemies of health which wax more eager and hot the more weak and cold that exercise is. Mulcaster recognizes three degrees of exercise : First, the prepara¬ tive, which served to qualify the body by degrees for the main exercise,* second, the post-parative, following the main exercise to reduce the body by gentle degrees to the normal* quietness, and, third, the main exercise itself, which is inclosed between the two preceding. It does not require very keen discernment to see in this the similarity to the more modern Swedish practices ! From “the whole heap of exercises named by Galen and other writers’7 he picks out these as best suited to his purpose for indoor use : Loud speaking, singing, loud reading, talking, laughing, weeping, holding the breath, dancing, wrestling, fencing, and scourging the top. For out of doors he selects : Walking, running, leaping, swimming, riding, hunting, shooting, and playing at ball. To each of these exercises he gives a full chapter, detailing the benefits to be derived, and showing what injuries might follow injudicious use. The author then considers in the same thorough manner the six cir¬ cumstances which are to be considered in exercise, namely, “the nature of the exercise which ye intend to use; the person and body which is to be exercised, the place wherein, the time when, the quality how much, and the manner how.” The last chapter, that deals with physical education, is headed — An advertisement to the training master. Why both the teaching of the mind and the training of the body be assigned to the same master. The incongruities which ensue where the body and soul be made particular subjects to several professions. That whoso shall execute anything well must of force be fully resolved of the excel¬ lency of his own subject. Out of what kind of writers the exercising masters may store himself with cunning. That the first ground would be laid by the cunningest workman. That private discretion in any executor is of more efficacy than his skill. Throughout, the work is distinguished by a clear comprehension of the subject and a close attention to detail that betokens a practical acquaintance that must have been obtained in his school, although no direct statement to that effect appears, and the indications are that the Merchant Taylors’ was the first school in the modern sense in which physical training found a place. But Mulcaster left the school after a serious disagreement with the Merchant Taylors’ Company, and even if he had placed gymnastics in PHYSICAL TRAINING. 477 the curriculum, it is evident that his successor was not disposed to follow up the innovation, for the effects of his labors in that direction were certainly not permanent. OTHER DEFENDERS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING. Martin Luther earnestly advocated physical exercise for the people, principally on the ground that it tended to prevent them from falling into habits of drunkenness, vice, and gaming. Melancthon an<,l Zwin- gli were also believers in gymnastics, and in Trotzendorff’s school at Goldberg the boys were permitted to wrestle and to run, but, strangely enough, were forbidden to go upon the ice or throw snowballs in winter, or to bathe in cold water in summer. Other writers appeared occasionally in defense of gymnastics, the most notable being Sir Thomas Elyot (1495-1546), Hieronymus Mer- curialis (1530-1606), and John Milton (1608-1674). Sir Thomas Elyot’s “Boke named the Gouernour” appeared in 1531, and, as its title indicates, treats of “ the education or fourme of bring¬ ing up of the childe of a gentilman, which is to haue authoritie in a publike weale” [commonwealth]. After describing at length the mental curriculum which he would have his pupil pursue, the author says: All thoughe I haue hitherto aduaunced the commendation of lernyng, specially in g’entilmen, yet it is to he considered that continuall stndie without some manner of exercise, shortly exhausteth the spirites vitall, and hyndereth naturall decoction and digestion, wherby mannes body is the sooner corrupted and brought into diuers sickenessis, and finallye the life is thereby made shorter : where contrayrye wise by exercise, whiche is a vehement motion (as Galene prince of phisitions defineth) the healthe of man is preserued, and his strength increased. The exercises he especially commends as most fitting for gentlemen are wrestling, running, swimming, the handling of weapons, especially the sword and battle axe, and horsemanship. He speaks favorably of hunting, hawking, and dancing of the proper kind, and praises archery as the best of all exercises for every class of people. Mercurialis was an Italian physician whose reputation was already great before the publication of his greatest work u De Arte Gym- nastica.” 1 This book is a perfect mine of information relating to ancient gym¬ nastics. It was written in advocacy of exercise as a hygienic measure, and its arguments are enforced by facts and testimony from no less than one hundred and twenty-three classical authors.2 'The first edition of this book was issued before the publication of Mulcaster’s “ Positions,” since that writer quotes freely from it. Other editions bear the imprint of 1587, 1601, and 1672, the edition of 1601 being the fourth. -The character and scope of the work may be shown by the following chapter titles : Book First : Chapter 1, concerning the beginnings of medicine ; chapter 2, concern¬ ing hygiene, and what may be drawn therefrom; chapter 3, what gymnastics is, and how many kinds; chapter 4, concerning the subject of gymnastics, and the praises of it; chapter 5, at what time and in what way gymnastics may be taken; chapter 6, 478 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Milton’s idea of physical training related principally to preparation for warfare, as this extract from his Treatise on Education shows: This institution of breeding which I here delineate shall be equally good both for peace and war ; therefore about an hour and a half ere they eat' at noon should be allowed for exercise and due rest afterwards. * * * The exercise which I com¬ mend first is the exact use of their weapon, to guard and to strike safely with the edge or point; this will keep them healthy, nimble, and strong, and well in breath, is also the likeliest means to make them grow large and tall, and to inspire them with a gallant and fearless courage, which being tempered with seasonable lectures and precepts to them of true fortitude and patience will turn into a native and heroic valor and make them hate the cowardice of wrong doing. They must be practiced in all the locks and gripes of wrestling, wherein Eng¬ lishmen were wont to excel, as need may often be in fight to tug or grapple and to close. And this, perhaps, wrill be enough wherein to prove and heat their single strength. * * * About two hours before supper they are, by a sudden alarum or watchword, to be called out of their military motions under sky or covert, according to the season, as was the Roman wont; first on foot, then, as their age permits, on horseback, to all the arts of cavalry ; that ha ving in sport, but with much exactness, and daily muster, served out the rudiments of their soldiership in all the skill of embattling, marching, encamping, fortifying, besieging, and battering, with all the helps of ancient and modern strategems, tactics, and warlike maxims, they may, as it were, out of a long war, come forth renowned and perfect commanders in the service of their country. concerning the gymnastics of the ancients; chapter 7, concerning, the various kind of men who may be gathered together in a gymnasium; chapter 8, concerning the different parts of gymnasiums; chapter 9, concerning the palestra and other parts of the gymnasium; chapter 10, concerning the baths of the gymnasium and also con¬ cerning the stadium ; chapter 11, concerning the reclining at the feasts of the ancients, and to this extent concerning the origin of the custom of feasting together in the day ; chapter 12, concerning the authors of gymnastics and the attendants of gymnasiums; chapter 13, concerning the differences between the three kinds of gymnastics: the warlike, the legitimate, or medical, and the vicious, or athletic; chapter 14, con¬ cerning the vicious, or athletic, gymnastics; chapter 15, concerning the manner of living of the athlete. Book Second : Chapter 1, what exercise is, and in what it differs from labor and gesticulation ; chapter 2, concerning the division of medical gymnastics; chapter 3, concerning dancing; chapter 4, concerning the game of ball; chapter 5, concerning the game of ball, as played by the Latins; chapter 6, concerning pantomime, or the third division of dancing; chapter 7, concerning the end of dancing and the place; chapter 8, concerning wrestling; chapter 9, concerning boxing, the pancratium, and cestuses; chapter 10, concerning running; chapter 11, concerning leaping; chapter 12, concerning the discus and the halteres [dumb bells] ; chapter 13, concerning throwiug. Book Third: Chapter 1, concerning the progress of the work and the reason for presenting the treatise; chapter 2, concerning walking; chapter 3, whether it may be an exercise to stand erect ; chapter 4, concerning the kinds of hand-to-hand fights ; chapter 5, concerning some other kinds of exercise ; chapter 6, concerning the hold¬ ing of the breath ; chapter 7, concerning crying aloud and other exercises of the voice; chapter 8, concerning the cricilasia [the whip-top], the trocus [the trund¬ ling hoop], and the pilamalleus [a game played with wooden balls and mallets, the source from whi ch modern croquet sprang]; chapter 9, concerning horsemanship; chapter 10, concerning chariot riding; chapter 11, concerning rifling in the litter and the chair; chapter 12, concerning shaking made by hanging beds and cradles, and PHYSICAL TRAINING 479 JOHN LOCKE’S UTTERANCES AND INFLUENCE. But the influence of each of these authors was at best only temporary, and none of them was a lmk in the chain that connected the aneient with modern gymnastics. After Montaigne the next writer that may be so considered was John Locke, whose Thoughts on Education was published in 1693. Locke’s ideas were undoubtedly influenced by the writings of Rabelais and Montaigne, and possibly those of Elyot,but whatever* may have been their source, it is certain that he set them forth in a clear and philosophical style peculiarly his own, and though some of his recommendations are at variance with the teachings of modern medical science, he must be considered as one of the most conspicuous advocates of rational physical training. His utterances upon the subject relate more to the preservation of the health than do those of either of his concerning the couch ; chapter 13, concerning sailing and fishing ; chapter 14, con¬ cerning swimming ; chapter 15, concerning hunting. Book Fourth: Chapter 1, concerning the reason for proceeding, and concerning the use o-f exereise; chapter 2, confutation of the opinion of them who condemn exercise for the healthy; and concerning the necessity of exercising and the advan¬ tages; chapter 3, disapprobation of them who suppose that all men should be exer¬ cised; chapter 4, they are confuted who wish the accustomed only to be exercised; chapter 5, concerning the varieties of exercises; chapter 6, concerning the degrees of health and disease ; chapter 7, whether diseased bodies may come together to be exercised in any way ; chapter 8, concerning" the exercising of the infirm and of old men; chapter 9, concerning the exercising of the healthy; chapter 10, concern¬ ing the places in which the exercises should be done; chapter 11, concerning the proper time for exercises; chapter 12, how much exercise should be taken; chapter 13, concerning the manner of exercising. Book Fifth: Chapter 1, concerning the order of the progress, and concerning some things deserving to be known; chaptei 2, concerning the various effects of exercises ; chapter 3, concerning the effects of dancing ; chapter 4, concerning the effects of games of ball; chapter 5, concerning the advantages and disadvantages of wrest¬ ling; chapter 6, concerning the capabilities of boxing, the pancration, and the ces- tuses; chapter 7, ^concerning the nature of running; chapter 8, what leap may be best ; chapter 9, concerning the conditions of the halteres [dumb-bells] ; chapter 10, concerning the effects of the discuses and of throwing; chapter 11, concerning the qualities of walking; chapter 12, again concerning the qualities of walking. Book Sixth : Chapter 1, the effect of standing erect ; chapter 2, concerning the effects of boxing; chapter 3, concerning the qualities of certain other exercises; chapter 4, concerning the virtues of holding the breath; chapter 5, concerning the virtues of the exercises of the voice, and first concerning crying aloud and singing ; chapter 6, concerning the qualities of reading aloud, conversation, laughter, and weeping; chapter 7, concerning the qualities of the cricilasia, the trochus, and the pilamalleus; chapter 8, concerning the virtues of horsemanship ; chapter 9, concern¬ ing the qualities of riding in general; chapter 10, concerning the particular qualities of riding in the carriage, the litter, and the chair ; chapter 11, concerning the virtues of being borne in a hanging bed, a cradle, and a ship; chapter 12, concerning the effects of swimming and fishing; chapter 13, concerning the conditions of hunting. 480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. predecessors, and in this he was influenced, like Montaigne, by his own bodily ailments. In his Essay on Study he says: The principal end why we are to get knowledge here is to make use of it for the benefit of ourselves and others in this world ; but if but gaining it we destroy our health, we labor for a thing that is useless in our hands. * * > He that sinks his vessel by overloading it, though it be with gold and silver and precious stones, will give his owner but an ill account of his voyage. His treatise on Education opens in the same strain, the first sentences being: A sound mind in a sound body is a short but full description of a happy state in this world. He that has these two has little more to wish for; and he that wants either of them will be but little the better for anything else. Locke followed directly in Montaigne’s footsteps in earnestly oppos¬ ing “ cockering and tenderness ” by which he believed most children’s constitutions are spoiled, or at least harmed. He would have them accustomed to endure extremes of heat and cold, and to illustrate the possibilities of the human body for endurance cites the Scythian phi- sosopher who used to go naked in frost and snow, and the children of Malta who are reconciled to the heat by being kept stark naked from their cradles till they are 10 years old. He believed in the efficacy of swimming and open air exercises gener¬ ally, enforcing his argument with the observation that “if my master be always kept in the shade and never exposed to the sun and wind for fear of his complexion, it may be good to make him a beau, but not a man of business.” The recommendations concerning the body and the health are summarized in “these few and easy observable rules: Plenty of air, exercise, and sleep; plain diet; no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic; not too warm or strait clothing, especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet often used to cold water and exposed to wet.” Locke considered dancing, music, fencing, “riding the great horse,” and wrestling to be mere accomplishments, and tolerated them only because custom made them necessary parts of the breeding of gentle¬ men. As to diversion, he offers the following hint: The weakness of our constitutions, both of mind and body, requires that we should be often unbent ; and he that will make a good use of any part of his life must allow a portion of it to recreation. At least this must not be denied to young people, unless whilst you with too much haste make them old you have the dis¬ pleasure to set them in their graves or a second childhood sooner than you would wish. * * * Perhaps, as I have above said, it would be none of the least secrets of education to make the exercises of the body and mind the recreation one to another. I doubt not but that something lan, yet master, associ¬ ates, pupils, and workmen have all labored faithfully and honestly upon the struc¬ ture, and have all contributed their shares to it. Jahn made the turning association far more than a mere gymnastic 488 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. organization. The fatherland held the first place in his heart and German nationality was his fondest dream. He threw all the warmth of his passionate nature into his utterances when he addressed his turners. A high standard of morality he insisted upon, but the love of Germany was to him the one virtue besides which all others were trifles. The following is characteristic : Bold, free, joyous, and pious is the realm of the turner. The universal code of the moral law is his rule of conduct. To dishonor another would disgrace him. To become a model, an example, is what he should strive after. His chief lessons are these : To seek the utmost symmetry in development and cultivation ; to be industrious; to learn thoroughly; to intermeddle with nothing unmanly; to permit himself to be enticed by no seduction of pleasure, dissipation, or amusement, such as are unsuitable for the young. And such admonitions and warnings should be given in such terms as to insure a school of virtue from becoming one of vice. But, again, it should not be concealed, that the highest and holiest duty of a German boy or German youth is to become and to remain a German man, that he may be able to labor efficiently for his people and his fatherland, and with credit to his ancestors, the rescuers of the world. Secret youthful sins will thus best be avoided by setting before the young, as the object of attainment, growth into good men. The waste of the powers and years of youth in enervating amusements, animal riot, burning lust, and beastly debauchery, will cease as soon as the young recognize the idea of the feeling of manly life. But all education is useless and idle which leaves the pupil to disappear, like a will-o’-the-wisp, in the waste folly of a fancied cosmopolitanism, and does not confirm him in patriotic feeling. And thus, even in the worst period of the French domination, love of king and father- land were preached to and impressed upon the youths of the turning association. Anyone who does anything foolish or insulting to the German manners or language, in words or action, either privately or publicly, should first be admonished, then warned, and, if he does not then cease his un-German actions, he should be driven away from the turning-ground in the sight of all men. No one ought to enter a turning association wrho is knowingly a perverter of German nationality, and praises, loves, promotes, or defends foreign manners. VARYING FORTUNES OF THE TURNERS’ ASSOCIATION. The turners rapidly increased in number, and their organization spread over all northern Germany, and, even penetrated the southern states. Its original direct connection with educational institutions was gradu¬ ally lost, but its members continued to be young men, and for the most part students. The strong patriotic impulse with which Jahn imbued his followers led them into the agitation for constitutional government that was then rife over Europe, but in their youthful enthusiasm their zeal outran their judgment, and they carried their boasted devotion to the fatherland to the extent of attempting reform where reform was not demanded. Their services to Germany had been valuable, but they conceived such exaggerated notions of their importance that they seemed to imagine that the continuance of the German nation depended upon them. This did not fail to arouse enmity, and bitter controversies sprung up.1 The reactionist ministers, too, realized the political power Ranmer’s History of Pedagogy. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 489 of the turners7 association, and when Metternich, the Austrian states¬ man, presented to the King of Prussia, in 1818, a set of recommenda¬ tions for the management of Prussian affairs, this was among them : The revolutionists, despairing of effecting their aim themselves, have formed the settled plan of educating the next generation for revolution. The gymnastic estab¬ lishment is a preparatory school for university disorders. The university seizes the youth as he leaves boyhood and gives him a revolutionary training. This mischief is common to all Germany, and must be checked by the joint action of the govern¬ ments. Gymnasia, on the contrary, were invented in Berlin, and sprang from Ber¬ lin. For these palliative measures are no longer sufficient. It has become the duty of state for the King of Prussia to destroy this evil. The whole institution in every shape must be closed and uprooted.1 The Prussian Government, however, was disposed to favor the gym¬ nasia and the recommendation was not immediately followed. An official inquiry was made into the turning system as it then existed, and in the scheme of national education then in preparation by Sfivern bodily exercise once more found a place. A plan was drawn up for providing the public schools with turning grounds in 1819, but this had not received the signature of the Kiug when Kotzebue, the [Rus¬ sian agent who had been particularly active in his opposition to liber¬ alism, was assassinated by a turner named Carl Sand. This occurrence so enforced the arguments of Metternich that the approval of the King was withheld from the proposed scheme, and instead, the closing of all the turning establishments was ordered, and Jahn himself was impris¬ oned. After a few years the restrictions were removed, but the politi¬ cal activity of the turners caused their organization to be again repressed in 1832 and once more in 1848, but since 1860 the association, divested of its political aspects, has enjoyed continued prosperity and steady growth. Its members now number nearly four hundred and fifty thousand, and about half of them are u active turners.” SCHOOL GYMNASTICS IN PRUSSIA. Popular gymnastics was, as we have seen, at an early period in its history, divorced from the schools; school gymnastics therefore did not suffer all the vicissitudes of the turning association. The introduction of bodily exercise in the state schools of Prussia was first discussed in 1804, when Massow made it an essential feature in his proposed plan of national education. In 1808 Scharnhorst, Stein, and Humboldt were all favorably inclined to a similar scheme, but the wars with the French intervened and prevented the accomplishment of any permanent results in either case. The failure of Siivern’s scheme in 1819 has just been noted. In 1836 a heated discussion was aroused by a paper by Dr. Lorinser, published in a medical journal, in which he attacked the methods of instruction that prevailed in the gymnasien, or higher school for boys. He charged them with overloading the mind of the youth with a mul- ^yffe’s History of Modern Europe, vol. 11, p. 137. 490 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. tiplicity of subjects at the expense of their cheerfulness of temperament and of their bodily health. The effect of the agitation was favorable to gymnastics, and on October 24, 1 837, a cabinet order was issued per¬ mitting gymnastics in the schools once more. In 1842 the King of Prussia on the combined recommendation of the ministers of education, of war, and of the interior, approved a cabinet order that u bodily exer¬ cises should be acknowledged formally as a necessary and indispensa¬ ble integral part of male education and should be adopted as an agency in the education of the people.” The same order authorized the estab¬ lishment of gymnastic institutes in connection with the u gymnasien^ the higher middle schools, the training schools for teachers, and the division and brigade schools in the army.” The first active step taken by the Prussian Government in the direc¬ tion indicated by this permissive order was the ordinance of 1844, which directed the establishment of in and out door gymnasia in suffi¬ cient numbers to supply the requirements of all the higher schools for males. It provided that Wednesday and Saturday afternoons should be devoted to gymnastics, and that if practicable the pupils should exercise for an hour every day. A normal school for teachers of gym¬ nastics was opened in 1848, but was discontinued after a brief exist¬ ence. In 1851 the Royal Central Gymnastic Institute was established for the instruction of army officers and schoolteachers, but in 1877 the two branches of its work were divided and a separate school was estab¬ lished for each class of its students. In the people’s, or elementary, schools the introduction of physical exercises was first decreed in 1860, and in 1862 another order made par. ticipation obligatory upon all males unless excused by reason of a physician’s certificate that the pupil’s health would be injured thereby. Girls are not so generally provided for, but in many cities the exercises are compulsory upon them as well as the boys. At the present time about two-tliirds of the schools in Prussia have gymnasiums of their own and nearly all the others have some provision for exercising. Gymnastics in the Kingdom of Saxony. A historical review by Prof. Moritz Zettlee, of Chemnitz. [Translated from the German by L. R. Klemm.j The beginnings of organized efforts in behalf of gymnastics in Sax¬ ony may be traced back to the year 1818, when a club of about one hundred students of the university of Leipzig devoted two evenings per week to exercises in gymnastics. They did this during the summer in a garden. During the earlier part of the third decade several aca¬ demic gymnastic societies were formed, the founders of which were stu¬ dents who had come from Berlin, having been Jahn’s pupils, But in PHYSICAL TRAINING. 491 Leipzig, as in other parts of G ermany, the agitation a^iinst demagogues (Demagogenhetze) caused by the assassination of Kotzebue in 1819, which for a time tyrannized entire Germany, destined the first organized efforts in behalf of gymnastics to an early death. In order to uproot this “ evil dangerous to the state,” the police of Leipzig, in 1825, ordered the parallel and horizontal bars and other apparatus of the societies to be sawed off. This did not prevent the disciples of Jahn from con¬ tinuing their exercises in secret. It is important to note that in 1824 the educational institute, established by Hander in Leipzig, mentioned gymnastics as an integral part of its course of study. All indications point to the fact that this institution was the first school in Saxony in which gymnastics was fostered. For the further development of physical education in Leipzig, the two, afterward very distinguished physicians, Bock and Schreber, were especially active. They familiar¬ ized the people, by means of example, the spoken word, and the press, with the aims and efforts of bodily exercise. In Dresden a few army fencing masters had made use of parallel and horizontal bars in their instruction, but with little effect. The con¬ ditions changed, however, when Joh. Ad. Ludwig Werner (a retired army officer) opened a gymnastic hall in 1831 in Dresden, and conducted it with great skill. Most of the private and public schools aided the enterprise, so that the number of its pupils soon rose to several hun¬ dreds. Also girls’ gymnastics found much favor. It can not be denied that the instruction in gymnastics given by Werner contains much charlatanism, but the fact remains that he induced many noted people of authority and influence to examine into the educational merits of physical exercise, a thing that had been despised heretofore. Almost at the same time (in 1833) Otto Heubner established in his native city, Plauen, in Yogtland, a gymnastic hall that was well pat¬ ronized. As a consequence, in other cities of the Yogtland similar institutions were opened. Werner in 1836 submitted to the Saxon chambers of deputies (Stancle- kammern ) two of his works, with the request “ to take suitable meas¬ ures to secure for physical education of the youth the same considera¬ tion that is given to intellectual education.” The matter caused con¬ siderable discussion in both chambers. The result was the passage of a resolution ato introduce gymnastics into all the high and normal schools in the Kingdom, and to appropriate 1,500 reichsthaler ($1,125) per annum for that purpose.” Without delay gymnastics was introduced (in 1837) into all state high schools (gymnasia) and training schools for teachers. Though it took some time before satisfactory results could be shown, the resolu¬ tion referred to had established something which was destined to be of lasting influence. Many years after that, namely, in August, 1876, gymnastics was made an integral branch of the course of study in all secondary schools (in gymnasia, ureal schools,” and seminaries), oblig- 492 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. atory for all students, except cripples and invalids. Two hours per week was the time appointed for regular gymnastic exercises. At present the faculties of these schools have each a teacher who has passed the state examination in gymnastics for high schools and con¬ ducts the exercises. Every secondary school of whatever kind in Saxony has a gymnastic hall and suitable grounds. A state inspector of gymnastics appointed by the minister of education, supervises the work of physical training in secondary schools of the Kingdom. The first institutions for gymnastics were intended for male youth only, but from the very beginning men of riper age became interested in physical exercise, and hence boys, youths, and men exercised together. When a boy had succeeded by means of good results to become a “Vorturner” (a section-leader), he was in some institutions by virtue of his position allowed to take part in the deliberations of the members. This led in many towns of Saxony, shortly after 1840, to the formation of gymnastic societies for adults only, who, however, made it a special object to facilitate and foster physical exercise among the boys of their town. They offered special instruction for boys in their gymnastic halls, or in some cases placed their own teachers at the disposal of the public schools. Soon followed efforts to draw the girls into the movement by interesting the parents in the matter, and appointing special hours for girls’ gymnastics. The societies which did most in this direction were those of Plauen, Leipzig, and Dresden. In these cities gymnastics for children reached a high standard of excellence. Gymnastic societies developed in Saxony especially during the period from 1843 to 1848. Fifty-four flourishing societies sent delegates to the convention of gymnasts who met November 1, 1846, in Dresden. At this time the society at Dresden was the largest ; it assumed a leading position by affording an example for imitation in its admirable organi¬ zation to all other societies in the Kingdom. Many of its members aided energetically the periodical, The Gymnast (Der Turner ), which was first issued in* January, 1846. This publication was so well conducted and found so much favor that during the u second German gymnastic fes¬ tival,” held in Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1847, the paper was made the official gymnastic organ of entire Germany. The society in Dresden also arranged for two courses for the training of gymnastic teachers. The society’s propositions to the minister of education concerning the estab¬ lishment of a state training school for gymnastic teachers found official approval. The minister announced as early as March 16, 1849 — That he considered it his imperative duty to give gymnastics a place of equal importance with other branches of public education; that, therefore, he had con¬ cluded to establish a training school for gymnastic teachers who could conduct such exercises in the light of pedagogic science, and that he had ordered the necessary preparation for the opening of such a school. At Easter of 1849 the institution was to be opened, but the insur- PHYSICAL TRAINING. 493 rection which took place during the following May prevented the exe¬ cution of this plan. Not until October 23' 1850, was the institution formally opened, and the principal, Moritz Kloss (who afterward became favorably known through his tireless and meritorious exertion in behalf of gymnastics), was introduced into his new office. The insurrection mentioned was the cause of preventing the contem¬ plated introduction of gymnastics into the lower schools. Many noted gymnasts from the different societies for physical culture had partici¬ pated in the insurrection (popularly styled the revolution of 1848-’49), and after it was quelled an undiscriminating reactionary movement against gymnastic societies was inaugurated, so that the heretofore remarkable development of gymnastic art was checked. At many places it was entirely destroyed, and its practitioners were pursued with relentless severity. At the close of the sixth decade life in gymnastic societies took a tresh impetus. When preparations were made for the third “ national gymnastic festival,” to be held in Leipzig in 1863, the Saxon societies for physical culture began a vigorous activity, which secured the success of the national festival and the societies’ subse¬ quent existence. The wars of 1864 (with Denmark)) and 1866 with Austria) impaired the activity of the gymnastic societies in G-ermany but little, and the glorious war of 1870 offered the Saxon gymnasts opportunities, both in the field and at home, for giving energetic expres¬ sion to their patriotism. Political discussions have been prohibited on principle in the Saxon gymnastic societies. This has enabled them to grow undisturbed by police authority. At present there is in Saxony no city or good sized village without at least one gymnastic society; even many small set¬ tlements have a society of that kind. A statistical enumeration of Jan¬ uary 1, 1892, records 615 cities and towns with 757 gymnastic societies that have 87,388 members over 14 years of age. Of these, 51,901 are active gymnasts, led by 4,597 Vorturner (leaders of sections). If we consider the fact that the entire empire had at the same date 4,567 societies with 447,046 members, of whom 227,628 were active gymnasts, it is seen that the Kingdom of Saxony occupies the sixth place in regard to the number of societies, the fifth place in regard to the num¬ ber of members, and the fourth place in regard to the number of active gymnasts. The royal government approached the question of gymnastics again in the year 1857 by adopting a set of rules for the examination of teachers of gymnastics, and in 1863 it permitted the introduction of gymnastics into lower schools by “recommending it to the local authorities most urgently.” But it is to be regretted that few cities and villages availed themselves of the opportunity, for, according to the statistical report of the German gymnastic union of 1869, the schools of only 27 cities and 3 villages, and 4 State schools situated in villages, had obligatory gymnastic exercises in their courses of study. Hence not 10 per cent of the school population received gymnastic training. 494 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The new school law of April 26, 1873, admitted gymnastics as a il dietetic means of education for boys as well as for girls” among the essential branches of study in all the schools. The school authorities now began to introduce gymnastics into elementary schools where hith¬ erto it had not been done. Since the law fails to state at what year of age the exercises in gymnastics are to begin, the curricula of the differ¬ ent schools and cities vary on this point quite considerably, but it comes very near the truth to say that, as a rule, gymnastics begin with the fourth year of school, or the tenth year of age. Also with respect to the time devoted to physical exercises some differences are noticeable. In some communities only one hour per week is given to gymnastics, while in the majority two hours are given. The transitional regulations issued to secure an effective execution of the new school law of 1873 permitted the postponement of the intro¬ duction of gymnastics until 1878 in communities where the necessary institutions could not at once be established. The local authorities of many country schools took advantage of this privilege, and after the transitional period of five years was passed numerous petitions asked the minister and the house of deputies for a further extension of the time. Statistical material gathered by the president of the Saxon gym¬ nastic teachers’ society from the reports of the school inspectors, con¬ firms the fact. that only one of the school districts of Saxony has intro¬ duced gymnastics in all its schools $ that furthermore in 23 districts a number of schools is still without gymnastic apparatus. In 17 of these districts no less than 50 per cent (the highest was 93*8 per cent) of the schools fail to live up to the law. It is the rule in elementary schools (Volksschulen) to have gymnas¬ tics conducted by the regular class teachers. Very few of- these schools employ special teachers. In extensive institutions, such as city ward schools in Leipzig and Dresden, it has been found expedient to place this instruction in the hands of specially trained and experienced teachers. IV. — PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICA. For the first suggestions made in this country relating to physical traiuing one must search far back into colonial history. But it seems to be certain that a statesman who as much as any other made our national existence possible was the first American to jmopose that physical training be made a part of the curriculum of an educational institution. That honor appears to belong to Benjamin Franklin. Dr. Franklin was fond of exercise from his childhood, swimming being the sport in which he excelled and in which he delighted most. When a young man in London he distinguished himself by his aquatic PHYSICAL TRAINING. 495 feats, and seriously considered remaining there to open a swimming school. An advantageous offer from a Philadelphia merchant influ¬ enced him to return to America, and led to the career of usefulness with which every well-informed American is familiar. In regard to his residence in Philadelphia, Dr. Franklin afterwards said:1 I had, on the whole, abundant reason to be satisfied with my being established in Pennsylvania. There were, however, some things that I regretted, there being no provision for defense, nor for a complete education of youth ; no militia, nor any college. I, therefore, in 1743, drew up a proposal for establishing an academy ; and at that time, thinking the Rev. Richard Peters, who was out of employ, a fit person to superintend such an institution, I communicated the project to him; but he, hav¬ ing more profitable views in the service of the proprietors, which succeeded, declined the undertaking, and, not knowing another at that time suitable for such a trust, I let the schQme lie awhile dormant. In 1749, the circumstances being favorable, be again turned bis thoughts to the establishment of an academy. His first step was to secure the cooperation of a number of active friends; the next was to write and publish a pamphlet entitled Proposals Delating to the Edu¬ cation of Youth in Pennsylvania. In this he proposed that some per¬ sons of leisure and public spirit be incorporated with power to erect an academy for the education of youth, to govern the same, etc. That a house be provided for the academy, if not in the town not many miles from it ; the situation high and dry, and, if it may be, not far from a river, having a garden, orchard, meadow, and a field or two. That the house be furnished with a library, maps, mathematical instruments, and philosophical apparatus. That the boarding schools diet together, plainly, temperately, and frugally. That, to Tceejp them in health, and to strengthen and render active their bodies, they he frequently exercised in running, leaping, wrestling, and swimming . As to their studies it would be well if they, could be taught everything that is use¬ ful and everything that is ornamental. But art is long and their time is short. It is therefore proposed that they learn those things most useful and most ornamental ; regard being had to the several professions for which they are intended. And all this, be it remembered, was written before Pousseau’s great work appeared and before either Fellenberg, Gutsmutlis, or Jahn was even born. “This pamphlet,” said Dr. Franklin, “I distributed among the prin¬ cipal inhabitants gratis, and as soon as I could suppose their minds a little prepared by the perusal of it, I set on foot a subscription for opening and supporting an academy.” Thus, by his own personal efforts, was founded in the same year the academy which a few years later became the University of Pennsyl¬ vania. One feature upon which the founder laid great stress was the “English school,” and the first years of the institution were marked by discussions as to the relative merits of English and classical education. In the course of time the classics gained the ascendency and Franklin’s favorite scheme of an English school was neglected. His later writings 1 Iu bis Autobiography. 496 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. referring to the institution, which have been preserved, were devoted principally to this departure from the original plan. His indignation on that account probably diverted his mind from the dereliction of the managers in other respects, for he does not mention their failure to follow his ideas as to the exercises necessary u to keep the boys in health, and strengthen and render active their bodies.” But he was chairman of the board of trustees upon its organization, and was a member for forty years. During the first part of that time, at least, it is reasonable to suppose that the physical needs of the pupils were not entirely neglected. But if anything was done it was probably unsystematic and ineffective, as judged by later standards, and it is certain that it was not long continued. Franklin’s interest in xDhysical exercise did not wane as his years increased, and he referred to the subject several times in his Autobi¬ ography and other writings. He wrote two papers upon the art of swimming which show no diminution of his enthusiasm in that sport, and which were liberally used by G-utsmuths and the other founders of the German gymnastics. THOMAS JEFFERSON. Benjamin Franklin was not the only one of the giants of those days who advocated abundant exercise in connection with education. Thomas Jefferson insisted as strenuously upon it. In 1785 he wrote a letter to a young man (Peter Carr) concerning his reading and studies, in which he said : In order to assure a certain progress in your reading, consider wliat hours you have free from the school and the exereises of the school. Give about two of them, every day, to exercise; for health must not be sacrificed to learning; a strong body makes the mind strong. As to the species of exercise, I advise the gun; while this gives a moderate exercise to the body, it gives boldness, enterprise, and independ¬ ence to the mind. Games played with the ball, and others of that nature, are too violent for the body and stamp no character on the mind. * * * Walking is the best possible exercise. * * * There is no habit you will value so much as that of walking far without fatigue. To another young man, also a student, he wrote: With your talents and industry, with science, and that steadfast honesty which eternally pursues right regardless of consequences, you may promise yourself every¬ thing — but health, without which there is no happiness. An attention to health, then, should take place of every other object. The time necessary to secure this by active exercises, should be devoted to it, in preference to every other pursuit. I know the difficulty with which a studious man tears himself from his studies at any given moment of the day. But his happiness and that qf his family depend on it. The most uninformed mind with a healthy body is happier than the wisest valetu¬ dinarian. Jefferson did not forget bodily exercise wben he came to draft the plans for the University of Virginia, in whose establishment he was the leading spirit. He wrote the report of the famous u Bockfish Gap PHYSICAL TRAINING. 497 Commission/’ which was appointed in 1818 by the Virginia legislature to determine the site and character of the future university. In that report he says : We have proposed no formal provision for the gymnastics of the school, although a proper object of attention for every institution of youth. These exercises with ancient nations constituted the principal part of the education of their youth. Their arms and mode of warfare rendered them severe in the extreme; ours, on the same correct principle, should be adapted to our arms and warfare; and the manual exercises, military maneuvers, and tactics generally should be the frequent exercises of the students in their hours of recreation. It is at that age of aptness, docility, and emulation of the practices of manhood that such things are soonest learned and longest remembered. The use of tools, too, in the manual arts is worthy of encour¬ agement by facilitating, to such as choose it, an admission into the neighboring workshops. To these should be added the arts which embellish life — dancing, music, and drawing — the last more especially as an important part of military education. These innocent arts furnish amusement and happiness to those who, having time on their hands, might less inoffensively employ it. Needing, at the same time, no regu¬ lar incorporation with the institution, they may be left to accessory teachers, who will be paid by the individuals employing them, the university only providing proper apartments for their exercise. The university was not opened for students until March, 1825, and the matter of exercise being thus left to the volition of the students received no attention worthy of note until the impetus was received many years after from sources foreign to the university itself. GYMNASTICS FOR THE EARLY MILITIA. Mention has previously been made in this paper of the obvious con¬ nection between training in the exercises of war and bodily develop¬ ment. That connection was apparent to those concerned in the conduct of the armies of the Revolution, and we frequently find references in the writings and recommendations of the founders of the Government to the importance of encouraging in the people at large, as well as in the soldiers of the armies, an attention to bodily vigor which is so essential to an independent nation. Thomas Jefferson’s suggestions are an instance. Schemes for the better training of those actually in the military serv¬ ice were early to appear. As soon as the British left our shores and it became possible to disband the American armies, the question of a mill tary peace establishment became an important one. As a part of his plan, the Secretary of War under the confederation proposed the estab¬ lishment of military academies.1 A committee of Congress, with Alex¬ ander Hamilton at its head, opposed this, being u of the opinion that the benefits of such institutions rarely compensate for the expense.” This was in 1783. In the course of time Hamilton’s opinion changed, 1 This office was held by Gen. Lincoln. It is stated by Maj. E. D. Mansfield, in his history of the U. S. Military Academy, that Col. Pickering proposed the establish¬ ment of a military academy in 1783. That officer was then connected with the board of war, and it is not improbable that the proposition mentioned in the text originally emanated from him. ed 92 - 32 498 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. and several years later was earnest in liis advocacy of the idea that he had opposed as being not worth the cost. In 1790, Henry Knox, the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, matured a scheme for the organization of a national militia which Pres ident Washington transmitted to Congress “ for their information.” In the introductory remarks, extolling the value of a thoroughly organized militia, the following occurs : All discussions on the subject of a powerful militia will result in oue or the other of the following principles: First. Either efficient institutions must be established for the military education of the youth, and that the knowledge acquired therein shall be diffused throughout the community by means of rotation, or Second. That the militia must be formed of substitutes, after the manner of the militia of Great Britain. If the United States possess the vigor of mind to establish the first institution, it may reasonably be expected to produce the most unequivocal advantages. A glor¬ ious national spirit will be introduced, with its extensive train of political conse¬ quences. The youth will imbibe a love of their country, reverence and obedience to its laws, courage aud elevation of mind, openness and liberality of character, accompanied by a just spirit of honor, in addition to which their bodies will acquire a robustness greatly conducive to their personal happiness as ivell as the defense of their country; while habit, with its silent but efficacious operations, will durably cement the system.” The proposed plan divided the citizens of the United States subject to military duty into three classes, of which the first, called the “advanced corps,” and comprehending the youth of 18, 19, and 20 years of age, was designed not only as a school in which the youth of the United States were to be instructed in the art of war, but also for actual service in all cases of exigence. u Annual camps of discipline” were to be held in each State. One of the rules proposed for the regula¬ tion of these provided that “No amusements should be admitted in camp but those which correspond with war, the swimming of men and horses, running, wrestling, and such other exercises as should render the body flexible and vigorous.” Congress took no effective action upon this recommendation, but in 1792 an act was passed providing for the establishment of a uniform militia throughout the United States. Another discussion relative to the reorganization of the militia began in 1816. The Acting Secretary of War presented a plan therefor to the House of Representatives, which was the subject of a well-considered report of a committee whose chairman was William Henry Harrison. One paragraph in this report is worthy of notice: “A corps of military institutions should be formed to attend to the gymnastic and elementary part of education in every school in the United States, whilst the more scientific part of the art of war shall be communicated by professors of tactics, to be estab¬ lished in the higher seminaries.” This suggestion was renewed in 1819, by another committee under the same chairman, but nothing was done toward putting it into effect. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 499 EARLY PHYSICAL TRAINING AT WEST POINT. Iii referring to the act of 1792 establishing* the militia system, at the time of its passage or soon after, President Washington pointed out the lack of “ opportunity for the study of those branches of the military art which can scarcely be attained by practice alone.” In his annual message to Congress in 1796 he recommended in direct terms the establishment of a military academy. The original draft of this message was written in the hand of Alexander Hamilton, but whether Hamilton was the real author of the suggestion is not deter¬ mined, though it is significant that his interest in the proposed military academy was^ subsequently shown in many ways. In November, 1799, Hamilton drew up an elaborate plan for its organization which con¬ templated the establishment of an academy of five schools, one to be called “The Fundamental School,” another “The School of Engineers and Artillerists;” another, “The School of Cavalry;” another, “The School of Infantry;” and a fifth, “The School of the Navy.” The course of instruction proposed included the theory and practice of gunnery, the tactics and police of cavalry, equitation, the use of the small and broad sword, and the tactics and police of infantry. He forwarded this plan to James McHenry, then Secretary of War, with a suggestion as to its fitness for legislative action. McHenry embodied it almost in toto in his scheme for the reorganization of the Army, and as a report of the Secretary of War it was transmitted to Congress by President John Adams. This plan, too, was rejected by Congress. In 1802 an act creating a new corps of engineers provided that the corps, consisting of not more than twenty officers and cadets, “shall be established at West Point, in the State of New York, and shall con¬ stitute a military academy.” In all these years the idea of a military academy had reference prin¬ cipally, if not entirely, to the better training of persons who were already a part of the effective force of the Army, and it was not until the passage of the act of April 12, 1812, that the academy became what it now is, an institution for training youths to become officers of the Army. That act raised the number of cadets in all branches of the service to 250, and provided that all might be attached as students to the Military Academy at the discretion of the President. The military exercises that have been pursued at the Academy are such as would naturally be expected at such an institution, though they were at first limited by the lack of proper facilities. The first formal course of study, prescribed in 1816, comprehended “a general course of tactics; a knowledge of infantry duty, to commence with the elementary drill of the soldier, and to include the discipline and police of the battalion and platoon in all their parts; a knowledge of artillery duty, including the artillery drill ; practical gunnery; and also all the performance of all the regular duties of the camps. Under sword exercise shall be 500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. included the broad sword exercise and the cut and thrust, or small sword, either or both, according to circumstances.” This was practically the course pursued for many years. No horses were provided for the use of the cadets until a much later date, although urgent requests for such provision were constantly made after 1824. The Secretary of War in 1825, James Barbour, in his annual report urged the purchase of horses for the Academy, stating that uas the cadets are confined four years to the Point without horses, the art of riding itself must be greatly impaired, if not lost. United with its mil¬ itary advantages will he the exercise it furnishes , so friendly to the health of the cadets .” Notwithstanding this lack, however, the drills and other exercises to which the cadets were constantly subjected had an exceedingly bene¬ ficial effect. The Board of Visitors for 1825 certify that u the youthful form nowhere exhibits a finer physical development than it does at this seminary, where the appearance of vigorous health and muscular energy affords the best testimony of the existence of those regulations which were adopted to promote them.” Gymnastic exercises other than military drills were not introduced at West Point until a much later period. The first official mention of the desirability of such exercises occurs in the report of a committee of the Board of Visitors in 1826. The committee said : Your committee believe tbat abuildingis wanted for gymnastical exercises, which will serve at the same time for a riding school, a fencing school, and military drill. A thorough and careful physical education is of importance to a military officer more than to any other person. But it is not yet offered at this Academy. The drill during the summer months is sufficient to give the cadets healthful exercise, and no more; but during the winter this resource fails, and their spirits and activ¬ ity fail with it. It is proposed, therefore, that a plain building, merely sufficient to afford shelter, be erected, and that a systematic exercise of the whole person be there diligently practiced during the winter, under a gymnastical teacher, who shall be provided to superintend it. Iu the report of the full Board of Visitors the same recommendation is made at somewhat greater length. This report was written by the secretary of the board, George Tick- nor, and is said to have embodied the views of the Superintendent of the Academy, Ool. Sylvanus Thayer. Tlieisuggestion did not move Congress to immediate action, and the Board of Visitors for 1828 renewed the recommendation, enforcing it with some of the startling statements that were common at that time as to the physicial condition of pupils in educational institutions. They say : It is well known to all who have attended to such inquiries that severe mental labor without corresponding corporal exercise will undermine the strongest consti¬ tution. The cause of this need not be here investigated. The fact is notorious, and has been observed in this place as well as elsewhere. True it is that many of the cadets do not die, the mortality being as low as one-sixth of 1 per cent. But it is believed that some, after leaving the school, have ultimately fallen victims to the sedentary habits which have unavoidably been acquired at this establishment. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 501 Even this did not secure the desired result. The next Board of Visitors used still stronger language, and instead of confining themselves to the remote results of the lack of the $6,000 building they desired, they plunged into the subject of the present health of the students. We learned [they say], that although the cadets are not liable to violent and fatal diseases, yet their general health does not appear to be as good as would be expected from the salubrity of the place in which they live, and the attention paid to their food, cleanliness, etc. A very great amount of medicines, such as are administered in a torpid state of the digestive organs and in other diseases incident io persons of sedentary and studious habits, is used at this post. The proportion is believed to be much greater than that required for any other military station belonging to the United States. We esteem this to arise from a want of sufficient bodily exercise, and that it exists principally during the winter season and in the spring. In sum¬ mer and autumn the daily drills and other excitements to bodily exercise are suffi¬ cient for the purpose of health, and the beneficial result is very obvious; but for nearly half the year the military exercises are suspended, and the severe winter cli¬ mate in some measure precludes those of a voluntary nature. The young men are consequently obliged to pass at once from an active state to habits sedentary and studious in a common degree, and the evils just intimated must follow as a matter of course. In order to alleviate or entirely remove them, we are convinced that a building should be erected adapted to winter drills and gymnastic exercises, and that these should be regularly required. And still this did not avail. All these recommendations evidently emanated directly or indirectly from Col. Thayer, and after he was succeeded as, superin tendent of the academy by Col. De Bussey in 1833, the cause of gymnastics at the academy slumbered peacefully. CAPT. PARTRIDGE’S LECTURES AND ACADEMIES. Col. Thayer’s predecessor was Capt. Alden Partridge, a man of great energy and greater ambition, whose superintendency covered nearly two years, and terminated in 1816, in consequence of dissensions. Capt. Partridge was a man of considerable ability, and his life’s work was distinctly beneficial to the country in many respects, especially in rela¬ tion to physical education. In 1820 he first delivered his famous u Lecture on Education,” embodying the plan which had occupied much of his attention during the ten years previous. In this lecture are set forth what the author conceived to be the defects of the existing plan of instruction. Among them is this: Another defect in the present system is the entire neglect in all our principal seminaries of physical education, or the due cultivation and improvement of the physical powers of the students. The great importance and even absolute necessity of a regular and systematic course of exercise for the preservation of health, and confirming and rendering vigorous the constitution, I presume must be evident to the most superficial observer. It is for want of this that so many of our most promising youths lose their health by the time they are prepared to enter on the grand theater of active and useful life, and either prematurely die, or linger out a comparatively useless and miserable existence. That the health of the closest appli¬ cant may be preserved, when he is subjected to a regular and systematic course of exercises, I know from practical experience; and I have no hesitation in asserting 502 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. that in nine cases out of ten it is just as easy for a youth, however hard he may study, to attain the age of manhood with a firm and vigorous constitution capable of enduring exposure, hunger, and fatigue, as it is to grow up puny and debilitated, incapable of either bodily or mental exertion. Military discipline and military instruction were foremost among tlie remedies suggested; as to the rest, he proposes that — First, the course of classical and scientific instruction should be as extensive and perfect as at our most approved institutions. * *" * Second, a due portion of time should be devoted to practical, geometrical, and other scientific operations in the field. The pupils should frequently be taken on pedestrian excursions into the country, be habituated to endure fatigue, to climb mountains, and to determine their altitudes by means of the barometer as well as by trigonometry. These excursions, while they would teach them to walk (which I estimate an important part of educa¬ tion) and render them vigorous and healthy, would also prepare them for becoming men of practical science generally. * * * Third, another portion of their time should be devoted to practical agricultural pursuits, gardening, etc. Fourth, a fur¬ ther time should be devoted to attending familiar explanatory lectures on the various branches of military science, on the principles and practice of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, on political economy, on the Constitution of the United States and those of the individual States. * * ' * Fifth, to the institution should be attached a range of mechanics’ shops. Iii the division of time he proposed that two hours daily be given to u military and other exercises, fencing, etc.” Upon this plan Capt. Partridge opened the American Literary, Sci¬ entific, and Military Academy at Norwich, Vt., on September 4, 1820. It was for several years signally successful and attracted students from nearly every State in the Union. In 1825 the institution was removed to Middletown, Conn., and in 1828 it ceased to exist. Two other acad¬ emies similar to it in character were established by Capt. Partridge, one at Portsmouth, Ya., and the other at Brandywine Springs, Del. He was influential also in establishing the Norwich (Yt.) University, an institution of collegiate grade, conducted upon the same principles as his academies. This institution still exists, and is the only one of the institutions directly founded by Capt. Partridge that long survived him. But his work was not in vain. He demonstrated the practicability and value of military drill and physical training in schools not strictly technical, and the number of such institutions that exist to-day is the best evidence of the permanence of the results of his efforts. AMERICA’S INTRODUCTION TO GERMAN GYMNASTICS. In all the foregoing, with the exception of Col. Thayer’s strenuous efforts for the introduction of gymnastics at West Point, the recommen¬ dations that have been recited, originated with Americans and were the result of American experience. Not only were they almost entirely free from the influence of foreign ideas, but in at least one instance they furnished ideas to those who were engaged in constructing gymnastic systems in other lands. But a period was reached when the ideas and PHYSICAL TRAINING. 503 systems of aliens were introduced and enthusiastically disseminated. The wave of popular interest in gymnastics that swept over Europe in the early part of the century spread to this country and hore its first tangible fruit when Messrs. Joseph G. Cogswell and George Bancroft made gymnastics a part of the regular instruction at the Round Hill School at Northampton, Mass., in the spring of 1825. The exercises were directed by Mr. Charles Beck, a former pupil of Jahn, whose con¬ nection with the school lasted for several years. The years 1826 and 1827 were marked by general interest in gym nasties and the establishment of gymnasiums in a number of educa¬ tional institutions. But few of these were under the direction of qual¬ ified persons, and notwithstanding the great enthusiasm with which the exercises were pursued and the implicit confidence with which the results were anticipated, in actual practice the efforts must have been crude in the extreme. The New York High School was one of the most conspicuous of the institutions in which gymnastics was a feature at that time, and the character of their instruction at first may be imagined from the following paragraph, which appears in Dr. John Griseom’s “ Address ” at the opening of the school in 1825 : So far as exercises of this nature [i. e., gymnastics] can be "introduced with advan¬ tage we shall take particular pleasure iu promoting them; and we anticipate no difficulty in finding among our boys those who will be willing and qualified to become monitors in instructing others in the arts of leaping, climbing, pitching, and in other varieties of muscular skill and exertion. This method of instruction was not long continued, however, for, in the Second Animal Report (1827) It is stated that the gymnastics had been placed “ under the superintendence of an experienced and careful teacher.” At Harvard University, in Cambridge, Mass., a gymnasium was established in the spring of 1826 and was placed in charge of Dr. Charles Follen, who had also been associated with Jahn, and who bore the title of “ superintendent of the gymnasium,” in addition to his desig¬ nation as instructor of German in the catalogue of the university for 1827-?28. For the two years, that is, in 1826 and 1827, the gymnasium was favorably looked upon by the authorities of the university, and was considered of sufficient importance to merit especial notice in the very brief catalogues then issued. But in that of 1828 Dr. Follen appears simply as instructor in German, ethics, and civil and ecclesi¬ astical history, -and no further mention is made of gymnastics either in the list of officers or in the catalogues. On July 15, 1826, a meeting of citizens of Boston was held to con¬ sider u the expediency of establishing a school for gymnastic exercise.” The city council had granted the use for two years of a piece of land u at the westerly end of Boylston street,” and it was stated that “ the primary object of the gymnastic school would be to furnish opportu¬ nity and means of exercise to the youth of the city. At the same 504 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. time it would be open to persons of every age wlio might be inclined to embrace the opportunity for the regular practice of bodily exercise.” If the experiment had been successful it was intended to make the gymnasium “ a department of public education, under the patronage of the city.” After considerable difficulty in raising the necessary funds the gym¬ nasium was finally opened in September, 1826, but at a location other than that offered by the city. The general direction of affairs was givon to Dr. Follen, of Harvard University, but the real work probably fell upon his assistant, Mr. Turner, who was described as “ a dis¬ tinguished gymnast of the establishment at Cambridge.” Dr. Follen soon found it impracticable to direct two gymnasiums and to do justice to his academic duties at Harvard at the same time, for after a few months he was succeeded as the superintendent of the Bos¬ ton gymnasium by Dr. Francis Lieber, whose coming to America was due to the instrumentality of Mr. John Neal, an American enthusiast over gymnastics, then residing in London. Dr. Lieber bore the cordial indorsement of his friend and teacher, the great Jahn, and was recommended by Mr. Neal as a teacher of swimming, riding, and fencing as well as of gymnastics. The signal success for the time of the physical training in these four institutions gave great impetus to the interest in gymnastics, and at least three of the neighboring colleges, namely, Brown, Williams, and Yale, soon followed with the provision of apparatus for the “most pop¬ ular kinds of gymnastics,” as it was expressed in one instance. Several schools of secondary or lower grade also followed suit. Most of them were located in New England, but there were three or four in New York, one in Maryland, one in South Carolina, and one in Mississippi, showing that, though Boston was the center of activity, interest in the subject was by no means confined to one locality. But the knowledge of prac¬ tical gymnastics was in inverse ratio to expectations and enthusiasm. So great was the ignorance that prevailed and so unfamiliar were even the commonest terms connected with the art that one early writer found it necessary to explain at great length what the words “gymnasium” and “gymnastics” meant, and how they should be pronounced. Dr. Beck published a partial translation of Jahn’s book in 1828, and after its appearance that seems to have been the principal source of information as to the details of the subject. But even then the wave of enthusiasm was rapidly subsiding, and in a few years scarcely a trace of it was left. Nor are the reasons difficult to discover. The only men in America who were really competent exponents of the system of gymnastics then prevailing were the three whose names have been mentioned. A rather diligent search fails to discover that any other institution than theffour named even pretended to have a director of gymnastics. Beck, Follen, and Lieber were Germans, and they PHYSICAL TRAINING. 505 found, the status of gymnastics here far different from what they had known it to be in their own country. There gymnastics and political agitation had been intimately associated, and enthusiasm for “turning” was affiliated with interest in the spread of liberal ideas in government; here physical training was a thing apart from all political concerns and the manner of its advocacy was in opposition to the demands of mental culture rather than auxiliary to it. The position of a leader in gym¬ nastics, therefore, bore an entirely different aspect in Germany and in America, and men of rare intellectual ability and university training (two of the trio were doctors of philosophy and the third bore the degree of J. U. D.) naturally soon tired of teaching boys to turn som¬ ersaults when the rewards for more intellectual work were so much greater and more congenial. Lieber’s fame from the first rested upon his reputation, which had preceded him, of being a “learned professor” more than upon his work in gymnastics. In fact his connection with the Boston gymnasium appears to have been due to embarrassing circumstances in which his political activity at home had placed him, and it was after his failure to secure a hoped-for appointment as professor of German in a London institution that he accepted the offer of the Boston people, undoubt¬ edly as a makeshift to serve till more congenial opportunities were offered. He took up his literary work soon after his arrival in Boston, and was known to later years wholly as the author of the plan of Girard College, as a professor in the College of South Carolina, and in Columbia College, and as a writer upon economic and political topics. Dr. Follen’s mental superiority was soon recognized at Harvard, and he was made a full professor in 1828 or 1829. The scientific features of gymnastics were at that time but little recognized even by its most intelligent advocates, and it is not surprising that a man occupying such an honorable position should gradually rise, as he probably thought, above the drudgery of gymnastics. Dr. Beck was teacher of Latin at the Bound Hill School, as well as of gymnastics, and probably lost inter¬ est in the latter in the same way that Lieber and Follen did. He, too, became a Harvard professor in 1832. The rest is soon told. Such extravagant expectations as prevailed concerning the effects of gymnastics must have been followed by dis¬ appointment even under the most favorable conditions. But in the absence of all that was necessary to lead to a clear and general under¬ standing of not only the underlying principles, but of the details as well, an utter failure was unavoidable. The experience of the Charles¬ ton (S. C.) College, as stated in 1830, was typical: “A system of bodily exercise was adopted three or four years ago, and suitable apparatus was constructed; but it was not found useful, and the apparatus has been destroyed.” 506 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. THE FELLENBERG OR MANUAL LABOR MOVEMENT. Though gymnastics, as it was then understood, or misunderstood, proved a disappointment, the agitation in its favor had not been in vain, for a wide-spread realization of the necessity for greater attention to the physical condition of students in educational institutions had resulted. And as soon as confidence in the power of gymnastics to accomplish the hoped-for improvement began to wane new plans with the same end in view appeared. The study of physiology and hygiene was brought forward as an important aid to the preservation of health, and the campaign then begun in favor of the introduction o‘f such instruction has been con¬ tinued, though with occasional lapses of interest, until at the present time it is required by law in nearly all the States of the Union. Fellenberg’s idea of combining manual labor with mental instruction did not gain much headway in this country till the collapse of the gymnastic movement, and then it was taken up with avidity in the apparent belief that in it was to be found the solution of the whole problem of physical exercise in educational institutions. This hastened the decline of gymnastics, for the advocates of manual labor felt bound to destroy the claims of all other systems of exercise before advancing the claims of their own. Dr. Benjamin Rush, of Philadelphia, was one of the earliest to advo¬ cate agricultural and mechanical pursuits in educational institutions, his interest in the matter dating from 1790 at least. The first of the u agricultural ” or u manual-labor ” schools was founded in 1797 at Lethe, near Abbeville, S. C., by Dr. John De la Howe, but it was not put in practical operation until about twenty years later. Upon a sim¬ ilar plan the Gardiner Lyceum, in Maine, was established in 1823, a u Fellenberg school” was opened at Windsor, Conn., in 1824' and the Maine Wesleyan Seminary at Augusta, was put in operation in 1825. But the two most conspicuous institutions in which manual labor was a feature were the Oneida Institute of Science and Industry at Whitesboro, N. Y., and the Andover Theological Seminary at Andover, Mass. In the latter the sole consideration that led to the introduction of manual labor was the iuvigoration and preservation of the health, “ without any reference to pecuniary profit,” but in the majority of sim¬ ilar institutions the supposed pecuniary advantages of the plan were as weighty as the hygienic in determining its adoption. In most of the institutions the labor provided for was agricultural, and for that purpose farms were secured when practicable. At Andover, however, all the labor was mechanical, namely, carpentry, box making, and com¬ mon cabinet work, and those schools which followed its example were equipped with shops only; others were provided with both farms and shops, and the students worked in either or both as occasion demanded. The time required for labor was generally between three and four hours PHYSICAL TRAINING. 507 daily, and it was suggested in at least one instance that six hours would be still better, but it is not probable that such a suggestion was ever reduced to practice. In 1829 the manual labor movement began to assume considerable proportions, largely because of the earnest advocacy of Dr. Stephen H. Tyng, of Philadelphia, and of Dr. Elias Cornelius, the editor of the American Quarterly Register and secretary of the American Education Society. Being themselves ministers, their first thoughts were uaturally turned toward the theological schools, and labor was urged as a neces¬ sary part of the preparation for “ soldiers of Christ,” but their horizon broadened, and they were soon as enthusiastic in urging its claims upon schools for secular instruction as they had been in behalf of the embryo ministers. In a few years there was scarcely a State in the Union in which there was not a school of some description upon which manual labor had been ingrafted as an essential feature, compulsory, or prac¬ tically so, upon all students. A meeting was held in the Masonic Hall, New York, June 15, 1831, a on the subject of introducing manual labor into literary institutions as a system of exercise for students.” Addresses were made by Rev. Mr. Gale, one of the principals of the Oneida Institute; Rev. Mr. Frost, one of the trustees; Rev. Rufus Anderson, secretary of the American board of commissioners for foreign missions, and by Rev. Edward Beecher, president of Illinois College. The principles of manual labor as connected with literary institutions were explained, and resolutions were adopted declaring that — It is indispensable that a well-regulated system of exercise should be introduced into all plans of education ; * * * that manual labor ought, as far as possible, to be introduced into literary institutions as a means of promoting health, diminishing the expense of an education, and cultivating all those qualities in a minister of the Gospel, which tne nature of his office requires and the exigencies of the present age loudly demands ; * * # and that a committee be appointed to consider the subject of connecting manual labor with the pursuit of literature in general, and to take such measures as shall in their judgment be best adapted to promote the establish¬ ment of institutions of this kind throughout our country. As a result of tbis meeting, in the next month, that is, July, 1831, the u Society for Promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institutions” was formed in New York, the officers being the same men who had been active in the preliminary meeting. They were as follows: President, Zechariah Lewis, esq.; vice-presidents, Hon. Theodore Frelingkuysen, Rev. James Milnor, Seth P. Staples, esq., Rev. Jeremiah Day, Rev. Janies M. Matthews, Hon. William Jay; treasurer, George Douglass, esq. ; corresponding secretary, Rev. Joshua Leavitt; managers, S. V. S. Wilder, esq., Rev. G. W. Gale, W. 0. Woodbridge, esq., Rev. Elias Cornelius, Mr. Lewis Tappan, Rev. Samuel H.Oox, Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Mr. Cornelius Baker, Rev. Stephen H.Tyng, Dr. Alfred C. Post; execu¬ tive committee, Messrs. Wilder, Tappan, Cox, Douglass, and Leavitt. A general agent of the society was appointed in the person of Mr. 508 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Theodore D. Weld, who had been connected with the Oneida Institute, and was familiar with the details of the new system and enthusiastic in its advocacy. In accordance with his instructions Mr. Weld visited most of the large towns and leading literary institutions in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama, prose¬ cuting his inquiries and calling public attention to the manual-labor system by public lectures and private conferences with the managers of the institutions visited. Wherever he went he was well received, and his labors resulted in a great increase in public interest in bodily exercise in general and manual labor in particular. Mr. Weld made his first report January 10, 1832, and it was pub¬ lished as the report of the society in pamphlet form the following year, making the most elaborate presentation ever published in this country of the claims of manual labor as a part of an educational system. An enumeration of the points discussed in it furnishes a good idea of the grounds upon which the new idea was advocated: (I) The present system of education makes fearful havoc of health and life; (II) the present system of education effeminates the mind; (III) the present system of education is perilous to morals; (IV) the present system of education produces an indisposition to effort and destroys habits of activity and industry; (V) the present system of education is so expensive that its practical effects are anti-republican. From the u facts, reasonings, and testimony presented” he reached these conclusions: u First, bodily exercise is indispensable to man, demanded alike by the necessities of his corporeal, intellectual, and moral nature, his individual happiness and social usefulness; and, sec¬ ond, this exercise should be incorporated into our system of education, and alternated with study in all seminaries of learning.” It was further asserted — (1) This exercise must be taken daily ; (2) the student should spend at least three hours daily in exercise; (3) The exercise should be mod¬ erate. This much being settled to the author’s satisfaction, he proceeded to discuss the kind of exercise u best adapted to the student, and most suitable to be incorporated into a regular system.” Walking, riding on horseback, and swimming he allowed to be good, but not adapted to use in connection with an institution. Military exercises were said to be proper for a strictly military school, but out of place in other institutions u until fighting becomes the appropriate vocation of man and human butchery the ordinary business of life.” Gymnastics received a greater share of his attention, but was disposed of, because — (I) It is dangerous; too violent for persons ordinarily leading sedentary lives. (II) It is unnatural; many of the movements required are such as are rarely demanded by human circumstances. (Ill) It is unphilosophical. An individual can not be permanently interested in any active exercise to produce changes in the state of other objects. * * * No visible effects are witnessed, and the production PHYSICAL TRAINING. 509 of manifest effects is a main element of interest in muscular movements. (IV) Gym¬ nastic exercises excite aversion and contempt in the public mind. The people are disgusted and repelled by the grotesque and ludicrous antics of the gymnasium. They say u leave wooden horses to children and monkey tricks to monkeys.” It was also objected that gymnastics “ affords no pecuniary advan¬ tage; that the exercise benefits only the student, makes no contribution to the resources of his country, and no addition to the means of human subsistence.” Manual labor was next considered by the author of the report, and was found to be a panacea for all the evils described, because — (I) The manual labor system furnishes exercise natural to man. (II) It furnishes exercise adapted to interest the mind. (Ill) Its moral effects would be peculiarly happy. (IV) It would furnish the student with important practical acquisitions. (V) It would promote habits of industry. (VI) It would promote independence of character. (VII) It would promote originality. (VIII) It is adapted to render per¬ manent all the manlier features of character. (IX) It would afford facilities to the student in acquiring a knowledge of human nature. (X) It would greatly diminish the expense of education. (XI) It would increase the wealth of thecountry. (XII) It would do away with those absurd distinctions in society which make occupation of an individual the standard of his worth. (XIII) It would have a tendency to render permanent our republican institutions. All these points were elaborated in an ingenious and plausible man¬ ner, and the arguments of the author were fortified by quotations from great numbers of writers who had discussed the subject in its various aspects. The objections to the system and the obstacles to its success were treated in the same way. The preparation of this report was the last official act of Mr. Weld as general agent of the society, for at the end of his term of one year he resigned and entered a Western institution to pursue his professional studies. His place was never filled, and the “Society for the Promot¬ ing Manual Labor in Literary Institutions” seems to have done very little if anything in the way of active work afterwards. The popularity of the subject was of only temporary duration, for the objections and obstacles which were so easily disposed of on paper by Mr. Weld loomed up to formidable dimensions after a few years’ expe¬ rience. One by one nearly all the institutions in which manual labor had been tested found the idea unsatisfactory in practical operation and dropped it. A few of the semicharitable institutions established during the time of the greatest popularity of the plan still exist and still retain the old manual-labor feature, and a number of schools have been established on a similar plan, within the last few years, for colored pupils in the South. A great many eleemosynary institutions throughout the coun¬ try require manual labor of their inmates ; but in all these cases the old extravagant ideas are laid aside, and the pecuniary gains are always the principal and in many cases the sole object in view. The causes for the collapse of this form of physical training may be 510 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. best told in the words of the same man whose glowing utterances were described on a previous page, namely, Mr. Theodore D. Weld. In a letter to Mr. Henry Barnard written about 1805, he said: I have modified in some respects my opinions as expressed in the report, and espe¬ cially as to the amount of pecuniary profit to be expected from the manual-labor system even under the most favorable conditions. The practical difficulty in suc¬ cessfully combining labor and study in an institution also seems to me greater and more complicated. Labor, whether agricultural or mechanical, in order to be pecu¬ niarily profitable to any considerable extent must be more continuous than would be consistent with the best conditions of study. So also the pecuniary r-suits con¬ flict with the best physical and mental. To secure the best result to body and mind, the students’ three hours’ exercise daily should be divided into half a dozen portions. This with the requisite changes of dress would be impracticable. So too, the exer¬ cise should be more diversified than is practicable. From the different kinds of labor such a selection should be made as will mete out to every part of the system that exercise which will best minister to its need. To do this effectually would require more frequent changes in the kind of work than could consist with much pecuniary profit. THE MOVEMENT FOR PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. It was noted in a previous paragraph that one of the results of the agitation for gymnastics during the period of 1825-’28 was the advo¬ cacy of the study of physiology and hygiene by school children. Along with this there soon came a closer attention to the sanitary and hygienic conditions of school life on the part of the authorities of the public or semipublic schools of the time which seemed to absorb all the thought which they were able to give to the physical condition of the children. When manual labor fell into disfavor, this phase of the question rose to a prominent position among the live educational topics of the time, and thenceforth, for a number of years, u physical education ” was even more frequently and earnestly discussed than during the period of 1825-?28; but “ physical education” had then a much wider meaning than gym¬ nastics alone — so wide, in fact, that gymnastics was almost entirely over¬ looked. An excellent idea of the meaning assigned to the term “ physical education” and the popular attitude toward it at that time may be had from the remarks upon the subject in the report of a committee of the “Western Literary Institute and College of Professional Teachers,” who were appointed to prepare a manual of instruction. This report was made to the meeting in Cincinnati in October, 1835, and was signed by Albert Picket, sr., E. Slack, E. D. Mansfield, A. Kinmont, H. Halley, J. Van Doren, D. L. Talbott. It contained the following : (1) In reference to physical education, there is something in the power of the teacher as well as the parent. (2) What is in the power of the teacher relates to air and exercise chiefly. (3) Air breathed by pupils, as well as all others, should be pure, free, and temperate. (4) For this purpose the school room should be neither very small nor crowded. (5) It should be surrounded by open ground. (6) It should have a free circulation of air in summer, and be moderately heated in win¬ ter. In the country there may be too much exposure in the winter, but in towns PHYSICAL TRAINING. 511 overheating is everywhere the prevailing error. (7) As action is a fundamental law of nature, so the exercise of the body is the only counter agent we have for the evils occasioned by studious habits. (8) Play and tbe free and universal use of the limbs is natural to children, and it is habit and discipline only that restrains them from it; hence, when the hours of study are over they should indulge in this activity of body and renew their strength for coming exertions. (9) The ground about the schoolhouse should, therefore, be extensive enough to permit free, active sports with¬ out injury to others. (10) Boys should rather be encouraged to play than to study in the hours of intermission. (11) They should be encouraged to engage in active sports of all kinds rather than sedentary amusements and, if it were possible, to learn some useful handicraft ; their exercise should not be one which exercises only one portion of the body. (12) In these respects the teacher can exercise some direct control, but they are not the only ones. By advice and inquiry he can exercise not a little influence over another not less important department of physical education. (13) The due regulation of sleep often makes the whole difference between industry and idleness, and the importance of early rising is illustrated by too many signal exam¬ ples to be doubted. (14) Over these things — air, exercise, and sleep — the teacher has not the whole control, but he has enough, by advice and suggestions to parents and trustees, by rewards and punishments over the pupils to make it his duty to exert it in a more decided and salutary manner than has hitherto been the case. (15) Over diet and clothing the parent is supposed to be the natural and proper guardian, and with few exceptions they are topics upon which the young should think but little. One of the foremost advocates in behalf of the study of physiology was Dr. W. A. Alcott, and an expression of his views may also be given as an example of the best thought of the time upon the matter of exercise. Before the American Institute of Instruction in Boston in 1836 he said in effect : It is very difficult to give rules on the subject of physical exercise which should be applicable to all pupils. To be nice in the matter each pupil should require a different quantity of exercise according to his age, health, habits, and moral con¬ stitution. Many rules- might be given which would be applicable to a large num¬ ber of pupils, though the best way is for every teacher to make himself acquainted with physiology, and then he could make his own rules and adapt them to existing circumstances. I would, however, lay down one rule which is applicable to all places, cases, and circumstances. Exercise to be useful to pupils should be such as will call off the mind from its common pursuits or studies. It is not sufficient to exercise the muscles; the mind too must be exercised and even amused. I would not say that it is of no use to saw wood or to walk to a certain corner or a certain post every day. I believe that even this is of some service. But it is of little avail, compared with something which would at the same time interest and excite the mind. The pupil should bury, as it were, all his usual employments, in order to get the full benefit of the exercise. These extracts are sufficient to show the place which the exercise held in the estimation of the educational leaders of the time. To pre¬ sent an array of the advocates of similar ideas would be useless to show more than the extent of their prevalence, and this may be readily understood without such a category. It is sufficient that Massachusetts early came to the front as a leader in this movement as she had in the gymnastic agitation of 1825-’28, and, in a less degree, the spread of the manual-labor idea. Horace Mann was one of the stoutest defenders and promoters of the study of physiology, and his 512 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. reports as secretary of the state board of education teem with recom¬ mendations and arguments in its favor. The desideratum most apparent to one of the present generation who reads the literature of “ physical education ” of that time was a well- considered system of gymnastics. Physical exercise and recreation were prominent in all the discussions, but during that period it was all physiology and no practice, just as in the twenties it had been all practice and no physiology. The matter of exercise was left either to the pupils themselves, as was apparently the idea of the meeting at Cincinnati, or, as Dr. Alcott and the New England teachers proposed, it was left to the teachers, who can not be supposed to have had more than a superficial knowledge of general physiology, even if they had that. THE REVIVAL OF GYMNASTICS. The revival of gymnastics under such circumstances was the most natural thing in the world. Effective exercise was desired, and only a few years’ experience had been needed to show how futiie it was to expect anything from such arrangements as had been in vogue; manual labor had but recently shown itself to be unsatisfactory as an adjunct to a literary institution ; what, then, could supply the need so well as gymnastics? It is not to be supposed that the cause of gymnastics was dead during the few years’ reign of the manual-labor idea, or during the time that physiology held the popular interest; it was sleeping rather soundly, it is true, but an occasional lecture or publ ication gave evi¬ dence that there was still some life in it. In 1830, one William Fuller published in New York a small book containing a brief dissertation upon the advantages of gymnastics, an account of the London Gymnastic Society, and a description of some of the principal gymnastic exercises. He proposed, in conclusion, to establish a gymnasium in New York as soon as 100 subscribers were obtained at $20 a year each. There is little probability that he ever succeeded. Gymnastics for females had never received much attention in this country, but a small book published in London in 1827, by an Italian, Signor Voarino, and entitled A Treatise on Galisthenic Exercises arranged for the Private Tuition of Ladies, seems to have had some circulation in this country, for it was referred to in some of the educa¬ tional journals of the time, and in one or two advertisements of schools for girls mention appears of “calishenics.” Miss Catherine E. Beecher was one of those who favored calisthenics and made it a feature of her school at Hartford, Conn., and afterwards at Cincinnati, Ohio, and still later at Milwaukee, Wis. In 1832 she her¬ self published a book in the form of a series of letters, called A Course of Calisthenics for Young Ladies in Schools and Families. A little PHYSICAL TRAINING. 513 manual on the same subject was published in 1834 by Rev. J. Leavitt, of New York City, who had been one of the executive committee of the Society for Promoting Manual Labor, etc. He claimed for calisthenics : (1) They bring every part of the system into action. (2) They expand the chest. (3) They bring down the shoulders. (4) They make the form erect. (5) Give grace to motion. (6) Increase muscular strength (7) Give a light and elastic step in. walking. (8) Prevent tight lacing. (9) Restore the weakened and distorted mem¬ bers of the system. (10) Promote cheerfulness and bodily activity. (11) Render the mind more active. (12) They are conducive to general health. The apparatus required were u the oscillator, the triangle, patent springs, wands, weights, and dumb-bells.” These two little books, with other manuals that appeared about the same time, gave a slight and temporary impetus to calisthenics, but achieved no permanent result then apparent. The Canadians settled upon a plan of practical work sooner than the Americans did ; and under Rev. E. Ryerson, the chief superin¬ tendent of schools of Upper Canada, a substantial advance was made in the actual work of gymnastics before the new movement, as it might be called once more, had passed the stage of discussion in the United States. . In 1846, Dr. Ryerson made an official report on a system of public elementary instruction for Upper Canada, which contained a strong recommendation of gymnastics. About the same time the government of Upper Canada established a public gymnasium in Toronto. In 1852, Dr. Ryerson published in his official organ, the “ Journal of Education,” a series of articles in which he gave a short but reasonably complete collection of exercises in free gymnastics and for the horizontal bar and the wooden horse. These were afterward collected in pamphlet form, and distributed from the educational depository at Toronto. He urged the general use of these exercises, and promised the aid of the Government hi the purchase of apparatus. When the new normal school for Upper Canada was opened, November 24, 1852, a gymnasium was a part of its equipment, and a u master of the art of gymnastics” was in charge. There can be no doubt that in all this Canada was in advance of the United States, and, judged by later standards, even Horace Mann’s work for u physical education” was far less practical and effective than that of Dr. Ryerson. After 1850 the discussions and suggestions relating to physical training began to assume a perceptibly different aspect, and were dis¬ tinctly more businesslike and to the point. This was particularly true of the utterances of the city school superintendents, whose employment was then a novelty. It is well known that to the system of profes¬ sional supervision of common schools many of the most important improvements in American education are due; the idea of gymnastics for schools can not of course be ascribed to that source, but a very superficial examination of the school reports issued during the decade ed 92 - 33 514 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. of 1850 to 1880 would be sufficient to verify the statement that the superintendents were influential factors in the gymnastic revival of that period. Mr. Nathan Bishop, to whom belongs the honor of being the first city school superintendent in this country, was also the first superin¬ tendent to advise systematic physical exercises in the school room. His experience as a superintendent began in Providence, B. I., but the first expression even reasonably full of his views in this respect is to be found in his second annual report as superintendent of public schools of the city of Boston (1852). He says : In addition to the exercise allowed at the time of recess each half day, all the younger children need provision for some gentle exercise as often as once in every half hour, such as riding, walking, marching, accompanied with such motions of the arms as would tend to give fullness and erectness to the chest. Mr. Bishop lamented the lack of a u manual containing such a series of physical exercises as would tend to promote strength of body and gracefulness of motion; ” and it may be assumed therefore that the rule promulgated by the school committee the next year (i. e., 1853) requiring that u every scholar should have daily some kind of physical or gym¬ nastic exercise,” contemplated such exercise as u rising, walking, and marching accompanied with motions of the arms.” This rule probably amounted to very little; Mr. Bishop did not make any mention of it in his subsequent reports, but it is nevertheless the first rule (so far as the writer has been able to discover) which required gymnastic exer¬ cise in the x>ublic schools of any American city. A few years later the reports of the superintendents are noticeably prolific in physical-training literature. Whether this may be ascribed to the influence of the North American Turnerbund, the German gym¬ nastic association which was organized a comparatively short time before, or to the fact that the new public-school system had then reached such a point as to ‘make it possible for the first time for its offi¬ cers to look beyond the administrative questions that had absorbed all their attention during the period of organization, or to other circum¬ stances not apparent at this time, can not be definitely stated. It is highly probable that causes coming under all these heads were opera¬ tive; there is certainly every reason to believe that the influx of intel¬ ligent Germans into this country after the political disturbances in Europe in 1848 had much to do with the general interest in physical training that was so plainly apparent five or six years afterwards. The limitations of this paper and the extent of the movement make it impossible to mention even briefly all the important steps that were taken toward the rehabilitation of gymnastics during that period. The work done in the colleges was particularly valuable, but it need not occupy attention at present, both because this investigation relates more particularly to the common schools, and because this Bureau has PHYSICAL TRAINING. 515 already issued a publication in which that phase of the subject received thorough and satisfactory treatment.1 Miss Catherine E. Beecher, who has already been mentioned as an ardent and consistent advocate of calisthenics for females, again came info public notice in 1856 through a book called A Manual of Physi¬ ology and Calisthenics for Schools and Families. H. W. T. Root’s School Amusements, embracing, among many other things, u simple rules for military and gymnastic exercises,” appeared in 1857. These two books, the former in advocacy of light movements, and the latter setting forth a series of exercises for the usual German apparatus such as bars, lad¬ ders, etc., had a rather extensive circulation and contributed materially to the stock of practical knowledge upon gymnastics. In 1859, Dr. G. B. Winship, of Boston, appeared in advocacy of heavy lifting as a means of physical training, and his lectures and exhibitions excited wide interest. DIO LEWIS, AND THE “NEW GYMNASTICS.” The climax of the gymnastic movement of the antebellum period was reached when there appeared on the scene the most picturesque figure in the history of American physical training, Dio Lewis. This man had been a public lecturer upon physiology and temperance, and possessed in a remarkable degree the power of arousing popular atten¬ tion and even enthusiasm. He himself, as one of his pupils said, was a u perfect perambulating galvanic battery .of energy and enthusiasm.” The beginning of his connection with gymnastics may be told in his own words : Educated to the profession of medicine, and mingling for many years principally with those classes who suffer most from nonobservance of the laws of health, I came many years ago to think somewhat seriously of that ounce of prevention which is worth tons of cure. Want of muscular exercise was one of the most obvious defects in our physical life. It was not less obvious that the very structure of town and city society rendered the correction of the evil impracticable, except in the gymnasium. I examined the German gymnasium, the one so much in vogue throughout the United States, with great care. Entering one of these institutions as a pupil, I studied the anatomical and physiological bearings of its many exercises. I found that they were not well adapted to children, women, fat men, or old men, and about eight years ago [i. e,, about 1853] I began the attempt to devise something better. "During this time I have invented more than 500 different exercises, of which a large experience has fully indorsed nearly 300. The leading feature of his system [according to the New York Tribune of August 27, 1860] is to use such exercises as will produce hearty merriment, and cause those engaged to enter into them with enthusiasm and great delight. It employs a great variety of positions of the limbs and body, and rapid changes, reminding one of the prompt, rapid, and varied movements of the Chicago Zouaves.. His apparatus is of the simplest construction and of trifling expense, and may be easily prepared by any person, and at the same time is adapted for use in any schoolroom or school ’Circular of Information No. 5, 1885. Physical Training in American Colleges and Universities, by Edward Mussev Hartwell, Ph. D., M. D. This circular is now undergoing revision, with a view to republication. 516 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. yard, and also for the family. He uses wooden dumb-bells weighing not over a pound each, and clubs varying from two to three or four pounds each ; air guns, bags of beans weighing from two to three pounds, rubber balls, bows and arrows, chess- ball game, etc. In all these there is great amusement, so that all the benefits of exercise are most admirably combined, and to one who has witnessed them it seems almost incredible that so much can be accomplished in so cheap and simple a man¬ ner. * * * Another exercise consisted in the use of sticks, about the size of a broom-handle and the length of a cane. * * * In using these sticks, movements of the arms, shoulders, and chest were accomplished. Then followed the calisthenic movements of head, neck, and shoulders. Dr. Lewis did not confine liimself to exercises of his own invention, but freely and openly borrowed from every system and every author whose exercises could be profitably incorporated with his own system. Miss Beecher’s calisthenics he used from the first; he instituted the u Swedish movement cure” as a department of his gymnasium ; reprinted the free exercises of Moritz Schreber, of the Leipzig Orthopedic and Medico-Gymnastic Institute; translated the Dumb-bell Instructor of Maurice Kloss, of the Koyal Saxon Normal Gymnastic Institute at Dresden, and republished in English Dr. Shreber’s work on the Pan- gymnastikon. It appears that the first practical application of Dr. Lewis’s “new gymnastics,” as he called it, was iii Mr. N. T. Allen’s school in West ISewton, Mass., in 1860, though the statement is also made that the Nor¬ mal School at Framingham was the first in which these exercises were regularly introduced under the personal direction of Dr. Lewis himself. During the same year he*opened a gymnasium in Boston, making the third in the city. About the same time, i. e., in August, 1860, the American Institute of Instruction, then the leading pedagogical organi¬ zation in the country, held its meeting in Boston. In some way Dr. Lewis attracted the attention of the managers of the meeting, and was invited to appear before it and u explain and illustrate his new system.” He did so, and such was the impression he made that at the end of the half-hour allotted him his time was extended and he occupied two hours of the time of the meeting. The next morning he was accorded nearly two hours more, and at noon still another hour. His fame was then assured. The institute unanimously passed commendatory resolutions regarding his system; the newspapers generally published accounts more or less full of it, and it sprang into instant popularity. Mr. D. B. Hagar, the president of the American Institute, declared “the way so long desired has been pointed out,” and John D. Pliilbrick, the super¬ intendent of the Boston public schools, afterward said: How can we introduce physical exercises into our schools was an unsolved problem in my mind for many years. The old system of gymnastics, with its bars and swings and- ladders, was quite impossible in a great system of public schoolsj but when I saw that these exercises of the new system might be performed even in a school room, in the midst of the desks and chairs without difficulty or danger, I felt the problem was solved. We shall have them in all our schools. It is only a question of time. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 517 After Dr. Lewis’s success before the American Institute he was in great demand as a lecturer upon gymnastics and as a writer for maga¬ zines and various educational publications. He himself established a monthly periodical called Lewis’s New Gymastics for Ladies, Gentle¬ men and Children, and Boston Journal of Physical Culture, which lived through two years. His apparatus was in demand far and wide, and schools in all parts of the country began the use of his exercises. Hav¬ ing experienced great annoyance because of incompetent persons who assumed to teach his system, he resolved upon the establishment of a normal school in connection with his gymnasium. This was opened in 1861, the lecturers being Dr. T. H. Hoskins, anatomy; Dr. Josiah Cur¬ tis, physiology, and Dr. Walter Channing, sr., hygiene, in addition to Dr. Lewis, who appeared as u professor of gymnastics.” The course of study prescribed covered ten weeks, and at the end of that time the pupils were graduated as competent teachers of gymnas¬ tics. They uhad a very good time, but accomplished comparatively little in the direction of physical training, and received no instruction at all in the meaning and value of gymnastic exercises.”1 But, bearing the stamp of the master’s approval, they readily found employment and were regarded as true representatives of scientific gymnastics. But even such drawbacks as poorly prepared, though certificated, teachers might not have been fatal had not the excitement of the civil war and the newly-born enthusiasm for military drill, cadet corps, rifle practice, and target-shooting completely upset the calculations of those who labored in behalf of gymnastics. Thenceforward calisthenics and bean bags were relegated to the background and military marching and tactics were pursued to arouse or restore the military aptitude and spirit of the American people. Military institutes were established through¬ out the country; high schools made military drill a regular feature; pupils of grammar schools organized themselves into military compa¬ nies, and the National Government endowed colleges, one of whose main purposes was instruction in military tactics. Everywhere the military spirit prevailed and gymnastics suffered. Dr. Lewis did not long continue his gymnastic labors. He established a school in Lexington, Mass., in 1864, which was burned in 1868. A year later he finally gave up the work and until his death confined his attention to lectures upon hygiene and temperance. There appears to be a disposition of late years to belittle Dio Lewis and his work. This is unfortunate, to say the least. It may be true that “he was unconventional, sympathetic, plausible, oracular, and self sufficient,” and “not a scientist in any proper sense,” as one writer has said. But, notwithstanding all this, he rendered a real service. Even if he had nothing in his favor but the undoubted fact that he gave gymnastics in America a greater impulse than any man before ]The words are those of Dr. Walter Charming, jr., who had heen a pupil of the school. 518 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. liim had done, that would be sufficient to earn for him the gratitude of all interested in physical training. But he did more. He first awak¬ ened the American public to an appreciation of the fact that the mere development of huge muscles is not the true idea of physical training. His contribution to the list of exercises and to gymnastic material was by no means insignificant, though, to be sure, his claims were out of all proportion to their value; but, more than all else, he lifted the gym¬ nasium above the low plane it had occupied in the public mind as the resort of prize-fighters and bullies, and carried gymnastics into the schoolroom to an extent never before approached in this country, and into the home to an extent that no one else had ever attempted. ’THE RECENT REVIVAL OF GYMNASTICS. After the close of the war the ardor for military exercises naturally declined very perceptibly. Then, since the military exercises had in a great measure supplanted those of the gymnasium, there came a period of comparative quiet in both these lines of physical training. This did not follow immediately after the cessation of hostilities, for such a movement once under headway rarely collapses suddenly; but before ten years had passed popular interest was at a low ebb; then, after a time, it began to rise slowly and gradually, but surely. To assign as the cause for this any one event, or series of events, would be erroneous. Public sentiment was ripe for a gymnastic revival, and it came. But it is interesting to note some of its important incidents. Popular interest in out door sports of all kinds has steadily grown since the war, and to the value of gymnastics as a preparation for ath¬ letic games may be ascribed in a great measure the activity in gymna¬ sium building which has marked the last fifteen years. The erection of the Hemenway gymnasium for Harvard University at Cambridge, Mass., in 1879 and the effective work of Dr. D. A. Sargent, its director, hhs also done much to stimulate effort elsewhere in the same line.1 Among our German population the love of gymnastics is perennial. As the German influence was strong in the gymnastic movement of the fifties, so, too, it has made itself felt in the recent events and discussions. As far back as 1876 the standing committee on mnsic, drawing, and calis¬ thenics2 of the school board of Milwaukee, Wis:, adverted to the imper¬ fection of the school system so long as calisthenics was not regularly taught. They recommended u that a sum be included in this year’s budget large enough to engage a teacher to take charge of this branch of instruction, especially as Milwaukee has in its midst a man who, if his services can be secured, would soon bring it to a perfection not equaled in any of the schools of this country.” This man was Mr. 1 See page 549, et seq. 2Tliis word had but recently been added to the designation of the committee. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 519 George Brosius, already famous as a leader in the Turuerbund, and subsequently the head of its normal school for teachers of gymnastics. The members of this committee for 1877 were Messrs. J. A. Becher, F. Schloemilch, W. Schmidt, Jacob Freytag, and J. L. Schmidt. It would have been remarkable if a committee so constituted had not secured the appointment of Mr. Brosius. But they did, and they also accomplished the passage of rules which placed the subject apparently upon a firm jbasis ; namely, providing for teachers’ meetings for instruc¬ tion from the special teacher, requiring definite and fixed times for calis¬ thenics daily, and making such a division of his time as to allow the specialist to visit all classes. The use of the word “ calisthenics ” in the above connection bears no relation to the “calisthenics” advocated by Miss Beecher, for Mr. Brosius’s exercises were plainly those of the German system. The results of his teaching were such as might have been expected from such a man, distinctly beneficial, and the example of Milwaukee was followed by other cities in that section. Mr. Brosius severed his connection with the public schools in 1881, and assumed the control of the gymnastic seminary of the North American Turner- bund. His place was not filled, but physical exercises were still required by the school regulations. One of the most important centers of the gymnastic propaganda, so far as relates to public schools, for the last ten years has been Kansas City, Mo. The teaching of gymnastics was begun there in a modest way in October, 1885, and Mr. Carl Betz was employed with the title of “instructor of calisthenics.”1 It is needless to say that Mr. Betz is an exponent of the German gymnastics, having graduated from the Turners’ Gymnastic Seminary. Since the beginning of the work whatever opposition there was to it has been almost entirely overcome. Mr. Betz now bears the title of “ superintendent of physical culture,” and his exercises, so far from being confined to u calisthenics,” embrace, as he says, eight distinct branches of gymnastics, forming together, when fully developed, a complete system of educational gymnastics meeting all the requirements of modern physical education.2 Mr. Betz has written several manuals of gymnastics, and he has the satisfaction of knowing that they, with the example of his practical work in Kansas City, have materially aided in bringing about the intro- 1 As in the previous case, the use of the word “ calisthenics ” was due to a confound¬ ing of free gymnastics with the languid movements for females so common in this country a generation ago. That term, by the way, is still frequently applied to free or light gymnastics, especially by the German-Americans. -They are: (1) Free gymnastics, including breathing; (2) light gymnastics, com¬ prising poles, dumbbells, rings, wands, and Indian clubs; (3) tactics, marching and marching evolutions; (4) popular gymnastics, comprising athletics and the gymnastic plays of the playground; (5) heavy gymnastics, exerfcises on stationary apparatus; .(6) gymnastic plays and games; (7) fancy gymnastics, gymnastic com¬ position; (8) outings. 520 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. duction of physical training in a large number of American commu¬ nities. Among other cities that began the work of systematic physical training early in the history of the recent movement were Omaha, Nebr., in 1885 ; Chicago, Ill., in 1886; Davenport, Iowa, and St. Joseph, Mo., in 1887 ; Canton, Ohio, and Holyoke and Lowell, Mass., in 1888, and Denver, Colo., and Washington, D. C., in 1889. The German system is employed in all these cities, excepting Lowell and Washington, in which eclectic systems are used. The American Association for the Advancement of Physical Educa¬ tion, which was organized in Brooklyn, N. Y., November 27, 1885, must be accorded a prominent place among the agencies for promoting the work of the last few years. To Dr. W. G. Anderson, then of Adelphi Academy, Brooklyn, the most of the credit is due for the organization of this association, for it was in response to his invitation that about 60 u representatives of various educational institutions and friends of physical culture ” assembled for the purpose of permanent organiza¬ tion. The original officers were: President, Prof. Edward Hitchcock, M. D.; vice-presidents, Bev. Edward P. Thwing, ph. d.; D. A. Sar¬ gent, M. D. ; Miss H. 0. Putnam; secretary, William G. Anderson, M. D. ; treasurer, Prof. J. D. Andrews; council (in addition to the forego¬ ing officers), Prof. H. J. Koehler, Charles Me In tire, jr., m. d., William- Blaikie, esq. The association meets annually; its membership embraces representatives of every school of gymnastics, and its discussions cover every phase of physical training. If that great desideratum, an American system of physical training, is ever evolved its development will be the result of such deliberations as are to be heard in these meetings.1 After the meetings ot the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, which deserve the first place on account of their continuity, the next most important gathering has been what is known •The scope of the association and its value to the country may he judged by an examination of its programme for the meeting in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1892. The following are the titles of some of the papers read : President’s address — The con¬ dition and prospects of physical education in the United States, by Dr. E. M. Hart¬ well; the influence of methodical gymnastics in increasing chest capacity, by M. Georges Dem6ny; indirect effects of physical exercise, by William T. Harris, ll. d., Commissioner of Education ; the influence of bodily exercises upon length of life, by J. Madison Taylor, m. d. ; Delsarte and his work, by F. H. Sargent; Americanized Delsarte culture, by Emily M. Bishop; the regulation and management of athletic sports, by D. A. Sargent, m. d. ; the influence of habitual posture on the symmetry and health of the body, by Eliza M. Mosher, M. d. ; the best system of gymnastics for use in American schools, by Miss Gulli Oberg; the German system of physical education, by W. A. Stecher; reports on physical culture in Washington, D. C., Chicago, Ill., Sacramento, Cal., and New York, N. Y., by the directors of gymnastics in the respective cities; the normal school of the N. A. Gymnastic Union, by W. A. Stecher; physical culture in normal schools, by Dr. C. E. Ehinger; some measurable results of Swedish pedagogical gymnastics, by C. J. Enebuske. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 521 as fclie “ Physical Training Conference,” held in Boston, Mass., Novem¬ ber 29 and 30, 1889. This meeting was one of the most significant events of late years, numbering among its participants not only most of the leading lights in the gymnastic world, but also many of the most prominent figures in American education. Its object was “ to place before educators different systems of gymnastics, and to secure discussion of the same, with a view to clearly ascertaining the needs of the schools and deter¬ mining how they may best be met.” It was made possible by the liberality of Mrs. Mary Hemenway, of Boston, whose interest in physical training had already been shown by establishing the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics and in otherwise aiding in the spread of gymnastics. There can be no doubt that the resolution of thanks passed at the close of the meeting expressed the truth in saying that “ the whole cause of physical education in America has received a great impetus” from the meeting. It marked an epoch in physical training. On June 24, 1890, the Boston school committee ordered the introduc¬ tion of the Swedish system of gymnastics in all the public schools of the city, and the first day of toe next year Dr. E. M. Hartwell entered upon his duties as director of physical training in furtherance of that order. A number of cities, especially in the East, have followed the example of Boston in the introduction of the Swedish system, and the Germans have been stimulated by the sudden popularity of the Ling gymnastics to redouble their efforts in behalf of their own system. IJp to this time the rivalry between the two systems has been beneficial, because it has brought gymnastics more prominently before the educa¬ tional public than ever before; but there is danger that their continued sharp competition for public favor will prove injurious to the cause that both serve. The battle for gymnastics is hard to fight at best, but how much harder would it be with its forces divided by internal dissension, and that, too, caused largely by the national feeling of rival peoples, both of which are alien to our soil. With what confidence can an American board of education adopt the one system of gymnastics when a large and able body of experts pronounce it “ without rational or physiological foundation,” and with what trepidation will they approach the other system when an even larger number of equally able men assert, with their greatest physi¬ ologist, that “only the half-educated are impressed by it?” And what comfort can they gain by turning the eclectic systems when both parties sneer at them as “heterogeneous conglomerations?” THE PRESENT STATUS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING. The present status of physical training in the city public schools is best disclosed by an examination of the statistical tables appended. They are self-explanatory, and no remarks are needed in this connec 522 EDUCATION REFORT, 1891-92. tion further than to call attention to the fact that they embrace three categories, namely: (1) Those cities which profess to have introduced a regular system of gymnastics' and have placed the same under the care of a specialist; (2) cities which employ no specialist, but which require regular instruction by class teachers, and (3) cities in which physical exercises are practiced at the discretion of the teachers, but without the supervision of a special teacher and without an effective compulsory regulation. It is plain that in the cities as a whole, gymnastics is still in the stage of experiment and inquiry.1 In a few cities conspicuous and permanent success seems to have been attained, but whether this has been due to the personal efforts and influence of exceptionally efficient directors backed by exceptionally earnest and intelligent school boards, remains to be seen after the lapse of years has brought the usual changes in personnel and policies. It is not necessary to dwell upon the status of gymnastics in the country at large. The conditions are well known to all who will be likely to read this article; but it is well to recall the extensive and im¬ portant work and influence in this line of the college gymnasiums and inter-collegiate athletic events; the athletic clubs, some of them of im¬ posing dimensions, that exist in nearly all of our cities; the physical culture departments of the Young Men’s Christian Association and similar organizations; and the North American Turnerbund, witli its branches in almost every community that contains even a small pro¬ portion of Germans, giving instruction to boys and girls as well as to adults. The number of normal schools, normal classes, and summer schools for teachers of gymnastics is considerable. The Normal School of the North American Turnerbund, established ‘in 1868, and now located at Milwaukee, Wis., under the direction of Mr. George Brosius, is the fountain head from which issues the stream of teachers of the German system ; while the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, established in 1889 by Mrs. Mary Hemenway, with Miss Amy Morris Homans as director, annually graduates a large class of teachers of the Swedish 'Since the above was written information has been received of the passage of the following act by the Ohio legislature. .This is the first law of the kind that has been enacted in any American State : “ Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Ohio, That physical culture which shall include calisthenics, shall be included in the branches to be regularly taught in the common schools in cities of the first and second class, and in all edu¬ cational institutions supported wholly or in part by money received from the State, and it shall be the duty of boards of education of cities of the first and second class, and boards of such educational institutions, to make provision in the schools and institutions under their jurisdiction for the teaching of physical culture and calis¬ thenics, and to adopt such methods as shall adapt the same to the capacity of the pupils in the various grades therein. “ Sec. 2. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. “ Passed April 13, 1892.” PHYSICAL TRAINING. 523 system. The Young Men’s Christian Association maintains a normal school at Springfield, Mass., under Dr. Luther Gulick for training the directors of its several gymnasiums, and Dr. W. G. Anderson is the president of a normal school at New Haven, Conn., which he has recently removed from Brooklyn, N. Y. In addition to these four prominent and regularly organized institutions there are a number of lesser note, and many of the more prominent gymnasiarchs have “nor. mal classes” in connection with their gymnasiums. Of the summer schools, the most widely known are that of Dr. D. A. Sargent at Cambridge, Mass., and that of Dr. W. G. Anderson, at Cliatauqua, N. Y. CONCLUSION. A study of the history of physical culture in this country shows very clearly that the American people have never been unmindful of the demands of the body. One form of training after another has been pursued and tested until it has developed elements which have failed to harmonize with American ideas, and then it has been abandoned and another taken up. The interval between has always been short, only sufficient for the effects of the lack to be apparent. Then the popu¬ lar mind has turned to physical exercise again and the popular ear has been attentive to the claims of any new comer who has been able to advance reasonable arguments in favor of his ideas. Furthermore, each wave of popular interest which the history of physical training discloses has left its impress upon the general character of physical training as it is to day, and has contributed to make what will be at some future time “the American system of physical training.” Such a consumma¬ tion has not yet been reached, or the “German system,” the “Swedish system,” and the “Delsarte system” would not enjoy such high favor; but there can be no doubt that in its final development the “American system” will be a composite, not of these three, as the “combination systems” of to-day generally claim to be, but of all combined American experience in the field of physical training. The jirogress of the evolu¬ tion toward an American system even in the last few years, may be distinctly seen, especially in school gymnastics; for, have not the Ger¬ mans begun to adopt the Swedish ideas of the day’s orders and syste¬ matic progression, and have not the Swedes aimed to make their gym¬ nastics more attractive, even going so far in one case as to use the Ger¬ man bars, and in another to advocate the use of a combination of systems for older pupils : and have not the professed followers of Delsarte adopted exercises that are xilainly muscle makers as well grace givers? And do not they all utilize much that comes from the old English sports, from calisthenics, from Dio Lewis, and from Dr. Sargent? And is not all this found side by side and in harmony with military institutes after the plan of Col. Partridge, manual labor and manual training schools after the manner of Dr. Cornelius, and military drill in high schools 524 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. after the war-time ideas'? And finally, there is reason to believe that until this composition of forces, this amalgamation of systems, does take place, so that a well defined and well established American sys¬ tem is produced, physical training will never rest upon a safe basis in this country. All the history of the subject shows that the conflict of systems and methods, not popular indifference, has been, next to the inefficiency of teachers, the most dangerous enemy with which physical training has had to contend. History of G-ymnastics in Three Typical American City School Systems. I. ST. LOUIS, MO. St. Louis was one of the first cities in the country in which physical training was actually and practically applied in the public schools. In 1855 Mr. John II. Tice, then superintendent, recommended that “ provisions be made at our schools for gymnastic and calisthenic exer¬ cises during the recess hours ; apparatus for which I consider as neces¬ sary fixtures, and indispensable to a perfect system of education.” Mr. Ira Divoll, Mr. Tice’s successor, was also favorably disposed toward gymnastics, and his report for 1857-’58 urges the purchase for each play ground of “a few simple and inexpensive contrivances for gymnastic exercise, such as a revolving swing, and inclined ladder, horizontal bars, and wooden horses, a perpendicular climbing pole, and swinging rings.” Some of the schools were, in fact, soon afterward supplied with nearly all of these machines. He also describes what he calls “ manual exercises,” that were practiced in many of the primary schools. “It is pleasant,” he says, “to see 200 children, all in perfect order, go through with these changes and evolutions, and to witness in their faces the pleasure and happiness they derive from the exercises. All admit that these occasional relaxations from study and recitation are both health¬ ful and profitable.” In the next year, 1858-’59, we are told that “exer¬ cises in the manual drill and instruction in physical education received considerable attention,” and in the same year the first special teacher of physical education was employed for the St. Louis schools in the person of Capt. Hartnett Hammersley. The story of his connection with the schools is thus told by Mr. C. S. Pennell in his report as prin¬ cipal of the high school : A few weeks before the close of the year Capt. Hammersley offered to come to the schoolhouse daily to direct a class in orthosomic and hygienic exercises, the object of the exercises being, as the names indicate, to improve the form and carriage of the body and the health. A class of about 20 girls was, by the permission of the high school committee, placed under his direction. The exercises proved pleasant to the pupils, and though the time was so short that no considerable results could be expected, yet visitors were interested and generally satisfied that the exercises were well adapted to secure the objects intended. * ' " Capt. Hammersley PHYSICAL TRAINING. 525 believes that, by actual measurement, at intervals of a few months he can show improvement in the capacity of the chest and in the size of the most important vital organs. The next year Gapt. Hammersley received a salary of $500 for his services in the high and normal schools for three days in each week. In the lower grades daily lessons were given in the iL positions’7 and “ manual drill” during the same year. The special instructor continued in service for only a year, but the free exercises in the lower grades have continued in different forms and with varying degrees of effect¬ iveness ever since. The Dio Lewis gymnastics was introduced in the St. Louis schools by Mr. Ebenezer Knowlton, who succeeded Air. Pennell as principal of the high school in 1862. Mr. Knowlton had just graduated from Dio Lewis’s Normal School, and was an enthusiast for the u new gymnas¬ tics.” Military drill was also employed in the high school during the war period to secure u unity and promptness of action, and erectness and grace of carriage.” After the war but little seems to have been done for physical train¬ ing. Calisthenics was practiced by some of the teachers, but there was no specialist in charge, and no rule requiring the exercises. It was not until 1890 that anything really effective according to pres¬ ent day standards was done. At the meeting of the board of educa¬ tion on January 14 of that year Air. Eichard Bartholdt introduced a resolution directing the committee on course of study to prepare a plan for the introduction of physical training in the public schools of St. Louis. The resolution was referred to the committee on course of study, who held a meeting on February 6 to which a number of the officers and teachers of the German turner societies were invited. As a result a communication was presented to the full board on February 11 in which the seven teachers of German gymnastics in the city pro¬ posed to give instruction gratis in free gymnastics in seven public Schools of the city for the remainder of the school year as an experi¬ ment. The only stipulation was that the gymnastic exercises were to be considered a regular branch of study for those schools during the con¬ tinuance of the experiment. The offer was at once accepted, and the teachers entered upon their work. In the following July Mr. Bartholdt offered another resolution at the board meeting, declaring that the instruction given had proved a great success, and that the principals of the schools recommended its continuance. It therefore directed the introduction of physical train¬ ing as a regular branch of instruction. This resolution was referred to the appropriate committee, and at the next meeting its author con¬ tinued his effort by presenting petitions signed by 14,500 citizens, ask¬ ing the introduction of gymnastics as contemplated by the resolution. A report was made in October by the committee to which the matter was referred, and on November 11 it was decided by the board to 526 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. employ eight teachers of physical culture, and that the system which had been successfully tried in the previous spring be regularly installed in the schools. Mr. George Wittich was designated during the follow¬ ing year as u general supervisor of calistlienic instruction,” a position he still holds. II. CINCINNATI, OHIO. In Cincinnati, too, the gymnastic ardor began early.. Supt. A. J. Kickoff stated in 1857 that u the enterprise and liberality of individual trustees had resulted in the placing of a few parallel bars, horizontal ladders, and circular swings upon the play grounds of four of the schoolhouses.” He proposed that u provision be made at once for instructing all the teachers now employed in the schools in such a system of gymnastics as shall be adapted to the several grades of the schools from the sixth to the first. That the system proceed from the simplest movement to the most complex and difficult exercises. We have now all the appli¬ ances necessary. Free gymnastics — that is, gymnastics without appa¬ ratus — will, in the various forms practiced, afford a variety for culti¬ vating strength and grace altogether sufficient, if we will only consent to devote the necessary time to them. * * * Gymnastics and calis¬ thenics, in all schools of the sixth grade, ought to occupy not less than half an hour in the morning and afternoon, each five minutes between each recitation, making together an hour per day. * * * The pupils of the fifth grade ought to have scarcely less. The third and fourth grades should each spend not less than fifteen minutes in exercise morning and afternoon. In the intermediate schools, five minutes should be devoted to rapid, vigorous exercise, at the ringing of each bell for change of classes.” In these recommendations Mr. Kickoff followed in the footsteps of Dr. Kyerson, the free gymnastics introduced by the latter having attracted Mr. Kickoff’s notice during a visit to the normal school at Toronto. In the next year the board of education ordered frequent recesses in the lower grades “for the better guarding of the health of the pupils,” and in 1859 calisthenic exercise for five minutes at the end of each recitation was made obligatory for the pupils of grade D, a require¬ ment that was subsequently extended to the three lowest grades. In 1861 gymnastics was introduced as a regular exercise under the direction of instructors specially employed for that purpose. The immediate cause of this move appears to have been the report of the special committee of the Boston school committee which had been appointed to consider the recommendations of Supt. Philbrick.1 This report was directly in the line of the previous experience of the Cin¬ cinnati officials, and its recommendations were at once adopted, with minor alterations, the most important of which was that the time given 1 See page 529. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 527 to gymnastics was made fifteen minutes daily, or half as mncli as the Boston plan contemplated: It was stated by the president of the board of education in 1862, Mr. Rufus King, that — For years we have attested our sense of the necessity of making the physical as well as intellectual and moral training of the youth of both sexes a part of the regular course of school exercises. * * * For some time active encouragement was given to the use of every description of gymnastic apparatus. It was soon found that the temptations to excess resulted in frequent injuries. We have, therefore, resorted to a simpler method, taught by an accomplished and careful teacher in all our schools, which dispenses almost entirely with apparatus, and by gentler and more natural exercises of the body and limbs, and with but trifling cost, give development and symmetry to the whole frame. For boys it includes some of the elementary exercises of the soldier, and thus proves not only very attractive, but tends in no small degree to infuse them with correct ideas of order and discipline. Mr. Louis Graeser was the teacher employed, and his connection with the Cincinnati schools in the capacity of instructor of gymnastics continued until 1873. For a great part of that time he was provided with a female assistant, who supervised the exercises of the primary schools. His salary was $1,000 per annum at the beginning of his employment, Rut was gradually raised to $1,800. The rules promulgated by the board of education during this period required each teacher to give a lesson in gymnastics of not less than five nor more than ten minutes during each session. The regular teacher was to be present and assist the special teacher in his instruction. Rings and dumb-bells were to be used in the intermediate schools and the highest grade of the district schools. A pupil might be excused from the gymnastic exercises only upon presentation of a physician’s certificate that the pupil was suffering from disease or some physical defect. The first of these rules was passed in 1863 and others were added from time to time. They continued in force until 1881, though there had been no special instructor since Mr. Graeser. How gymnastics gradually dropped out of the schools may be appre¬ ciated by noting the changes in the committees of the board which had control of physical training. From 1861 to 1865 there was a standing u committee on gymnastics,” consisting of 5 members ; in 1865 this number was reduced to 3; in 1878 the “ committee on gymnastics” was abolished, and instead there was substituted the a committee on hygiene” of 5 members, to have “ supervision of ventilation, light, gym¬ nastics, and everything which pertains to the health of the pupils;” in 1881 the committee on hygiene disappeared, and its place was taken by the “committee on boundaries, statistics, and hygiene” of 3 mem¬ bers, whose duties were indicated by the name. Under the head of hygiene they had u supervision of ventilation, light, and everything which appertains to the health of the pupils.” Gymnastics had gone into history. The effects of the recent discussions throughout the country have been felt in Cincinnati as well as elsewhere, and from the last report of the 528 EDUCATION REPOET, 1891-92. superintendent (i. e., for 1890-’91, published in 1892) we learn that u instructions have been given, and oft repeated, to teachers tc be con¬ stant and faithful in the matter of free gymnastics or calisthenics in the schoolrooms. * * # Exercises of this nature are given twice daily, and in some cases oftener, with as free a circulation of air as possible.” Plans have been made for suitable buildings for gymnasiums upon the grounds of the high schools.1 III. BOSTON, MASS. Boston has always been among the first in the discussion if not the adoption of new ideas in education, and one naturally turns to that city in search for light upon almost any subject within the domain of educational thought. This is especially true in the matter of physical training, as the foregoing pages have already clearly shown. In the present instance we are further aided by the habit of the Boston school authorities of reducing to print nearly every important paper connected with the conduct of the schools. The several reports of special committees on physicial training, and especially the first report of Dr. E. M. Hartwell as direcfor of physical training, published in 1891, have made the course of physical training in Boston as easy to follow as the king’s highway. After the passage of the rule by the Boston school committee in 1853, 2 which enjoined u that every scholar should have daily some kind of physical or gymnastic exercise,” there was a long silence which will bear no construction favorable to a supposition of effective practice of gymnastics. The next significant utterance upon the subject appears in the sixth quarterly report of Supt. John I). Phil brick, dated Sep¬ tember 7, 1858. Mr. Philbrick had just returned from a visit to the schools of New York City, and one of their features that struck him most favorably was the management of the recesses there. u The pupils while in the yard or playground,” he said, u were always under the inspection of one or more teachers, detailed for that service. Some of the build¬ ings are furnished with excellent gymnastic apparatus, and in some schools calisthenic exercises were practiced to good advantage.”3 ]See foot note on page 522 for new State law requiring physical culture in all large cities in Ohio. 2See page 514. 3The credit for this belongs largely to Mr. S. W. Seton, then one of the assistant superintendents of the New York schools, whose activity had brought about the practice of calisthenics in a great many of the schools. In 1857 he urged the adop¬ tion of a regular system of exercises and the appointment of a professor to instruct the teachers in it. In his report for that year he gave several pages to the subject, and presented a number of exercises for the schoolroom, which he recommended as tending to “expand the chest, lengthen the collar bone, and strengthen the spinal column and the muscles of the back, and serve to give an erect, graceful, and health¬ ful form to the body.” So great was his interest in the matter that he brought and distributed among the j>rincipals a number of copies of Miss Beecher’s book on Phys¬ iology and Calisthenics, and even arranged with Miss Beecher to meet the principals and give them practical lessons in her movements. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 529 Five features of the New York schools 'were considered by him to be worthy of adoption in Boston, and this was one of them. One of Mr. Philbrick’s chief characteristics was his readiness in grasping a good idea wherever he saw it and in applying it in his own work. His very next quarterly report contained the following: But it [the public school system] is susceptible of much higher excellence than has yet been reached. The first step was necessarily intellectual education; physical will come next, and then moral. This is the historical order of development in sys¬ tems and nations. We have educated the intellect, hut now it is seen that body with mind is necessary to produce high ability. Then it will appear that ability will not produce happiness and enable the possessor to fulfill the ends of his being, unless governed by moral sentiments; and the development of these requires moral education. * * - * While the intellect is in training the conscience and the body must not be neglected. * * * I would have the teacher aim to make every exercise con¬ tribute as far as practicable to moral and physical improvement. Still, the school is not a church, nor a gymnasium; if it were, it would not be a school. * * * Liberal play grounds ought to be provided for every school, at whatever cost, and they should be used. Mr. Philbrick dicl not follow up the matter in his next reports, but being impressed with Dio Lewis’s exhibition before the American insti¬ tute of instruction,1 he reverted to the idea of adopting light gymnas¬ tics for the Boston schools. In his next official report, made in Sep¬ tember, 1860, he suggested the “ introduction into all grades of our schools of a thorough system of physical training, as a part of school cul¬ ture,” and added that for this purpose, “it might be necessary to employ for a time or, perhaps, permanently one accomplished teacher in this department of education,” his idea being that the successful introduc¬ tion of a system of physical exercises would require the services of a special instructor to aid and instruct the teachers, and to see that the exercises were judicious and proper in themselves and well performed. These suggestions were referred to a special committee, who reported in December, recommending “the appointment of a teacher of gymnas¬ tics, and of a committee on physical training and the passage of an order that ‘the teachers in all the public schools be required to devote a part of each school session to physical exercises, not exceeding half an hour and not less than a quarter of an hour.’ ” The recommendations were discussed in the full board, but without result, the objections to the recommendations being that they contem¬ plated the creation of a new committee and the employment of an addi¬ tional teacher 5 and it was feared that the proposed plan would add to the pupils’ tasks instead of relieving them. It was also urged that the desired end could be gained by a general observance of the rule of 1853, still in force, which provided that “ every scholar should have daily in the forenoon and afternoon, some kind of physical or gymnastic exer¬ cise.” Notwithstanding the failure of the school committee to adopt the plan suggested, Dio Lewis and his influence were abroad in the land, and ED 92 - 34 1 See page 516. 530 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. in several of tlie schools there was energetic and fairly efficient prac¬ ticed!* gymnastics. In the high school for boys, “one of the ushers, by the help of a simple ladder, Indian clubs, and dumb bells, had made considerable progress in giving flexibility to the limbs and develop¬ ment to the muscles of the members of his class.” In the Eliot School Mr. S. W. Mason, then its master, had already begun to practice the exercises which later attracted wide attention and led to the publication of his “Manual of Gymnastic Exercises.” This little book ran through several editions, and has been of great value, especially in the Boston schools. In the Dwight, Mayhew, and Han¬ cock schools there was also a reasonably full compliance with the rules then in force. Mr. Philbrick and liis supporters in the school committee did not relax their efforts, and though they did not accomplish the complete intro¬ duction of gymnastics they did succeed in constantly extending the number of schools in which physical exercises were regularly practiced. In 1862, no less than “70 teachers of the primary schools had received special training and instruction in physical exercises with a view to conduct that branch in the schools under their own charge.” During the same year the superintendent also states that “marked progress has been made in physical training and in a few it has been carried to a high degree of excellence.” “Gratifying progress” is reported the next year also. But in the meantime the military spirit began to rise. The matter of “military gymnastics and drill” having been previously dismissed in the public print, was first brought to the notice of the board in “a petition signed by Edward Everett, C. G. Loring, J. M. Beebe, and others, citizens of Boston, interested in the preservation of public order and the protection of property,” praying that instruction might be forthwith introduced into the public schools for boys. At the same time a supplementary petition was presented, numerously signed, which urged the advantages of military drill as the best means of physical training as well as the proper preparation for the Army. These peti¬ tions were presented to the school board November 3, 1863, and were immediately referred to a special committee. The committee reported December 8, unanimously favoring the plan “both as a means of physical training, and ultimately of national defense.” They recom¬ mended that it be tried as an experiment in the two high schools and two grammar schools, and that a suitable instructor in military gymnastics and drill be employed. This report was adopted at a subsequent meet¬ ing and the necessary orders were made to put its provisions into execution. At the meeting of the board in March, 1864, the committee on military drill reported the success of the experiment, and the masters of the schools subsequently indicated their approval of the scheme and their satisfaction with the results. The committee did not propose to confine the new subject to tactical PHYSICAL TRAINING. 531 drill only, but, as their original report clearly expressed, they thought the instruction' should begin, with the younger classes, in gymnastics, which they considered well calculated to adapt the pupils for military movements as well as of great utility in promoting their health and their capacity for study. JNo arrangements were made at once for the gymnastic feature contemplated by the report, but the plans of the committee on military gymnastics and drill were crystallized in a series of orders which were passed by the school board on December 27, 1864. These provided for the constitution of a standing com¬ mittee of five, on u gymnastics and military drill,” to have general supervision of that branch; for the employment of an instructor in vocal and physical gymnastics, at a salary not exceeding $1,500 per annum; for the assignment of twenty minutes in grammar schools and thirty minutes in primary schools to vocal and physical exercises daily; and for the instruction of all male pupils of sufficient size in grammar schools in military drill under the supervision of a suitable instructor. The time to be given to military drill was not to exceed two hours weekly, not including voluntary drills out of school hours. The standing committee was duly appointed as above contemplated, and they in turn employed as instructor of vocal and physical gym¬ nastics Mr. Lewis B. Monroe, who had already gained a wide reputa¬ tion as an accomplished gymnast and professor of elocution ; and as instructor in military drill they secured Capt. Hobart Moore, who was fitted for the position because of actual service in the Army, and because of his experience as instructor in the infantry department of the Massa¬ chusetts Bifle Club. It will be observed that these orders and the subsequent action of the committee indicate a departure from the original plan of making gymnastics contribute to a military training. The special committee was u on military gymnastics and drill;” the standing committee was u on gymnastics and military drill,” and instead of having gymnastics preparatory and subordinate to the drill, the drill was at that time considered to be merely a means of physical training — a phase of gym¬ nastics. As such its beginning was marked with many “ difficulties and inconveniences.” The mastersjM some of the schools doubted its utility and practicability, and strenuous opposition was developed in the school committee itself. It is significant that during the entire discussion concerning military drill and its introduction in the schools, Superintendent Philbrick did not utter a word in its favor in any of his reports. The whole matter was referred to the committee on gymnastics and military drill, and during the latter part of 1865 the drill was discontinued in all the grammar schools. In the high schools military drill continues to this day, under the same instructor whose service has been continuous since its inception. Since 1865 no serious effort has been made to abolish it, and the Boston school regi¬ ment is now one of the most popular features of the school system. It 532 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. is sustained as a means of physical training because (1) of its freedom from accident or injury to the boys; (2) the boys enjoy it; (3) it is a good mental and moral discipline — the boy learns to obey, and that is the first step toward learning to command; (4) it helps to form character, conducing to patriotism, chivalry, love and. defense of country and home; (5) it is a powerful aid in maintaining a high order of discipline in the schools, and an incentive to study, as the offices are the rewards of good conduct and scholarship; (6) with limited means for physical training more can be done in the time allotted to the drill, two hours a week, than by any other method yet dis¬ cussed, for the same number of boys.1 Mr. Monroe’s work began under much more favorable auspices than Gapt. Moore’s. Enthusiastically supported by Supt. Philbrick and the school committee, he had apparently everything in his favor. At first he gave but a portion of his time to the schools, and received therefor $1,500 per annum, but later all his time was taken at a salary of $3,000 a year. In 1867, an assistant was employed for him in the person of Mr. A. E. Sloane, at $1,800, which was increased to $2,500 the next year. In response to repeated requests for some written embodiment of his method, Mr. Monroe published, in 1869, a Manual of Physical and Vocal Training, in which' he set forth the method “ practised by the writer during the last ten years, and taught in the Boston public schools under his supervision for three years past.” This book, then, should be the authoritative expose of the exercises practiced in Boston during the Monroe period. Its first chapter consists of a few pages lauding physical exercise and gymnastics, and leads one to expect upon the subsequent pages a manual of light gymnastics worthy of the name; but after a few very mild exercises, not more than a dozen, all with the evident aim of strengthening the lungs and throat, the entire book is a text-book of elocution, pure and simple. And this same dif¬ ference between expectation and realization appears to have occurred in the Boston schools. The gymnastics which the special committee of November, 1863, wanted was “that preliminary physical training which is practiced in the best European schools and gymnasiums for months and years be¬ fore the tactics and manual of the soldier with his musket is begun;” the standing committee under the order of December 27, 1864, clearly intended that “ vocal gymnastics ” should be a subordinate part of the general subject, for they explained its incorporation on the ground that “proper exercises of the vocal organs are necessary in combination with general muscular exercises,” and that “ since they ought to be included in any proper system, it is rather to call attention to them than to enlarge the field of instruction that they are mentioned.” ’Dr. J. G. Blake, of the Boston School Committee, at the Physical Training Con¬ ference, in 1889. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 533 But of the twenty chapters in Mr. Lewis’s Manual, not more than five can be said to be given to gymnastics in any proper sense, and that same proportion probably represents the division of time between gymnastics and elocution in Mr. Monroe’s work in the schools. The - natural result followed. Mr. Philbrick said in his eighteenth semi¬ annual report in 1869 : That our schools have been benefited by the instruction in this department no longer admits of doubt in the minds of intelligent and unprejudiced persons. It is scarcely possible to overrate the value of the improvement in reading which has been produced. * * * The vocal training which has been imparted, besides improving the reading, has done much to contribute to the instruction in vocal music in all the grades of schools. The physical training has not proved * * * a complete antidote for the mischievous effects of high pressure. * * * I rejoice in what has been achieved, but I am by no means satisfied with present attainments in this direction. I frankly confess that I regard all that has been accomplished only as a good beginning. We must not relax our efforts. We must be satisfied with nothing short of a complete revolution in respect to physical education. At the end of the next school year, that is, in July, 1870, Mr. Sloane’s connection with the schools was severed at the instance of the stand¬ ing committee on physical and vocal training, and at the same time the terms ot Mr. Monroe’s employment were so changed as to require his services for only three months in each year, and even that ceased in 1871. For short periods during each of the following four years an instruc¬ tor was temporarily employed for the work that Mr. Monroe had laid down, but their work was even more on the elocutionary plan, and noth¬ ing of permanent value was done in gymnastics. The department of physical and vocal training was finally abolished in 1876. This experience of the city of Boston furnishes a conspicuous exam¬ ple of the injury to a cause which may be done by an unwise selection of a teacher. With the proper instruction there is no reason why the gymnastics of the grammar schools should not have been as con¬ tinuous since its introduction and as popular as the military drill has been in the high schools. It is true that there was less popular inter¬ est throughout the country in gymnastics in 1871 and 1876 than in 1860 and 1864, but the same is true in an even greater degree of military instruction; the latter was pursued as enthusiastically in Boston in the seventies as in the sixties, and with much greater unanimity of support on the part of the school committee. But what had been called “ phys- cal training ’’had been tried and found wanting, and the unsuccessful experiment prevented any other attempt in the same direction. In further proof of this, a few isolated experiments, and the frequent references to the desirability of gymnastics, which may be found in the reports of the superintendent, the several committees of the board, and even of the school board itself, clearly show that the disposition of the school authorities toward gymnastics was still such that effective teaching of the subject would not have been treated as Monroe’s teach- 534 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. ing bad been. In fact, Mr. Philbrick’s most powerful utterances in favor of physical training are to be found in reports made in 1872, 1874, and 1876. After Mr. Monroe’s separation from the schools there was a gradual decline in the practice of even those exercises which he had prescribed, and in the course of time even the regulations requiring them became a dead letter. During the succeeding years there were occasional isolated andskort- lived efforts to reestablish gymnastics in certain schools, as, for instance, , the employment of a Swedish lady to teach the Ling gymnastics in the Girls’ High School in 1874; and the establishment of a gymnasium according to Dr. Sargent’s ideas in the new Latin and English High School building in 1881; but there was no permanent result in either case, and no general movement to restore gymnastics as a regular school subject until several years later, when Mrs. Mary Hemenway took up the advocacy of the Swedish system. More or less has been known of the Swedish gymnastics in this coun¬ try from a comparati vely early date. Without a special search for such references, laudatory notices of Ling’s work and methods have been discovered in educational publications as far back as 1830, and doubt- , less the medical journals commented upon them much earlier still. Makers of calisthenic “ systems” and gymnastic manuals, such as Miss Beecher, Mr. Mason, and Dio Lewis, have drawn largely upon Swedish sources, while Swedish practitioners of the “movement cure” have always had “patients” who took the movements to prevent disease as well as those who desired a cure for disease already contracted. Noth¬ ing however, had ever been done on a large scale. The Swedish system of pedagogical gymnastics in public schools is a plant of recent growth in America, and it was in Boston that the seed was first planted. Mrs. Hemenway may be supposed to have been already interested in physical training, for the famous Hemenway gymnasium was the gift of her son, Mr. Augustus Hemenway, to Har¬ vard University, but her attention, it is said, was first attracted to the Swedish gymnastics by a pamphlet on Medical Gymnastics, by Mr. Nils Posse, a graduate of the Boyal Central Gymnastic Institute at Stock¬ holm, who had taken up his residence in Boston. Becoming interested in the new system, she organized in October, 1888, a class of 25 ladies, teachers in the Boston schools, under the direction of Mr. Posse, to test the adaptability of Swedish gymnastics in the public schools. Pleased with the success of her experiment, in May, 1889, she wrote to the school board, stating what had been done and offering to have “trained, with¬ out expense to the city, for one year, beginning September 1, 1889, 100 public-school teachers, who were to be permitted to use the system in their school work, thus enabling the board and educators in general to decide upon the merits by actual results produced upon the school children in the schoolroom.” This offer was gladly accepted and the class was duly formed. Later she offered to provide for one year a PHYSICAL TRAINING. 535 teacher of Ling gymnastics for the normal school, and still later to pro¬ vide free instruction u for those masters and submasters who desired to make a thorough study of the Ling system for the benefit of the Boston public schools.” These offers were also accepted by the board. The outgrowth of all this was the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics mentioned on a previous page. In the meantime, and before any of Mrs. Hemenway’s offers were made, it had been proposed in the school board to establish a committee on physical exercises. This was not then deejned necessary, but the committee on hygiene already exi sting was specifically given full powers in the matter of physical exercise, and its members were increased from 3 to 5. In response to a request from this committee the board of supervisors, in conjunction with the instructor in hygiene, made a report in October, 1889, reviewing the several systems of gymnastics and giving their unqualified preference to the Swedish system and strongly recommending its adoption. The committee on hygiene, in turn, urged the adoption of these recommendations by the school board, but no final action was taken, and the entire matter was referred to the school board for 1890. The physical training confere.nce, also the result of Mrs. Hemenway’s liberality, added greatly to the impetus that gymnastics had received, and in January, 1890, a standing committee on physical training was appointed, with Dr. W. A. Mowrv as its chairman. This committee made an extended tour through the West and Northwest for the pur¬ pose of examining the different systems of physical and of manual train¬ ing in use in the various cities of the country, and on June 10 they reported the result of their investigations. Like the board of super¬ visors, they strongly favored the Ling system, and the result of their labors was the passage of the following orders, June 24, 1890: (?) Ordered , That the Ling or Swedish system of educational gymnastics be intro¬ duced into all the public schools of this city. ( 2 ) Ordered, That a director of physical training and one or more assistants be employed, the total salaries for the same not to exceed the sum of $5,000 per annum, and that the committee on physical training be authorized to nominate suitable persons for these positions, to commence at the beginning of the next school term. Dr. E. M. Hartwell, one of the most widely knowu of the workers in the field of physical training, was chosen for the position of director under these orders, and entered upon his work January 1, 1891. In the fol¬ lowing March Mr. Hartvig Nissen was made assistant instructor of physical training, and in September Miss Laura S. Plummer, a gradu¬ ate of the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, was assigned to duty as teacher of gymnastics in the normal school. Upon these three persons rests the responsibility for the future of school gymnastics in Boston, and, to a great extent, of Swedish gymnastics in this country. 536 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. THE PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF GYMNASTICS. I. The Swedish System. It would be interesting to trace the progress of gymnastics in other European countries, particularly in Switzerland, France, and England? as well as Sweden, but the time at the disposal of the writer has not been sufficient to complete the work in time for publication in the doc¬ ument for which it is intended. The prominent place, however, which the Swedish gymnastics has attained in this country in the last few years1 demands that some men¬ tion be made of the origin as well, as the character of that system. As is well known, its originator was Peter Henrik Ling, who was born in the province of Smaland, Sweden, in 1776. His father, a curate, was not heavily burdened with the world’s goods, and young Ling frequently felt the pangs of poverty. Nevertheless he managed to pursue his studies at Upsala, Copenhagen, and presumably at Berlin and Stockholm, where he resided during the early period of his life. While in Copenhagen he had an opportunity to observe the gymnastics of Nachtegall, whose work was mentioned upon a previous page, and it may be supposed that his attention was also directed more or less strongly to the various efforts making in Germany toward the revival of gymnastics during his residence there. It does not appear, however, that he was moved thereby to attempt anything himself in the same line, but after his return to Stockholm he studied the art of fencing under two French refugees, who had founded there a fencing school. Ling had been a sufferer from gout in his sword arm, and observed that his practice at fencing was beneficial. It is by no m,eans improb¬ able that he was prompted to make the experiment by a study of Greek medical gymnastics, for in his later writings he makes frequent refer¬ ences to ancient authorities, and the idea toward which he constantly strove was to reproduce in the northern countries that favorable atti¬ tude toward gymnastics which existed in the lands and times of Plato, Hippocrates, and Galen. Whether this be true is a matter of conjecture, but it is certain that the fencing was the practical beginning of the system of gymnastics which he proceeded to elaborate. He considered anatomy and physiology as essentially necessary as the basis of rational gymnastics, and therefore began in 1805 an assid¬ uous study of those sciences. He conducted his researches with exceed¬ ing care, and refused to adopt any movement until he was convinced that its physiological effect was beneficial. His application of gymnas¬ tics as a remedy for disease was the principal cause of the public inter¬ est that was manifested in his work; but it is as erroneous to ascribe to Ling the invention of medical gymnastics as it would be to credit See pp. 521 and 534. 537 PHYSICAL TRAINING. ' ' • '• 1 - I ' Gutsmuths with, being the originator of gymnastics as a whole. Tbe basic ideas of both men were derived from ancient sources; these were modified, extended, and improved by the enlightened judgment of modern students. Credit is due them in no small degree for so improv¬ ing ancient systems as to make them meet the requirements of modern science, but their work was one of popular agitation and of improve¬ ment of detail rather than of original invention. Ling early sought the aid of his Government in the establishment of an institution for the practical application of his idea upon a more extended scale than was otherwise possible. This plan was not favored at first, and in 1812 the minister of public instruction, in replying to a letter from Ling, said: u There are enough of jugglers and rope-dancers without exacting any further charge from the public treasury.” But Ling was a man of indomitable energy, and, so far from being discouraged by this rebuff, set to work to prove practically the value of his ideas. He began the practice of his curative movements upon a more extended scale in 1813, and so plainly apparent were the merits of his system and so wide was the public recognition that in 1814 he succeeded in establishing the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute at Stockholm under the auspices of the Government. This has ever since' been main¬ tained as a normal school, which all must attend who desire to be teachers of gymnasts m Sweden. Its work is m three departments, the first for instructors of military gymnastics in the army and navy, the second for teachers in the schools, and the third for the study of medical gymnastics. In the schools of Sweden the practice of gymnastics is now practically universal and has been for a number of years. This is true not only of the city schools, but of the higher' schools, universities, eleemosynary institutions, and country schools as well. Ling constantly labored to improve his system, and after his death, in 1839, his successors in the Central Institute have continued his efforts for improvement. The essential principles, however, have remained unchanged, and a recital of some of the views and maxims of Ling will go far toward describing the Swedish system as it exists to-day. He divided the entire subject into four parts, namely, (1) pedagogical gymnastics, (2) military gymnastics, (3) medical gym¬ nastics, and (4) esthetic gymnastics. The first branch named above is defined to be “that by means of which man teaches himseif to bring his body under his own will.” The three other branches are sufficiently explained by their names. The first only comes within the scope of this paper and the following pages will be confined to that. Ling, from the first, recognized the importance of placing the prac¬ tice as well as the theory of gymnastics upon a strictly scientific basis and insisted that the teacher be well equipped for his work, and that nothing be left to chance or the voluntary effort of the child. It 538 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. is natural, lie argued, for one to desire to do what is easiest for him or what he does best, but such a mode of procedure in gymnastics inevi¬ tably results in one-sided development. Some of his rules or maxims, taken principally from his work .entitled Gymnastikens Allmanna Grunder, may be shown as an excellent pre¬ sentation of Ling’s idea of the aim and effects of gymnastic movements. (1) The aim of gymnastics is the harmonious development of the human body by means of well-defined exercises. (2) Well-defined exercises are those which are carefully selected with a view to the particular body to be developed by the same. (3) A body is well-developed when all its parts are perfectly in harmony with each other and when they are developed as much as possible, considering the limitations of the individual’s constitution. (4) The human body can not be developed beyond the limitations set by the con¬ stitution of the individual. (5) The lack of exercise may suppress, but can not destroy the inborn faculties. (6) These faculties may bo still further suppressed by improper exercises, which are more injurious than beneficial for the harmonious development of the body. (7) Stiffness or immobility in a certain part of the body is usually caused by too much strength of that part, and is always accompanied by a corresponding weakness in other parts of the body. (8) By means of evenly distributed exercise the excess of strength of one part of the body may bo lessened, and the strength of the weaker parts increased. (9) The outward appearance of certain parts of the body is not a true measure of physical strength or weakness-: that is determined by the relative proportion of all parts of the body. (10) Health and strength in the highest sense are univocal; both depend on the normal or harmonious activity of all parts of the body. (11) All true health and strength consist of the perfect symmetry of all parts of the body, and as the faculty of moving -properly, swiftly, and persevermgly is always in equal relation to the physical strength of the body, each person requires an all-sided training. (12) To obtain and maintain the highest strength, one must become accustomed to those positions that interfere the least with one’s breathing' and movements; the power of moving depends upon the power of breathing. (13) Since it is the purpose of gymnastics to produce harmony among the various parts of the body, it is not sufficient to practice movements of the arms and legs alone ; the power of using them well depends upon the strength of the other parts of the body as well as upon their own. (14) If one commences the gymnastic exercises from their simplest forms one can, step by step, advance to the most difficult exercises without the least clanger of injurious effect; the pupil then knows his strength, what he is able to do, and what he is doing. To carry out the aims thus indicated Ling employed (a) exercises without apparatus; (b) balancing, walking, jumping, swimming, etc.; (e) exercises with apparatus; (d) gymnastic games. Of these he gave the preference to the exercises without machinery or apparatus, but with mutual assistance of pupils in some exercises. The following rea¬ sons were assigned for his preference : (1) The forms of these exercises are so simple that everybody can understand them and imitate them at sight. (2) These exercises can be performed in any place whatever, out-of-doors or in-doors, on the open field or road, and in a schoolroom or gymnasium. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 539 (3) A larger number of pupils can perform these exercises together, thus saving a great deal of time. (4) No apparatus is required, thus saving a great deal of expense. (5 ) Through these exercises the pupils become accustomed to precision and strict -attention, as each motion must be executed by several persons at the same time. .(6) The help which one division must lend to the other awakens the sense of aid¬ ing others, and to be polite and attentive. (7) Those who assist also have an opportunity to exercise, so that both the exer¬ cising division and the assisting division practice together. (8) A more refined understanding of the exercises is obtained through living sup¬ porters than through lifeless machinery. A good idea of tlie Swedish system of gymnastics may be gained from the writings of two gentlemen, graduates of the Gymnastic Central Institute, at Stockholm, who have resided in this country for several years. One of these, Mr. Mis Posse, now of Boston, Mass., in a little pamphlet entitled How Gymnastics are Taught in Sweden, says: The exercises are chosen for their physiological effects, so that only such are used as are needed for a desired result; all of doubtful or injurious effects are excluded. The development of the respiratory organs being of prime consideration, no move¬ ment is allowed to interfere with free respiration, and the utmost care is taken that the exercises should produce a proper carriage of head and thorax. As the move¬ ments are practiced for their effects on the body — not on an audience — wo do not drill, drill, drill the pupils on a certain movement so as to teach them the u trick” of it, but take each one’s ability into consideration, even though we consider that the form of the movement is of utmost importance. All the exercises are executed to words of command, as that is the only method by which, the pupil is enabled to concentrate his whole attention upon one thing at a time, all other methods, such as memorizing, imitation, the use of music, etc., caus¬ ing him to think of one tiling while doing another. The progression is very strict, so that the exercises not only grow from lesson to lesson, and are made to conform to the differences of age, sex, strength, nationality, etc., but also so that there is progression in every day’s lesson. Practical investi¬ gation liaving proved that the exercises could be made stronger, their effects more complete, and progression more rapid, if a certain order were observed in every les¬ son, this order was made the basis for the classification of the exercises. Thus our movements are grouped as (1) introductions; (2) arch flexions; (3) heaving move¬ ments; (4) balance movements; (5) shoulder-blade movements; (6) abdominal exer¬ cises; (7) lateral trunk movements; (8) slow leg movements; (9) jumping and vault¬ ing, and (10) respiratory exercises, each lesson containing one or more from each group in the order enumerated. The system is rational, for there is a scientific reason for everything that is adopted and used; and it is practical, for it is independent of apparatus. It can be applied anywhere and everywhere. The old-fashioned idea that a bath is a neces¬ sity after every lesson in gymnastics has been discarded, thanks to a proper use of respiratory exercises ; for by providing a greater elimination of water through the lungs, the skin evaporation does not increase to any marked degree; and no excess of perspiration occurring, there can be no need of a bath to prevent taking cold. The system is one of exercises and not of apparatus; nevertheless, apparatus is desirable, and hence a gymnasium is a much needed addition to every school. Mr. Claes J. Enebuske, the other gentlemen mentioned above, is con¬ nected with the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, the foremost institution in this country for training teachers of the Swedish system. 540 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. In regard to u gymnastic progression,” lie said before tbe American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education in 1890 : For a clear understanding of gymnastic progression we must bear in mind tbe general composition of the Swedish gymnastic drill, or wbatis termed a “ gymnastic day’s order ” ( gymnastislc dagofning). “ Gymnastic day’s order” is a technical phrase that indicates something more than an ordinary space of time occupied in gym¬ nastic exercises. It is the practical, distinctively formulated expression of a clearly comprehended idea, a practical application of a distinct hygienic and educational line of thought. The “gymnastic day’s order” must he adequate to the demands of each day’s exercise within given limitations of space and time. It is composed of a certain number of movements succeeding each other in a well-defined order, calcu¬ lated to produce certain effects in a certain succession, all these movements together being designed to bring about a distinct hygienic and educational result, which is the exponent of what we term gymnastic “unity” and “totality.” Hygienic and educational interests are interlaced wilh each other in the “ gymnastic day’s order,” as may be seen by an analysis of its constituents. As a further explanation of the u clay’s orders ” we may again quote Mr. Posse. At the conference on physical training in Boston in 1889, he thus explained the meaning of the terms used by him in the article previously quoted : (1) Introductions. By these we understand some simple exercises used at the beginning of a lesson to gain a little general muscular control to correct the base and general position, etc. (2) Archflexions, which consist of backward flexions of the trunk. They have the effect of straightening the dorsal region of the spine, of vaulting the chest forward by drawing the lower ribs apart, thus increasing the chest capacity, and of culti¬ vating the extensibility of the upper region of the abdomen. (3) Heaving movements, wThich consist of various exercises in a hanging position, and others that have the effect of expanding the upper part of the chest by lifting it upward; incidentally they also develop the arms. * * * (4) Balance movements. The two preceding exercises are strong, hence they increase the heart beat noticeably. Now, a rest ought to ensue — the word rest not to be understood as meaning inactivity, but changed activity — and the time is con¬ veniently filled by the gentle movements which we call balance movements. These require but little effort from any one of the many muscles brought into play ; the heart beat is not increased by them, but it becomes lessened by the mechanical pro¬ pulsion of the blood into the legs (the more equal distribution of the blood pressure). At the end of a balance movement the pupil is again ready for more specific work. (5) Shoulder-blade movements consist of arm movements, wrhich have the effeet of placing the shoulder blades in correct position. * * * (6) Abdominal exercises bring into forcible play the abdominal walls. Their effects are to incite peristalsis, to promote digestion, and to shorten the stay of the food in the intestinal canal. (7) Lateral trunk movements consist of rotations and sideway flexions, etc., of the trunk. They have a far-reaching effect on the general circulation by accelerating the flow in the inferior vena cava, leading the blood off from the abdomen and legs, etc. Incidentally they also expand the chest laterally and strengthen the muscles around the waist. (8) Slow leg movements. By this time the heart beat is again much increased. The slow leg movements furnish a means of lessening it, for hy these the blood becomes mechanically propelled forward through the forcible, passive extension of some muscles, while others are in gentle active contraction. These movements may be conveniently omitted when the previous exercises are not strong enough to make them a necessity. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 541 (9) Jumping and vaulting. These exercises have the effect of cultivating the general elasticity of the body more than does any other form of movement. ’ *< * (10) Respiratory exercises. These consist of deep inhalation and exhalation, accompanied by some arm movement that will expand and contract the chest in even rhythm with the respiratory act. The movements, which can be conveniently com¬ bined with some movements of the legs or trunk, have the effect of restoring free, respiration (the jumping putting the pupil out of breath) and to lessen the heart beat. Respiratory exercises are brought in not only at the end of every lesson, but at any time when their effects are needed, and often also at the beginning of a lesson containing strong exercises that require an increased amount of oxygen. To tlie above it may be well to acid the following from the pen of Dr. E. M. Hartwell, supervisor of physical training in Boston, Mass., and an ardent advocate of the Swedish system — for the elementary schools at leas*t. The remarks quoted formed a part of a lecture delivered in Boston in 1891, and may be found in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal of December 24, 1891, and in a reprint from the same entitled u The principal systems ot physical training compared:” Ilis natural impulses and the exigencies of his position as an official teacher of teachers and of military cadets combined in leading Ling to adopt simple, direct, and orderly measures. He made use of both' free and class exercises before Spiess introduced them into German gymnastics. Apparatus gymnastics, though regularly employed by the Swedes, are given less prominence than is accorded them by the Germans. Certain gymnastic machines, which are favorites with the Swedes, are not used in Germany and vice versa. Gymnastic games and fencing are employed . both by Swedish and German teachers of school gymnastics. Much less care and attention have been given in Germany than in Sweden to physiological considera¬ tions in the selection and arrangement of gymnastic movements; therefore the Swedes reject many forms of exercise as useless or injurious which pass muster in Germany. For example, the Swedes discard exercises that tend to constrict the chest, those that require the breath to be held, and those producing continued pres¬ sure on the larger vascular or nerve trunks. One of their most stringent rules is that all movements should help and not hinder full, free, and regular breathing. Swedish gymnastics surpass all other forms of pedagogical gymnastics in the care taken in coordinating the exercises belonging to a “single day’s orders” which have been practiced, and the “ day’s orders ” that shall follow. By means of the day’s order 6r table and the principle of gymnastic progression, which they alone have worked out and adopted, the Swedes are enabled to order and vary their school gymnastics from day to day, from month to month, and from year to year in a graded series. By this means continuity is secured in the instruction, and the pupils, of whatever age or condition of health, are advanced from simple, easy, and absolutely safe exer¬ cises to those that are complicated, difficult, or comparatively dangerous. Class leaders and memorized drills have no place in instruction of this kind. All exer¬ cises, whether by a full class or by a squad, are executed at the word of command. Continuous, progressive, and comprehensive gymnastic training can not be secured by mere imitation of a leader, or by executing memorized exercises over and over again. Change and variety are necessary and must be had. They are best secured in school gymnastics by recognizing the laws of physiology and by following the principles of sound teaching. The foregoing extracts set forth those features of the Swedish sys¬ tem which seem to be its principal characteristics, but the presentation is of course not a complete expose of the system. For a thorough understanding of it one must examine not only the theory more care- 542 EDUCATION REPORT, 1J391-92. fully but tbe practical details as well. It would be impossible to pre¬ sent these fully here, and the reader is therefore referred to numerous pamphlets and manuals which have been published in late years con¬ taining discussions and descriptions of all the phases of the Swedish system. Among those which contain discussions of the theory may be mentioned the published proceedings of the Physical Training Confer¬ ence in Boston in 1889, of the several meetings of the American Asso¬ ciation for the Advancement of Physical Education, the several pam¬ phlets of Dr. E. M. Hartwell, Messrs. Claes J. Enebuske, Nils Posse, Hartvig Nissen, and others. Among the manuals of exercises are Enebuske’s Day’s Orders (Boston: Silver, Burdett & Co.); Nissens’s A B C of Swedish Educational Gymnastics (Philadelphia: E. A. Davis); Posse’s Handbook of School Gymnastics (Boston: Lee & Shepard). The Swedish apparatus are but little known in this country, and the only book in English, probably, which describes the exercises upon them is Posse’s Swedish System of Educational (gymnastics (Boston: Lee & Shepard). II. The German System. The German gymnastics as it exists in America is not in all respects the same as German gymnastics upon its native heath. Certain features which are in the background in Germany are given a conspicuous place in America to meet the criticisms which the system has met in this country, and certain other features prominent in Germany are relegated to the rear here. The German system occupies a position similar to that of the regular school of medicine. Its adherents are always ready to adopt improvements and modifications coming from any source when such are shown to be desirable and beneficial, and they have been quick to modify their practices to meet the demands of American expe¬ rience. Graduates of the turners’ seminary at Milwaukee frequently speak of their system as the u German- American” or “ German modified.” But the essential principles of the German system still remain. Never¬ theless, it is more desirable to show in this paper the German gym¬ nastics as we know it rather than as it is in Germany, and the following extracts, therefore, are from German-American authorities, or from German writings indorsed by them. Unlike the Swedish system the German was not “made to order.” It was not devised to carry into effect a set of previously conceived physi¬ ological ideas. It grew first ; the minute examination of the physiological aspects of its details came afterward. Following therefore the histor¬ ical order of its development the extracts presented herewith were selected to show (1) the essential characteristics of German gymnastics and the difference between it and the Swedish system; (2) the methods of German gymnastics; and (3) its physiological aspects. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 543 COURAGE, STRENGTH, CHEERFULNESS, INDUSTRY, AND MORALITY ITS AIMS. Every turning institution 13 a place for exercising the bodily powers, a school of industry in manly activity, an aid to education, a protection to health, and a public benefit. It is constantly and interchangeably a place of teaching and learning. In an unbroken circle follow constantly after each other direction, exemplification, instruction, independent investigation, practice, emulation, and further instruction. Thus the turners learn their occupation, not from hearsay nor from following - after some transient expression. They have lived in and with their work; have investigated it, proved it, demonstrated it, experienced it, and perfected it. It awakens all the dormant powers, and secures a self-confidence and readiness which are never found at a loss. The powers grow only slowly ; the strength increases gradually; activity is gained by little and little; a difficult feat is often attempted in vain, until at last attained by harder labor, greater effort, and unwearied indus¬ try. Thus the will is brought toward the wrong path of obstinacy to the habit of perseverance, in which is based all success. We carry a divine consciousness in the breast ■when we realize that we can do whatever wo choose if we only will. To see what others have at last found possible arouses the pleasant hope of also accom¬ plishing the same. In the turning association boldness is at home. When others are exercising in emulation with us, all exertion is easy, all labor is pleasure. Each at the same time strengthens the others by his labor, and confirms his own powers, and encourages and elevates himself. Thus the example of each beco nes a model for the rest, and accom¬ plishes more than a thousand lessons. No real deed was ever without result. * * * Bold, free, joyous, and pious is the realm of the turner. The universal code of moral law is his rule of conduct. To dishonor another would disgrace him To become a model, an example, is what he should strive after. His chief lessons are these: To seek the utmost symmetry in development and cultivation; to be industrious; to learn thoroughly; to intermeddle with nothing unmanly; to permit himself to be enticed by no seductions of pleasure, dissipation, or amusement such as are unsuitable for the young. — [“Father” Jahn in Die Deutsche TurnJcunst. ITS BASIS NOT NARROWLY PHYSIOLOGICAL. There are certainly good features in Swedish gymnastics which have been cheer¬ fully adopted by the Germans. It is, however, very curious to note that a system is condemned “as lacking scientific accuracy” which has stood the test of so many years in a country where the scientific spirit of the medical profession ranks so high as is the case with German physicians. To exercise one muscle, or group of muscles, after the other in tedious succession, is certainly not enough to warrant a claim to scientific accuracy, except for medical or curative purposes, as in the case of abnormal, enfeebled, or diseased persons; and as_to “ elasticity,” it is surely the just claim of the German system of gymnastics that it affords a vast amount of possibilities of adaptation to the greatest variety of conditions. It recognizes the living principle in the normal child, and treats this child not as a bundle of mus¬ cles, but as a psychic organism whose emotional qualities must be recognized as valuable elements in successful physical development. In other words, ik aims at enlisting the interest of the child, its joyful and active spiric, among the agencies for the promotion of its physical development, and endeavors to avoid falling into the-error of systematizing the exercises on purely physiological grounds. . The dif¬ ference, in a nutshell, between the Swedish and German systems of gymnastics is this, that the former has a narrow physiological, the latter a broad, psycho-physio¬ logical basis. — [Hr. Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, director of the New York Work¬ ingman’s School, in the School Journal, December 23, 1893. 544 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. THE METHODS OF GERMAN GYMNASTICS. The German system has been diligently built up during almost a century by men of science, especially physicians, physiologists, and pedagogues of high reputation. It is in practical use since that time, aud is to-day in vogue iu many European coun¬ tries in a more or less modified form. In the army, as military gymnastics; in the education of the youth, as school gymnastics; in the halls of the German turners, as popular gymnastics. It is practiced in classes by hundreds at the same time, as well as by single indi¬ viduals as home exercises. The German system embraces all the different branches of gymnastics; exercises with apparatus, light gymnastics, or calisthenics, and also those exercises known as out-door sports, as running, leaping, jumping, throwing the stone, and the use of all hand apparatus, as wands, dumb-bells, and clubs. The German system has three marked features which no other system can claim in so predominant a manner: I. It aims at general physical culture, and not at the culture of one special branch. Therefore it declines the development of a certain organ or faculty at the expense of others. In regard to this we may call attention to the fact that all who have gone through a regular course of exercise iu accord with this system have been thoroughly developed, and rank as high in proficiency as any person educated by another sys- ' tern. The contests among the turners are thus arranged, that exercises in all the different branches must be performed. This is also the case when testing scholars in regard to their proficiency. The numbers gained, added together, decide the grade of development. The strife for specialities is even not permitted, and a par¬ tial or one-sided development is therefore unknown. Yet this does not prevent individual skill and inclination from bringing about a greater result in a certain branch ; this result, however, is not gained by a loss or lack in any other branch. II. It allows or rather induces the exercises in classes. The classes are selected by a careful investigation as to strength, ability, age, etc., and for that reason it suits as well those who practice merely for physical development as those' who aim at a proficiency of a higher grade. Tlio exercises in classes are a source of endless pleasure, refreshment of mind, and joy fulness, not only to children, but even to adults. They are, furthermore, an inducement for promotion and the ambitious desire to keep step with other scholars. They act as a stimulant for greater exer¬ tion. It is undeniable truth that all those who have continually practiced in a German gymnasium, or in a school in which the German system of gymnastics had been introduced, acknowledged that the hours spent there count among the happiest of their childhood or manhood. The variety and great number of exercises of the German system and their scientific arrangement allow new and indefinite combina¬ tions. The teacher can always select a certain number of exercises suitable for his class, which are as agreeable, as instructive and interesting to every one of the class¬ mates. Not only the body, but also the mind, is kept in a wholesome and refreshing activity which will keep away all weariness and tediousness which are so often found in other systems. The class exercises of the German system allow also the instruction of a large number at the same time, providing sufficient room is at hand. III. The instruction begins with the most simple and easy movements and pro¬ ceeds gradually to a higher degree. All fear of danger or harm to the body is a ‘priori excluded. The apparatus used in school practice is not at all complicated or expensive. A number of climbing-poles, ladders, and some light apparatus for the high and long leap are sufficient. They may even be omitted altogether, if the neces¬ sary room for such could not be provided for." In this case, however, we cannot call the training a complete one, as the aim of training is not only the achievement of a development of muscles, limbs, and organs, but also the achievement of courage and self-reliance. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 545 In tho German gymnasia and schools the lessons begin regularly with a series of free and order exercises. Every scholar has to participate in them. The rythmical order in which they are produced calls forth absolute attention, and allows no back¬ wardness. They impress on each a feeling of responsibility toward his associates. The mistakes or errors, or an insufficient execution of any one, injures the good impression of the whole, and thus tends to greater carefulness and prevents negli¬ gence on the part of the scholars. Class exercises on apparatus follow the free exercises. A change of apparatus takes place, and then the lesson ends with some exercises left to individual inclina¬ tion. The latter, however, are limited to a short time, according to the ability of tho scholars, or may be prohibited altogether to beginners. Thus under the eye and control of the teacher a sense of activity and liveliness is exhibited which the educator will look upon with satisfaction and delight. — [Mr. Heinrich Metzner, principal of the school of the New York Turnverein, before the Physical Training Conference. THE GERMAN VIEW OF THE PHYSIOLOGY OF GYMNASTICS. Can a satisfactory state of bodily development be reached speedily, or even at all,, by exercising certain muscles or sets of muscles ? If this question is answered in the. negative* the Swedish system, of course, can not stand. But even though the answer be in the affirmative, the question would still not be settled, for it would yet be open to discussion which of the two systems should have the preference, since without, any doubt the highest degree of physical development is attained by the German sys¬ tem. * * * First of all the mistaken idea that we can contract certain muscles at will must- be set aside. Although we may have a very good idea of the amount of exertion necessary to perform or cut short a movement and for the direction in which this is. done, yet in a healthy condition we are not aware that we have muscles. If we contemplate a motion or exhibition of strength toward a certain object, we do this without taking into consideration the muscles which are to be brought into play- This is so true that most people are highly surprised when they discover that the fingers of themselves are motionless, but that the muscles which cause their motion are situated in the fore-arm. But the understanding of the existence and situation of tho muscles does not change these conditions. The most thorough anatomist and physiologist, who is as conservant with his body as the watchmaker with the watch, proceeds in the same manner as an uneducated person or an animal. Now it is cus¬ tomary that oven the simplest movements, like bending and straightening the hingo joints, is not performed by the action of a single muscle, but by several muscles which are similar in their action. This is also true of the ball and socket joints when we wish to perform an exercise which requires a rotary motion. Therefore, if we design or perform motions, we can do so only by such groups of muscles, but never, as the opinion claims, by a single muscle. Experience teaches us that muscles become stronger through exercise and, within a certain limit, they increase in size; muscles which are not contracted at times become weakened. The plan of developing the body by exercising certain sets of muscles methodically, giving regular practice to each single one, appears to be at the first glance quite reasonable. A closer examination, however, will show that this plan accomplishes too much on the one hand and not enough on the other. This method accomplishes too much, on the one hand, because, in order to bring about the development of all the sets of muscles, it is scarcely necessary to exercise each one singly. In the case of a machine as is represented by the muscular system a good result, in a certain direction, can not in a general way be obtained without having many if not all muscles brought into play, even though not simultaneously. How many muscles are there, for instance, which are not brought into play at all in vaulting? The suitable arrangement of several such exercises furnishes an excel- ED 92 - 35 546 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. lent means of avoiding tediousness, which is necessarily brought about by the sys¬ tematic exercise of all single sets of muscles. This plan, on the other hand, and this is the principal point, accomplishes too lit¬ tle, for it is not the sole purpose of bodily development to give to all single muscles the highest degree of strength. 1 can picture to myself a person possessing the mus¬ cles of a Hercules who would not be capable of walking or standing, much less of performing complicated exercises. It would only be necessary for me to rob him of the power to properly control his movements — to bring about his intoxication, for instance. This makes it clear that the work performed by the body as an apparatus of move¬ ment is as essentially dependent upon the correct cooperation of the single-muscle groups as upon the strength necessary to contract them. In order to perform a complicated movement, for instance a jump, the muscles must begin to work in the proper order of succession, and their enengy, in the sense of Helmoltz, must increase according to a certain rule, sustain itself, and relax in order that there may result a correct position of the limbs, and that the changing of the center of gravity be effected rapidly and in the proper direction. In addition to this, in all such complicated exercises, the use of the two senses, sight and touch, arc necessary to quickly comprehend the situation at any moment, and the mind must be prompt to decide what must be done in accordance with the message of these senses. All forms of bodily skill, such as dancing, skating, riding, swimming, fencing, etc., depend in the end on a complicated activity and on the suitable interaction of impressions obtained through the senses, of which wo are only partially conscious. All these accomplishments, therefore, pertain equally as much to the nervous system as to the muscles, and the skill acquired therein, as is well known, bears no relation whatever to tho absolute strength of the muscles. The same is true of gymnastics. Most people entertain the erroneous idea that gymnas¬ tics never is anything but an exertion and exercise of the muscles, because these are tho more noticeable parts of the body in motion and their existence and action are more easily understood. But all gymnastics is as much exercise for the nervous sys¬ tem as for tho muscles. The failure to recognize this second feature of all physical culture is the unpardonable fundamental error of the Ling system, and this alone suffices to prove that from a physiological point of view it is worthless. However long anyone might exerciso the muscles according to the Ling system of gymnastics, ho would bo inferior to the average German gymnast, who from the beginning has combined tho gymnastics of the nerves with tho gymnastics of the muscles, in case they should find themselves confronted by any actual task, the successful perform¬ ance of which depends upon a suitable use and control of the muscular powers before fence and ditch, on a rock or wall, among the branches of the trees, amidst the rig¬ ging, wherever a sharp eye and clear head are required, and where it may be neces¬ sary to alternately use the foot in place of the hand and the hand instead of the foot. Tho body developed according to the Ling system will always remain a mere aggregate of bundles of muscles, resembling an irregular throng of stout warriors ; but the body trained according to the German system presents the picture of a well organized, well drilled army, obedient to every command, the single elements of which will not, for that reason, be lacking in strength. * * * If it is true, in the first place, that manifold combined movements suffice to give each single set of mus¬ cles an adequate amount of exercise without systematic practice of all of them; if, in the second place, it is true that the mere practice of single sets of muscles does not make the body capable of executing combined movements, but that these, in addition thereto, must receive special attention, then it follows unquestionably that the Swedish system of gymnastics is almost equal to a perfect waste of time in the physical education of the youth. Ten years before Ling and his system were heard of in Berlin, every lesson was begun in the gymnasium of Eiseliu with tho so-called exercises of the joints, which PHYSICAL TRAINING. 547 were in reality calisthenics. For beginners these exercises constituted the first course, and for the more advanced they formed a graded introduction for the more difficult requirements, and for all a guide to exercises which could he continued daily, even in the room without apparatus. As these exercises were carried on by many conjointly, they furnished an opportunity of developing prompt obedience in the rank and file of the participants. Finally, inasmuch as they gave systematic training to the human body in the fundamental movements, they served to supply the defects, which were, perhaps, contained in the complex exercises, in regard to the uniform exertion of all the sets of muscles. Such exercises have not only since that time been continually practiced at tho different German gymnasiums, but have even been more fully developed, so far as was consistent with tho increase in the number of beginners. * * * To the extent demanded by the German system, these exercises fully accomplish the task w'hich is deemed necessary in the Swedish system, namely, to accustom tho undeveloped body to the exercise of single sets of muscles before more difficult tasks are required. The German system, however, does not, like the Swedish, keep the scholar forever at this preparatory work, but allows him, even in the first lesson, to pass on to some exercise of a more advanced nature in which he may take a delight. This brings us to the other fundamental error of the ’Ling system, which shows the founder to be as poor a pedagogue as a physiologist. s‘The Swedish system of gymnastics in its purity could not be recommended exclusively for the bodily devel¬ opment of our youth. For delicate children it is too severe; on the other hand, it is not sufficiently animating and fatiguing for older ones. Even boys wish to accom¬ plish something through their efforts and to advance in their work. This is not realized in the practice of the Swedish system, because they can not as yet compre¬ hend the various positions and movements. The Swedish gymnastics may be sufficient to strengthen the single muscles and the entire body ; it is not adapted, however, for rendering the youth conscious of his own strength and courage, and realizing that physical dexterity which is of such importance for life.” In these words Privy Counselor Langenbeck himself exposes as mercilessly as the most pro¬ nounced antagonist of Swedish gymnastics the lamentable psychological foundation of the Ling system. It remains to be added that really only the sick, for the sake of their health and at tho command of their doctor, are able to bear the terrible monotony of the “ rational gymnastics.” * * * My own experience with German gymnastics, extending over a large number of years, has made me conversant with the same, and as a physiologist I have given my special attention to a study of the motions of the body. In the foregoing I have endeavored to show what the conclu¬ sions must be concerning the fundamental idea of Swedish gymnastics according to physiology. This idea is wrong in every particular. Should anyone ask me to pass a scientifically critical opinion upon the parallel-bar exercises, from a physio¬ logical standpoint, I should have to admit that I would be placed in an embarrassing position. I confess that I am not able to form an adequate conception of the mean¬ ing to be conveyed. I can conceive only of this — that Dr. Abel desires every paral¬ lel-bar exercise to be analyzed in such a manner that the share of each muscle in the exercise is to be recorded as a function of time, in order that he might therefrom decide as to the suitability and compatibility of such exercises. Should that be his idea, I doubt in the first place whether he has a conception of the nature and difficulties of such an analysis. The truth of the matter is that such an analysis leads to the most intricate and tedious discussions, even when applied to much simpler movements, such, for' instance, as a swing forward or backward on tho parallel bars. These discussions would require the most exact knowledge of the anatomist and the most complete understanding of analytical mechanics, and they have been entirely eliminated from the study of physiology because their con¬ sideration was not attended by proper results. In the second place, I daubt whether Dr. Abel could make any use of such analy- 548 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. sis, even if there were one. I have at different times exercised with professional anatomists and physiologists through an entire term at the gymnasium of Eiselin. I can’t recall that any opportunity presented itself to apply our theoretical knowl¬ edge to the exercises in which we vied with each other, because there exists the same chasm between such- views and exercises as there is between theory of voice and singing. A knowledge of the muscles and nerves, the combination of forces, and the classification of levers unquestionably assists the teacher of gymnastics in the same manner that an understanding of John Mueller’s doctrine of the compensa¬ tion of the forces of the larynx is of benefit to the instructor of vocal music. The teacher of music is not thereby enabled to tell his scholar how he is to proceed in order to produce a certain tone, and in the same way the anatomic-physiological knowledge is of no avail in the gymnasium. If the apostles of Ling wish to impress upon us that they can accomplish something of importance in this way, it is proba¬ ble that they deceive themselves ; at all events, they will cause professional men, such as Edward Weber, Herman Meyer, Adolph Fick, and others, to laugh incredu¬ lously at their assertions. But if this he not the case, why do they never go beyond the use of such commonplaces? Why do they not give us a proof that these exer¬ cises on the bars can be classified in a scientifical and critical manner, on a physio¬ logical basis, instead of discarding the bars which, of course, is the easier thing to do? * * *. It may seem strange for a physiologist to consider his own science of less practi¬ cal importance than those who are not proficient therein and that he should oppose any appeal to the same. But a more profound knowledge, if I may be permitted to use this expression, often makes one modest, whereas he who has a smattering only is puffed up with conceit; and that which is revered as of the greatest value we most dislike to see abased for the purpose of giving a weak cause the appearance of solidity and of imparting to empty statements an air of seriousness. There are two ways, says Abbe Galiani, of determining the contents of a bowl. You will either have to send the bowl to a mathematician, who will make certain measurements and computations, and possibly after a half year will be able to hand you the final equation, filled with unknown quantities which, however, may prove to be incorrect ; or you will simply have to place the bowl in a horizontal position and, making use of a measure, fill the same, and you will have the Solution. Many human affairs are like calculating the contends of a bowl, and this is the case with gymnastics. It is laughable to bring forward exuberant theories when simple experience meets every requirement. The discovery and arrangement of bodily exercise does not depend upon theorems, upon anatomy, and physiology. We are endowed naturally with all the knowledge of anatomy and physiology that we need, and this will no more desert us in gymnastics than in any other bodily action in which science is of just as little use. Nothing can be more foolish than to prohibit any bodily exercise which can mani¬ festly be carried out without incurring any risk because they do not conform with preconceived opinions. I must admit that I agree absolutely with the observations of the gymnastic council of Berlin in its second memoir. That which the body is capable of doing is reasonable, and the body only can set itself limits. In answer to this it has been claimed, on the side of the apostles of Ling that, in language study, practice would be necessary in grunting, snarling, screaming, in fact, in producing all discordant sounds. Tbe inquirer will, perhaps, understand why this is not done if he will make it plain to himself why Swedish gymnastics pays no attention to face contortions, which would be just as reasonable. And, if it be argued further that crimes are just as permissible as the wheels on the horizontal bar for the reason that they would be possible, such a palpable sophism would proveto what straits the opponent is driven. — [Prof. Emil du Bois-Baymond, of the University of Berlin, in Swedish Gymnastics and German Gymnastics. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 549 BIBLIOGRAPHY. The extracts presented are taken from a great mass of material upon German turning. Comparatively little of it has been written or trans¬ lated into English, especially upon the theoretical side, but there is enough to give a good idea of the merits of the system. The officials of the N. A. Turnerbund are always ready to furnish information, and they have issued a number of valuable pamphlets, which may be obtained gratis by earnest investigators. Mr. J. Rudolf Bollinger, No. 118 North Third street, St. Louis, Mo., is now corresponding secretary of the Bund, and Mr. W. A. Steelier, No. 1830 Papin street, St. Louis, Mo., is secretary of the technical committee. Among the manuals of school gymnastics are: A System of Physical Culture, by Carl Betz, Kansas City, Mo.; Manual of Physical Culture, by Anton Leipold, Columbus, Ohio; Gymnastics in the Schoolroom, by Hans Balliu, San¬ dusky, Ohio, and the Manual of Henry Suder, Chicago, Ill. These gentlemen are the directors of physical training in the public schools of their respective cities. The Code Book of Gymnastic Exercises, by L.Puritz (Milwaukee, Wis. : Freidenker Publishing Company), relates to heavy gymnastics. A System of Physical Education. Theoretical and Practical, by Archibald Maclaren (London: Macmillan & Co., Henry Erowde, New York), is an English publication and does not strictly fol¬ low the German ideas, bat it is an exceedingly valuable book, especially for the heavier work of the gymnasium. III. Hr. Sargent’s System. If the work of Hr. H. A. Sargent, the director of the Hemenway Gym¬ nasium, at Cambridge, Mass., were expunged from the field of gymnastics it would be found that America’s original contributions to the cause of physical training have been lamentably few. But with his inventions America is able to make a very respectable showing of originality. His a chest weights” in their various forms, and his other machines in the American gymnasium give it an individuality and a national char¬ acter that it would otherwise lack. The athletic clubs, the Young Men’s Christian Association, and most of the college gymnasiums have adopted Hr. Sargent’s ideas very largely, and the following extracts from his address before the Physical Training Conference are, therefore, useful in describing the practices of those gymnasiums as well as that at Harvard under Hr. Sargent’s immediate supervision: In the fall of 1869 I accepted a position as director of the gymnasium at Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. At that time I began to make measurements of students and to observe the differ¬ ences in size, strength, and development that characterized different habits and con¬ ditions of life. Two years later attendance at the gymnasium was made compulsory to all classes, and I was called upon to devise a system of exercises that would be at once efficient, 550 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92.' progressive, and popular. In thinking this matter over I could not shut out from my mind the marked difference in physique of the men who had come under my observation. * * * In looking over the records of the students I had examined I found that the young men who had been accustomed to walk long distances to and from school, and to spena certain portions of the year doing manual labor on farms, in mills, lumber yards, etc., generally showed a superior physique, unless the work had been exces¬ sive and begun ad too early a period. Moreover, I found that the young men who had been accustomed to special employment, such as blacksmithing, wood-chopping, milking cows, etc., showed a special development in certain parts of the body, as the forearm, upper arm, and back, while they were lacking in the development of other parts. In this way I went through the list, marking the peculiar development that seemed to accompany the special occupations and exercises to which the boys had given attention before coming to college. The conclusion that I reached was this : If actual labor will produce such good physical results in certain directions, why will not a system of exercises in the gym¬ nasium, resembling actual labor, accomplish the same result in opposite directions, and in this way be made to supplement the deficiencies of one’s occupation and to develop him where he is weak. With this idea predominating, I began to work for its attainment in 1871. The nearest approach that I could make to the realization of thi3 idea at Bowdoin College, for lack of funds, was the establishment of a lot of crude pulley-weight appliances of different heights and weights to which I introduced the students as a class exercise. Pulling window weights over a wooden roller by aid of an iron handle, in a cold, unfinished building four times a week, did not impress the faculty as an exercise that would be likely to add to the popularity of the required system, and I think that they had some doubt as to the expediency of letting an instructor, “who was only a freshman,” try the experiment. The experiment was tried, however, and it proved so successful that I was able to leave the department the next year in charge of assistants, who were also students, and spend three months in New Haven trying to introduce the same system at Yale College. I mention this fact in order that you may see that the success of the new move¬ ment was largely due to the peculiarity of the exercise, and not to any personal force or character behind it. In fact, I now know that I hit upon one of the great principles that should govern all artificial exercise, without knowing it. (Of this I shall speak later. ) I ought to add that we used the wooden dumbbells and Indian clubs to alternate with the pulley-weight appliances in class exercises. * * * After the completion of my medical studies, in 1878, I elaborated my old system of measurements, and had the first patterns of my long-contemplated developing appliances constructed. These consist of what are familiarly known as chest weights, chest expander^ and developers, quarter circles, leg machines, finger machines, etc., to the number of forty different pieces. These appliances were first used in my private institution in New York City in 1878, and were placed in the Hemenway Gymnasium in 1879. It would seem that this style apparatus met a long-felt want, for it immediately sprang into popular favor. As it had been publicly announced that these appliances were not patented, but were given to the public for educational purposes, they were soon copied in one form or another by various manufacturers, and have since been generally introduced into the school, college, athletic club, and Young Men’s Christian Association gym¬ nasia throughout this country and in different parts of Europe. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 551 To what extent this style of apparatus is now used in the United States may ho inferred from the fact that some of it has beeu put into 350 or more institutions, representing a total membei'ship of over 100,000. * v * That you may understand what the system is in its present form, as carried out at Harvard University, let me ash you to follow mo through one of the physical examinations of a student, and see what wo do for him. Every student who enters the university is entitled to an examination, and 87 per cent of the whole number avail themselves of this privilege.. As soon as the student presents himself at. the director's office (which is done by application and appointment), he is given a history blank, which ho fills out, giving his birthplace, nativity of parents, occupation of father, resemblance to parents, natural heritage, general state of health, and a list of the diseases he has had, all of which information is absolutely necessary in order for the examiner to put a correct interpretation upon the observations to follow. The student is then asked to make certain tests of the muscular strength of the different parts of his body and to try the capacity of his lungs. He then passes into the measuring room and has his weight, height, chest girth, and fifty other items taken. His heart and lungs are then examined before and after exercise and a careful record made of the condition of the skin, muscles, spine, etc., which the tape measure fails to give. All the items taken are then plotted on a chart, made from several thousand meas¬ urements, and the examiner is then able to know the relative standing of this individual as compared with others for every dimension taken, also his deviation from symmetry and the parts which are in special need of development. To confirm the plotting of -the chart, and to awaken in the young man a genuine interest in his physique a photograph of each student desiring it is taken in three positions, and preserved for comparison with those to be taken of him later. From the data thus procured a special order of appropriate exercises is made out for this student with specifications as to the movements and apparatus he may best use. At the present time this special order consists for most students of an illus¬ trated handbook, in which the apparatus, the weights for it, and the times to use it are carefully prescribed, together with such suggestions as to exercise, diet, sleep, bathing, clothing, etc., as will best meet the needs of the individual under consid¬ eration. Now I think it will be admitted by all thoughtful persons that on e-half the battle for mental education has been won when you arouse in a boy a genuine love for learning. So one-half the struggle for physical training has been won when he can be induced to take a genuine interest in his bodily condition, to want to remedy his defects, and to pride himself on the purity of his skin, the firmness of his muscles, and the uprightness of his figure. Whether the young man chooses afterwards to use the gymnasium, to run, to row, to play ball, or saw wood for the purpose of improving his physical condition mat¬ ters little, provided he accomplishes that object. The modern gymnasium, however, offers facilities for building up the body that are not excelled by any other system of exercise. The introduction of the new developing appliances has opened up the possibility of the gymnasium to thousands to whom it was formerly an institution of doubtful value. The student is no longer com¬ pelled to compete with others in the performance of feats that are distasteful to him. He can now compete with himself, that is, with his own physical condition from week to week, and from month to month. If he is not strong enough to lift his own weight, the apparatus can be adjusted to a weight ho can lift. If he is weak in the chest or the back, ho can spend his time and energy in strengthening those parts without fear of strain or injury. In fact he can work for an hour, going from one piece of apparatus to another, keeping always within the circuit of his capacity, and adding slowly and surely to 552 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. his general strength and powers of endurance. If the heart is weak, the Ring capac¬ ity small, the liver sluggish, the circulation feeble, or the nervous system impaired, etc., special forms of exercise can be prescribed to meet these conditions. Gentle running is usually advised as a constitutional exercise for all of those who can take it. This is usually severe enough to start the perspiration andmake a bath of some kind desirable. A tepid sponge or shower bath is generally advised; and in my opinion, the bath which regularly follows the exercise at the gymnasium, and the habit of bathing established thereby, is almost as valuable as the exercise itself. After a period of six months or more the student returns again to the director’s office, and has another examination, in order to ascertain what improvement he has made and to receive any new suggestions. This, in brief, is the educational part of the system of physical training carried on at the Hemenway Gymnasium. * * * Now let me invite your attention to a con¬ sideration of some of the theories and princ iples upon which it is founded. “The characteristic physiological property oi muscular tissue, and that for which it is employed in the body,” says Martin,1 “is the faculty possessed by its fibers of shortening forcibly under certain circumstances.” This property is called contrac¬ tility, and upon the full performance of this function depends not only the healthy condition of the muscles, but of the various parts of the body with which they are connected. Now, what are the circumstances under which a muscle performs its greatest con¬ traction ? First. There must be a succession of strong and oft-repeated stimuli. Second. The muscle must have a load to carry or resistance opposed to its shortening. This can be illustrated by the experiment so often conducted in the physiological laboratory. Take a muscle without a weight attached to it, and apply a stimulus. The muscle will contract, say a quarter of an inch. Now apply a weight of 1 pound to it and apply the same stimulus. The muscle will contract half an inch. Attach a still heavier weight, say 2 pounds, and apply the same stimulus, and the muscle will contract 1 inch. And so the experiment could be carried on until a weight was attached which would cause the contractions of the muscles to be less and less until they finally ceased. “So that up to a certain limit, resistance to the shortening of a muscle makes it more able to shorten, and the greater extension of the muscle due to the greater resistance opposed to its shortening puts it into a state in which it is able to contract more powerfully.” Upon the interpretation of this simple physiological fact depends the foundation of two great systems of physical training — one faction advocating that the antago¬ nizing muscles in free movements, without apparatus, furnish all the resistance that is necessary ; while the other faction claim that the resistance afforded by opposing muscles is not sufficient, and that weights of some kind, or apparatus, is neessary to bring out the working force of the muscle used. I believe that the last conclusion is the correct one. * * * We saw in the laboratory experiment that when the muscle simply lifted its own weight that it did no work, and that nothing was accomplished when it tried to lift a weight too heavy for it, but that there was an intermediate weight that it lifted to the greatest height and did the greatest amount of work. What is true of this single muscle is true of all the muscles of the body; there is a certain weight with which the different groups of muscles can do the most effective service in a given time. If the weight is too light or too heavy the best effect of the exercise is not realized. This may be illustrated by the familiar use of the chest- weights (so called). If you go through the movements without any weight the exercise is insipid. If, on the other hand, you load the boxes up to their full capacity you will find that there !“The Human Body” (Chapter x), by H. Newell Martin, d. sc., m. a., m. d. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 553 are only one or two movements that yon can do, and these only for a minute or so. Now, if you have carefully gauged your strength to about 5 pounds (which is, per¬ haps, the average weight used in these appliances), you will find that you can go through the full set of exercises (comprising some forty or fifty separate movements) and feel that you have accomplished soihething that will be a benefit to you. This statement is equally true of all the different developing appliances found in a well- equipped gymnasium, and to the fact that our modern apparatus can be adjusted to the strength of the strong and the weakness of the weak, may be attributed a large part of the value and popularity of those thriving institutions. But there is another principle now taken advantage of, to which the modern gym¬ nasium owes a great* part of its efficiency. In view of the tendency of the times I can not help thinking that it is a valuable one. In primitive races individuals of the same tribe bear a close resemblance to each other. As they progress in civilization difference of function begins to work a dif¬ ference in structure, and we begin to get a marked variation in size, form, and fea¬ ture. In highly civilized communities the minute division of labor carries this variation still further, so that it is not only possible in many cases to distinguish individuals by their calling, but the particular branch of work in which they are engaged can be easily determined by its influence upon their physical structure. In other words, men are molded by their trades and occupations, and many of the diseases with which they are afflicted arise from physical defects due to faulty positions and want of appropriate exercise. Perhaps no class in the community have their physical characteristics more marked than the student class. The type may be distinguished by a drooping head, flat chest, hollow back, and constricted ribs just over thestom- ach. It is not necessary to look for the causes of these defects. They are faulty positions while studying, pressure of the desk against the body, the constriction of clothing during the growing period, the relaxed state of certain muscles, and the overstrained condition of others. Most occupations, including that of the student, tend to overuse the flexor muscles and to compress and constrict the body, thns lessening its internal capacity and inter¬ fering with the functions of important organs. Thus, the resistance of the clothing, weights lifted and borne on the back or shoulders, and even the use of heavy dumb¬ bells for health’s sake all tend to force the ribs downward and lessen the diameter of the thorax. To remedy this evil a system of artificial exercise is necessary. Just here we touch upon a principle that has escaped the attention of most teachers. If this deformity is brought about by the natural action of the muscles — that is, by their acting centripetally from their origin to their insertions — surely the remedy is to make them act centrifugally from their insertions to their origins. By grasping a bar or a pair of rings above the head, the parts where the muscles are inserted become fixed, and if the muscles contract, the parts from which they originated must move. In this case all the diameters of the thorax are increased and the chest capacity enlarged. In this principle lies the value of the rings, trapeze, ladders, parallel and horizontal bars, and, in fact, all of the climbing appurtenances, to those who are able to use them. By the invention of the chest-expander, chest-developer, quarter circle, high pulleys, and inclined planes, traveling parallels, and similar apparatus, the same principle can be applied by anyone, however weak, and the same result can be accomplished. It requires a little more time, but the effect is likely to be more durable. By the use of the pulley-weight system resistance can be applied to any part of the body from any direction. In this peculiar property lies its great value as a means of enlarging the thoracic cavity and counteracting the cramping and con¬ stricting tendencies of modern occupations. I have dwelt upon these principles at some length because I have reason to believe 554 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. they have not been well understood by persons interested in the subject. Some of the other theories that have guided me in formulating a system of exercises I shall state briefly in the form of a summary, together with those I have just mentioned. As far as I have been able to discover, they are based on sound physiological prin¬ ciples. (1) The person should be sufficiently interested in the exercise to give it his atten¬ tion in order to secure the necessary volitional power to start the movement. Whether the exercise is interesting in itself is a matter of little consequence. (2) There should be a weight or resistance to overcome in order to bring out the working foyce of the muscle. In using a weight the muscle gradually acquires the force with which it tries to contract. (3) The exercise must be performed with sufficient vigor and rapidity to engage the energetic contraction of the muscles employed. When this is done, old tissue is broken down and its place is supplied with new material in increased quantity, thus augmenting the size and strength of the muscles. The brain gains the power and energy which the exercise requires it to put forth. (4) Weak parts must first be strengthened, and then as many muscles as possible must be brought into action in order to secure a full-orbed and harmonious develop¬ ment of the whole body. One-sided development is usually attained by robbing some other part of its just share of the body’s nutriment. Most persons in their daily occupations use the flexor muscles more than the extensors, thereby cramping the vital organs and interfering with their functions. To remedy this tendency the muscles should be made to act from the center as far as possible in all form3 of arti¬ ficial exercise. (5) A sufficient number of muscles should be called into action at one time to stim¬ ulate the action of the heart and lungs and increase the circulation and respiration. This is one of the most important considerations to bear in mind in regard to exer¬ cise. To keep up this increased respiratory activity and to aid the heart in remov¬ ing the waste material and hastening forward the new, the limbs and walls of the chest must be absolutely free from any ligatures or constrictions. The slightest interference with the action of the respiratory muscles at this time embarrasses the functions of the lungs and heart. This is the reason why loose clothing is always advised for exercise. (6) As a latent period precedes the contraction of a muscle, so a momentary period of rest should as far as possible precede movement in exercise. This is best secured where there is an alternation in the movements, as in walking, running, rowing, etc. All tetanized movements, such as holding weights, attitudinizing, standing or sitting in a constrained position, etc., tend to impair the tone of the muscles by interfering with the nutrition of both muscles and nerves. (7) The exercise of the young should be of such a composite nature as to bring about the co-operation and co-ordination of the muscles. This involves principally the training of the central nerve system. All gymnastic sports and athletic games that require skill, dexterity, coolness, courage, and presence of mind, are included in this list, and are exceedingly valuable to any system of physical training as adjuncts in the development of character. (8) All vital processes depend largely upon the maintenance of animal heat. But animal heat is now known to be generated in the blood while passing through the muscles, and not in the lungs, as was once supposed. The full contraction of the muscles greatly aids this function, and helps to force the warm blood through the tissues and back again to the heart. (9) In order to realize the best results from physical exercise and keep up the gen¬ eral nutrition of tho body, all muscular effort should be followed by a bath or vigor¬ ous stroking and rubbing. (10) In every kind of physical exercise the qualities at first required are the qual¬ ities at length developed. Thus, if the exercise requires strength /'Strength will bo PHYSICAL TRAINING. 555 the result; if courage is exacted, courage will "be the outcome; if quickness, quick¬ ness; and so through the whole range of faculties exercised. Knowing what is desired, it is an easy matter to prescribe the appropriate train¬ ing. ~ * * What America most needs is the happy combination which the European nations are trying to effect; the strength-giving qualities of the German gymnasium, the active and energetic properties of the English sports, the grace and suppleness acquired from tko French calisthenics, and the beautiful poise and mechanical pre¬ cision of the Swedish free movements, all regulated, systematized, and adapted to our peculiar needs and institutions. The highest development of strength, activity, and grace is not compatible in the same individual, and consequently many persons prefer to sacrifice one in order to gain the other. But life’s forces are well adjusted and well balanced. IV. The Delsarte System. In investigating the so-called Delsarte system of physical training, one is met at the outset by the very formidable obstacle that the sys¬ tem has no authorized mouthpiece. The man whose name it bears never devised a system of physical training, and those that should be most familiar with his plans and purposes, and many of those who profess to have best mastered his philosophy repudiate the idea of connecting his name with any system of gymnastics. His own daughter, Madame Geraldy, is said to have declared, “ It is the expression of the emotions through the body that my father taught. If one wishes to study gymnastics let him go to a gymnasium.’7 To make matters worse, there are apparently radical differences upon important points among even those who claim to represent Del- sartism and one no sooner imagines that he has a clue to the whole thing than a discouraging contradiction appears to throw him into worse confusion than before. There is, furthermore, a certain mysticism with which the Delsar- tians like to cover their work. They continually state that one can not hope to understand Delsarte without deep study. What is presented herewith may not, therefore, correctly represent Delsarte physcal training in the opinion of some Delsartians, but the representative value of the extracts will not be questioned any more than it would have been if one of the Delsartians themselves had made the selection, if we may judge from the lack of harmony of opin¬ ion between them.. BIOGRAPHY OF DELSARTE. Frangois Delsarte was bom November 11, 1811, at Solesme, France. His father, a physician, died, leaving his family poor. The young Delsarte was sent to Paris, in 1822, to study with a paiuter on china, but his tastes carried him into other chan¬ nels. Ho became, in 1825, a jrapil of the conservatory, a Government institution for the instruction in dramatic, art, music, and the ballet. Here, for want of proper guidance, he lost his voice. Finding himself thus incapacitated for the stage, he resigned that career for that of a teacher of singing and the dramatic art. Realiz¬ ing that he had been shipwrecked for want of a compass and a pilot, he determined 556 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. to save others from his fate by seeking and formulating the laws of an art hitherto left to the caprice of mediocrity, or the inspiration of genius. After years of unre¬ mitting labor and study, study which took him by turns to hospitals, morgues, asylums, prisons, art galleries, etc., patiently unearthing the secrets and methods of past genius, study which kept him enchained by the hour watching the children at play in the great public gardens, weighing humanity everywhere and everyhow, he suc¬ ceeded in discovering and formulating the laws of {esthetic science. Thanks to him, that science has now the same precision as that of mathematics. He died, without arranging his life-work for publication, July 20, 1871. Many are the names famous in their different careers, that have owed much to his instruction: Rachel, Sontag, Pasca, Monsabre, etc.1 — [Ascribed to the Abbe Delaumosne in Mrs. Steb- bins’s Delsarte System of Dramatic Expression. THE WHOLE THING IN A NUTSHELL. I will give you in a very simple, very compact form, a complete definition of what the Delsarte system is of which so much talk is made, usually consisting, however, in hollow echoes. The Delsarte system is a careful analysis of the facts of human nature and experience, generalized into laws which dominate those facts and applied in a system of practical rules for the perfecting of the human instrument physically and spiritually, so that our experience may be raised to the highest possible degree of variety, fullness, and harmony. That is the Delsarte system. — [Rev. William R. Alger, beforp the Convention of Elocutionists, Chicago, 1893. A LESS CONCISE, BUT MORE SATISFACTORY DESCRIPTION. There are two widely differing conceptions of Delsartism. One is Delsarte’s own, of a method of training for vocal and pantomimic expression, founded neither on tradition, empiricism, inspiration, nor good luck, but on a reverent study of nature’s laws. The other is the popular misconception of the man and his mission as a sort of inspired gymnast, the end and aim of whose life was to enable silly girls to atti¬ tudinize in public and private, to move in strange and weird curves and spirals, and to wear costumes more or less suggestive of the apparitions in materializing seance. The prevalence of exhibitions of statue-posing, Greek dances, emotive gestures, tab¬ leaux vivants, fan drills, broomstick drills, fainting, dying, and grand and lofty tumbling, dignified by the name of Delsarte, and too often given by people who have never mastered even the elements of harmonic poise is responsible for the popular notion of the master whom we reverence. It is the misfortune, in one sense, of Delsartism that its possibilities in training for physical perfection have been exemplified, in this country at least, much more fully than the expressive side of the work. * * * The gymnastic side, important and interesting as it is, has come to be regarded as the be-all and end-all of the sys¬ tem ; whereas Delsarte himself attached very little importance to it. Nevertheless, it can not be denied that the results of following out these principles of physical training, whether they originated with Delsarte, or, as is sometimes claimed, with Mackaye, have far surpassed those of any other system of gymnastics in grace, free¬ dom, and harmonious cooperation of all the parts of the body. The essential principle upon which they are based may, I think, be summed up in some such formula as this: In any true system of physical training, muscular devel¬ opment must be proportioned to the supply of vital energy in the individual. Or, in the language of Delsarte, the psychic must transcend the physical. The fallacy 'Mr. James Steele Mackaye first brought Delsartism prominently before the Ameri¬ can public in 1869. Mr. Mackaye had studied under Delsarte, in Paris, and returned to this country to prepare the way for the coming of his master. Delsarte, however, was prevented from coining to America by the Fraaco-Priissian war. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 557 of all other gymnastic systems with, which the writer is acquainted is that they measure results by external growth. Even the tabulate s of specialists of the school of Sargent, of Harvard, are devoted mainly to recording differences in size; and their aim seems to be to remodel the external physical shell in accordance with certain hard and fast notions of manly and womanly beauty. While muscle is val¬ uable, it should never be forgotten that mere mass is useless without energy, and that a small arm with a tremendous reservoir of reserve force behind it will win the battle every time against a muscular development, however great, that has been gained at the expense of latent power in the brain. While Delsarte was probably quite unconscious of the tendency of his teachings in this direction, there is no doubt that this view of the relative value of nerve and muscle has been splendidly reinforced by arguments derived from his theories, and is upheld most forcibly to-day by adherents of the so-called Delsarte system of physical culture. To harmonize mind and body; to put the soul back in the whole body; to main¬ tain equilibrium of all the functions and principles of being; to render the body plastic;* to free all the channels of expression; to remove constrictions that inter¬ fere with the flow of emotion to all the parts — this, we were taught again and again, in varying formulas, but with one thought behind the formulas, is the object of har¬ monic gymnastics. In more accurate language, we could say: To preserve the just proportion between nerve-force and muscle. The physical problem of the future is not how to cultivate muscle, but how to conserve and increase vital energy. Del- sartism has helped on the discussion of the problem by example and precept. If it has not furnished a solution, it has at least vehemently asserted the substantial unity of soul and body, and paved the way to a recognition of the undeniable fact that, without in-forming energy, mere physical development is a useless burden to the soul. — [Mr. F. Townsend Southwick, in Werner’s Magazine, June, 1893. FLEXIBILITY. POISE, AND STRENGTH, THE END OF PHYSICAL TRAINING. I can hardly outline what I consider to be the system of Delsarte, because he would not have claimed that he left a system. It is not a science. It has not been reduced to a science. It is still in a transition condition. Not more than two or three of the so-called laws of Delsarte can be called final laws. Most of them are unfinished rules of expression. But his laws of development, as I understand them, are, first, the training of the body as an instrument of expression ; second, the study of the elements of expression ; and, third, the application of the principles to the more involved emotional work. With the latter we have nothing to do at present, but I wish to try to explain what I understand to be. the system, as far as it has been developed, in physical train¬ ing. The first thing is the cultivation of the physical sensibilities of a pleasure in what we are doing, and with that a cultivation of the various senses. But without an inspiring motive, without some emotion accompanying every act, it seems tome that the physical movement is simply a dead thing, like a body without a soul. Herein lies the danger of reducing it to a mere mechanism. The principles of Delsarte, the laws, I will pass over and come down to the more tangible work in hand. The first step that Delsarte would undertake with a pupil would be the correction of any mannerisms that he might find. The correction of these mannerisms might be the relaxing of a muscle, if it is very tense, or the strengthening it, if it be over relaxed. The exercises that Delsarte used seem to be derived directly from the common practices that we see in everyday life, the action of the child, the movements of the people in the ordinary healthy 6tate. The first step toward a definite system, I do not think, lies in the principle of relaxation. Before we can relax any part of the body we must necessarily have power to control our body in an equilibrium or balanced state. Therefore the first step toward a 558 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. thorough system would be the practice of poise, the resting of the body in its move¬ ments in different directions, retaining all parts properly balanced about a common center. In that matter of poise, to illustrate the absolute necessity of accompanying enio- tion with movement, I believe it is not right nor proper to practice a swaying of the body in any direction without accompanying it with some intention of thought or of feeling. The general sway or poise of the body, Delsarte taught, should be taken first of all with the intention of acquiring a sensation of comfort, of pleasure And, second, an intention, as a matter of thought, of reasoning, a desire to accom¬ plish something. Physical exercise ought to be resolved at once into a definite expression, a definite attitude or gesture. That is what it is for, not for the sake of developing a certain amount of strength, but it is for the sake of emotional expres¬ sion. The use of a dramatic speech or situation or intention should be involved in the physical movement. * * * I do not think it right to practice a relaxing movement, i. e., the surrendering of any part to gravity, like the state that it has in sleep ; I do not believe it is right to cultivate that condition of the muscular system without using it at once emotion¬ ally. When a child on the street sways its arms and makes other spontaneous move¬ ments, it is doing exactly what I understand Dclsarte’s intention to be in relaxing movements, abandoning itself to spontaneity of gesture. I would take every relax¬ ing movement and resolve it into some gesture, giving all its value, and not make it merely a mechanical thing. The same with controlling movements. I understand relaxing movements to be surrendering the part to gravity, but of controlling all the other parts and relieving them. We are not only relieving one part, but strengthen¬ ing another. Beyond the matter of poising, relaxing, and controlling, I think we ought to approach nearer to expression by practicing involution and evolution of movements; wo ought to come nearer to the actual expression of daily life, the bringing in the movement in sensitive impression, and the carrying out of movement in forcible expression. These transitions of movement bring us still a step further into some¬ thing like pantomimic work. The use of the swaying of different parts of the body, taken by themselves, may be in different forms, but always with the intention to resolve them into positive attitude, gesture, or expression of some kind. The oppo¬ sition of movements, of course, is a very simple thing, and I need not delay upon it. It is a matter of balance, belonging to the law of consistency, that when one part is in use the other part may not be used. The use of any part without the use of another part is contrary to nature, and will result in an unequal development. It is not right to practice one muscle by itself without the cooperative use of the rest of the muscular system. The recognition of the lawTs of Delsarte, or the relation between the center and the extremities, the necessity of repose being back of every activity, The law of motion which is absolutely final, the whole matter of magnetism, the law of expression, all these need to be understood and applied in purely physical training-. Perhaps I may draw the line there and say, beyond that we go into emotional expression, which is beyond the function of the physical trainer. The use of the voice and the practice of the voice is certainly a part of physical training, as much as the exercise of the general body. As a resum6, 1 would say that, as I understand it, the ultimate matter is reached in physical work when we have attained perfect flexibility, poise, and strength, all equally important. Repose is obtained by relaxation. Energy is the pai;t of physical work which is usually taken care of so much by itself. In making a plea here I might go further and deeper, but the time is short. But, as I understand it, finally, the whole object of physical training is to enlarge the scope of our powers, and its principal object is to develop the body as a means of emotional expression. — [Mr. Franklin H. Sargent before the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education, meeting of 1892. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 559 THE CHARACTER OE THE EXERCISES. The outline of the systematic physical culture which I shall bring before you is composed of three widely different elements, all in conformity with the basic idea of Delsarte : (1) The so-called aesthetic gymnastics of Delsarte’s training; (2) the Swedish or Ling system; (3) the ceremonial forms.of Oriental prayer. These, when prop¬ erly combined and graded into systematic progressive exercises, constitute a perfect system of gymnastics which brings into being and active use each of the three great principles of Francois Delsarte. We have sequence, opposition, and corre¬ spondence; consequently, we have all the elements essential to evolve beauty of form, graceful motion, and artistic presentation. As will be seen, such a system embraces both physical and aesthetic culture. I shall confine myself now to the purely physical aspect. I have never searched consciously for trinities ; they have turned up of themselves in almost every department of my studies. In my case, I think I may say, that is a way that trinities have. For instance, in physical culture, perfection consists of a judicious blending of relaxation, energizing, and deep breathing. Relaxation too often has been mistaken for inertia. This is a false conception, and has given rise, in those who do not comprehend its real nature, to the habit of doing things in a semi-lifeless, easy way. Relaxation does not mean acting in a relaxed, lazy manner. It means rest after effort, perfect rest after j)erfect effort. It implies more than this, for it means the conscioustransfer of energy from one depart¬ ment of nature to another, with unaffected ease and grace, after an active tension of body or of brain. True relaxation would mean the resigning of the body to the law of gravity, of the mind to nature, and of the entire energy to a deep, rhythmic breathing. Complete relaxation of the voluntary muscles at once transfers the energy to the involuntary parts, so that, strictly speaking, there can be no such thing as conscious relaxation, except in the voluntary muscles and the brain. But this is quite sufficient. This transfer of energy produces the requisite equilibrium for the renewing of physical strength. It will, therefore, be seen that the vital principal of relaxation, with the use and processes connected therewith, has been misunderstood by a majority of those who profess to follow the Delsarte system. Nothing can be further from the truth than to imagine that Delsarte’s idea of training was to produce a state of devitalized action. It was the very reverse. Delsarto, having the instinctive perception of a true artist, must have known perfectly well1 that to free the channels of expression so that the whole form should respond to the image in the mind, nothing was more valuable to commence with than the decomposing exercises which enable the trained individual to rest at will. Remember, then, that relaxation means the abil¬ ity to rest, and, in resting, to rpeuperate dynamic power through repose. In all truly graceful action there must be an expressed consciousness of force in reserve and not an evidenco of devitalized easiness. * * * The second principle of our system is energizing. It is based upon the well-known physiological law that use and friction of the parts attract thereto a flow of blood and nerve force. Action means waste, and this waste calls for fresh supplies of molecular energy to renew the cellular tissue. Growth and an increase of muscular strength is the natural result when the energy supplied is fully equal to the demand. The amount of energy is determined by ihe dynamic capacity of the brain and lungs; and this, in the system under notice, is obtained from the oxygen stored through the rhythmic breathing which accompanies each particular movement. To energize the parts so as to obtain the greatest possible benefit from the amount 1 Whether it can be proved that he taught the decomposing exercises or not, the fact remains that, as he certainly did teach to his pupils the spiral motion of the arms, ho must have taught relaxation in some form, as decomposing exercises are absolutely necessary as a training for spiral motion. 560 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. of energy expended there should he a slow increase of muscular tension as the mind directs the flow of nerve force to the parts and an equally slow relaxation. Noth¬ ing increases the nervo-magnetic power of the physique more than this method of energizing. Then comes the energizing series of gymnastic exercises which brings each muscle of the body into play in its turn. Much discretion, however, is necessary in such work. Different temperaments require slightly different tieatment. Many individuals are physically out of proportion, and, therefore, need special exercises and direction for developing the weak or immature parts. * * * Every Delsartian should possess a sound knowledge of physiology and the phys¬ iological effects of different forms of motion. With such knowledge there is not the slightest difficulty in translating the angular motions of the Swedish system into those which develop grace equally with physical strength. I am a firm supporter of brawn and muscle; hut, at the same time, I insist that the same physiological effects and consequent physical development can ho obtained in a system which evolves grace and beauty as in a system which produces an angular, jerky, inartistic pre¬ sentation. A beautiful physique, with graceful strength in every action, is the Del¬ sartian ideal. The third element in physical culture is breathing. To breathe, one would think, is one of the most natural things in the world. So it is, in a way.- But to breathe correctly, healthfully, in other words, to breathe hygienically, is just as much of an art as is anything else in human nature, and requires long practice and careful train¬ ing. What is more natural than to talk? And yet how many people do you meet in any one day who speak correctly or who express their thoughts in a pleasing tone and a natural manner? Speaking correctly is a matter of grammar and accent, but speaking in a clear tone, with a sweet voice, is largely a matter of proper respiration. In physical culture, then, breathing occupies a most important place. It is the basis of mental life and physical activity. It is the grand foundation pivot, around which every other form of culture must revolve. — [Genevieve Stebbins, in Werner’s Magazine, January, 1894. GYMNASIUMS FOR CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS. The use of apparatus is not essential to an effective system of physi¬ cal training, and the lack of funds to equip a gymnasium is no reason for a refusal to begin systematic work in that line. But whatever may be done between the desks in the schoolroom must be regarded simply as a makeshift to serve only in the absence of a regular place for exer¬ cising, and none will deny that the work may be prosecuted to still bet¬ ter effect when a sufficient supply of gymnastic appliances is provided. This is especially true of schools for older pupils, for their interest is more easily enlisted in apparatus work than in the free exercises. There is another consideration that seems to be even more weighty than any of those usually urged in favor of the use of apparatus. The free exercises depend for their effectiveness largely upon the action of the antagonistic muscles. Now, if there is such a thing as muscular train¬ ing, and if physical power is an object to be desired, it would seem that the muscles should not be deliberately trained to act in opposi¬ tion and therefore to interfere with the movements of each other, even if the appearance of strength is the result. The required resistance to the muscular movement shoukl come from external objects rather PHYSICAL TRAINING. 561 than from antagonistic muscles. Of course not all free exercises are subject to this objection, nor is it necessarily fatal even where it does apply, for other exercises tend to counteract these ill effects; but the tendency is bad and the theory is worse. Free gymnastics usually come first when physical training is begun in city school systems; light hand apparatus is next, and the fully equipped gymnasium is the last step in the introduction of a well-devel¬ oped system of gymnastics. A number of cities are now ready for the second and third stages of development in this order, and information concerning the apparatus ordinarily used in this country can not be amiss. In securing this information the aid of the manufacturers of such apparatus was sought. Letters were written to the Farragansett Machine Company, Providence, E. I.; John G-loy, Chicago, Ill.; Fred. Medart, St. Louis, Mo.; A. G. Spalding & Bros., Philadelphia, Pa., and to the Schumacher Gymnasium Company, Akron, Ohio. These gentlemen were asked for information concerning (1) the building of new school gymnasiums; (2) the conversion of halls, attics, basements, etc., into gymnasiums ; (3) the apparatus required and its uses ; (4) the improvements made in the same by their respective firms, and (5) the cost. All of them responded fully and satisfactorily. There was nec¬ essarily a great similarity in their answers, and all minutely described the mechanical improvements in their own wares. The writer is con¬ vinced that the American manufacturers excel all others in the finish and in the mechanical excellence of their apparatus, but they have made but few changes that affect the essential character of the appara¬ tus or the exercises to be performed. The following pages contain as many of the facts of general interest brought out by the replies men¬ tioned as can be conveniently published. Repetitions and references to purely mechanical improvements have been omitted as far as possi¬ ble. From the Narragansett Machine Company, Providence, R. I. [Prepared by Wm. L. Coop, Providence, R. I., assisted by Miss Ellen Le Garde, superintendent of physical training in the Providence public schpols.] A school gymnasium when best placed is in a separate building, which might be situated in the rear of the school buildings or in the center of a quadrangle formed by them and connected with the schoolhouses by passages. The edifice could then be constructed specially for gymnasium work and should be from 18 to 22 feet in height, the collar beams of the trusses supporting the roof. It could be rectangular in form, with sides in a proportion of 2 by 3 or thereabouts. If the room is less than 50 feet wide allowance should be made for at least 40 square feet of floor space for each scholar exercising. If a separate building can not be had the next best situation is in the upper part of the sphool building. In many cases the peak of the roof can be utilized. If pos¬ sible, a clear height of 18 feet should be secured at the center of the room for such suspended apparatus as traveling rings, flying rings, climbing ropes, etc. The side walls need not be over 6 feet high. Light can be obtained from dormer windows or from thick ground glass set in the roof. The floor of such a gymnasium should be ED 92 - 36 562 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. suspended entirely separate from the ceiling and partitions of the rooms below. Tie- rods from the trusses, can l>e used for this purpose, although they are somewhat of an obstruction in the gymnasium room, and should not be put in if the floor could be otherwise supported without great expense. The best possible means of deadening the floor, to prevent sound, should be employed, and, in any case, such a gymnasium can not be used for heavy jumping or fast running without the resulting noise dis¬ turbing the schoolroom below when in session. The position, however, is prefer¬ able to any other in the building, on account of light and ventilation and the oppor¬ tunity to secure the necessary height without great expense. Gymnasiums may be placed in a basement. If, however, the room can not be 16 feet or more high the traveling rings would not be of much use and climbing appa¬ ratus would also be limited in its value. Some form of ventilation that would be sure to thoroughly change the air of the room after each class had exercised should also be adopted. Care should be taken to drain under the floor thoroughly, that the floor 'may be absolutely dry. It should also be ventilated underneath to prevent dry rot of the floor timbers. Any swinging apparatus that is attached to the ceiling should be insulated or provided with roller bearings to prevent noise. School audience halls could often be used to advantage for a wide range of gymnasium work without any of the apparatus at all interfering with other uses of the hall other than the temporary removal of seats. On the side walls could be placed pully weights and racks for calisthenic apparatus. IUsuspended apparatus is demanded it could be so arranged as to be quickly hoisted out of the way. If the floor of the hall is not specially constructed to avoid the transmission of sound to the rooms below, such exercises as jumping, running, or stamping will necessarily have to be avoided while these rooms are being used. Where liberal halls (passageways) are provided in school buildings these may be used for gymnasium work. Racks for Indian clubs, dumb-bells, bar bells, poles, wands, hoops, fencing sticks, etc., can be secured to the walls, and even pulley weights can be placed to good advantage for class purposes. In a hall 20 feet wide and 50 feet long 25 or 30 children can exercise at one time in the majority of calisthenic movements, and a sufficient number of pulley weights can be arranged for all to take one-hand exercise in class. Low-studded rooms of from 10 to 12 feet may be used for all gymnasium work, except such as is done on apparatus suspended from or attached to the ceiling. Gymnastic exercises may be performed in the aisles between the desks of the ordi¬ nary schoolroom, and in many of the movements the desks themselves can be util¬ ized as a means of support. A device has been invented that can be secured to the ends of opposite desks forming a substitute for a parallel bar. Racks for calisthenic apparatus can easily be attached to the walls of the schoolroom under the windows and in such places as are not occupied by blackboards. This latter plan permits a ready arrangement of the pupils with apparatus in hand to rise from the seats to carry out any series of gymnastic movements. Out-of-door, or school yard, gymnasiums. — City schools, except those in the largest cities, have generally sufficient yard room to use for gymnasium exercises. In fact, if there is any yard room it can be used to advantage. Games that possess gym¬ nastic features can be taught to classes of 60 pupils, or when such classes are too large for all to play in one game they can be divided in squads of 10 or 15, and all exercise in the same manner. Suitable games are being devised by gymnasium direct¬ ors and published in gymnastic books now being issued. The children should be encouraged to play these games outside of the school yard, as a great advantage will be derived from the practice of them by the children and the substitution of games that have gymnastic value for those not so beneficial. Many of the games can be played without apparatus, but the addition of apparatus adds to the interest of the game. Rubber balls to be thrown and caught, barriers to be leaped over, objects to be collected or distributed, and other implements that develop skill and agility are desirable. An almost ideal game is very popular at present among gymnasts in the PHYSICAL TRAINING. 563 Yeung Men’s Christian Associations, which is well adapted for outdoor use. It is called basket ball, and was devised by Mr. James Naismith, one of the teachers of the Young Men’s Christian Association training school, Springfield, Mass. Tho imple¬ ments for the game consist of a large rubber or leather ball similar to a football and two baskets, or rings, that can be suspended at about 10 feet from the ground. The pupils are formed in two divisions, the object of each division being to throw the ball into the goal of the opposite division, or prevent the opposite division from throwing the ball into theirs. The ball must not be carried or kicked, but .must be thrown, and rough playing is prohibited. The game can be played by any number from 10 to 100. It calls for great skill and activity, brings into action all the players, and the chances of accident are very small. Systematized gymnastics can be car¬ ried on in the school yard. The calistlienic apparatus used in tho schoolroom can with benefit be used outdoors when the temperature and weather j)ermit. Such apparatus as ladders, ropes, poles for climbing, seesaw, giant stride, stilts, balanc¬ ing beam, vaulting bars, etc., can be arranged to stand exposure to weather and adapted -for outdoor use. In primary schools covered sand gardens could be pro¬ vided. Such school-yard gymnasia should be open to the public during the summer months of school vacation, under a director. The opportunity for exercise and play in crowded localities would prevent a tendency to petty offenses, crimes, etc. ; a place ofiinnocent enjoyment would be afforded, and if kept open and lighted by electricity, would afford places of exercises, recreation, and rest for laboring men. The only cost entailed would be that of lighting and the salary of a care-taker, who should be in vested- with police-lights of arrest, etc. These outdoor gymnasiums are provided for by law in all German cities of over 15,000 inhabitants, and the inhab¬ itants are taxed to maintain them. One large central one in the larger cities is used not only for school purposes, but to train instructors. Such a public school outdoor gymnasium was establishecl in Sandusky, Ohio, in May, 1892, under Hans Ballin, director of gymnastic work in the public schools. School gymnasium outfits. — A simple outfit of apparatus should be selected at first, and if additions are made they can be selected by the director to conform to the course of training adopted. The following two plans and lists are selected and arranged for a class of not over 60. In calisthenic exercises there is sufficient apparatus provided for each pupil, and exercises on chest weights may be performed with one hand only by the entire class. On the ladders, bars, etc., the class will be divided into four squads. The ladders may be hoisted out of the way and the vaulting bars and posts removed when the entire floor is needed. The, uprights of the vaulting bars hold the cord or sticks for jumping and the vaulting bars sustain the free end of the adjustible lad¬ ders. Thus, by a judicious arrangement, fihe same piece of apparatus is made to serve a double use at the same cost. In the .high -school lists two varieties of special pulley Aveights are introduced (intercostal and back and loin machines) with a ATiew to indhridual corrective work. With these outfits the exercises may be progressive in either gymnasium or in passing from one to the other, thus holding the interest of the pupils. The general arrangement of the apparatus in the exact order indicated is not necessary, except as noted above, but it should be so arranged as not to interfere when in-use and to require as little moving as possible. A description of the appara¬ tus in detail is given on the following pages: List of apparatus suggested for a grammar-school gymnasium . 30 chest weights. 4 adjnstible ladders. 4 A'aulting bars. 4 sets of cord and pins for jumping. 6 balancing beams. 60 pairs three-fourths pound dumb-bells. 60 pairs racks. 60 pairs three-fourths pound Indian clubs. 60 pairs racks. 60 maple wands. 2 racks for wands. 564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. The cost of this entire grammar-school outfit, erected in the gymnasium, will he nearly $650, in a good grade of apparatus. Suggested list for a high-school gymnasium. 26 chest weights. 2 chest intercostal machines. 2 chest, hack, and loin machines. 4 adjustable ladders. 4 vaulting bars. 4 sets of cord and pins for jumping. 4 jump hoards. 4 pairs flying rings. 8 climbing ropes. 2 lines 9-inch traveling rings. This list of apparatus can he erected in 4 mattresses 5 hy 5 feet hy 2 inches. 60 pairs 1-pound hells. 60 pairs racks. 60pair8 1-pound cluhs. 60 pairs racks. 60 har hells. 60 racks. 20 poles, 10 feet. 20 pairs racks. a gymnasium, veady for use, for $1,000. Classification of gymnastic apparatus adapted for use in city public schools. Calisthenic apparatus f Dumb-bells. Lifting, thrusting, and] Musical hells. swinging . 1 Indian clubs. [Jumping ropes. Apparatus held by both hands . Wands. Bar hells. Hoops. Apparatus connecting or | placing pupils in opposi-^ tion . . Rings. Poles. (At times : Wands. Bar hells.) Drill apparatus Anderson foils. Guns. Pulley weights Heavy apparatus Direct application of resist¬ ance in definite planes . . . r Chest weights. | Intercostal machines. J Back and loin machines. Rowing, neck, and pad¬ dle attachments. {Flying rings. Traveling rings. Ladders. For climbing ( Ropes. ( Poles. For leaping and vaulting . . Jump stands. Vaulting har. For balancing Balancing beam. Parallel hars. r PHYSICAL TRAINING. 565 DETAILED DESCRIPTIOX. This description applies to the apparatus mado by the Narragansett Machine Com¬ pany, of Providence, R. I., who make Sargent gymnastic apparatus under the per¬ sonal direction of Dr. t). A. Sargent, of Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass. ; German apparatus under the supervision of C. F. E. Schulz, of Baltimore, McL. a graduate of the Turners’ Seminary, and Swedish apparatus under the direction of Mr. Nils Posse, a graduate of the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, Stockholm, Sweden. Galisthe/iic apparatus. — Light apparatus adds to the interest in gymnastic exercises' and increases its value. Apparatus made for toys is generally worthless for gymnasium use, competition having reduced ikin price and quality to that point where it is neither properly made nor of such material as to be durable. All calis- thenic apparatus made of wood should be finished with shell-lac varnish, and all turned work should be polished in the lathe. Cheaper varnishes, put on with a brush, do not give so smooth a surface and when heated ^>y the hands when in use becomes sticky. In all cases racks or some means of caring for apparatus when it is not in use should be pro¬ vided and placed so that classes can easily take and replace the pieces they need while marching by in orderly manner. Apparatus for lifting, thrusting, and swinging. — This is usually the first used, and light weights should be selected for beginners. Dumb-bells are generally made of maple, and should weigh from one-half to 1 pound each. The handle should be large enough to fill the hand of the pupil using them and should not have any groove at the end near the bell, as is often found in those sold in the toy stores. Good dumb-bells of the above weights cost from 25 to 35 cents per pair. Iron racks of the form shown in fig. 1 are best adapted for holding these is 15 cents per pair with screws. Musical dumlf-bells, invented by Miss Ellen Le Garde, superintendent of physical education in theProvidence public schools, is an admirable form for children. As will be seen by fig. 2, it consists of two pairs of bells connected by a handle. Each pair of I I Fig. 1.— Dumb-bell and book, the dumb-bells. The cost of Fig. 2. — Musical dumb-bell. bells is arranged to hold a clapper or “ sounder,” which does not ring the bells until they are forcibly turned or shaken. The bells have a clear, sweet tone, are made of highly polished steel durably nickel plated, and have a polished hard-wood handle. The peculiar value of the musical bell lies in the necessity for sharp, energetic action at the end of each movement to produce the sound, which everyone using 566 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. them tv ill want to get, thus forcibly exercising the muscles brought into action. Any of the familiar dumb-bell drills can be readily adapted to the musical bell. The ordinary child takes kindly to anything that makes a noise, and when this noise resolves itself into harmonious sounds his delight is Fig. 3.— School model Indian club. manifest in face, voice, or act. Drills with this form of bell are learned quickly by children because they like them. They are doing something, and are doing it with a noise. The bells are packed in strong boxes, which can be kept in the school desks and laid open on the desk when ready for the dumb-bell drill. They cost 45 cents per pair in lots of a dozen. Indian clubs are made of maple or white wood, the latter being the lightest and best for the purpose. They should be finished the same as dumb-bells, and a similar rack is made for holding them. The school-model Indian club (fig. 3) is specially designed for children's use from 8 to 12 years. It weighs .about three-fourths of a pound, and they cost 45 cents per pair. Maple Indian clubs weighing from three-fourths to pounds can be had from 27 cents per pair upward, according to the weight. Heavier clubs than pounds are never used in schools. Indian clubs can not be used in the schoolroom with desks. Jump ropes may be obtained in all the toy stores for 10 cents and upward. Jumping with the rope can only be done in gymnasiums on the ground floor or in those not having schoolrooms under them. Fig. 4.— "Wand rack. Apparatus held by both hands adds an interesting variety of gymnastic work and places in opposition many sets of muscles, as in pulling the opposite sides of rings or pressing on the ends of a wand. Wands are usually made of maple or any hard wood. They should be finished with shell-lac varnish and be rubbed down until they are smooth. The size in most common use is three- fourths of an inch diameter and 4£ feet long. These cost $2.25 per dozen. Racks for wands may be made to hold them upright, with a place for Fig. 5. -Bar bell. each wand, or in bundles horizontally, as is shown in fig. 4. Wands can be used in schoolroom with desks and to the best advantage. They are light and easier to manage by young children than any other piece of school apparatus. They lead the way and educate young pupils to higher forms. Bar bells are a combination of a wand and a dumb-bell, or a dumb-bell with an elongated handle, the balls on the ends giving more momentum to the bar bell in the movements performed. The size commonly used is 4 feet 8 inches long and the cost $3.75 per dozen. Short bar bells may be used between the desks in the school¬ room for a few of the common movements. Hoops, such as are usually sold in the toy stores, may, by being wound with clotln PHYSICAL TRAINING. 567 "be made to answer for lioop exercises, but hoops specially made for the purpose, of selected material, finished with shell-lac, are much better. Such hoops are made in sizes of 24, 30, and 36 inches in diameter. These vary in price from $1.50 to $1.87 per dozen. They are easily hung on a large pin, a dozen or so on each pin. Apparatus, connecting- or placing pupils in opposition, aids in acquiring better rythm, and by varying the direction in which resistance is offered, develops more fully the muscular system. Rings, as used in calisthenic exercises (Fig. 6) are made of maple, the best being made of two or more pieces glued together, with the grain in opposite directions. They can be finished the same as Indian clubs and dumb-bells, and may be held on a large pin the same as those used for hoops. The size usually used are Fig. G.— Ring. 44 and 5 inches, inside diameter, and cost 37 cents and 45 cents per pair when glued up, and 30 cents and 34 cents per pair when turned from solid wood. Poles are made from any strong, straight-grained wood, finished the same as other calisthenic apparatus and cut in lengths of 8, 10, or 12 feet, costing 30, 37, and 45 cents each, respectively. They may be kept in a rack similar to that' used for the wands. AY ands and bar-bells may be used at times in exercises similar to those arranged for poles and rings, each pupil holding to opposite ends of the bar-bells or wands, as they do the opposite side of the rings. Drill apparatus. — Apparatus for executing gymnastic movements similar to those used in military drill always possesses a certain fascination for children. Fig. 7.— Drill gun. The first in this class is the foil designed by Dr. Anderson. It is made entirely of wood, the blade being straight hickory, capable of standing a good blow, and fixed in the handle so that it can be easily removed. The movements recommended for this foil are similar to those in broadsword exercises, but not so energetic. They cost 45 cents per pair and may be held in similar racks to those for dumb-bells. Tho drill gun (Fig. 7) is made according to designs furnished by Dr. Anderson and is of soft or hard wood, as may -be desired. The cost is 30 cents each in soft wood, and 37 cents in hard wood. They are finished in shell-lac, with a black barrel, and may be held in racks that hold them vertically in lots of a dozen. Pulley weights are the best' means of exercise for the direct application of exercise to the muscular system in definite directions. This form is the most generally used of any single class of apparatus in college gymnasiums for prescrip¬ tion exercise or such as are selected by the director for the correction of any physical defects. Some of them are also largely used in class exercise, particularly what is known as the chest weight. These machines were first popularized by Dr. D. A. Sargent in American col- Fig. 8. — Champion chest weight, lege gymnasiums, and have since been adopted by the young men’s Christian asso¬ ciations and athletic clubs in addition to the educational institutions of all grades. 568 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Three types are generally adapted to school gymnasiums, i. e., chest weights, inter¬ costal, and hack and 'loin machines. These are illustrated by the accompanying engravings. The chest weight, which consists of a pair of weights provided with pulleys at about the height of the operators’ shoulders, and" handles connected with ropes arranged to lift the weights, should be found in every school building. The champion chest weight, shown in Fig. 8, has been designed specially for school use. It is simple in construction, with no loose parts, except the weights, and is well adapted for use where a machine is to stand rough and careless usage. Other forms of pulley- weight machines are the intercostal chest weight (Fig. 9) and the back and loin machine (Fig. 10). Various attachments may be made to these machines, such as a rowing attachment to a back and loin machine, paddle and neck attachments to chest weights, etc. Heavy apparatus is such as enables the user to lift, swing, or otherwise handle his own weight. Apparatus for suspension. — Flying rings consist of two rings suspended about 18 inches apart, in such a manner that that the height of suspension may be adjusted. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 569 The form shown at Fig. 11 is adjustable by means of a chain on the sides of the room, or by a strap connecting the rings with ropes. Both means of adjustment are not necessary in one piece of apparatus, and the latter is ilie one most commonly used on Fig. 12. — Line of traveling rings. account of its being more economical. Rings should be quite large, 7 or 8 inches in diameter, and covered with leather. The adjustable straps should be of webbing, as leather is liable to become dry and break without warning. The price of flying rings 570 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. with strap adjustment is $9; with rope and chain adjustment, $18. Exercises on this piece of apparatus will he found in the Puritz Code Book of Gymnastic Exercise. Traveling rings, or row of rings as they are somtimes called, consist of a line of rings with ropes attached to points of suspension 16 feet or more from the floor (Fig. 12). The distance apart of the rings depends on the height of the point of sus¬ pension from the floor, and should he for average-use, as follows : Feet, j Feet, j Feet, j Feet. 1 Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Height, . 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 30 Distance apart. . . . - . 44- ' 4f' - 5 | 6 ! I " | 7 1 n * 8 9 Fora woman’s gymnasium the distance should he less. For an athletic cluh, greater. The rings should he leather covered and will cost complete with ropes, hooks, etc., about $4 each. Ladders are infinite iu variety, but the form illustrated herewith (Fig. 13) is well adapted for school work. For class exercises one ladder should he provided for every PHYSICAL TRAINING. 571 12 or 15 pupils. This form of ladder may he set horizontal or inclined, as shown in the illustration. The outer end may he set on the rounds of the stand so that the shorter pupils can easily reach its rounds, or the outer end may rest on the floor and he inclined as desired, so that the ladder may ho adopted either for suspension from its under side or balancing movements hy walking up the rounds on the outside, or it may ho hoisted up entirely out of tho way, a desirable feature in gymnasiums. Climbing apparatus is specially desirable in school gymnasiums. Climbing ropes are made of four-strand selected manila, generally finished with a large leather- covered Turk’s head on the lower end, although this adds considerable to the expense. They may he smooth or have braided rings or wooden halls secured about 8 inches apart. The plain form is most commonly used. Plain climbing ropes, with knot, 18 feet long, cost $5.62; without the leather knot, $8.75. Climbing 'poles are an economical form of apparatus. They should be made of tough, well-seasoned wood, and finished smooth and free from splinters. A pole 18 572 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. feet long, with proper fixtures, will cost $3. All climbing apparatus may be arranged to swing up out of the way when the room is desired for other purposes. Apparatus for leaping and vaulting can be used to its full advantage only on the. ground floor. However, with the aid of mattresses, the jar of leaping or jumping may be so far absorbed as to be of little annoyance in other rooms. Jump stands: Fig. 15 represents upright poles with holes bored one inch apart to sustain a cord having weights on the ends, or a straight stick to gauge the height of the jump. These may be used in connection with flying rings to obtain a swing and jump, or with climbing ropes. A stand 6 feet high and low enough for indoor gymna¬ sium use costs $5.25, with cord and bags. The uprights of vaulting bars may also be used to hold the cord or stick for jumping, thus saving the cost of jump stands. Vaulting bars : This piece of appara¬ tus (Fig. 16) is desirable for advanced gymnastic work. The variety of exer¬ cises that may be performed on it is infinite, although the name given to it would indicate that its purpose was for vaulting or leaping over with the assist¬ ance of the hands. It may be used, when placed low, as a balancing beam, or when placed high, as a horizontal bar for hanging, swinging, and turning. It can also be used, if properly placed in the gymnasium, as a rest for the lower end of the adjustable ladders, thus dis¬ pensing with the foot piece.- The bar can be removed and sticks or cords placed across the pins for jumping, taking the place of jump standards. As ordinarily used in the gym- it consists of two upright stand¬ ards fastened at the bottom to the floor, and at the top to the ceiling of the room, or to braces extend¬ ing from a gal- Fig. 15.— Jump stand and mat. lery or the side of the room. It is sometimes arranged to swing up out of the way. For school gymnasium work the standards should be independent of any fastenings but that of the floor, and arranged to be taken out of the way, leaving the room clear for marching and calisthenic drill. The bar is generally made of hickory, with a steel core extending through it from end to end, and has iron caps at the ends arranged to fasten to the uprights by means of pins passing through holes in the caps and the uprights. This is the only form that can be depended on as being absolutely secure, and all frictional means of fastening the bar to the uprights or clamping to the uprights or other ways should be avoided, as they are liable to cause serious acci¬ dents. . Each bar, with its pair of uprights, will cost from $25 to $40. Balancing apparatus. — Apparatus for balancing is much used in gymnasiums for girls. Its use makes them sure-footed, and by practice in keeping the equilibrium gives them confidence in their own powers. Its exercises also strengthen. the spine and make young girls walk with a graceful poise of body. The adjustable ladder, illustrated previously, in some of its positions, is a desirable piece of apparatus for balancing. A balancing beam is a straight plank, held firmly by feet, with its edge PHYSICAL TRAINING. 573 upward. It is about 12 feet long. Several of them should be provided for a large class. They cost $4.50 each. Parallel bars are sometimes used in a school gymnasium, although, from the diffi¬ culty of storing them out of the way, and the fact that the exer¬ cises on them are quite arduous, they are not so popular as other apparatus. [It will be observed that the writer of the above omits all refer¬ ence to the vaulting-horse, buck, quarter-circle, and other machines commonly found in American gym¬ nasiums. The reasons for the omis¬ sion are probably similar to those indicated in the remarks on the parallel bars.— Ed.] Apparatus for Swedish gymnas¬ tics . — Although in the lower grade of schools no apparatus is used for Swedish gymnastics, in the more advanced work apparatus is as desirable as in any system. The apparatus described below is made Fig. 16-Horizontal bar. by the Narragansett Machine Company under the supervision of Mr. Nils Posse. Fig. 17. — Swedish bar stalls and bench. The following pieces of apparatus would be necessary in furnishing a gymnasium suitable for a high school or smaller institution : Bom or horizontal bars. — This piece of apparatus is somewhat similar to the vault- 574 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. mg bar, but it lias two bars, neither of whieb is round. One of them is in shape nearly like an isosceles triangle with its angles rounded off; the broader edge, the base of the triangle, may be turned upward and used as a balancing beam, while the other edge, the'apex of the trianglo, affords a better hold for the hands. The other bar is shaped somewhat like a conventional heart, but, of course, without angles. The grooved or double edge may be turned up for those with small hands, -or to allow a different grasp. These bars are quite long, from 12 to 16 feet, from 6 to 8 inches deep, and 3 or 4 inches thick. Three or four students can vault, jump, or otherwise exercise on the bars at one time. They are generally arranged so as to . be taken down out of the way if desired. Ladders. — Swedish ladders consist of a series of square openings about 20 inches wide, with rungs generally 3 inches in width, and as long or as wide as space and material will permit. They may be suspended on the ends or at the side, as desired. They are entirely different from the ordinary gymnasium ladder, as are the exercises on them. Bar stalls. — These are arranged to be fastened against the wall, as is shown in Fig. 17. The bench is used in connection with the bar stalls. Vaulting l)ox. — This is a box about 5 feet long, having inclined sides and a padded top about 1 foot wide. It is raised or lowered by changing the sections that form the lower part. From A. G. Spalding & Bros., Philadelphia, Pa. Our idea of school apparatus is that it should be light, strong, and portable. Thero are very few of tire school-houses now built that have been provided with a special room for gymnasium work. In a great many cases the rooms have to perform a dual service of recitation room and gymnasium, or hall and gymnasium. The apparatus designed by us is of such a character that a fully equipped gymnasium can be moved inside of live minutes without marking or destroying the appearance of the room. Where the floors are perforated or drilled into for guys or stay rods we have a plate that is so constructed that as soon as the guy or stay is removed a spring disk fills the orifice. In regard to outdoor gymnasiums, we have found that the following style of con¬ struction has given every satisfaction : To make a frame work of either iron or wood, covering the space set apart for gymnasium use, the height of the frame being not less than 20 feet. From this can be suspended flying rings, traveling rings, rope lad¬ ders, climbing and knotted rope, giant stride, and a horizontal ladder. The ladder should be dropped within 8 feet of the ground. For floor apparatus, horizontal and parallel bars could be used; also vaulting horse and buck. As mattresses could hardly be used out in the open air, we find that tan bark makes a very desirable floor, there being enough spring in it to prevent any serious injury from falling. Where tan bark can not be procured sand is the next best thing. Of course, the number of duplications in the appended list of apparatus would depend largely upon the size of the grounds, the number of" pupils, and the amount of money to be spent. In new school Buildings, where it is the intention to build a room purposely for gymnasium use, all possible obstruction should be avoided, i. e., supporting posts and pillars through the center of the room. The heating apparatus should be arranged so that it will not take up valuable wall space. Where it is possible the heat should be conducted from below through registers, rather than using steam- heating coils in tho room itself, as the latter takes up a great deal of valuable space and are in the main very undesirable. Another improved feature would be to have the windows not lower than 5k feet from the floor. By placing the windows at that height from the floor you get the advantage of a solid wall space all around the room, and as wall apparatus of various kinds embodies the fundamental principles of “ body building” a great deal of wall space is required. Tho height of ceiling PHYSICAL TRAINING. 575 should not he less .than 20 feet. A gallery encircling the room is very desirable, as the surface or top can be used as a running track. The underneath part can he used for suspended apparatus. The height of the gallery from the floor should not be less than 12 feet. In rooms not originally intended for gymnasium purposes we would suggest the following style of apparatus: Pulley weights; these to include upper and lower chest machines, chest developers and expanders, wrist-rollers, traveling parallels, etc. Where there is an instructor we would include in this- horizontal bar; also parallel bar. If there is no instructor we would omit the parallel bar. In addition to the above named we would, of course, include mattresses, Indian clubs, dumb-bells, and wands; also inflated or lively striking bag. Where the room will permit it the suspended- disk is preferable. The disk should not be less than 6 feet in diameter, and be made very stiff and strong; 7 feet 8 inches is the proper height from the floor. Where the funds or room will not permit of this style bag the suspended style can be used. This is hung between ceiling and floor, having about 18 inches or 2 feet of rubber at top and bottom. When struck it returns very quickly and affords both exercise and amusement. Suggested list of Apparatus for a Gymnasium for an average-sized Grammar School. 20 No. 3 Victor pulley weights. 2 No. 2 J Victor pulley weights (with backboard and rowing attachment). 2 No. 8 B Victor pulley weights (chest- expanders).' 2 No. 8 Victor pulley weights (giant pul¬ ley)- 2 No. 8 A VictoT pulley weights (back and loins). 1 No. 401 Victor pulley weight (wrist- roller). 1 No. 42 Victor finger machine. 1 No. 48 Victor traveling parallel. 1 No. 50 Victor quarter circle. 1 No. 65 Vietor wrestling machine. 1 No. 400 Victor sculling machine. 1 No. 8 D Victor paddle machine. 2 pairs No. 125 swing rings. 7 No. 126 traveling rings. 1 Laflin rowing machine. 1 No. 29 bateau board. 1 No. 0 vaulting horse. 1 McCaffrey striking bag and disk. 1 No. 70 horizontal bar. The above apparatus will be delivered 1 No. 82 suspended parallel. 1 set No. 104 breast bars. 1 24-foot horizontal ladder. 1 No. 97 climbing rope. 1 No. 93 rope ladder. 1 No. 109 vaulting standards. 1 pole-vaulting board. 1 No. 25 leaping board (for vaulting horse). 1 No. 27 incline board (for traveling rings). 3 No. 101 B mattresses (4 by 6 feet). 2 No. 103 B mattresses (5 by 10 feet). 1 rubber “take-off” mat (3 by 5 feet). 1 rubber jumping mat (30hy 3 feet). 50 pairs 1-pound Indian clubs. 75 pairs 2-pound Indian clubs. 50 pairs three-fourths-pound dumb-bells (wooden). 75 pairs 1-pound dumb-bells (wooden) 6| dozen 5-foot wands. 100 sections Indian-club, dumb-bell, and wand holders. % ?. o. b., Philadelphia, for $1,065. Suggested list of Apparatus for a Gymnasium for a High School. 20 No. 3 Victor pulley weights. 2 No. 2 J Victor pulley weights (with backboard and rowing attachment). 2 No. 8 B Victor pulley weights (chest expanders). 2 No. 8 Victor pulley weights (giant pulley). 2 No. 8 A Victor pulley weights (back and loins). 1 No. 401 Victor pulley weights (wrist roller) 1 No. 42 Victor finger machine. 1 No. 48 Victor traveling parallel. 1 No. 50 Victor quarter circle. 1 No. 65 Victor wrestling machine. 1 No, 400 Victor sculling machine. 1 No. 8 D Victor paddle machine. 2 pairs No. 125 swinging rings. 7 No. 126 traveling rings. 1 Laflmg rowing machine. 1 No. 29 batteau board. 1 No. 0 vaulting horse. 576 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. For a High School. — Continued. 1 No. O B vaulting buck. 1 McCaffery striking bag and disk. 1 No. 70 horizontal bar. 1 No. 76 A horizontal bar. 2 No. 79 parallel bars. 1 No. 82 suspended parallel. 1 set No. 104 breast bars. 1 24-foot horizontal ladder. 1 No. 97 climbing rope. 1 No. 93 rope ladder. 2 No. 96 climbing poles. 1 No. 109 vaulting standards. 1 No. 25 leaping board (for vaulting horse). 1 No. 27 incline board (for traveling | rings). 1 pole vaulting board. The above apparatus will be delivered f. 4 No. 101 B mattresses (4 by 6 feet). 2 No. 103 B mattresses (5 by 10 feet). 1 all-hair tumbling mat. (5 by 15 feet). 1 abdominal mat. 1 rubber “take-o'ff” mat (3 by 5 feet). 2 rubber jumping mat (30 by 3.feet). 2 No. 114 vaulting poles. 1 No. 1 medicine balls. 1 16-pound indoor shot. 2 head harness. 100 pairs 2-pound Indian clubs. 25 pairs 3-pound Indian clubs. 100 pairs 1-pound wooden dumb-bells. 6 dozen bar balls. | 100 sections Indian-club, dumb-bell, and ! bar-ball holders. . o. b.; Philadelphia, for $1,315. From the Schumacher Gymnasium Company, Akron, Ohio. Regarding the requirements of the gymnasium and the possibility of adapting rooms designed for other purposes to gymnasiums, it might be said that any room is better than none. Almost any room may be made valuable as a gymnasium, but its value will always be proportionate to its advantages; that is, the more desirable features it possesses the more benefit may be derived from it. By desirable features we mean first, light, ventilation, facilities for controlling the temperature, etc. ; second, appropriate design ; third, accessibility. The same sanitary rules apply here that apply in other schoolrooms, bearing in mind, however, that increased respiration and perspiration demand a greater supply of fresh air and a more frequent complete change of atmosphere. The walls may be of wood, stone, or brick, but it is preferable that they be of wood, and if not sheathed entirely a desirable arrangement is to have them sheathed from the floor to a height of about 5 feet, being finished at the top with a neat molded board 6 to 8 inches wide, which should be placed so that its center shall be at a height of 5 feet from the floor, as all wall machines will require an attaching- point at that height. The “wall beard” at a height of 5 feet is almost a positive requirement, unless the room be full sheathed, and even then is not out of i3lace. A “ base board,” say 8 inches deep and three-quarters of an inch thick at the floor line, is also desirable, but not necessary. The windows are preferably placed high up from the floor. For heating, steam is entirely suitable, and in school buildings is usually avail¬ able. Where possible to avoid, however, do not have radiators on the floor; have coils of pipe around the room, high up from the floor, immediately under the running gallery, if there is one. The heat will then be better distributed, pupils working at wall machines will not be exposed to direct heat, and there will be no wall space occupied, as is the case where radiators are used. If, however, radiators are pre¬ ferred, have them placed high up on the wall on brackets, say 6 feet from the floor, and thus as nearly as possible approach the arrangement suggested. The ceiling should be of good height where it can be had, and where hanging, swinging, and flying apparatus is to be used, as in schools for older pupils, the ceil¬ ing should be 16, 18, or even 20 feet high. No finish is required overhead, except such as maybe desired for appearances, and in a gymnasium bare beams are entirely appropriate and afford excellent points of attachment for overhead apparatus. Of course, if a building might be constructed for a gymnasium, there are several PHYSICAL TRAINING. 577 desirable features that might be introduced, adapting it to its purpose and with proportionately increased results. If the room is of generous size and a running track maj be introduced, much will be added to the value of the gymnasium. Such a track is best laid on a raised gallery, preferably hung by iron rods from the beams overhead or supported on brackets from the wall; posts or pillars from the floor should be avoided as much as possible. The gallery should be from 4-J to 6 feet in width and about 10 feet from the floor, it should have curves of large radii at the corners and in fact if convenient, might be semicircular at the ends, but never less than 8 feet radius. Again, if we may dwell on ideal construction, and the building may be supposed to have been constructed expressly for a gymnasium, there should* be bathing facil¬ ities and locker rooms, which are best placed immediately under the gymnasium floor. They will not require a great ceiling height, but should be as well heated and ventilated as the gymnasium proper and require besides an effective system of drain¬ age. In many schools an assembly hall is provided for general school exercises and in some cases provisions made for visitors. A gymnasium could be easily designed that would be complete as a gymnasium and yet serve as a hall for the other school work and might have a gallery for a running track and an extension back of the track for visitors, with a physical director’s and an examination room below on the main floor and a platform for the physical director near his room. In case of commencement or other public exhibition the visitors may use the whole gallery as well as the floor, and the director’s room become a dressing room and his platform serves the speakers. But with the present outlook, baths, locker rooms, director’s and examination rooms, and perhaps even the examination itself must be omitted and the most good be gotten out of existing circumstances. As to equipment, it is safe to say that the basis of the outfit (if it extends at all beyond dumb-bells and wands) must be the chest weight which not only provides exercise for almost all the muscles of the body and an infinite variety of movements, but is so completely under control and is so readily adapted to all classes and all degrees of strength, that injury or even failure to benefit is almost impossible. Of the chest weights, therefore, we advise ample supply and a few special forms of pulley weights for particular groups of muscles; as the intercostal, the name of which indicates the muscles reached; the quarter circle, an excellent device for raising the front chest walls, developing the abdominal muscles and correcting stooping shoulders; as is also the pectoral machine, which is desirable for pupils who bend greatly over their work. A chest weight, having a “floor attachment” and known as a back and loin machine, provides work for those parts and is readily convertible into a regular chest weight, or one or more may be added. A neat attachment, called a “neck strap,” is manufactured by us, and may be instantly attached to any chest- weight handle, making a complete neck machine for exercising the muscles of the neck and upper back ; there may be a number of these straps ; they do not in any way interfere with the use of the chest weight, as they may be as quickly removed as attached. A wrist roll will provide exercise for the forearm and wrist, and is preferably operated by friction and arranged to be adjusted to different powers. A finger machine, operated by an adjustable spring and provided with a roller finger bar, develops the muscles of the fingers and forearm, relieves cramped hands, and renders stiff fingers supple. The foregoing machines may be arranged around the walls, all requiring wall attachment; the arrangement will vary with the design of the room, but it will be well to keep apparatus of one kind or class as much as possible together, for con¬ venience in operating as well as for symmetrical appearance. ED 92 - 37 578 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Note here that chest weights should, he placed 6 feet apart in order to permit extended-arm movements. The above-named pieces are desirable and advisable in schools of all ages, and the list contains nothing, that is injurious to a growing child or is liable to misuse tending to be otherwise than beneficial. It is all compact, occupying space close to the wall; and, together with a complement of dumb-bells, wands, and, perhaps, wooden rings, might provide an acceptable list for the younger classes, having sufficient variety to gain and hold the interest and attention of the pupil. The pieces mentioned may be merely added to for older pupils, as almost all of them are capable of immediate adjustment to greater power, and more difficult or more vigorous work on the other pieces will adapt them to the increased strength and endurance of advanced pupils. The dumb-bells need not necessarily be increased in weight, those weighing from 1 to 2 pounds will be sufficiently heavy for the entire school course. In the high schools, however, as both muscular power and muscular control are increased, Indian clubs may be introduced, the use of which not only develops muscle and adds grace, but, by the rhythmic beat of the circles, teaches physical judgment perhaps as well as any of the lighter apparatus. There should be a sufficient number of clubs and bells provided to supply the largest class that is to be handled, and hooks and hangers will be required in which they should be kept when not in use. For the older classes we would also advise the introduction of some of the heavier pieces requiring the support and control of the body by the arms, on which class of apparatus the weight of the body is the resistance to be overcome by the muscles. This class of apparatus is especially valuable for instinctively teaching muscular control, physical judgment, and physical courage, all of which are of such great advantage to the pupil in later years. Chief among apparatus of the latter class is the regular parallel bars, a piece which provides a great variety of movements calculated to produce agility and grace of movement in addition to the above-mentioned acquirements. The work on the parallel bars should be vigorous but not violent, although the strain is almost wholly on the groups of heavier muscles. Mats should be provided for use with these bars to prevent injury to feet and ankles by alighting on the hard floor. The bars are well adapted for class work on the 11 follow my leader” principle and are in circuit with the vaulting bar, vaulting horse, and traveling or flying rings. If necessary the class may be divided into u squads,” each squad to be under the leadership of some more advanced or more proficient scholar who is careful and will command conscientious work on the part of the members of his squad, tho director overseeing the whole and having the plan of work laid out and adapted to the class. The vaulting bar as mentioned might well be a part of the outfit, and as it is adjustable in height, it may be used as one of the introductory pieces to the heavier apparatus. A large number of trunk movements are possible on this bar besides those of direct vaulting and it is considered indispensable in most gymnasia. The breast bars are also much used and are entirely practicable in a school gym¬ nasium. They are useful for deepening the chest and they also reach the muscles of the back and arms in connection with a u brick or foot block ” and a strap (breast bar or abdominal strap) encircling the two bars. Good back and loin work may be done with or without dumb bells in the hands. As to arrangement, they are pref¬ erably run to the ceiling, if not too high, or under the gallery, if there is one, but they may be braced out from the wall or run across a corner; one pair is probably sufficient, although two pairs give three spaces. For hanging or swinging apparatus, first comes the flying rings, the exercise on which is of a recreative character and is excellent for the intercostal muscles and raising the side wall of the chest. Other hanging apparatus should be traveling rings, a rope ladder, a knotted rope or rosary, and a climbing rope (smooth), and in this connection we would advise, as PHYSICAL TRAINING. 579 adapted to the older classes and requiring less exertion in climbing, the peg pole, not the old wooden post with the slipplery wooden pegs,* but the new device, which has overcome all the difficulties previously experienced and removed all objection to this valuable apparatus. The rope ladder is next, perhaps, and may be even used before the peg poles, as it allows the climber to use the feet as well as the hands. It is a preparatory piece, entirely safe, and teaches confidence to the pupil who is unused to being off the floor. The rosary is a heavy manila rope 4 inches in circumference, on which at intervals of about 8 inches are arranged sewn-in knots of smaller braided cord, forming hold¬ ing points for the hands. These knots should be sewn through the rope and not tied in or around it. The climbing rope is identical with the rosary, with the exception that it is per¬ fectly smooth and has no knots. It is of four-stranded 4-inch manila. The opera¬ tion of climbing is more severe on this rope, as the hand must grasp the smooth rope and no vantage points are provided. One each of these climbing pieces will be all that is required, and with an adjust¬ able ladder and perhaps a giant stride will constitute the hanging apparatus, although, of course, there are numerous other pieces of this class, some of which might be introduced in the school. The giant stride is essentially a school piece, and may be used by the girls as well as the boys. It consists of four (or more) ropes carrying handles or rings, as desired, suspended from the ceiling by a swiveled head or plate. In operation, as many boys or girls as there are handles or rings grasp them and, running in a circle, are swung up by centrifugal force, being kept up by the vigorous pushings of the first one to touch the floor. It is enjoyable, exhilarating, and beneficial, and practically free from danger. The adjustable ladder is a most valuable piece and your physical director will make excellent use of it. Among the heavy floor or portable pieces the most desirable is the vaulting horse, on which several hundred distinct and recognized movements are made and which is considered indispensable in a complete gymnasium if a thorough course is to be given ; it consists in simple form, of a padded body supported on legs, and has from this been developed into one of the cleverest and most complete devices used in the gymnasium. Aleaping board and, perhaps, a pair of jumping stands would complete a very fair outfit for a high school, for while there is a practically unlimited variety of pieces, all of them may not be advantageously used in the public school, especially if the pupil must exercise without proper gymnasium costume. We would mention here that it would be well to cause each member of the class to have foT gymnasium use a pair of soft-soled shoes, both for the preservation of the apparatus and for the freedom allowed the feet, which is denied them by the stiff-soled street shoes. Much of the foregoing, of course, is based on the ideal school gymnasium, and while practicable and desirable, may not be attainable; in fact it is probable that much of the school gymnasium work will be of a very simple order for the present, and until the public is educated to a knowledge of its value. A list of apparatus for a grammar school. 40 pair dumb-bells, 1 pound, with hooks. 10 pair dumb-bells, 2 pounds, with hooks. 4 dozen wands or bar bells, with hooks. 20 pair triple (glued) rings. 10 to 15 Boston chest weights No. 1. 2 or 3 Boston chest weights No. 2. 1 giant or intercostal, or both. 1 quarter circle or pectoral machine. 1 dozen neck straps. 1 wrist roll. 1 finger machine. 1 pair breast bars. 1 pair parallel bars, or a traveling par¬ allel. 1 vaulting bar, or a combination vault¬ ing and horizontal bar. j 1 giant stride. | 1 pair flying rings. 2 mattresses 5 by 8 feet by 2 inches. 580 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Such an outfit would cost about $250, a be done for the pupil at that stage. To the above list add, for a high school 1 “Universal” combination pulley weight. 5 traveling rings. 1 pair peg poles. 1 adjustable ladder. 1 adjustable vaulting horse. These additional pieces would cost a a very good high-school gymnasium. would be capable of doing all that may 1 climbing rope. 1 rosary. 1 pair jump stands. 1 mattress 5 by 10 feet by 2 inches. 1 mattress 5 by 8 feet by 2 inches. j $150, and with them all you would have Table 1. — Summary of statistics of physical training in cities which have regular systems and employ specialists, (a) State. | Number of cities. Number of cities employing the several systems of gymnastics. Number of specialists in physical training. Number of cities— | Number of school gymnasiums. J 1 Number of cities which employ military drill. Exercises accompanied by music. Number of cities which provide ample playgrounds. German. a .00 'S * U1 6 a GO A J Combination or eclectic. Other systems (or not reported). Male. Female. Total. Which employ no ap¬ paratus. Which have regularly equipped gymnasiums. >5 l fee ® A In part. u <£> 0 5 o fee © d c3 3 a o "Wands, hells, clubs, higher grades. None. None yet . Wands and hells, sixth to eighth grades. Dumb-bells, high school. Clubs, wands, rings, and bells, higher grades. Dumb-bells, fifth and sixth grades; clubs, seventh and eighth. Dumb-bells, wands, and Indian clubs. Wands, fifth and sixth; wands and bells, seventh and eighth. Wands, bells, clubs, etc. Swedish apparatus in two high schools. Kings, boms, etc., high school. None . Dumb-bells, higher primary and gram¬ mar; wands and clubs, high and grammar. None . Dumb-bells, wands, etc.: high and grammar. None yet . Clubs, hoops, and wands, high school. None . None yet . None . None. None. ’5c oj © K- * o? 00 lO 0 | Fair . . t 30 min — 0 Tes. . . 30 min - 0 I . ! 30 min _ 2 ! Tes. . . ! 25-30 min . 0 j Yes b . 0 j Yes-. 20 min 30 min 0 i Yes. .do Yes. Yes. 0 i Yes. 0 No... 30 min _ I Yes... I 40 min _ No. . . Yes. . Yes. . Yes. . Yes. . Yes . . Yes. . Yes. . Yes. . . Fair . . Yes. . . No. . . . Gener¬ ally. e 10 min _ / 35 min. 30 min 20 min None, ex¬ cept in primary. 25 min (h) 20-30 min ....do .... 15 min . . . . e2G min... None . None . 30 min Are the exercises accompa¬ nied by music? Time given to gym¬ nastics. ra ° © ^ © is H 03 © a Number of les¬ sons per week. ■ Length of each lesson. 11 12 13 14 j Sometimes . - ° i 1 5-12 min . . . J Sometimes . . 5 J 10-20 min . . J Occasionally! 10 1 5 min . Yes . . | 5 1-2 l 4-5 1 40 min . 5 min . 1 5 Yes 10 10 min . Occasionally i 5-10 | 7-15 min _ No . . 2 30 min . No . High school. When prac- j 4. 15—25 min . . . ticable. Occasionally; 2-5 10-20 min ...| Yes . No . 5-10 1 lO-^O min _ | No . e 1 hour a week. ... I High schools ! /li hours a week. i r/ 2 hours aweek. No . 2-3 | J-l hour . . . do No . 5 10 min . | In high 5 ! 15-20 min . . . school. No . j 20 min . Yes . (h) (h) High school. g 1-2 g £-1 hour. Iso . . 5 _ _ do . Seldom . . 5 I 20 min . . . . do . No . 5 ! _ do _ No . No . fa 1 fg 1 hour . . . e 2 e £hour. No . 5 20 min High school. No . 5 10 min . eln primary schools. /In grammar schools. <7 In high schools. bin the grammar schools If hours and in the primary schools 3£ hours are devoted to “ physical, exercises and recesses.” 586 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 3. — Statistics of physical training in cities which have professedly 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 City. Director of physical training. Date of introduction. Male. sraf.B*. ">er of cial ers of sical ling. -2 g PR System employed. 1 3 4 5 6 MICHIGAN. 1890 0 1 1891 0 1 Elec tic . E. E. Lazelle . *1 . 1891 1 0 Sault de Ste. Marie . . . Miss Adale Sanders . 1892 0 1 Swedish, modified .... MINNESOTA. Duluth . 1891 1 0 German . MISSOURI. 1891 0 1 Delsarte 1892 0 1 German _ 1885 1 0 . do . St. Joseph . Eitz Stoesser . . 1887 1 0 . do . St. Louis _ _ _ George Wltticli cl890 7 I i . do . NEBRASKA. Beatrice . . . . Ida A. Tew 1890 0 1 German (Beiz) _ Omaha . - . Henry Kummerow 1885 1 0 German . . . . % NEW HAMPSHIRE. Concord . Bertha L. Colburn . 1891 0 1 Boston School of Ora¬ tory. NEW YORK. Albion . . Harriett C. Paul . 1892 0 1 Emersonian . . . Buffalo . . . A della, E_ Bay _ _ _ 1892 0 1 Swedish . Blushing . Catherine B. Peck _ _ 1891 0 1 Combination . Jamestown . Miss Buth C. Tousley . 1872 0 Dio Lewis, modified .. Saratoga Springs . Abbie W. Sullivan . 1892 0 1 Swedish . . NORTH CAROLINA. Asheville . . . Miss Annie Allison .......... 1892 0 1 Swedish and Dio Lewis Goldsboro . Miss Marianna Cobb 1892 o 1 Swedish . . OHIO. j Akron ...... _ ..... 1892 Combination of several Canton _ Adolf Biedel . . . 1888 1 0 German . Cleveland . . . o 2 Columbus . Anton Leibold . 1892 1 0 German- American _ Davton . Bobert Xohr . 1892 1 0 “ Calisthenics ” . Iron ton . Miss Sarah Bogers. . 1892 0 1 Combination of Swe¬ dish and Delsarte. Tiffin 1892 1 0 German . Xenia . :...| Miss Jean B. Elwell . 1892 0 1 Combination . . . i - a When military drill is given, it is to he understood that the usual guns and accouterments are used, without special mention in this column. b In primary grades only. PHYSICAL TRAINING, 587 introduced a regular system, under the care of a specialist— Continued. Apparatus used in class exercises, and grades in which it is employed, a Number of school buildings provided with gymnasia. Are ample play grounds pro¬ vided? Time per day given to re¬ cesses. Are the exercises accompa¬ nied by music? Time given to gym¬ nastics. If military drill is employed, from what grades are the pupils taken ? Number of les¬ sons per week. Length of each lesson. 7 8 9 10 if 12 S3 14 0 Y es . 10 10 min . . . _ 0 Sometimes. . 5 15 min . 1 Yes. . . In higher 5 _ do . grades. grades. 1 Yes . . 5 10 min _ 4th grade up. to eighth. 0 No . 4 15 min . 0 Fair . . In part .... 1 Yes... Sometimes . . 5 15 min . heavy stationary apparatus. None o No.... Sometimes . . 5 10-15 min None . 0 Yes. . . 20-45 min . When prac¬ 10 min . ticable. Clubs ; high school _ 0 Yes _ 6 20 min.... In part . 2-5 10-25 min. . . 1 Yes... ! 20 min. . . . Sometimes. . 5 10-15 min. Yes... 25 min. . . . Yes 1 30 min . . None . o Yes. . . 25 min.... Yes o 20 min None . 0 Yes. . . 20 min. . . . No... 1 10—20 min Bells, clubs, chest 1 15 min. . . . Sometimes . . 5 20-30 min weights. Wands and rings, sev¬ 1 No.... 620 min. . . . Yes; in the 3-10 3-20 min _ High school. enth, eighth and g y mna- ninth; clubs, bells, sium . etc., tenth to thir¬ teenth. None . 1 Yes. . . None . No . 5-10 10 min _ _ _ _ Wands, bells, rings, 0 Yes _ 30 min .... Sometimes . . 3-5 15-20 min... clubs, etc.; higher grades. 0 Yes. . . 40 min .... No . 5 10-15 min. . Ordinary light gym¬ 0 Yes. . . 20-25 min . Sometimes . . 5 10-20 min. . . nastic apparatus. None yet . 0 Yes... d30min .... No . 1-5 10-30 min. . . None yet . 0 Yes _ 15 min .... Generally not. None . 10 5 min W ands . . 0 Yes _ 30 min. . . . No . 15 10 min High school . 0 Yes. . . 40 mm. . . . Sometimes 5 5—1 0 TPin fin None . 0 Yes. .. 30 min .... Not yet . 5 10-15 min . . . 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 c Calisthenics have been practiced for thirty years. d None in the highest grammar grade and high school 588 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 3. — Statistics of physical training in cities which have professedly City. Director of physical training. Date of introdution. 1 Numl spe< teach phyi trail 13 s ber of fial ers of sical ling. 22 '3 © rfH System employed. 1 2 3 4 5 6 PENNSYLVANIA. 75 Erie . 1890 1 j 0 1 German (Betz) _ _ _ 76 Huntingdon . Ellen Phoenix . 1891 0, 1 | Emersonian . 77 Lancaster Carl Zens . . . 1891 1 ! o I Gronm# n KHODE ISLAND. ! 78 Pawtucket _ _ _ . _ 1891 0 1 Swedish WASHINGTON. . 79 Seattle . | Miss Anna Lee Goodrell . 1891 0 i 1 Modification of Del- sarte and Swedish. 80 & Miss Lulu S. Lamson . 1891 o 1 Swedish 81 Walla Walla Mrs. Minnie Conn . . . . [ 1892 o 1 Boston School of Ora¬ tory, etc. WISCONSIN. 82 Menomonie . Miss Margaret Mitchell . 1892 0 1 Anderson . 83 Milwaukee 1877 4 0 German . . . 84 Oshkosh : Henry Leemhuis . . . 1892 1 o .do I J 1 I a When military drill is given, it is to be understood that the usual guns and accouterments are used, without special mention in this column. PHYSICAL TRAINING. 589 introduced a regular system, under the care of a specialist — Continued. Apparatus used in class exercises, and grades in which it is employed, a Number of school buildings provided with gymnasia. Are ample play grounds pro¬ vided? Time per day given to re- cesses. Are the exercises accompa¬ nied by music? Time given to gym¬ nastics. If military drill is employed, from what grades are the pupils taken? Number of les¬ sons per week. C C o GO CO tt tr* 23 7 § 9 JO 11 IS 13 14 IV and a . . . 0 Yes . - . 35 min . . . . Occasionally 5-10 min .... None . . . 0 Yes . . . 25 min _ _ Yes . 3-5 10-15 min .. . Ordinary gymnasium 1 Yes. . . 30 min No . 5 b 1 h hours . . . equipment, li i g h school. None . - . o Yes . . . c None .... No . Ttings, wands, dumb¬ (d) Yes... 1 ' None _ 1 When prac¬ 5 1 20 min . 1 High school. bells, in grammar ticable. grades. None . o Yes. None .... No . . Wands and dumb¬ 1 Yes. . . 10 min .... Yes . 2-3 15-50 min bells. None yet . o Yes . . . 40 min .... Y es _ Dumb-bells and In¬ o Eair . . 30 min .... When prac¬ 10 10 min _ dian clubs, sixth, ticable. . seventh, and eighth. None yet . 0 Yes . . . 30 min .... No . 1 15 min ... _ I b In high, school. d All new buildings are to he so provided. c Except in lowest grades. Table 4, — Statistics of physical training in cities which employ no specialist, hut ivhich require regular instruction hy class teachers. 590 EDUCATION REPOET, 1891-92. ^ o <£ © ©a eg © « j^bCft HI? p.p © •£ > § MO aa § y>=s « .9 • p p •S p ’ * ■ ' ■ p : ; : ip> a a a S’S ' p p p »n *“• m T? *r! min [) mi U.a ;r§sae r|«W00 0 iNiONnCJ a°§^- O O OIOIOIO H (M — ^ o A a a O lO fti> ® §■&§ •3 !>>£ HrS O ft SS'p fs?!3 iagg % Mft p ; 'ip § i o o Pi p p p p a-oss a a > o o © t* £ o © © 5g © © © © P P a a p : p 9 p © © © "BlS'BtT -uiAS qjiA pepiAoad egqipXiriq jo jagging © te m ^ 2 0 m mr* a © ct ,P £2 ft bo ft <1 ■+3 M j3 o ■© a a % a ® P s 'p 'p ,3 s? a jp ^ p a- © p' 6Q a '© © _a +3 ■ .a ,2'3 R © © © © © S © P P R P'S ® o o o 0,3 o 'p P p © « fe © © © r S p p a p OlT p o o o 1- m -a O Si S o :•? noijonpojjui; jooj'bq; fi* .^d • © 11 m O p-1 i-5 O a .3 o' P £ © ce ®.3lS © pqoPWWP > © 'p c2 9 =*H H, £-0 g § oO © p © cspj © bO© P‘P P ©!p O O O £ 1 • 05 > o © 1 Yes . Yes. . Generally. Yes . © O O -©-©■©© o © o © © r-H © © © © © © © © 1-1 o ^ g § «®«)h rt rt I III"!! & _ be '3 ^ +s 'fl ® a ja © © £ £ m m £ « £ co g Ig. £ £ «2 02 r-H * © fe ® PcoP • s fe 03 2 .o a "3 P 03 2 a ’ts IPW a 3^2 C3 if 03 0 bp -r a a> 3 cS =§ ggP ooPP o fee p,p^rt § g^OP ^PoQ 73 lO CO CO CO Table 4. — Statistics of physical training in cities which employ no specialist, hut which require regular instruction by class teachers — Continued. 592 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. ® £ © < ‘C £ « ' -*-1 rtl a all a a.2 3 O a ® 2 -3 03 O a >> bC O ^ 1 3 II a ® a H a a a a t> in a • : a : a as|.aa .si.a Isla* a«a®fa a a .9 a T3 CO a © § !z ® * & ® 03 a > ® | «§ fl >-.e S-3S & ^ ® 1* §3 1) ftp A •blsbh - caAS qjm paptAoad eStnpjmq jo aaqamx; a a"'" H & ®-a ®-a © a a a a ^►SovS© © © ©©<©<©©© t>H £ t* (* f* o o o o o & g gi ® © 05 ce 4^ li 'daa ® fe a g a 'H a a -g ® a >« b a 5 H P< be «« <© o r© 43 «S © “J ® a £ Ph -s & rO S3 a o P6 6P P a a a a o o o a 6fc6P 1 aJ ® O I* a aPJ fl > O p. a a ® “.a be a a1® ® a a ® © o--< OOWi-^M be. '3 a ® a-® 'C -® 'o a a^oo OPhPP a ) ® •a .a co ® PHYSICAL TRAINING. 593 10-12 min . 15-20 min . 5 min . 10 min .... ...do . 5-7 min . . . 5 min . 20 min .... 10 min .... 15 min .... 10 min ....i 5 min . 15-30 min . 3-10 min . . 10 min .... 10 min .... 5-15 min . . 10 min .... . . .do . lO O LO o m ooio o lo to lo o m o ci oic c o & lO lA 0-25 min . . None . 15 min .... c 20 min . . 20 min .... None . 15 min .... None . 30 min . - . . 30 min .... I 20 min _ 40 min .... 55 min .... 30 min .... None . cNone .... 20 min .... 25 min .... cs ® ® ® HHHH 1 o © o o © HHHO ® ® HH H H HO ® ® HH a a a SOS OHO 5 o S O OH as OH .q ■i*s ® +i S'S ® ^§I .5 s 2 ; a ,5 tx) o o HH S 05 ® o rS V3 Q 'tg'ci o ■JwSS | q q.® •5 es q ^ g § §02 o ® ® ® OOOO fl h ■ d q o s-s .20 £ ® ® i_ .2® OO 0 0 AA K s s ^ >2 «* ^ -2 ’o 0 .5 S OPhOO r-, w ® 1 « bfl Ih S .2-° ss g a .5 q b OSxib. OOodH a* Ot» ED 92- -38 a Gymnasia have been ordered for all buildings. eln lower grades. e Thirty minutes in the smaller buildings. & For primary schools. d As often as the school needs it 594 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table 5. — List of 108 cities in which physical exercises are practiced at the discretion of the teachers, hut without special supervision or effective regulations to make the training systematic. [This list is undoubtedly incomplete. Many superintendents did not consider such exercises worthy of special mention.] NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION. New Hampshire. — Keene, Nashua, Portsmouth. Massachusetts. — Hyde Park, Newhuryport, North Adams, Northampton, Spencer, Taunton. - Rhode Island. — Providence. Connecticut. — Bristol, Middletown, New Britain, New Haven, Norwalk, Willi- mantic. New York. — Auburn, New Brighton, Amsterdam, Brooklyn, Elmira, Fulton, Glens Falls, Hoosick Falls, Hornellsville, Ilion, Ithaca, Lyons, Medina, New York (regu¬ larly introduced in 6 schools), Oneonta, Peekskill, Seneca Falls, Syracuse, Troy, Utica. New Jersey. — Jersey City, Salem, Bayonne, Elizabeth, Newark, Plainfield, South Amboy. Pennsylvania. — Allegheny, Archbald, Ashland, Bradford, Bristol, Butler, Dubois, Harrisburg, Hazleton, Mahanoy, Mount Carmel, Norristown, Reading, Washing¬ ton. SOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION. Delaware. — Wilmington. Maryland. — Frederick. Virginia. — Petersburg, Richmond. Georgia. — Macon. Florida. — Pensacola. SOUTH CENTRAL DIVISION Tennessee. — Johnson City. Mississippi. — Columbus, Vicksburg. Louisiana. — Shreveport. Texas. — Austin, Corsicana, Dallas, Temple, Waco. NORTH CENTRAL DIVISION. Ohio. — Fostoria, Lorain, Marietta, Mount Vernon, Nelsonville, Toledo, Youngs¬ town. . Indiana. — Frankfort, Hammond, Lafayette, Muncie. Illinois. — Charleston, Decatur, Evanston, Paris, Springfield. Michigan. — Battle Creek, Flint, Grand Haven, Grand Rapids, Ionia, Manistee, Muskegon, Winona. Wisconsin. — Baraboo, Berlin, Eau Claire, Whitewater. Iowa. — Dubuque, Lyons, Marshalltown. Missouri. — Carthage, Marshall. Nebraska. — Grand Island, South Omaha. Kansas. — Hutchinson, Parsons. WESTERN DIVISION. Utah. — Ogden. Oregon. — Salem. California. — Pasadena, Riverside. CHAPTER XI Y. THE AGE OF WITHDRAWAL FROM THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS.1 [In determining to what extent the public schools are utilized, or how many years each child attends school, it becomes important to know the average age of withdrawal, or time of leaving school. Attention was called to prevailing misconceptions on the subject in the St. Louis school report of 1878-79, and a method, devised by Prof. C. M. Wood¬ ward, was there given for computing the average age of pupils at the time of leaving school. In order to bring this method more' fully to the notice of the public it has been deemed advisable to reproduce it here.] In considering the question of the usefulness of public schools, as well as in discussing the propriety of admitting pupils at an early age, it is the custom to have recourse to the statistics of the ages of those enrolled. These statistics show the number who attend school at each age. Nothing seems simpler than to determine from this the average time of leaving school. u If 9 years and 4 months is the average age of those in attendance on school, it shows that the average age of leaving school is less than 10 years.” Yet this is wholly fallacious, as will appear from the following consideration : If the course of study in a school lasted for twelve years, and the classes continued throughout the entire course without change of individuals, or diminution in num¬ bers, or loss of grade or rank, an equal number entering every year in the first j ear’s course, would give, in the course of twelve years, an equal number of pupils in each class, from the highest to the lowest. There would be, say 50 pupils in each grade or year’s work, and 600 in the whole school. Supposing the pupils to enter at 6 years and graduate at 18 years, there would be 50 pupils at 6 years, 50 pupils at 7 years, etc., and the average of the entire school would be 12 years of age ,• and yet from this it is clear that we could not infer that the average pupil leaves at 12 years, because each and every one continues until he is 18 years of age. It is clear that this average age is found only by comparing the number of pupils in the graduating class with the same class when it entered. If it entered with 100 and graduated with 100, the course of study of each and every one in the class averages twelve years, and the average pupil of that class will get the twelve years’ schooling. If Ihe class enters with 240, and graduates with 20, losing one-twelfth each year, it will follow that the twelve years apiece which the 20 get, will, if averaged, give the whole 240 each one year. The eleven years which the next 20 get will give the 240 el even- twelfths of a year, etc. The average amount of schooling would be six and one-half years, and the 1From the St. Louis school report, 1878-’79, W. T. Harris, superintendent. 595 596 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. average age of leaving school (if entered at 6) would he 12£ years, although the table of ages of a school of 1,560 pupils, arranged accord¬ ing to the supposed scale, would give only one and three-tenths per centum in the senior class, and only two and six-tenths per centum in the class next to the senior class ; and under such circumstances some would-be economical reformer might use this argument against the high school department (which would include the last four years of this twelve-year course), and say: u Less than 2 pupils in a hundred ever graduate from the high school $ it is for the few only ; it is a rich man’s institution,” etc., and yet of the class of 240 who entered, there were 20 left, or 1 in 12 — 8^ in 100 instead of 1.3. Hence, we may infer * * * on comparison of those of 14 years of age (4 per centum) with those at 8 years (12 per centum), that at least one-third of those at 8 years of age remain in school until they are 14 years of age. But the city is increasing in population rap¬ idly, both by immigration and by the birthrate. The latter item con¬ tinues to give us larger numbers of pupils in the primary grades. A reliable estimate must take into account all those items of fluctuation — birthrate, death rate among children, access and depletion from migra¬ tion at different ages, etc. This topic is so important that I make a long extract from an exhaust¬ ive article treating the subject, which appeared in the American Journal of Education (published by J. B. Merwin), St. Louis, May, 1879 (omitting the algebraic table [No. II], in which Prof. Woodward has generalized his results and given a general formula for obtaining the average age at which school children leave school) : AT WHAT AGE DO PUPILS WITHDRAW FROM THE ST. LOUIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 1. Before attempting to answer this question, I desire to call attention to the obvious importance of a correct answer. The best planned course of study takes into con¬ sideration both the probable duration of a school course and the age of the pupils. The direct bearing of this question is seen in the fact that an estimated average length of the period of pupilage is frequently made the basis of arguments for or against some proposed modification of the course of study, or some other detail of school management. 2. I use the word “ withdraw ” in this paper in a somewhat restricted sense, and as properly excluding the effect of mortality among school children; that is to say, I exclude from among the number of those who can with propriety be said to “ with¬ draw from school” those whose school course is cut short by death. Fortunately, this allowance in St. Louis is small, but it is not on that account to be ignored. The propriety of omitting those who die, from my calculations, can not be seriously questioned. The practical inquiry is : At what ago do pupils leave school to enter upon the active duties of life? and it should not be complicated with the very dif¬ ferent question of the age at which pupils die without completing the course of study contemplated. Though nearly one-half of all the children born in this city die without reaching the age of 5 years, we plan for each newcomer on the basis of a probable long life. Again, although the average length of human life in St. Louis appears, from the recorded ages of those who die, to be less than 22 years, our sys¬ tems of education rest upon the supposition that, among other responsibilities for AGE OF WITHDRAWAL FROM PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 597 the discharge of which children must he educated, the hoys, at least, must he pre¬ pared for the duties of electors, though such duties do not come till after the age of 21. 3. The value of my results will, of course, depend upon my assumptions, as well as upon absolute data and my methods of calculation. In 1868-’69, I find that 2,917 children were registered at 8 years old. I propose to follow these 2,917 children through their career as pupils of the public schools, noting the number dropping out each year till all are gone ; then I shall find the average age at withdrawal. The annual registers of the schools contain, of course, all needed information, hut it would he an endless task to follow the pupils as they change from school to school, finally disappearing from the records altogether. I must, therefore, abstract their history from such other records as are at my command. For my data I rely almost entirely upon the annual reports of Superintendent Harris. Each of these reports gives a table of the “ number of pupils of different ages registered during the year.” With the exception of the last two or three reports the number of children “7 years and under” is given without subdivisions, and in all reports those of “16 years and over” are grouped together. I have, therefore, been obliged to begin my investigation with those who are 8 years of age. 4. I assume that in the sense in which I use the word, no child under 8 years of age in St. Louis ever “ withdraws ” from’school.1 The enrollment of names is made when the pupils enter the school, which is generally in September; the enrollment made at other times is very small, the spring registrations being mainly those of young pupils first entering school. 5. I assume that those who leave the public schools at the age of 9 years or more stop going to school altogether, though it is well known that many do attend other schools. 6. I exclude from my calculations those children who enter the public schools for the first time when 9 or more years of age. It is quite possible that the entire school period of such is greater than the average, but there are no available data on which to baso a determination. 7. I assume that one-half of those reported as “ 16 years and over” are 16, and that the other half average 17 years of age at the time of enrollment. Actual figures would perhaps show an average somewhat greater. 8. I now call attention to Table I, which needs but a few words of explanation. The figures are taken from the reports of the superintendent without change, except in the case of the report of 1872-’73, from which the suburban schools of the (old) Thirteenth ward have been omitted, and the report of 1877-’78, from which I have eliminated the 16 suburban schools, as they do not appear in former reports. The arrangement of the table is such that the pupils who were enrolled year after year, and appear in different reports under different ages, are here placed in the same column, the age of each class being given in heavy type. Three of these columns are nearly complete, headed A, B, C. I use these columns for three independent calcula¬ tions. The last two lines contain some estimates which the rest of the table will justify. 9. Let us examine column A. The report of 1868- ’69 shows the enrollment of 2,917 children during that scholastic year who were in their ninth year. Tho next year these children were all in theirtenth year and they numbered 3,161. This increase can be accounted for only by immigration of 9-year-old children, and by the enrollment 1 Some of the later reports may seem to prove this assumption to be not well founded, inasmuch as the number recorded as 8 years old may be considerably less than the number enrolled as 7 years old the previous year. In such an event, it is well to consider the spring enrollment of those who are “7 years old,” and who do not become 8 till after September, and consequently are a second time enrolled as “7 years old.” The result is the “ 7 years ” list is abnormally large. 598 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. of city children who, during the previous year, had either not attended school at all or had attended private schools. But it is not probable that all of the 2,917 returned to school in 1869-70. Some had died; some had moved from the city; some had gone to private schools; some, perhaps, had stopped going to school. Now, before we can approximate the number of those who had left, we must arrive at a fair estimate of the number of new scholars in the class. For the latter purpose we must compare classes of the same age in the two years, i. e., those of 8 years, 9 years, etc., in 1868-’69, with those of 8 years, 9 years, etc., in 1869-70. We find an average increase of 12} per cent pretty evenly distributed through all the school ages. It is therefore probable that the addition to our class under discussion was in the same ratio, or 12} per cent of 2,917, which is 373. Had no pupils left the class it would have numbered, with this increase, 2,917 +373=3,290. As the enrollment was only 3,161; it is evident that 129 must have left during or at the end of the year 1868-’69. A comparison of the classes of 1869-70 with those of the same age in 1870-71 shows a growth of 12 per cent. Twelve per cent of 3,161 is 379, which is the growth 'of the schools in the 10-year-old class. The enrollment of the year shows 3,368; hence the loss during, or at the end of, 1869-70 was 3,161+379—3,368=172. In the same way the total loss has been worked out for each of the years in column A. Unquestionably, my figures vary considerably from the facts in individual cases, but it may safely be assumed that the errors balance. The “ annual increase” is given in Table I in per cents. The growth of classes, the “possible number” (had the class suffered no loss), and the total loss are given for each year of column A, in Table II. The annual increase from 1877-’78 to 1878-79 and from 1879 to 1879-’80 has been assumed as 6 per cent. 10. Let us now consider these columns of 11 total loss.” The 129 lost the first year, column A, were all out of the original 2,917. The 3,161 of the next year contained only 2,788 old scholars and 373 new ones. Now, in the course of a year they lost 172 more. I assume that this loss was distributed among the old and new scholars in proportion to their number. This results in a loss to the original class during this second year of 152, reducing it to 2,636. In the same way I find that of the 573 lost the next year, 448 were from the original class. The seventh column in Table II gives these proportionate losses from the original class, and the eighth column gives the number of the 2,917 with whom we started, remaining in school year after year. The last division left school in June, 1878. Few of that class may be left in the high and the uormal schools, but they would only serve to show that my result is too small. Tables III and IV contain similar columns, though the intermediate columns are omitted. 11. I now come to the last correction to be applied to the annual losses, and that is the deduction of the number of those who died while they were virtually pupils of the schools. Reports show that the death rate for school children is about four per 1,000 annually. I have, therefore, assumed that each year a part of the losses are from death, and I have deducted from the loss four- thousandths of the number remaining from the original class during the previous year. The remain¬ ders are clearly the numbers “ withdrawn ” and are entered in the next column. 12. The last column contains merely the products of the number.of pupils with¬ drawing, multiplied by their age. The withdrawals do not always occur at the end of the year. I assume that, on the average, pupils withdraw six months from the beginning of the year. The average age, for example, of those registered as 10 years is 10 years and 6 months at the time of registration ; those leaving before another enrollment are, therefore, 11 years old. Thus the 117 who withdrew in 1868-’69 were 9 years old, the 141 were 10 years old, etc. 13. The average age obtained from A is 13.7 years; from B, 13.5 years ; from C 13.6 years. C. M. Woodward. Washington University, St. Louis. Table 1. — School attendance for 10 years, arranged according to ages. AGE OF WITHDRAWAL FROM PUBLIC SCHOOLS. a 5 o 5 2 « o rj r> o 2 o 5? o a P, ^ rH O 599 600 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. Table III. — Column B. Age- years . Actual Of original number. Year — pupils. Year. number, column B. Present. i Died. With¬ drawn. 1869-70 . 8 3, 357 3, 305 3, 357 2, 902 2, 889 2, 487 2, 378 1, 852 1,225 t 1870-71 . 9 13 442 3, 978 0 1871-72 . 10 a 3, 680 13 0 1872-73 . 11 3, 260 3, 247 12 390 4,290 1,188 6, 708 8, 680 8, 040 5, 264 2,176 1873-74 . 12 10 99 1874-75 . 13 2, 639 1,878 1,123 706 10 516 1875-76 . 14 7 620 1876-77 . 15 684 5 536 1877-78 . 16 352 3 329 1878-79 . 17 490 223 1 128 1879-’80 . 18 1 222 3,996 Total . 1 75 3, 282 44, 320 I (44320-^3282=13.5 years.) a This number (3,680) is so large, when compared with the numbers before and after it, that it sug¬ gests an error in the report. If treated algebraically it would give a negative withdrawal. An excep tional increase was therefore admitted. Table IV. — Column C. Actual Of original number. j 1 Year — pupils. Year. Age- years. number, column C. Present. Died. With¬ drawn. 1870-71 . 8 3,549 3, 497 3,549 3, 227 3, 125 i 1871-72 . 9 14 308 ! 2, 772 890 1872-73 . 10 3, 474 3, 190 3, 040 2. 530 13 89 1873-74 . 11 2, 744 2, 522 13 368 4, 048 1874-75 . 12 11 211 2, 532 1875-76 . 13 1,973 1, 274 10 530 7, 007 1876-77 . 14 1,735 1,105 780 8 691 9, 674 1877-78 . 15 666 5 603 9, 045 1878-79 . 16 430 3 233 3, 728 1879-’80 . 17 500 250 2 178 3,026 1880— ’81 . 18 1 249 4, 482 Total _ 80 3,469 47, 204 1 ' (47,204-^-3,469=13.6 years.) CHAPTER XV. CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. |Tn the following extracts from the reports or the St. uouis public schools, I have brought together the different discussions made from year to year, while the experiment in shortening the intervals between classes was in process of trial. In the Annual Report of this Bureau for last year the statistics from several hundred cities, and opinions from a large number of superintendents, were printed showing the status of this important question in the management of city schools. An extensive correspondence has been carried on with teachers and super¬ intendents in all parts of the country, and there has been frequent occasion to refer to the more elaborate discussion of the problems involved in the shortening of the intervals between classes as found in the reports of the St. Louis schools. Those discussions are here reprinted for convenient reference.] ADVANTAGES OF THE GRADED SYSTEM.1 By the graded system I understand that in which the course of study is carefully arranged in accordance with the natural order of succession in the several branches; lowest in the course, the most elementary studies, followed by those that rank next in complexity, and unfold directly from the preceding, each study so graded as to advance in due proportion to all the others. At a certain stage of the pupil’s progress in reading he is allowed to take up arithmetic, soon after that, geogra¬ phy, then grammar, then history. No branch of instruction is to come in before the requisite advance is made in those studies which are intro¬ ductory to it. With this careful arrangement of the course of study there is also proper classification of pupils. The gradation of the course of study makes this possible. All pupils at a certain stage of advance¬ ment in a given branch are in the same class throughout all the others. When the course of study and classification is not thus fixed, there is more or less abnormal culture going on; some pupils taking up studies without learning ihe rudimentary presuppositions; some pupils study¬ ing Latin and algebra before they know English grammar and ordi¬ nary arithmetic. The regularity and consequent simplicity introduced into the school system by gradation and classification increases the power of the teacher incalculably. Instead of infinitesimal subdivisions 1 From the St. Louis School Report of 1868-*69. By W. T. Harris. 601 602 EDUCATION REPORT, 189L-92. of bis school, amounting almost to the making of a class for each indi¬ vidual in each branch, and the consequent reduction of the teacher to the office of private tutor to each pupil, in the graded-school system a few classes comprise all the pupils of the school. The consequence is that the corps of teachers divide their labor, each taking two classes nearly of the same grade, and are able to concentrate all their energies on one point. The class can have thirty to forty minutes’ time for reci¬ tation, whereas, if unclassified, each individual could get two minutes, more or less. But the teacher trains all to the habit of close attention throughout the recitation, so that each individual not only gets his thirty minutes as certainly as though he were the sole member of the class, but he gets far more. The stimulating effect of the exhibition afforded by the struggles of his fellows is the most valuable part. He sees his fellow pupils all striving for the same goal as himself ; the les¬ sons of their failures and success give him insight into his own, and deepen indefinitely the impression made by his private study in pre¬ paring his lessons. The complete dissipation of all the energy and faculty of the teacher by the nonclassified scheme, renders him unable to produce any grand effect with his school, as a whole, and thus each pupil loses that important culture derived from mingling his individu¬ ality with that of the whole, subordinating his own caprices to the will of the community, and finding his pleasure in the effect produced by the organism of which he is a member. These advantages of the graded-school system are obvious, and the result of their discovery and application is that all celebrated schools, both public and private, are graded in accordance with this scheme. No system of schools, supervised by one head, is possible without such grading — the results of one teacher could never be compared with those of another. DISADVANTAGES OF THE GRADED SYSTEM. On the other hand, there is a defect in the graded system which, though not often named and defined by educators, is nevertheless felt by the community at large. What I refer to is not the usual objection made — u that under the system named the work of the schoolroom becomes monotonous and like a treadmill; that it serves as a kind of Procrustean bed to hold back the talented pupil, while it does not ben¬ efit his dull companion” — for this can be avoided very easily by a sys¬ tem of promotions; the pupil is stimulated and encouraged by this. The obverse side is the worst — the discouragement produced by plac¬ ing pupils in lower classes is the disastrous phase of the subject. The pupil who tries his best and then fails is deeply injured, and is apt to endeavor to preserve his self-respect by some sort of subterfuge. He accuses his teacher of partiality, it may be, or attributes the good suc¬ cess of his companions to the assistance of others. The root of all bit¬ terness is loss of self-respect; the man or child who goes about thinking CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 603 himself shut out from participation in the highest by his own natural incapacity is like one inclosed in a tomb while yet living. It is easy to see that this is the source of most of the difficulties which the graded- school system has to meet and overcome. In the first place, there is difference in capacity ; the temperaments differ; the relative mental endowments differ; tastes differ. And yet, in the graded school all are to be compared with the same standard. It is not surprising that evil consequences arise. The pupil is u sent over his course ” again and again, falling back from class to class. He becomes stolid and lifeless, and reminds one never so much of the burnt- out coal in the grate which we name a u clinker.” The teacher loses all patience: u The majority of the class can not be kept back on your account alone.” The closer the grading the better the classification is, and the fewer the “ clinkers ” developed; i. e., if the classification is made right at the beginning. For where widely different attainments meet in the same class it must needs happen that some will find the lesson that is adapted to the average of the class too easy, others will find i£ too hard. On the other hand, the severity of the teacher may contribute largely to swell the unfortunate class of pupils referred to. While severity may at times arouse latent energy, it as frequently closes up entirely that unfolding of the faculties which requires a genial, sunshiny surrounding as much as does the bloom of a plant. When municipal governments are expending large sums for infirm¬ aries and asylums, realizing the Christian humanitarian principle in the State, it is certainly inconsistent to neglect a class of pupils and allow them to make shipwreck of their educational hopes. And yet it must be confessed that a large percentum of the pupils in our graded schools, after falling behind their classes, get discouraged and go, a few to private schools, most of them into spheres of manual labor or mercantile business, and forever renounce an education that would fit them to rise to the higher walks of life. Society recognizes its duty to care specially for all who are unable to direct their own activity in the regular channels of industry. It provides for the poor, nurses the indigent sick in its hospitals, and furnishes a retreat for its insane. In order that the inducement to educate the children maybe as strong as possible for the parent, he is taxed by the laws for the support of schools, in proportion to his estate, and free schools are opened for all, rich and poor. But this is not enough. The school system must be made effective in the highest sense, and special provision must be made for weak or abnormal minds. The educational system should have in it the means of correcting any tendencies in the wrong direction. THE REMEDY — A SPECIAL SCHOOL. The evils here spoken of may be remedied only by great care on the part of the teacher as to the habits or methods of study which the pupil has. For the reason that the evil becomes serious only in those grades 604 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. as high as tlie grammar school, and is manifested chiefly in the class that passes from the district schools to the high school, it is clear that special classes should be made for such pupils. The regular class can not be kept back for them, nor will it do to degrade them to a lower. Accordingly, when the class is promoted as a whole on examination, one part can go to the high school, one part to the special school, where skillful teachers supervise and correct the habits of study, taking a slow course in the higher branches. Gradually the mental self-reliance increases, and the ability to overcome the full-length lesson is acquired. The pupil is then to be transferred to the high school. On this basis, and to test the truth of this theory, the board have, by a recent act (at the August meeting, 1869), established the u intermediate school.” Its results will furnish data on which safe future action may be based.1 Public schools have generally been noted for thoroughness. This has been claimed as their greatest merit. Certain it is that very high percentages are required of pupils before promoting them to the next higher grade in the course. It has not been sufficiently considered that there is a limit to the thoroughness desirable ; that the time consumed in securing such high standards of thoroughness would have been bet¬ ter used by the pupil in mastering higher methods. Instead of solving the problem of higher arithmetic by arithmetical methods, he could more wisely have u flanked ” them through algebra and trigonometry, and these latter studies would have opened up to him new worlds in mathematics. Instead of pursuing topographical geography to exhaust¬ ive minuteness, his time would be better employed in mastering physi¬ cal and commercial geography; and so, instead of exhausting a a com¬ pendious treatise on English grammar,” after acquiring its general out¬ lines, a few months7 study of Latin would give him the culture requisite to make a grammar for himself. This point is the most important one involved in the present discus¬ sion. To what extent should thoroughness be relied on and to what extent should the advance be made by means of higher methods'? Have not public schools held too exclusively to the former appliance, and thereby engendered the defect to which attention is here called? Private schools sometimes rely too exclusively on the latter appliance, JAt the date this report goes to press the experiment has progressed far enough to justify its establishment. Of the 80 pupils admitted, the greater number were those from the district schools- who failed to make the requisite per cent to enter the high school; some were from private schools, and had made more or less progress in the higher English branches or the languages. The result thus far has been such as to encourage the most sanguine hopes. Most were found to have had habits of study, and these have been improved surprisingly; others were good scholars, hut had not been quite long enough in the district schools to fit them for the high school. This class has saved a year’s study in the grammar schools, thus seeming to prove that the standard of perfection in the lower branches was unnecessarily high. The name “ intermediate school” is not appropriate, inasmuch as it does not convey a correct impression regarding the character of the institution. CLASSIFICATION W GRADED SCHOOLS. 605 and in that case tend to produce smatterers. The true course, it seems, should use both appliances in their due proportion, and this can be determined by experience. This due proportion will be found when no pupil is kept using a lower method of solution after he is able readily to acquire the higher one. It is clear that too much attention can not be given to the formation of correct habits of study. But the discus¬ sion of the dangerous tendencies of the graded system should not lead one to suppose for a moment that the evils balance the good; for even where they are most injurious the positive benefits of grading predom¬ inate. In fact, most of what are called the evils of graded schools result from the lack of sufficient grading rather than from too much of it. [From the St. Louis School Report of 1871-’72, by W. T. Harris, superintendent.] The high-school course is divided into four classes, the work laid down for each occupying one year in its accomplishment. The fact that each high-school class is expected to begin its work in Sep¬ tember and complete it in June indicates at once the condition of things that I have already alluded to in this report. Such a course of study is u nailed to the calendar,” and its progress is rigid and determined by the lapse of time and not by the progress of the pupil. If a pupil is sick and unable to attend school for ten weeks, he finds, on his return, that there is no class just ready to admit him. The class which he left is now ten weeks in advance of him, and to make up this work and at the same time to do the regular work of the class is too difficult. If it were possible, it would prove a superiority of individual work over work in a class. The pupil is probably obliged to enter the next class below, but this class is thirty weeks behind his present acquirements, and his ten weeks’ sickness has thus cost him a year’s progress. On entering the lower class, however, he finds him¬ self going over familiar ground and gets careless in his work. By the time his present class arrives at the work from which he was broken off* by sickness the previous year he has acquired a loose habit of study, and is likely to fail on the first difficult study that he encounters. Two failures are pretty sure to complete his discouragement and cause him to leave school. Another case: A pupil, for some reason, is not quite able at the close of the year to pass the standard for admission to the next class, and is accordingly obliged to join the class below. He is set back just one year at once. He might have lacked five weeks’ study or ten weeks’ study — scarcely more than this — of completing the work of his class. But for this he is obliged to lose nearly a year more than was really necessary. It must be remembered that these are not isolated instances, but that the number of each class who ought to be separated, for one reason or another, from the part of the class that dqes the work of the grade thoroughly, is about one-third of the entire number. In order to avoid this evil of putting back pupils, there 606 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. is a strong temptation to let them pass on at a low standard. The consequence of such a course is that each class is impeded in its work by the presence of a number who are not equal to the performance of their tasks. These evils are not confined to the classes of the high school; they extend to the higher classes of the district schools. Inasmuch as the examination for admission to the high school is to occur in June, the first grade’s work of the district school must be completed at that time, and hence must be commenced in September of each year. This fact in turn influences the time of beginning and completing the work of the second grade. The tendency of all this is to produce a system of classification throughout the entire course of the district schools similar to that in the high school. In this case classes would follow each other at intervals of a year, and the difficulty of properly assign¬ ing those who should be classified in grades between those established exists throughout the entire system. In many sections of the country — in Ohio and Hew York, for example — this very practice prevails. A promotion takes place once or twice a year, on occasion of a general written examination by the superintendent. Those who “pass ” go on; those who fail fall back to the lower class or leave school altogether. Such a system of grading and classification must be regarded as only one step above the system of unclassified schools. In our St. Louis schools the classification is so arranged in the lower grades of the dis¬ trict schools that classes follow each other at intervals of about six weeks. Should it be necessary to put back a pupil to a lower class, he finds it at just that stage of progress which will enable him to review and strengthen those portions of his course that need it. But this system allows of another advantage. As the highest class loses num¬ bers by promotion, graduation, or otherwise, its ranks are filled with the best pupils from the next lower class. The latter is again recruited by promotion of the best from the next one below it. This process is continued to the lowest class in school. After such a promotion has been made the account stands thus : Each class has sent forward perhaps one-third of its pupils (the best ones) to the next one above it, and has received the best third of the pupils from the class below. There has been no degradation of pupils. What can be said is that two-thirds of each class (including all the fair and middling scholars) were left, and a few of the foremost in rank of those below them admit¬ ted with them. Within less than a half-year’s work the studious and brilliant pupils will work up to the top of the class. There will always be differences of native power as well as of previous acquirement. Before a half a year has elapsed the two-thirds of a given class who pass for “fair and middling” scholars will be overtaken and, in some instances, surpassed by the brilliant pupils admitted from the lower class. A change of the kind I have mentioned, amounting to a readjustment of all the classes, is desirable as often as four times a year. If made, it CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 607 will entirely prevent the collection, m any one class, of the dull and incapable scholars. These, for the most part, are pupils who have not become thoroughly aroused, or, more frequently, such as have become discouraged by degradation in rank. Their defect is not primarily intellectual, but moral ; they have feeble wills. It is very rare that a pupil has so dull an intellect that he can not, if he possess a resolute will, accomplish any intellectual feat whatever by the aid of industry alone. Those who fail do so through lack of courage or of persever¬ ance. This furnishes the strongest ground of all against manipulating the system of classification in such a manner as to make those who are not promoted feel that they are degraded. By the method here described I think the minimum of discouragement is reached. Two- thirds or more of the class — enough to preserve the identity of the .class — remain after any reclassification, and, as this embraces many fair scholars, none need feel that they have been slighted. The change made has elevated the fair in rank to the highest rank in class and those who were poor to the rank of fair — at least for a time. Stimu¬ lated by this, they frequently increase in self respect and develop powers that had hitherto lain dormant. In what has been said the danger of collecting many poor pupils in the same class has been indicated. Our experiments have, I think, fully demonstrated that such a system is pernicious. Some years ago I recommended the establishment of an intermediate school for the purpose of classifying those pupils who fell short of the standard for admission to the high school, and yet who were so far advanced as to be greatly injured by setting back a year, and classifying them with pupils of '“the next grade. The experiment was continued for two years. It was found that the so-called brilliant pupils, those full of courage and resolution, even if admitted on a very low per cent* ( I admitted on trial some of this character who made only from 30 to 40 per cent), were soon able to work their way to the top of their classes and to acquit themselves creditably. But those of enfeebled wills, having lost self-confidence or having become listless through disgust were very slow in manifesting improvement. The practice of giving them short lessons was tried with some success, but a cloud hung over them and hangs over them still. (Some of them have been two years and a half in getting through one year’s work of the high school course, and are not able yet to pass their examination at the time this report goes to press, March, 1873.) I think that many of these pupils would have done better if they had been reclassified periodically, in the manner described, with fresh and ambitious pupils pushing up from below. I once compared these pupils to u clinkers,” or pieces of coal that do not readily kindle except in a very hot fire, and generally go out before all the carbon is consumed. The u clinkers ” are found in our bituminous coal, and need to be burned twice in a hot fire. These pupils, so far as they have any influence, tend to dampen the ardor of 608 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. others. Their atmosphere is contagious, and they discourage the teacher and the other pupils when they are numerous in any one class. By the plan of frequent reclassification throughout the school, from the lowest class to the highest, is prevented the collection of these unfortunate pupils in one class. But if reclassification is carried on in any of the higher schools alone the result is to sift down this demoralized element of the school into a class by itself. Hence, when¬ ever any change is made in the higher schools, a promotion of the bril¬ liant pupils should be made from the district schools to compensate. (The board changed the rule for admission to the high school in Feb¬ ruary, 1873, so as to give an opportunity for the examination of appli¬ cants for admission quarterly. This will accommodate the district schools perfectly. There may be enough classes found in the first and second grades to reduce the interval between them to one quarter. Moreover, in the high school the divisions of any one class may be separated at intervals of the same length. At least this may be done with the classes of the first and second years of the high school course.) * * * There is needed some general plan by which the course of study in our higher grades may be made more elastic, better adapted to the capacities of pupils. The constant danger of all graded systems is that they are liable to become Procrustes’ beds. Take the work laid out for any class in our schools — it should be found exactly adapted to the capacities of the average pupil of the grade. The tendency of the teacher of energy and ability is to raise this standard up to what the best pupils can do and to bring sufficient pressure upon the pupils of average or less than average ability to compel them to keep up. In many instances pupils are overworked by this process. Doubt¬ less it more frequently occurs that the teacher grades her lessons by what the poor scholars can do, and the best ones are not given enough to try their powers. In the lower grades this difficulty is not serious, for the reason that the work of reclassification goes on more actively. In the higher grades it is more serious, and there should be some modi¬ fication of the course of study by which pupils whose rank in the regu¬ lar course is above a certain per cent should have the privilege of elect¬ ing some one branch of study which they may carry on in the class above. [From the St. Louis School Report of 1871-72, by W. T. Harris, superintendent.] Whenever the sizes of the schools have been such as to admit of it, a system of classification has been introduced, and the immediate conse¬ quences have been: (a) great increase in the length of recitation ; (b) far more thoroughness in the discussion of the lesson, sifting the differ¬ ent statements, and probing the meaning of the same; (c) great stimu¬ lation of the mental activity of the pupil through trial and competition with other members of his class. These three advantages can scarcely CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 609 be overestimated. They multiply the teacher’s power just as organi¬ zation improves the strength of an army. In the unclassified system the teacher is only a private tutor, and the fewer pupils he has the bet¬ ter for each and all. In the classified system the proper quota of pupils is a potent instrument in the hands of the teacher, and he uses the whole class to correct and stimulate each one in it. The lesson, as recited and discussed by and before the class, gets all its phases stated, restated, and criticized as never could be done in the case of a single pupil with a private tutor. The presence of the class arouses the teacher to a high pitch of energy, and each individual in the class is excited by the presence of the teacher and the rest of the class. These circumstances account for the high estimation in which the graded sys¬ tem is everywhere held. So many good things have a tendency to hide some very serious defects. Such defects, already alluded to in speak¬ ing of the high school, will be discussed in a summary manner here. The tendency of all classification is to unite pupils of widely different attainments. Especially is this found in the small schools. The con¬ sequence is that the lesson is too long for some and too short for others. The best pupils in the class are not tried to the full extent of their abil¬ ity; they consequently lose in some degree the discipline which they should gain. The poorest pupils of the class are strained to the utmost. They are dragged,asit were, over the ground without having time to digest it as they should. This develops the result that the overworked pupils are frequently discouraged and drop out of the class and likely enough out of the school altogether. In large systems of schools where classification is very perfect the evil here spoken of need not occur to a serious degree. But it does occur very frequently from the fact that the course of study is laid out in grades (ten, more or less, in number) and all pupils are classified or graded so that each belongs to one of these grades. All the pupils in the grade must be in the same degree of advancement at about the same time. The result is that the school is classified in such a way that there are ten classes separated by inter¬ vals of from five to ten months’ work. Then promotion is made from one grade to another at set times, annually or semiannually. All who pass the examination commence the work of the next grade ; all who do not, continue until the next examination in the work of the grade through which they have just passed. The effect of this is well known to all teachers who have made experi¬ ments in this direction. Both parent and pupil feel very keenly the time lost. The pupil must have been over much of the work of the year, perhaps nine-tenths or three quarters, or perhaps only one-half of it. Yet what he has done entitles him to an advanced position over his fellow-pupils of the next class below him. If he returns to school after being thrust back a year for his lack of less than half a year, he appears in the ranks of a class who were a year’s work behind him. He has lost his ambition; he is some time in the class before they come ed 92 - 39 610 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. to work tliat is difficult enough to arouse him to the exertion of his full energies. Meanwhile he has lost his discipline for hard study, and he is very likely to break down a second time on the work of the year. A second failure for promotion is nearly sure to cause withdrawal from school. The parent has lost faith in the talent of his child and puts him into business or apprentices him to a trade. The youth has lost his own confidence in himself, and is stunted for intellectual growth for the rest of his life. Was there any advantage in this kind of grading? How could it otherwise have transpired? Instead of the Procrustean bed of grades, the pupils should have been classified into classes of thirty or less each. These classes in all large schools would be separated by intervals of about five weeks’ work. As often as these classes, any of them, become too small by the withdrawal of pupils or too large by the assignment to them of newcomers, there should be a new formation of classes. The best pupils of one class are to be sent up to the next, the best from the next below are to be promoted and joined with the pupils remaining. Those not promoted are now united with the best of the class that is five weeks’ work behind them. The degradation is scarcely felt. It is rather called, in both cases, a promotion of the best ones, not a degrading of the poorest. It is a process of cutting up the school into classes anew, and, as a matter of fact, the pupils need not have changed rooms to any very great extent. A set time for examination and promotion is injurious just in the ratio of its infrequency. Annual examinations for promotion and a dis¬ continuance of promotions at other times is an extremely pernicious system, and occasions serious injury to the higher grades of our schools. It is evident that the further advanced the pupil the more unfavorably will it affect him; and yet in our schools throughout the country the system is so arranged that this Procrustean device applies more espe¬ cially to the advanced pupils. In how many of our cities is there pro¬ motion to the high school oftener than once per year? What becomes of the pupils who lack 1 per centum of making the standard required? Are they not sent over the work of the highest grade of the grammar schools again, and thus made to occupy a year in doing what they might do in one-fourth of that time? And do they not leave school at this crisis more than at any other time in the whole course? Are not our high schools arranged in grades or classes just one year apart in their work ? And is all this necessary ? Not, certainly, where there are pupils enough to make two or more divisions of thirty pupils each. If the pupils from the highest grade of the grammar schools had been classified according to their rank in the examination, the first thirty would have formed the highest division on the high-school work, the next thirty the second division, and so through those who had made a reasonable standard. Then would have come the highest thirty pupils in rank of those not admitted, who should be admitted to a central CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 611 school and conditioned to five weeks’ work on the studies of the first grade of the grammar school, and then examined again; the next thirty to a longer period, and so on. Pupils thrown back five weeks, and then classified with their own fellows who had been unsuccessful, would find the hardship a very trivial one, aiid would scarcely think of leaving school. For schools where the number in any grade fell short of the requisite 30 wherewith to form a new division, of course this plan of subdivision could not be carried out. But so far as the first [highest] grade of the grammar school is concerned this would rarely happen, and still less likely would it occur with classes below the highest grade. The principle is clearly this: Not a Procrustean bed of grades on which the school is to be stretched so as to reduce the number of grades of advancement to ten or any other special number, but a thorough classification of all the pupils into classes on a certain quota as a basis, whether this be 30 or 25, or whatever other number is considered the best. The endeavor will be to have the classes separated by as small an interval as possible; but four, six, or even ten weeks’ work is small enough for all practical purposes ; and in order to make this arrange¬ ment uniform the pupils in upper grades, when too few to form classes with the required quota, should be brought together in central schools; and this principle should be applied as far as possible: if the highest grade in the high school consisted of 60 pupils or more, the division of it into two classes would be required. This process of continual readjustment of classification in our schools will render the whole school system elastic and mobile. Like the current 0f a river there will be everywhere forward motion — in the middle the current is more rajfid, at the sides the current flows more slowly. The work of the grade laid down for a year’s study will be accomplished in three or three and a half quarters by the brightest; by the dullest and slowest in five quarters. There will be no temptation to push on a slow pupil or drag him beyond his powers; no temptation to promote a pupil to a new grade’s work before thoroughly completing what is below him. By this plan would be checked a pernicious system of holding back pupils from examination for the high school, simply for the purpose of gaining a reputation for the school through the high per cent of its pupils in the competitive examination. Doubtless there is a certain degree of thoroughness requisite in the lower branches before the pupil can profitably take up the studies of the next higher grade. After attaining this per, cent it is possible to keep the pupil drilling over the lower work, in order to secure a certain mechanical thoroughness, so long as to waste much time that might be better expended for the pupil’s culture and growth on the higher studies. There are still some points on which doubts may rest. For example, it may be urged that this system would cause a collection of the dull and stupid pupils into classes by themselves, a deplorable result. But 612 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. tliis is one of tlie evils wliicli this systen is adapted to correct. The fact that the best pupils from below are allowed to rise through the masses above them as fast as their ability can carry them is surely not likely to prevent the slower pupils, who are their companions, from exerting all their energies and making considerable progress. The stream of bright pupils from below is inexhaustible. From the primary grades it ascends, continually passing fixed points or points that move on more slowly. In every class there will be its quota of bright pupils, some leading the class, and some just sustaining themselves in it, having recently joined it. But in the old system all the bright pupils had attained the top of the class and the dull ones had fallen hopelessly to the bottom long before the needed reclassification took place. Another may urge that this system causes so rapid a change from teacher to teacher that the very important personal influence of the teacher is materially impaired. But under this system in the higher grades the pupil would hardly change teachers oftener than once or twice per year, and a change as often as this is desirable for the healthy individual culture of the child. The school should not be a family influ¬ ence exclusively. It is the transition to civil society; consequently the pupil must change teachers often enough to correct any one-sided tend¬ encies of social culture that he may be liable to acquire from the indi¬ vidual teacher. For it must be remembered that reclassification of a whole school of 700 pupils, distributed through twelve rooms, does not imply a change of teachers on a part of more than one-sixth of the pupils, even when one-third of the best pupils in each class are pro¬ moted to the next higher. Each teacher having two classes (or, in the lower grades, three classes) will have one- third of the pupils from her advanced class promoted to the lower class in the next room above; she will likewise receive from the next room below one-third of the pupils from the advanced class there. In her own room, one-third of the pupils will be promoted from her second to her first class, but will still remain under the same teacher. In fact, she will have promoted to the next room one-sixth of her pupils, and have received one-sixth from the next lower room — that is to say, in case one-third is promoted from each class; but, practically, this is the maximum, and in ordinary cases a less proportion of the class will be transferred. If reclassification is instituted four times per year, and on each occasion one-sixth of the pupils are promoted to the next room, it will follow that each pupil will be taught one year and a half by the same teacher. But, as frequent transfer is necessary in some schools, to make up for depletion of pupils in higher grades, it will happen that this period will be reduced one- half or two-thirds. In small towns where the high-school classes do not number over 30 pupils each, such subdivision as I have here described can not be accomplished. But in such places there is ample occasion to apply this system to the district schools, which frequently suffer more than the CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 613 high school from the wide intervals between the higher classes. Trans¬ fer of the same to the high school as a preparatory class, or to intermedi¬ ate schools, will be found a salutary measure. Hence, the Cincinnati plan of intermediate schools is an excellent one for purposes of classifica¬ tion. In small towns not only the regular high-school pupils are to be sent to the central institution, but also the higher grades of the district schools whenever the classes are too small for economical instruction. These may form a u preparatory department” and can be graded into divisions of 30 pupils each, in such a manner that there is an interval of ten weeks or less between each and the next higher. But whenever transfer and promotion take place in this school, there should be at the same time promotion from the grammar school in order to prevent the isolation of the dull pupils in the lowest class of the school; when the best pupils are promoted from any one division their places should be made good by the best pupils promoted from the class below. The psychological effect of successful competition has been alluded to before. The moderate scholars of a higher class may find themselves at an advantage as compared with the best pupils newly promoted from the class below, and are likely to take fresh courage. The question may arise, do these pupils who are promoted from one class to the next omit that portion of their studies gone over in the interval of time between the two classes'? It is expected that this will betaken up by a review of the ground embraced in the mentioned interval. [From the St. Louis School Report of 1872-’73, by W. T. Harris, Superintendent.] Last year I alluded to our plan of promotion from class to class, and to the elasticity that prevails here in regard to grading. Briefly stated, the theory of our plan is as follows : 1. There is great difference among pupils in the capacity to learn. Children who enter school at eight years of age, can, on an average, make nearly double the progress in primary work that pupils of five years of age can make. Bright, nervous children will make far more rapid progress than children who are stolid and dull. 2. The school must provide for this difference in rates of progress by frequent reclassification; otherwise the school will become a lifeless machine, a Procrustean bed. It must be understood that when bright scholars are kept back for dull ones they acquire loose, careless habits of study ; and when pupils of slower temperaments are strained to keep pace with quick and bright ones they become discouraged and demoral¬ ized. 3. Besides difference in temperament, there is difference in regard to amount and regularity of attendance upon school. Some pupils are detained from school by sickness; some by the necessity of working for a living. Three months a year is all that can be afforded by the poor¬ est people after the child is able to work. New arrivals in the city, or 614 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. departures from the city, occasion a fragmentary participation in the privileges of the school. Moreover, it is a singular fact that nearly one-half of the youngest pupils begin their school life in the spring, having arrived at school age too late the previous fall to enter before the inclement weather sets in. The number of pupils belonging to the school at any one time, in St. Louis, is two-thirds of the entire number enrolled for the year. Hence the accession and loss of pupils during the year equal 50 per cent, or one-half of the average number belong¬ ing to school. It should be stated that the statistics of a large majority of other cities show a greater fluctuation than this. The general char¬ acter of this accession and loss may be stated thus : In the lower grades there is continual accession, in the upper grades continual withrawal of pupils. 4. Combining these two inequalities or differences with a view to restoring equilibrium — the continually developing difference of rate of progress in studies between pupils of the same class with the continu¬ ally developing inequality of size of classes (in upper grades decreasing, in the lower grades increasing in size) — it is evident that provision must be made for promotion of the pupils who make rapid progress, and that this promotion will, at the same time, restore the proper quota of pupils to the teachers of the higher grades. A promotion made once in ten weeks, or once in a u quarter” or “term,” will generally suffice to keep the school in a state of equilibrium. 5. It is clear that frequent promotion should not be made by classes. The few best ones in the class should be united with the class above — it will seem a reward or a recognition of their excellence. After such promotion has been made through all or nearly all of the classes from the lowest, each class will find itself composed of its fair, average, and poor scholars, together with a few of the best from the next lower class in place of the few that it has lost by promotion. For a while, at least, the average and fair scholars in the class will have the stimulus of being the best in the class. The poor ones will rank as “ middling,” and the new pupils will begin as the poorest and slowly work up toward the top of the class. The advantage to the self respect of the slower pupils which comes from standing in relation to their classmates as abler and better informed is not to be lost sight of. 6. Classification in a school is never absolute. ISo two pupils are of exactly the same degree of progress. The entire number in the school may be ranked from the highest to the lowest, and there will be found no wide gaps indicating a natural separation into classes, but the best of the next class below would stand very near the poorest of the class above, no matter where a division were to be made. In dividing into classes, therefore, the proper number in the class is first to be con¬ sidered, and next the qualifications. But it will not do, even for the sake of having a class of proper size, to combine pupils of widely differ- CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 615 ing attainments. As indicated in the above table, the numbers in the various years of the course vary nearly as follows : First year.., Second year Third year . Fourth year 30 21 20 12 Fifth year.... Sixth year..., Seventh year High school . 7 4* 2* 3 Provided the classes in the higher grades are to be of normal size, it is clear that the chances for proper grading are only one-seventh to one- tenth as good in them as in the lowest grade. The only remedy for this is to bring together the pupils of the higher grades into fewer schools. There may be very many schools with the lower four grades. There should be only five rooms devoted to instruction of pupils of the sixth year in the course where there are 30 devoted to the lowest grade, or 91 rooms devoted to the five lower years’ work. With us those schools giving instruction to pupils in the seventh or highest year of the district school course1 are called u Pirst class ” schools. For pur¬ poses of proper grading and classification, there should be one of these for each district enrolling 4,000 pupils per annum, or for an average attendance of 2,500 pupils. Ten such schools would answer our pur¬ pose at present. As we have 15 we ought not to increase our number for five years. 7. As systems of schools are generally organized, the higher priced and most experienced teachers have charge of the upper grades of pupils. As their classes suffer depletion throughout the year, unless there is some regular mode of transferring new pupils to the care of those teachers, they will have very small classes the latter half of each year. Thus, while the poorer class of teachers are overburdened, the ablest and best-paid teachers have less than their quota of pupils. It is clear that the policy should be to bring as many pupils as possible under the ablest and best-paid teachers. The practice of frequent transfer of pupils is better for this purpose than the custom of trans¬ ferring in bulk once per year. 8. The system of frequent transfer does not affect the individual pupil any oftener, on an average, than the system of transfer once a year. The bright pupils, it is true, have frequent opportunity to advance. The system is elastic for them. The slow pupils advance only when ready. The system discards one general epoch of transfer and reclass¬ ification at the close of the year, and adopts instead four or more par¬ tial transfers so arranged as to accommodate the two-fold demand: first, that the ablest pupils shall not be kept back; second, that the ablest and highest-paid teachers shall, at all times, have their full 1 At a late meeting of superintendents of western cities (held in November, 1873), it was agreed to adopt a system of eight grades for the work of the district schools, each grade corresponding to a year’s work and accordingly subdivided into quarters. The cities of Toledo, Cleveland, Detroit, Cincinnati, Memphis, St. Louis, and Chi¬ cago have adopted this standard. 616 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. quota of pupils. In tlie lowest grade, where several rooms in the same building are filled with pupils not advanced beyond the first year of their course, the bright pupil will change teachers perhaps three or four times in the year. In the higher grades the pupil will remain a year or more under each teacher. 9. How to provide for the necessary process of reclassification and transfer from room to room with the minimum of discouragement, and consequent injury to that half of the pupils who fall below the average of attainment, is the serious question. If the sifting of each class for the advantage of the best ones is accompanied with u dropping” the few poorest ones into the class below, we have the maximum of injury. The class, as a whole, is not stimulated but only frightened at the degrada¬ tion of the few hindmost. Those actually u dropped ” are really dis¬ heartened. Besides, such sifting down tends to create a movement toward the lower departments instead of toward the higher depart¬ ments where the vacancies are. When the opposite policy is followed, of promoting the few best instead of degrading the few poorest, the maximum of encouragement is attained. Sift up and not sift down. The school should be a living process, continually readjusting and adapting itself to the want of the organization as well as to the capac¬ ities of the pupils. 10. How if the upper classes are quite small and yet the intervals are very large in regard to advancement — in other words, what if the more advanced pupils are very few? Central schools should absorb all the pupils of higher grade, leaving to the other schools only such grades as they find it possible to provide with good classification. Without such combination with central schools, economy and perfect classifica¬ tion are impossible. Small classes and small provision for differences in capacity among pupils naturally result. 11. When promotion is made only once a year into the high school, the district schools are compelled to adapt their upper classes to this condition of things, and accordingly make the work of the first grade begin at the beginning of the year and end with its close. The second grade, likewise, must fall into the same trammels. If a class should finish the work of the second grade before the close of the year, it must not take up first grade work until the beginning of the next year, and if, at the commencement of the scholastic year a class of the second grade has not quite finished its work, it is generally put at once into the work of the first grade, although unprepared. The only alternative would be to let it work a year longer on second-grade studies. The utter want of elasticity in the classification of the upper grades of the district schools, arising from the lack of frequent promotions to the high school, works violence continually to the interests of one-third of the pupils. All those delayed through sickness, the necessities of poverty, or inact¬ ive temperaments, either fall back a whole year, or else in a vain endeavor to make up their deficiency, overwork themselves or get dis¬ couraged. CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS 617 12. The advantages of frequent re-classification are in brief: (a) Economy. — Filling up the classes of the ablest and best-paid teachersy and making room in the lower grades for new pupils, con¬ stantly applying. (b) Rapid progress. — The pupils that learn readily are allowed to move forward as fast as their abilities permit, the slower pupils and those irregular in attendance neither allowed to hold back the more fortunate ones, nor obliged to overwork and cram in order to keep up. The disadvantages alleged are confined to the practice of changing teachers too frequently. To these it is sufficient to reply by a question : Is it desirable to keep a pupil back in his studies simply in order that he may recite for a long time to the same teacher? Every superinten¬ dent knows that a change of teachers brings the pupil in contact with a new individuality, prevents the danger of warping the development of character in the pupil, and is desirable oftener than once a year in the lower grades, and at least once a year in the higher grades — where the teachers are maturer and more highly cultured — until the pupil reaches Ihe high school, where lie recites daily to three or more teachers. [From the St. Louis School Report of 1873-’74, by W. T. Harris, Superintendent.] The theory of grading and classification set forth and defended in my annual report for I871-’T2, has provoked more discussion among the leading educators of the country than I anticipated. Criticism has gen¬ erally been favorable, but in some quarters strong protests have been made against it by very intelligent men. I believe, however, that a complete statement of the method of reclassification, embodying all of its details, will prove the objections made to be groundless. I propose, therefore, here to present the subject anew, and endeavor to consider the alleged defects in a candid manner. At the National Educational Association in Detroit, for 1S74, Hon. E. E. White, of Ohio, made the following statement and defense of the position. The pupils in the graded schools are divided into classes, and to secure necessary- economy these classes are made as largo as practicable. The fewer the number of pupils embraced in the system, the fewer must be the number of classes, and, as a consequence, the greater must be the inequality in the attainments and capacity of the members of each class, and hence the greater the difficulty of the problem now under consideration. If the teacher of a class adapt his instruction and require¬ ments to the maximum capacity of his pupils, the great majority are hurried over their studies and receive a superficial and imperfect training. If ho adapt his class work to the minimum capacity of the class, the great majority are held back, and, as a consequence, not only sacrifice time and opportunity, but fall into careless and indolent habits of study. The remaining course is for the teacher to adapt his class work to the medium or average capacity of his pupils, with such special attention to the more and the less advanced pupils as may meet, to some extent, their wants. But here comes in the “ per cent system,” with its demands. That the class, as a whole, may attain a high average per cent, it is necessary that the lowest members of it may reach a good standard, and this results in the holding back of the bright EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 618 and industrious pupils until by iteration and reiteration the dull and indolent may be brought to the required standard. The amount of time and talent thus wasted in some graded schools is very great. This is not always evident to the teacher, since the brightest pupils, being chained to the dullest, soon learn to keep step, scarcely showing their ability to advance more rapidly. This difficulty i3 greatly aggravated when classes are promoted en masse from grade to grade, the pupils being thus chained to each other year after year, or throughout the course — an efficient process for reducing pupils to the level of mediocrity. The statement of these difficulties suggests their partial remedy. The brighter and more capable pupils in each class must have the opportunity to workaway from the less capable, and to step forward into a higher class, Avhen the difference between them and their lower classmates becomes too great for a profitable union in the same class. To this end there must be a proper interval between the successive classes, and the reclassification of pupils must be made with corresponding frequency. Experience alone can determine what this interval should be, and the frequency with which pupils should be promoted. It is possible that both of these facts may depend somewhat on the number of pupils included in a graded system, a much more complete classification being possible in large cities than in small towns. While this may be true, it is believed by many experienced superintendents and other intel¬ ligent observers, that the universal experience of graded schools condemns the prev¬ alent practice of promoting pupils but once a year, with a year’s interval between the classes. This wide interval is a serious obstacle in the way of a needed reclassi¬ fication of pupils. The more capable pupils can not be transferred to a liigh.er class, since this obliges them to go over the ground of two years in one — a task success¬ fully performed by very few pupils — and the less advanced pupils can not be put back into a lower class without serious loss in time and ambition, if they are not withdrawn from school. It may be well for a few pupils in any system of graded schools to spend an entire year in reviewing tho previous year’s work, but these exceptional cases are usually the result of an unwise attempt to hold pupils too loug together. Large classes of young pupils can not be kept together, even for one year, without serious loss both to those who are held back and to those who are unduly hurried. What is needed is a system of classification and promotion that shall pro¬ vide for the breaking of classes, at least twice a year, with a transfer of the more advanced pupils, and their union with the less advanced pupils of tho next higher class, and also with special transfers of bright pupils from class to class as often as maybe necessary, and special provisions for pupils deficient in some branch of study. We are aware that tho system of annual promotions has special advantages. It reduces the number of classes in the smaller cities and towns, and it saves labor and trouble, especially when classes are promoted in a body, on a minimum standard. It is undoubtedly true that a Procrustean system, which puts pupils in classes, reduces them to the same capacity, and moves them regularly and evenly forward, requires little skill to run it, but this can not compensate for the serious losses involved. The highest good of pupils ought never to be sacrificed to secure a seft-adjusting mechanism and uniformity of results. Superintendent Stevenson, of Columbus, Ohio, in his report for 1873-’74, discusses the question in an attitude somewhat hostile to the plan of frequent reclassification. He says: The course of study assumes one year for the completion of the studies in each grade, and an annual transfer of pupils from grade to grade. The amount of work to be done each year is the maximum for the pupils of average capacity whose attendance upon the school is the average number of days a child of ordinary health may be present during the year. Dull scholars often make up what is lost in natural ability by regular attendance and industry, and bright scholars lose by irregularity of attendance and indolence what they gain by quickness to learn, so that the CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 619 larger number of promotions can bo and are justly and satisfactorily mado at the close of tbe year. But differences in tbe ages and tbe capacity of children entering tbe scbool must, in many cases, be provided for in tbe classification. To make sucb provision no classification can be absolute; it must undergo changes from tbe beginning to tbe end of tbe year. A child of 10 years of ago having a healthy body and vigorous mind will do more, or is capable of doing more study than a feeble child of 8 years of age; and a bright child whose parents take some pains in home training, who is regular in his attendance, will do much more in a year than the dull child who is neglected at home, and whose attendance is interfered with by the necessi¬ ties at home, or by bad health. It is also true, that pupils of the greatest ability have frequently less power of application than those less brilliant. What one gains by ability, the others gain by industry and effort. For example, ability is equalized by industry; regular attendance, by irregular; health, by illness; age, by home train¬ ing; attention, by inattention. These are important factors which must be consid¬ ered in the solution of the great problem of classification. By observing closely the progress of children in public schools for a series of years, I have arrived at the following results: In a graded school in which the course of study is made for the average pupil, about 5 per cent will show strength enough to be advanced during the year, and about 10 per cent will fall behind the remaining 95 per cent of the class. This varies a little in the lower and higher grades, but it is a fair and approximately correct average for a course of study requiring eight years for its completion. The question then is, What is to be done with this 15 per cent of scholars? Every teacher will answer, let the 5 per cent go to the next higher grade, and do not permit the 10 per cent to interfere with the progress of the class. Five per cent of the 10 can, without injury to themselves, by a little extra effort, be worked up to the proper standard, and the remaining 5 per cent ought for their own good to pass over the work of the grade again, or so much of the work as will pre¬ pare for the next higher. I can not condemn in too strong terms the recommenda¬ tion of those theorists who would gather into one class or grade all the bright ones, and the dull ones into another; that is, make the basis of classification upon the estimated ability of the pupils, rather than upon what they do, for it is the rule, rather than the exception, that the dull scholars win the race in the long run. The separation of the dull and bright scholars into different classes is unjust and injuri¬ ous — unjust, because the keenest discrimination can not always discover the slum¬ bering mental power of many children, nor ascertain the outside influences which detract from the manifestations of intellectual ability by the child ; injurious, because the dull scholars are deprived of the highest possible standard by which to measure themselves intellectually, and the competition which is necessary to excite interest and enthusiasm. To meet this theory, viz, that the bright scholars should not be chained to the dull ones, promotions of classes in many schools are made semi¬ annually. The arguments [in favor of frequent promotions are, first, the interval between the classes being short, those who fail to reach the required standard for promotion will lose less time; second, it gives an opportunity to the bright and industrious scholars to break away from their dull and indolent associates ; third; it brings the scholars in contact with a greater number of teachers. The objections to frequent promotions by classes are: First, frequent changes of teachers; second, the best interests of the majority are sacrificed for the benefit of a very small minority ; third, there is no real advantage gained for those who are promoted, either in time or opportunity, for more rapid advancement. These objections are worthy of careful consideration. The teacher, in an interval much shorter than a year, can not become acquainted with the individuality of her pupils, their strong and weak points, their susceptibilities, their physical and intellectual powers, and the outside forces, which more or less control their education and character. The teacher ought to know her pupils thoroughly. This takes time. Will not children do better work and make 620 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. more rapid progress with. a teacher who has had time enough to win their confidence and love, than they would with one whose name they scarcely know, and whose warm sympathy they have never felt ? Why make a reclassification of a whole school three or four times a year, because 15 per cent have failed to reach a fixed standard at the end of every three, four, or six months, to the disadvantage of the 85 per cent? The amount of work to be done by the pupil in a year is the same, whether it is divided into quarters, halves, or a year, with a promotion at the end of each period. The plan of promotions in the schools of this city has been by classes annually, except in the lowest, primary grade, in which promotions are made semiannually, to accommodate the new pupils entering in the spring, and by individuals at any time during the term, whenever they are found qualified for a higher grade. A pupil passing into a higher grade at the end of five months, finds no difficulty in making up the subjects omitted in connection with the reviews of the class, if he is apt and diligent. In the practical working of a system of schools, this plan secures all the advantages of frequent promotions with none of the disadvantages of the plan of yearly transfers. In short, it has all the flexibility that the varying circumstances and the differences in children require. His condemnation of the theory or system which brings together all the bright ones into classes by themselves, and collects the dull ones in a similar manner, is not too strong, in my opinion. I have seen the bad effects of this often. He limits his objection to the system of reclassification recommended here by specifying “ promotion by classes.” In my discussion of the subject last year, I remarked, in view of much evidence of misunderstanding on this point (Report, 1872-73, p. 25, section 5) : It is clear that frequent promotion should not bo made by classes. The few best ones in the classes should be united with the class above — it will seem a reward or a recognition of their excellence. After such promotion has been made through all or nearly all of the classes from the lowest, each class will find itself composed of its fair, average, and poor scholars, together with a few of the best from the next lower class in the 'place of the few that it has lost by promotion. For a while, at least, the average and fair scholars in the class will have the stimulus which arises from the consciousness of being the best in the class. The poor ones will rank as “mid¬ dling,” and the new pupils will begin as the poorest and slowly work up toward the top of the class. It seems that iu Columbus about 5 per cent of the pupils “ show strength enough to be advanced during the year.” One in every twenty pupils has so strong need of promotion that it is found best to place him in the class above, although that class is a full year in advance. If so many are benefited by a leap over so large an interval, it is diffi¬ cult to see why 10, 20, or 30 per cent of the pupils could not be profited by promotions to classes thirty, twenty, or ten weeks in advance. And if 10 per cent fall behind into classes a year lower in the course of of study, it admits of doubt whether they and many more besides would not have been better provided for by assigning them to classes ten or twenty weeks lower in the course. The other objections will be noticed in their proper place. It will be noted that Mr. Stevenson believes in promoting “by classes, annually (semiannually in the lowest primary grade), and by CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 621 individuals at any time during tlie term, whenever they are found qualified for a higher grade.” “ Promoting by classes” evidently refers to changing the work of the class from the course of study laid down for one year or grade to the work of the next year or grade, while “by individuals” refers to actual reclassification. “ Promotion by classes ” may be from day to day, or month to month, or year to year, or once in four years, according to the arbitrary stand¬ ard of division adopted by the one who makes out his course of study. Whenever the teacher sets a new lesson she promotes “by class 77 to a new stage in the course of study. Whenever one ten weeks7 work is accomplished, and a new one begins, there is a promotion “ by class,” although neither the teacher nor the pupils make any note of it. The course of study with us is subdivided so as to show the average amount of work for ten weeks. Many years ago no accurate measure of the time required to go over the course of study in its various stages was kept in this city, and as a consequence the expression “promotion by class 77 would not have been used with reference to entering upon the work of a new year, but might have been applied to the promotion of a class to a new text book, or from one school building to another, or from one room to another in the same school, or, finally, from the dis¬ trict school to the high school. Possibly, also, “ promotion by class 77 refers to the change of teacher, in Columbus. But at all events, it is not “reclassification” in the sense that term is used in this report. The promotion “ by individuals,” since it must refer to a change from one class to another, is a reclassification, and this must happen quite frequently even in a school where only 15 per cent of the pupils are thus changed in the course of a year. Superintendent Stone, of Springfield, Mass., presents his view of this matter, in his report for 1874, thus: The perfection of school organization, as I understand it, is reached when every pupil has a chance to do his best. This can he accomplished only by judicious grad¬ ing; but schools are frequently graded so mechanically that they fall far short of the highest efficiency. In this way arises the objection, sometimes made, that work in graded schools is slow, and that pupils are not unfrequently hindered, rather than carried forward, in their progress. It must be acknowledged that unless grading is done strictly according to proficiency and ability, the advantages claimed for it are not attained. The mistake most frequently made in grading a school is in suppos¬ ing that a class once formed can bo continued, for a considerable length of time, without any promotions or other changes. It can hardly bo expected that 50 pupils, even of similar proficiency, at the commencement of a school year, can be placed in a room and kept profitably employed there for a twelvemonth upon the same amount of school work. A difference in ability will soon develop itself, and then if the rate of progress is graduated to the average, or, as is sometimes done, to the minimum capacity of the class, those who are able to do more will soon find themselves with considerable unoccupied time upon their hands. Such a result is especially to be deprecated; for it is an important princijde to be borne in mind that pupils do not study to the best advantage, nor accomplish their greatest and best work, unless they feel the necessity of constant effort. They ought not to bo hurried, but they should feel that they can not be idle without incurring the danger of falling into the ranks of 622 EDUCATION REPOET, 1891-92. the laggards and the drones. Persons of active minds must have employment of some kind, and if they do not find sufficient legitimate work in school, they often, from mere restlessness, occasion the teacher much trouble in the way of discipline, or become disgusted, and leave school altogether. Their minds are dwarfed if they remain under such circumstances; they have little enjoyment in their work, and it is not strange they lose their patienco and their interest. Various plans are proposed and tried for the solution of this difficulty. That of dividing and subdividing pupils of a single room into numerous small classes is, perhaps, the most objectionable, the time allowed to be devoted to each class being wholly insufficient for anything like thorough and satisfactory work. Another plan is an entire reconstruction and classification of all the grades four times a year. Whatever may bo said in favor of such a course, neither theory nor practice gives it a strong indorsement. While it may bring those of the same pro¬ ficiency together at eacli classification, a term of ten weeks does not allow sufficient acquaintance to be formed between teacher and pupil to enable both to work to the best advantage before a recast of the school introduces a new class, or one for the most part new. Such frequent changes are found to produce constant confusion, and the advantages of continuous methodical work are almost entirely lost. Our own schools, as I regard them, seem to need a more discriminating classifi¬ cation at the commencement of the school year, and afterwards more frequent individual promotions. When a class is formed every pupil should be placed there who is able or who can possibly be induced to do the work of the class, no matter how many grades such pupils overleap or what may be their ages. As the class progresses, those who seem capable of advancing faster and are willing to make an extra effort should from time to time, be promoted to the next higher class or grade, provided that it seems probable that such pupils can bridge over the inter¬ val thus passed in a reasonable length of time. Where such opportunities for pro¬ motion are constantly before the school a laudable ambition for respectable progress is kept up and more and better work is accomplished. At the commencement of the spring term, in April, a reclassification of the lower primary grades may be desirable, as a considerable accession of new pupils is made at that time to those schools. I would also advise that, at the same time, three months before the close of the year a thorough examination be made, in the upper grades of the grammar schools, of those individual cases who seem capable of advancement, that they may be allowed promotion, and thereby gain a year in their course, especially when the age of the pupil seems to render such a step desirable. Such a system of classification and promotion, carefully watched and carried as far as the health and ability of the pupil will admit, and assuredly no further, will, I feel confident, greatly increase the efficiency of schools. In this way many a dis¬ heartened pupil will be incited to interest and effort; many who have despaired of promotion will look forward with hope ; many who have anticipated leaving school in the middle grades will be induced to go further; and many, very many I hope, will be able and willing to go beyond the grammar-school grade, and join the classes in the high school — the highest public educational good in our city now within reach of its children and youth. The plan of “dividing and subdividing the pupils of a single room into numerous small classes/’ spoken of above as the “most objec¬ tionable/’ is the plan adopted in ungraded schools and for the numer¬ ous class of small country schools. While the plan is very objec¬ tionable, it is difficult to suggest anything better for the small schools in thinly settled districts of the country. In the lowest primary classes of a city school, where the recitation should not exceed twenty minutes in length, the teacher may profitably divide her sixty pupils CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 623 into three or even four classes. But in the grammar school there should not be more than two classes of twenty-four pupils each. “ Beclassification of all the grades four times in a year,” if it had the effect described, of changing at each time the majority of the pupils from one teacher to another, would certainly fail of “ strong indorse¬ ment,” or at least ought to fail of it. When we read, however, of the “frequent individual promotions” and of the “reclassification of the lower primary grades ” at the commencement of the spring and fall terms, we find that the kind of “reclassification” we advocate here is practiced and strongly indorsed in Springfield. The school committee of Worcester, Mass., present the following remarks on this topic in their recent report on the suggestions made by the mayor of that city : It should also be borne in mind that any system of grading is necessarily imper¬ fect. The differences between our scholars are not a series of regular and abrupt steps according to the theory of our grades. There are wide differences of attain¬ ment by study of physical and mental capacity and of disposition and home influ¬ ence. In truth, these differences might be more fittingly compared to the slope of a mountain ridge than to either a stairway or an inclined plain; and, if we rightly understand the remarks of the mayor, it is these differences that form the basis of his criticism upon our system of grading. But precisely the same criticism may be made upon the ordinary classification of scholars in an ungraded school ; and until the city of Worcester can afford to furnish to each scholar a private tutor especially adapted to the scholar’s needs, we are not prepared to recommend the abolition of grading and classification in our schools. But it is no doubt true that a series of graded schools needs constant supervision and regrading. Many teachers seem unwilling to promote their best scholars except at the termination of the year, and, therefore, some sj>ecial provision for discovery of cases of exceptional merit and their more rapid advancement is necessary. The ordinary and regular operation of our system results in the promotion or advancement of the scholars one grade each year. The average Worcester scholar performs the work assigned for him to do with an indifferent sort of success and is regularly promoted. But there are cases of exceptional dullness and absence, where the work is not done; and there are exceptional cases of meritorious achievement, when promotions might and ought to be made more rapidly than our system in its ordinary working provides for. It is the latter which we suppose the mayor to have had in mind when he called attention to semiannual promotions. Agreeing with the spirit rather than the strict letter of his recommendation, we favor promotions in cases of exceptional merit, at whatever time of year it may be discovered, and recommend the breaking of all rules, if need be, to get at them and do justice by them. When the present plan of placing each school building under charge of one mas¬ ter or principal was adopted, it was expected that the principals, having all the scholars in the building directly under their own eye, would readily discover and rapidly advanco superior merit. Has this expectation been as fully borne out by results as we had right to hope it would be? Do the principals make themselves personally as familiar with the scholarship of each scholar as they might and ought? It seems to us that we have a right to expect that all principals having an assistant in their own room will make frequent visits to each room, hear recitations, and give instruction in each, and make personal examination to such an extent as to become perfectly familiar with the attainments of every scholar, and be prepared at any time to advance the deserving. It is believed that they have abundant time to do this. 624 1 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. We have in mindtlie case of six scholars at the beginning of the present year pro¬ moted from the sixth to the eighth grade, and to-day they are among the very best scholars of that grade. Nothing can he more certain than that it -would have been a great injustice to have kept hack those six scholars in the seventh grade during the present year. The provisions of Chapter vii of the rules and regulations of this hoard well define the. duties and confer ample powers upon “principals and assistants” with regard to promotions, and the only change we see reason to recommend is the addition of a rule requiring assistants to make reports to principals, and principals to superin¬ tendents, at the end of each term, whether there are any scholars in their school that ought to he promoted, and, if so, why they are not promoted. Superintendent Harrington, of New Bedford, attacks very earnestly the proposed plan of reclassification and takes a far more radical posi¬ tion of hostility than any other opponent. His first and chief objection to the system is against the supposed frequent change of teachers necessitated by it, and the consequent injury to the thoroughness of the instruction and the healthfulness of the discipline. He very justly contends that the teacher must have time to get acquainted with his pupils, and to plan and carry out a systematic whole of methods and processes carefully arranged, so as to produce important mental and moral results. Perhaps a sufficient reply to this will be found in the subsequent demonstration of the fact that the change of teachers need not and does not occur any oftener under this system than under the system its opponents advocate. But Mr. Harrington seems, like some other opponents, to understand the effect of “ reclassification four times a year ” to be the change of teachers four times a year. With such a mistaken view of the system one can not be surprised that he opposes it. But he proceeds to indicate his hostility to all systems “ in which promotions make one of the customary instrumentalities of influence and progress.” “ The course of study,” according to him, should be “ so adjusted as to meet the intellectual demands of a scholar at every step of his progress, following him along until, at 14 years of age, he has compassed a full schedule of elementary study.” “ Although the well- constructed manual of study presents only the minimum of requirement,” he asks: “ Do we not expect that minimum to serve only as a skeleton, which the teacher is to clothe with flesh and blood, and round out into full proportions, so as to meet the expectations of the ambitious, satisfy the cravings of the intellectual, and occupy the time of the most proficient?” “The school in which promotions are a cus¬ tomary instrumentality must be addressing itself all the time to medi¬ ocrity alone, on a comparatively low level of purpose without stimuli to create a healthful esprit de corps, and wanting in the characteristics of vigorous, intellectual life.” “ Promotions are not provided for in our system — are not asked for — could have no legitimate place. The best scholars, all throughout our grades, find constant and delightful occupation.” By this we are to understand that a vastly superior plan to the one which sifts and classifies and is attentive to close grading has been dis- CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 625 covered, and this plan makes pupils and parents indifferent to the grad¬ ing and classification of the school. It makes no difference how une¬ qual the powers of those who are in the same class — the gifted and mature pupil can use his time in full, while the poorest pupil does as much. “ This condition of things, rendering it possible to occupy the time of the superior scholars in fruitful study, and also to give the poorer ones a good wholesome stint which they can accomplish without any undue strain or forcing, while all at the same time work together as a class, is brought about by an adjustment of the studies, which may be described in a homely way as c a circle within a circle.7 The inner circle represents the essential fundamental work which is prescribed to be thoroughly accomplished by all the class. The outer circle repre¬ sents a broader field of study, either illustrative of or supplementary to that of the inner circle which all are expected nominally to engage in, hut from any test ivorh as to which , the weaker -minded can quietly he released just in proportion to their incompetency to master it.v I have italicized the last clause in order to draw special attention to it. “ The result,77 he continues, “ amply justifies our method. It is as admirable as it is astonishing to find, by letting the poor scholars work along side by side with their original mates, not souring them by rebuffs, not destroying their self-respect or paralyzing their ambition by keeping them back, how much they will gradually acquire ; how often, indeed, their indifference becomes charmed away, their dormant faculties aroused to activity, and an honorable career substituted for one of neglect and demerit,77 Finally, he concludes that the best plan is “to continue the class of scholars under the selfsame teacher through all the four years of progress, after entering the grammar school, up to the gradu¬ ating grade.77 He intimates that the schools under his charge “ have comparatively little to do with percentages. We do not believe in them in connection with either large schools or little schools. We believe that a system of marking and per cents exerts a depressing influence over school work. We have stated written examinations (four times a year) at which, for specific purposes, the papers are marked and the per cents obtained. Beyond that we trust in less arti¬ ficial stimuli to give spirit and life to our schools.77 The repudiation of all class records by which the individual pupil and his parents can be provided periodically with a faithful statement of the amount of work done by said pupil, would seem to be quite in harmony with the system described as existing in Hew Bedford. While I am far from denying that the “let alone77 (laissez faire) theory of school management will permit some very good work to exist, my expe¬ rience with very much of it in my youth, beginning with the “red school house77 in the woods and extending through several of the pri¬ vate schools called “ academies,77 forces me to say that I believe that under it there is a wholesale slaughter of the time and opportunity of well-disposed youth. I shall never forget the epoch made in my life ED 92 - 40 626 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. upon emerging from this regime and entering the Phillips Academy at Andover, then under Dr. S. H. Taylor. Here a class record was kept, and students were held accountable for the use of their time and oppor¬ tunities. I can not but believe that the system practiced at Andover does the utmost to develop responsible beings, and to transmute the pulpy substance of impulse and inclination — the undisciplined will — into a self- con trolled will, a directive intelligence that can reinforce the moments by the hours, and accomplish something in the world. Most persons that I have known brought up under the laissez faire system have seemed to lapse away in after life and recede from the promise which their school life gave, while the strong characters have emanated from the throng of those who were held to a strict responsibility in their school life. A system which classifies the weak and incom¬ petent with the strong and genial minded, and when they diverge in the amount of work accomplished under its instruction — as they cer¬ tainly will diverge under any instruction which is anything other than an opiate, a paralyzer of the will — still retains them in the same class and relaxes its hold so as to release the weak from the normal responsi¬ bility, will be found in nearly every case to be productive of injury to the growth of character in both weak and strong. If pupils of all classes are to be held to a strict accountability for their work there must be a careful system of classification. I am aware of the difficulty of making any statements regarding schools without the probability of being misunderstood, even by those well versed in educational affairs. When we undertake to describe a system or method, we assume a certain status of things as existing; probably we take for granted that the reader or listener has in mind the organization of the schools in which we are working. If the reader or listener happens to be acquainted with a radically different system only, his attempt to construe our words results in ludicrous misconcep¬ tions. Dew people have any adequate idea of the diversity that really exists in our public educational systems in the United States. Not to speak of the difference of public school methods from those of private or parochial schools, one may find variety enough within the public schools to explain liow such misunderstandings arise. It is not suffi¬ cient to state a system in words which have become technical in a par¬ ticular locality. The reader of a different locality will read such words attentively, but will put his own construction upon them. An example of this has been seen in the different interpretations given to the words promotion'7 and “reclassification,” used by different writers in differ¬ ent senses, and sometimes by the same writer in the same sentence in two meanings. “Promotion” may mean change of class (a) from one book to a higher one; or ( b ) from one room to another; or ( c ) from one teacher to another; or (d) from one school to another; or ( e ) from the quantum of work prescribed for one limited time (primary or grammar department, year or grade, term or quarter, week, or single lesson). Or, CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 627 again, it may refer to the change of a pupil from a lower class to a more advanced one, etc. “Reclassification” may be used to signify some one of many phases appertaining to the organization of a school. The transfer of a single pupil from one class to a higher or lower one is a reclassification. It is not strictly correct to apply the term reclassifica¬ tion to the transfer of a whole class from one school, teacher, room, book, or grade of work to another; and yet much confusion arises from such application. In order, therefore, to make this discussion explicit, it will be neces¬ sary to have constant reference to systems that stand in contrast to our own, while we are attempting to give an account of it in a report. 1. The germinal school organization out of which all varieties have grown is the country school of one room and one teacher, with from ten to (30 or more pupils of all ages and degrees of advancement, from the stripling of 4 years, who begins at the alphabet, up to the young man of 21, who is likely to study algebra, or Latin, or natural phi¬ losophy. The difference in qualifications ranges through eight or 10 years of study. If classes are to be made they are likely to be made on the accidental fact that some of the pupils bring to school the same text books; in the same arithmetic, the same reader, or geography, or grammar, a class being formed with very little regard to the difference in advancement of its members. Hot seldom it happens that those of like advancement in the country school happen to have different text books, and for that reason alone are assigned to different classes and mated with other pupils of very inferior attainments, who have the same book. Thus it happens that the function of the teacher in the country school becomes chiefly one of keeping order and hearing les¬ sons, without being able to find time to teach or explain anything, or to become acquainted with the obstacles that arise in the minds of his pupils. His number of recitations per day averages from twenty-five to fifty, and their length varies from two minutes to twenty or thirty, but averaging only five or ten minutes apiece. But the same teacher may remain in the school for years, although this is not usually the case. The pupils then may avoid frequent changes of teachers. A pupil might spend several years under the same teacher. There is no division of labor in this rudimentary type of school, and it is obvious that the continuance under the same teacher possesses but little more advan¬ tage than the antiquated process by which a gun was made through¬ out — lock, stock, and barrel — by one gunsmith, has over the division- of-labor system in the Springfield Armory, or the watch manufactories at Waltham or Elgin, where each manipulation has a different work¬ man to perform it. With small schools of this character which range through so wide differences in age and acquirements in their pupils, but little can be done other than to secure discipline, and lay special stress upon individual industry. Uniformity of text books (now generally established by State laws) renders possible some degree of classifica¬ tion, but at best, such classification is very imperfect for the rea- 628 EDUCATION REPORT. 1891-92. son that there can be little transferring from one class to another in case of differences of ability. 2. When the country school grows to be a village school, and the number of pupils increases to 60 or 100, two rooms are opened and two teachers employed. Division of labor may begin here. Primary and grammar department is instituted, and the range of acquirement in each room may be four years by the course of study. Fewer classes and larger ones allow the teacher twice the length of time for each recita¬ tion, and he can begin to lay some stress on instruction. The advantages of class recitation over individual instruction begin to appear at this point. Individual instruction is good where the teacher can devote to it as much time as to an ordinary recitation, but it is inferior to class reci¬ tation even then. The class should consist of not less than 10 nor more than 30. The length of recitation should vary from fifteen or twenty minutes in the primary grades, to thirty or forty minutes in the gram¬ mar department. During recitation there should be the most vivid and constant attention on the part of all the pupils. It is obvious that this can be obtained in the primary grades only for a short time. With increasing discipline and the strength that comes of years’ practice, the recitation hour can be lengthened. That a properly conducted class recitation is of far greater value than individual instruction, is obvious from the consideration that the contents of the lesson are stated over and over by different pupils of the class, criticised and discussed, illus¬ trated from the experience of different pupils, and the pupil has the advantage of seeing how his fellows encounter and surmount such diffi¬ culties as he himself meets. What we see in the experience of others, our equals, becomes at once our experience by adoption, and it saves us from the pain and consumption of time necessary to acquire its wis¬ dom through personal adventure. Hence education is essentially to be carried on in the form of community. The school is and must be a community ; no private tutoring can educate as the school can. But it is evident that the school best subserves this purpose, when it classi¬ fies so that each one meets his equals in the recitation. Great inferior¬ ity or great superiority in his fellows, mars the force of the lesson which he learns from seeing their work. The village school of two rooms, as contrasted with the country school of one room, exhibits to us the beginnings of classification and proper recitation. It does hardly more than this. Its separation of the four years of primary work from the four years of grammar school work is a great, but only one, step. 3. When a village comes to have 500 or 1,000 children living within a small area so that they can be brought into a central school of eight to twenty rooms, new developments become possible in grading and classi¬ fication. Usually the primary work is kept localized in small schools, while only the advanced pupils -are brought together into the central school. This is just and proper. The ratio of younger pupils to older ones is large. In St. Louis there were last year in every 100 pupils, 37 CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 629 in the first year’s work; 17 in the second year; 16£ in the third year; 12 in the fourth year; 7 in the fifth year; 4£ in the sixth year; 3 in the seventh year, and 3 in the entire four years’ course of the high school. Counting the lowest three years of the course as primary work, we have over 70 per cent of all the pupils in the schools in the primary depart¬ ment, and only about 26 per cent in the grammar department. In Eastern cities, where education for a long time has done its work, the ratio is much more favorable to the higher departments than with us. From these facts it is clear that in order to secure as good results in classification of grammar school pupils, as with primary pupils, the former must be brought together in about one- fourth as many schools as the latter. To explain: There are, in the school children of a given community, about one-half as many in the grammar school department as in the primary. The recitations of the primary pupils should be about two-thirds the length of those in the grammar department, by reason of the undisciplined power of attention of the former. The num¬ ber of recitations in the primary department will average three-fourths of the number to each class in the grammar department. Hence it is that the number of pupils to each teacher in the grammar department must be considerably less — two-thirds of the number assigned to each teacher in the primary department. The teacher in the primary de¬ partment can manage and instruct 72 pupils with greater efficiency than the teacher of the grammar department can manage 48 pupils. In the small primary schools located in the different neighborhoods, therefore, the primary teacher may easily manage three or four classes of pupils. These may represent a difference in advancement twice as great as that in any single room of the grammar department. The question of the proper number of classes to be assigned to a teacher arises in this grade of schools. No one would think of organiz¬ ing a country school or the 2-room village school on the basis of one class to a room. It is first in the central or u graded” school, with its 8 to 12 rooms, that the question of reducing the classes in number so that each teacher shall have charge of one only. According to our St. Louis system the teachers in the grammar department (fifth, sixth, sev¬ enth, and eighth years of the pupil’s course at school) have two classes each, and one is engaged in study while the other recites. In the pri¬ mary department three and even four small classes are formed by the teacher of each room. In these remarks it is taken for granted that the style of building is not the old-fashioned type of a large study room, presided over by a principal, and with small recitation rooms opening out from it, in which the assistants hear the classes recite, when sent to them from the large room. This type of schooiliouse, invented for the purposes of the Lancasterian system has gone out of date. Since 1848 the plan has been adopted of assigning each teacher a room about 32 feet square, with 48 to 64 pupils, who do not leave the room for study or recitation, both being conducted by the teacher in charge of the 630 EDUCATION REPOET, 1891-92. room. The gain in humanizing the pupils and in rendering a milder discipline possible has been very great under this system. Formerly the assistant teachers had little to do with the discipline, which was done almost entirely by the principal, who, on the other hand, not learning to know the pupils through their recitations, had to govern them through external authority rather than through the subtle influ¬ ences which one can wield who knows the characters of his pupils thor¬ oughly. The objections to the plan of having only one class under each teacher are these: (a) It makes the class too large, so that either the recitation must be too long or else its members can not all share in the recitation; (b) it wastes the possibilities of classification by requir¬ ing the whole room to take the same lessons, when, if divided into two classes, one in advance of the other, the class intervals could be lessened one-half throughout the whole school, and as a consequence transfer from one class to another be rendered easier; (c) it is apt to destroy the force of the recitations, because the teacher, while not hearing a reci¬ tation, is helping scholars to learn their lessons or solve difficulties, and thus, to a greater or less extent, distracting the attention of the pupils from work which they ought to perform by themselves, and with all possible self-concentration and self-reliance — the consequence being that the work of criticism and analyses that should come up in the recitation is anticipated by the ill-timed assistance of the teacher dur¬ ing study hours; hence a tendency to obliterate the lines between study hour and recitation hour, and to confound them. If, then, we suppose that our village u graded school” is organized so as to give each teacher a room with two classes, the class intervals will be about as follows: Eight rooms devoted to grammar-school work (the second four years’ course for the district schools), and 400 pupils in attendance'; of these pupils one class would be in the eighth or last year of the course — 30 pupils; three classes in the seventh year, the advanced class one-half year behind the highest class in school, the second and third classes, respectively, in the first and second quarters of the seventh year’s course — 70 pupils; four classes in the sixth year’s work, one in each quarter’s work of the course — 110 pupils; seven classes in the fifth year’s work, the class intervals being from five to ten weeks — 190 pupils. The following scheme would indicate the rooms, classes, and grade of advancement of the pupils in this u graded school:” Room. First- class pupils. Course of study, j Second- class pupils. Course of study. Year. Quarter. Year. Quarter. I . 30 VIII Second . II . 20 VII Third... 25 VII Second. Ill . 25 VII First ... 25 VI Fourth. IV . - . 25 VI Third... 30 VI Second. V . B0 VI First . . . 25 V Fourth. VI . 25 V Third... 30 V Third. VII . . 25 V Second . 30 V Second. VIII . . 25 V First . . . 30 V First. CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 631 We liave not indicated a high-school course in this school system. Its normal size would be about 70 pupils. These dividing into four classes to correspond to the four years’ course, could not be subdivided, for subdivision of classes ought not to take place unless the number in the class is greater than 30, except in those cases where the class inter¬ vals would be greater than one year. In the above graded school course, perhaps it would be found necessary to subdivide the class of 30 who are in the eighth year or grade. In order to explain my use of the technical expressions “ year” and “quarter,” I will state that at the National Educational Association in August, 1874, a conventional grading scheme was adopted by the school superintendents in order to measure the progress in the course of study, and afford a convenient technique for expressing it. District- school course. - - - - - j High-school course. Primary-school department. | Grammar-school department. ■ I I II r m ! iv v ! VI | VII VIII I 1 II 1 Ill j IV year year I year j year year I year 1 year 1 year year year year year or or | or I or or or 1 or or 1 or or or ! or senior grade. grade. | grade. ■ grade. grade. ! i grade. grade. 1 grade. | ; l class. class. ] ! class. class. 4. The per cent of pupils in the entire system that are enrolled in the high-school course of study varies from 2 to 5 per cent (Chicago, 2 per cent; St. Louis, 2f per cent; New Bedford, 4 per cent; Boston, 5 per cent). Hence in school systems enrolling 5,000 pupils and upwards, per annum, the high school enrolls 200 or more pupils, as the percentage of high-school pupils is usually larger for small cities. The ratio of pupils who enter the high school and remain to enter the second year, is 57 per cent; to enter the third year, 36 per cent; to enter the senior class, 25 per cent. At this ratio there would be about 100 pupils in the class entering the high school. These could not all recite in one class, and would be divided into three, or, perhaps, four divisions. According to our principle; “ Have as many degrees of advancement in a school as there are different classes or divisions for recitations.” We may accordingly find our high-school classes ranking as follows: I. Senior class . 24 members, one division. II. Third-year class _ 36 members, two divisions, half-year intervals, III. Second-year class. ..56 members, two divisions, half-year intervals. IV. First-year class . 90 members, three divisions, quarter to half-year intervals. The only ground that can be alleged for desiring to avoid these class intervals and reduce all to the standard of the year interval is found in the fact that the high-school course usually admits elective courses or studies which are not difficult to arrange when the class is so large that a full division can be made up on any one of the elective studies or courses, but with a small class split up by election of various courses, the arrangement becomes impossible without an extremely large and expensive corps of teachers. This objection may be met by cur¬ tailing the elective studies and constructing a rational course of study. Such an attempt has been made by the committee on course of study 632 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. in our schools. All pupils are obliged to take Latin during the first two years of the high- school course. Election of studies is allowed to some extent, but is limited by a rule prescribing the minimum number that may form a class in an elective study. In this organization of schools, the plan of class intervals of less than a year may exist in all the classes except the highest. When the number in the high-school course exceeds 5003 the senior class will con¬ sist of two or more divisions and should graduate at intervals of half a year. The matter of graduation from the high school is not, however, so important. It is easy to bring all the divisions together in the third year of the course by adding something to the extremely valuable cul¬ ture studies of that year, so that those who get ready to take the stud¬ ies of the senior class before the close of the year may take up an extra amount of work to occupy them until the end of the year. For the first two years of the high-school course the class intervals should by all means be less than a year if those classes are subdivided into two or more divisions. The question may arise, how shall we introduce the plan of shorter class intervals into the high school. This question would be asked in the presence of a system whose course of study has been rigidly u nailed to the calendar,’7 so that each pupil was supposed to complete the work of his grade just at the time of the annual examination and at no other time, and if he lacked some little time of completing his year’s work — say one week or one month — then he should simply be consigned to the next class below, and continue a year longer on the work of the grade. Attention must be called to the fact that this correspondence of the progress of the class in the course of study with the calendar indicates violence. Such correspondence is not natural and can not be reached or maintained, except by holding back pupils already advanced or by cramming pupils who are not up to the standard. If the natural causes are allowed to work, class intervals will appear everywhere, so that no two divisions will be at the same degree of advancement in their work. What I would lay stress on is this: Never try to bring the degree of advancement of any two classes or divisions to the same exact standard or to standards exactly a year or multiple of years apart. Rather encourage the organization of classes at intervals of less than a year apart, so that reorganization of classes for economical reasons, or for purposes of better classification, may be made at any time without inconvenience. This can be done easily when the classes are only six or ten weeks apart, but not easily when they are a year apart. The actual test of advancement of a pupil is maturity or ability to go on with the work given him. It is safe to say that even in a country school of 60 pupils there are no 2 of exactly the same advancement, although it is probable that there are eight years of school work between the advancement of the highest and that of the lowest. Now, classifi¬ cation is at all times a merely relative and arbitrary affair. In the CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 633 school of 60 the first class in arithmetic may include any number from 1 to 10, perhaps. If it has 10 it is likely that there will be a difference in qualifications of from two to three years in actual advancement, and the consequence will be that while the lowest will be dragged beyond their powers, if they are really compelled to do the work, the most advanced will feel no pressure except that of their own caprice. With¬ out looking at their lessons they will easily lead the class. Hence they will lose that valuable discipline of the will which comes of a feeling of responsibility and the necessity of making persistent and regular exertions. The ever-repeated experience in such schools is the loss of all hold on the pupil’s mental habits by the teacher except what he can get by a little individual instruction. Classification in large schools, though still arbitrary, becomes approximately exact. It always happens that there is no strongly marked line between the lowest of the class and the highest of the class next below. Where there is a year’s interval of school work between the classes, it always happens that the interval between the highest and lowest in the class is less than the interval between the lowest in rank of the upper class and the highest in rank of the lower. Bearing in mind this relative nature of classification one can easily see the importance of having small intervals between classes. The ques¬ tion of economy here meets the question of classification. The classes ought not to be below a certain size; 20 to 30 pupils should be in each class; the less the intervals between them the better. In a country school of 40 pupils of all grades the size of classes is so seriously limited by intervals of advancement that little else than individual instruction is the result and the time and energy of the teacher is dissipated. In enumerating the causes which tend to render frequent reclassifi¬ cation necessary, I would lay stress upon the following: {a) Irregularity of attendance caused by sickness, by necessity of working for a living, by change of residence. To show the prevalence of this irregularity, I have taken at random the following statistics from such sources as are before me : Cities. Per cent of attendance of pupils on mini her enrolled. Cities. Per cent of attendance of pupils on number enrolled. Boston . . . . . ....... _ .... 89 Louisville 64 New Haven . 80 Cleveland . 63 Richmond (Va.) . . 76 Milwaukee . . 63 New Bedford . 75 Chicago . 61 Providence . . . . . . . 74 Pittsburg 60 Washington . . 74 Newark 58 Columbus (Ohio) . 72 Rochester 56 St. Louis . . 67 Kansas City . 55 Syracuse . 66 Albany .... _ ..... . 54 Detroit . 66 Baltimore . . . . 54 Indianapolis . . . 65 New York . 54 Worcester . 64 Jersey City. . 48 About two-thirds of the entire number are in attendance at a given time it would seem. Upon return to school, after a period of absence, 634 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. the pupil has the opportunity of falling back into a class one year behind or of overtaking the class he left by making extraordinary effort. ( b ) Time of commencing school. Nearly one-lialf of the youngest pupils begin their school life in the spring instead of the fall, and con¬ sequently their class interval is three-fourths of a year behind the class that entered in the fall before. ( c ) Then there is the difference in temperament and character — the slow and the swift, the weak and the strong, the careless and the earnest, the mature and the immature, the industrious and the indolent. Start all together, and these causes will soon make a great difference. It is evident that with small class intervals reassignment of any of these pupils who have lost their standing in their classes is an easy matter. The system of small class intervals only takes advantage of the necessary division into classes, and would not have new divisions formed simply for the sake of making short intervals. Pupils that are irregular in attendance, or that begin school in the middle of the year, or that are immature, have to be dealt with even under the old systems, and is it possible to deal with them satisfactorily? They form nearly or quite one-third of all the pupils enrolled. There is a perpetual diminution of pupils in the higher grades, occasioned by final withdrawal from school, and, on the other hand, there is a perpetual accession of numbers from below. Not to readjust periodically would leave the classes of the high-priced and most expe¬ rienced teachers very small, while the classes of the teachers of least experience and smallest salaries would be filled to overflowing, and it often happens that pupils are refused for want of room in these grades when there is much room in the upper grades. Instead of adjusting this at the end of the year, let it be done as often as needed by promoting a few of the best pupils in each class to the next higher. This will not (a) isolate the poor pupils by them¬ selves, for into each class the best pupils will come from below; (b) nor will it fill the upper classes with brilliant, superficial, precocious children, for the test of promotion will be maturity — ability to do the work of the higher class, and if any other standard is used the evil will speedily correct itself, inasmuch as the immature pupils thus pro¬ moted will remain at the bottom of the higher class, and will not get promoted again until after they are rejoined by the rest of their class; ( c ) nor will it on an average cause pupils to change teachers any oftener than the old system. In fact, unless withdrawal from school in the upper grades makes room for the transfer of pupils, they can not be transferred from one teacher to another, but the readjustment must be effected in part by assigning incompetent pupils to lower classes. The actual depletion of upper grades, including the high school, however, is sufficient to allow of the u sifting-up process” to a sufficient degree to make all needed adjustments. If each teacher has two classes, and CLASSIFICATION IN GRADED SCHOOLS. 635 one-fourtli of each class is promoted and joined to the next every ten weeks, the average stay of each pupil in her room will be two years; if one-third is promoted each time, one year and a half will be the average stay under each teacher. The maturest and ablest pupils will stay a less time than the average, while the immature and weak will stay for a longer time. The maturest and ablest pupils need less indi¬ vidual help and less psychological study of their idiosyncrasies on the part of the teacher. Of course it is understood that these promotions are followed by a review of studies on the part of all classes into which promotions are made. Frequent reviews are essential to thorough work and essential to teach pupils how to study. Under this system of small class intervals and frequent opportunities for promotion, there is not so much high pressure and cramming, nor, consequently, so much danger to the health of pupils. If the pupil does not get into the high school on this occasion, ten weeks more are soon passed, and a review of his studies for that length of time will not seem unreasonable. If he is very thorough he will overtake many of his former companions who will lose ten weeks for one cause or another, in their future course. This frequency of examinations for admission to the high school is not based on the expectation that every grammar school will graduate a class each quarter, for that would indeed imply too much change of teachers; but each grammar school will send one or two classes a year and at such times in the year as they are prepared, at one time, at the close of the first quarter; and then again perhaps at the close of the third quarter, just as it may happen; but there will be enough pupils admitted to the high school at the close of each quarter to form one or more new divisions. Reclassification does not mean a thorough reorganization of classes. It may take place on the promotion of one, two, or a dozen pupils from one class to the next. The system here recommended is designed pur¬ posely to prevent such complete reorganizations as are necessary when a class changes teachers and is divided and united with other classes. It substitutes a gradual process for such violent measures. This system has been in practice in St. Louis and Chicago and other Western cities, so far as lower grades are concerned, for at least twenty years. The effect of the high school examination coming once a year was, however, to prevent the application of the system in the highest grades of the district school. The object of the present discussion is to bring out the merits of the system as one to be universally applied throughout all grades of common schools. [From the St. Louis SpMjo] ijeptmhef 18?4-?7o’*by W. T. Harris, superintendent.] .. . •*•..%* .• In St. Louis tlfepeVis'no attempt to brfhg^&ll classes within the same grade to one'^tairdard of advancement, so'that^c. g., in January, all pupils within a-’ given grade shall have arrived *jat ‘just the same point . 636 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. in a study. At all times there are new classes just beginning the work of a grade, or year’s work, in some one of onr schools. The classes are not separated by intervals of one year in their work, but by irregular intervals varying from six weeks to twenty. It is con¬ sidered desirable to have these intervals small, so that reclassification may be more easily managed. Pupils who fall behind their class for any reason (such as absence, lack of physical strength or of mental ability) may be reclassified with the next lower class without fall¬ ing back a year and thereby becoming discouraged. Pupils who are unusually bright or mature may be promoted to the class above, or form new classes with the slower pupils of the class above who need to review their work. Thus it happens that in a district school there is a continued process going on, the elements of which are as follows : (1) The older and more advanced pupils are leaving school for business or other causes. This depletes the classes of the most skillful and best paid teachers who are usually placed in charge of the most advanced pupils. Again, there is at all times of the year an influx, into the lower grades, of pupils who have just completed their sixth or seventh year and are now anxious to begin their school career. Thus the pupils in the primary rooms of our schools tend continually to be overcrowded. (2) To correct this continued tendency which over¬ crowds the rooms of the least skillful and poorest paid teachers and gives small quotas of pupils to the most skillful and best paid teachers, from time to time (usually once in ten weeks, but oftener in some schools), each class is sifted and its most promising pupils united with what remains of the next higher class (i. e., with the not-promising portion of it — those who, for absence, or dull intellect, or weak wills, fail to keep up with the best). (3) To make room for this transfer, a portion of the highest class is sent to the branch high schools. (4) The number changed from class to class is usually small. The disturb¬ ance in classes is very slight, compared with the advantages gained by the teacher in being relieved of the necessity to drive the laggards and drill and cram them to make them keep up with the average of the class. The teacher was once obliged to spend most of her time upon the dull ones in the useless endeavor to force them to make up lost time or to equal the strides of the more mature, more regular, or more brilliantly gifted pupils, and, of course, these latter pupils lost proportionately, and the net result of the process was to overwork the incompetent and to hold back the competent ones. The teacher, in the vain effort to hold together the extremes of her class, separating more widely every day till the end of the year, became cross and petulant, and sank continually into the abyss of drill-machine pedagogy. Under our present system we can make roo.m, when needed, in the lower grades, and fill up thq classes of out? skillful and high-priced teachers. « v , * FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY DATE DUE 27372 L111.A3 O O VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY *1891-092,001 9346 00027372 4 L 111 • A3 v. 1 U*S. Bureau of Education Annual report, 1891-92