Villanova College VILLANOVA, PENNSYLVANIA LIBRARY L 111 Class .*3 . 1390-91, v . 2 Accession 27371 REPORT [ Whole Number 208 OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR re EDUCATION MAR 2 8 2013 400 telARYLMu WASHINGTONOC. 2020H THE YEAR 1890-’91 Volume 2. CO^T^YINTINTO- PARTS II J^JSTJD III. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. Ml .Ft 3 ^ ^ CONTENTS OF VOLUME 2. PART II. Chapter XYIIE.— Name Eegister. Page. Chief State school officers . . 655 List of city superintendents.....;. _ .......... . . . . . . 657 College presidents . 665 Chapter XIX.— History and Status of Public Kindergartens and Ecoles Gardiennes in Several European Countries. Belgium . . . . . . . . 676 Switzerland . . 700 Geimany ...... . . . . . . . 705 Prance.. . 721 Italy . 743 England . 750 India... . 768 Madras . 775 Tables exhibiting growth of kindergartens in the United States . 777 Chapter XX.— Statistical Summaries of City Public Schools. .Population and school enrollment and attendance in cities containing over 8,000 inhabitants _ 785 Supervising officers, teachers, property, and expenditures . 786 Chapter XXI.— Secondary Schools. Introduction . . . . . 789 Summary of statistics of public high shools for 1890-’91 . 792 Summary of statistics of private secondary schools for 1890-’91 . . 794 Summary -of statistics of students iD each branch of study in public high schools . 801 Summary of statistics of students in each branch of study in private secondary schools . 804 Finances of public high schools. •= . 811 Libraries and value of property of private secondary schools . 812 Chapter XXII.— Higher Education. Summary of statistics of universities and colleges : Number of colleges for males and of coeducational colleges . 813 Professors and instructors . . . 816 Students . 817 Students in the several degree courses . 820 Residence of students . 822 Ratio of college students to the population of the States in which they reside; ratio of col¬ lege students to the population of the States in which they attend college . 827 Benefactions and libraries . 828 Degrees in letters, science, and philosophy conferred in 1890-’91 . 829 Honorary degrees conferred in 1890-’91 . - 831 Summary of statistics of colleges for women . 831 Scholarships . . . . _ 835 University extension . 843 Latin pronunciation in universities and colleges . . 852 2 7 3-1 1 hi IV CONTENTS OF VOLUME 2. Chapter XXIII.— Professional Schools. Page. Graduation and license . - . . 865 Endowed chairs in professional schools . 866 Scholarships and fellowships . - . 867 Degrees conferred by technological schools in 1890-’91 . . . 868 State aid . 870 Benefactions . 871 Personnel and attendance . 871 Summary of statistics of professional schools : Schools of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, for nurses, and for veterinarians . 873 Schools of theology . 877 Schools of law . 878 Schools for training teachers, supported hy public funds . . 879 Schools for training teachers, not supported hy public funds . 880 Chapter XXIV.— Education in Southwestern Virginia . 881 Chapter XXV _ Deport on Education in Alaska. Dumber and general condition of the schools of Alaska . 923 Introduction of domestic reindeer into Alaska . 945 Chapter XXVI.— Education of the Colored Dace . 961 Chapter XXVII.— Class Intervals in City Public Schools. Introduction . . . 981 Quotations showing the several methods of arrangement of class intervals . 984 Condensed replies to questions . . . .. 1003 Statistics of class intervals in the several grades in city public-school systems . 1004 Chapter XXVIII.— Educational Statistics. Deports made to the Department of Superintendence of the Rational Educational Association by its committee on school statistics . 1011 Deport made at the Brooklyn meeting, February, 1892 . 1013 Examination of the essential elements of statistics of primary instruction . 1020 Chapter XXIX.— Discussion of Current Educational Questions. Education . 1031 Higher education . 1038 Health of school children . 1042 Kindergartens . 1046 Methods of instruction . 1048 Private and p ar ochial s chools . 1050 Public schools . 1051 Deligious and moral training . 1052 Dural schools . 1053 Scientific alliance of New York . 1058 Teachers . 1075 Township system . 1076 Vacations . 1079 ,'. t> . James Lonergan, s. J . R. C. Jones, ll. d . Theo. B. Comstock, sc. d . . John W. Conger, a. m . Eugene R. Long, ph. d . A. C. Millar, a. m . M. L. Curl, d. d . Thomas Mason, a. m., d. d Martin Kellogg, a. m . Wm. Henslee, a. b . W. C. Sawyer, pii. d., acting pres. James C. Keith, a. b . A. J. Meyer, c. m . J. N. Beard, d. d . S. B. Morse, n. d. . . Brother Cianan . D. S. Jordan, ph. d., ll. d Henry Imoda, s. J . John Pinasco, s. J . D. C. Kelley, d. d . . J. P. Widney, a. m., m. d . J. G. Huber . A. M. Elston, a. m . James H. Baker, ll. d . Wm. F. Slocum, jr., a. b . Henry M. Goodell, a. m . Wm.F. McDowell, ph.d., s. t. b. George W. Smith, d. d., ll. d . . B. P. Raymond, d. d., ll. d . Timothy Dwight, d. d., ll. d , . Albert N. Raub, ph. d . James C. Welling, ll. d . J. Havens Richards, s. J . Jeremiah E. Rankin, d. d., ll. d E. M. Gallaudet, ph. d., ll. d .. John F. Forbes, ph. d . W. F. Melton, a. m . George M. Edgar, ll. d . J. H. Ford, a. m., acting pres. . . Wm. E. Boggs, D. D., ll. d . Horace Bumstead, d. d . Frank J. Amis, b. s . Lamont Gordon, B. s . . . . . C. B. La Hatte, ph. d . G. A. Nunnally, d. d . . W. A. Candler, d. d . Howard College . . Southern University . La Fayette College . Lineville College.. . Scottsboro College . Selma University . Spring Hill College . University of Alabama . . University of Arizona . Ouachita Baptist College.... Arkansas College . Hendrix College . Little Rock University . Philander Smith College .... University of California .... Pierce Christian College . University of the Pacific.... East Lake, Ala. Greensboro, Ala La Fayette, Ala. Lineville, Ala. Scottsboro, Ala. Selma, Ala. Spring Hill, Ala. University, Ala. Tucson^ Ariz. Arkadeiphia, Ark. Batesville, Ark. Conway, Ark. Little Rock, Ark. Do. Berkeley, Cal. College City, Cal. College Park, Cal. Washington College . St. Vincent’s College . Southern California College . Napa College . California College. . . St. Mary’s College . Leland Stanford Junior Uni¬ versity. St. Ignatius College . Santa Clara College . Pacific Methodist College .... University of Southern Cal¬ ifornia. San Joaquin Valley College.. Hesperian College . University of Colorado . Colorado College . Presbyterian College of the Southwest. University of Denver . Trinity College . Wesleyan University . Yale University . Delaware College . Columbian University . Georgetown University . Howard University . National Deaf Mute College . John B. Stetson University .. Florida Conference College.. Seminary West of the Suwan¬ nee River. Rollins College . University of Georgia . Atlanta University . Bowdon College . Buford College . t . Gainesville College . Mercer University . Emory College . Irvington, Cal. Los Angeles, Cal. Do. Napa, Cal. Oakland, Cal. Do. Palo Alto, Cal. San Francisco, Cal. Santa Clara, Cal. Santa Rosa, Cal. University, Cal. Woodbridge, Cal. Woodland, Cal. Boulder, Colo. Colorado Spring Colo. Del Norte, Colo. University, Colo. Hartford, Conn. Middletown, Conn. New Haven, Conn. Newark, Del. Washington, D. C. Do. Do. Do. De Land, Fla. Leesburg, Fla. Tallahassee, Fla. Winter Park, Fla. Athens, Ga. Atlanta, Ga. Bowdon, Ga. Buford, Ga. Gainesville. Ga. Macon, Ga. Oxford, Ga. s, 666 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Cont/d. Name of president. University or college. Address. W. H. Hickman, D. D . Franklin B. Gault . . . J. G. Evans, d. d., ll. d . Wm. H. Wilder, a. m., d. d . M. J. Marsile, c. s. v . , . . . Clarke University . University of Idaho . Hedding College . Illinois Wesleyan University. St. Viateur’s College . . South Atlanta, Ga. Moscow, Idaho. Abingdon, Ill. Bloomington, Ill. Bourbonnais Grove Ill. > Richard Edwards, ll. d . Holmes Dysinger, d. d . Thomas J. Burrill, pii. D . Thomas S. Fitzgerald, s. J . Wm. R. Harper, ph. d., d. d - Daniel Irion . Carl Johann, a. m., ll. d . Henry W. Rogers, ll. d . J. A. Leavitt . . W. A. Pratt, a. m . J. H. Finley, a. m . John Y. N. Standish, ph. d . John E. Bradley, ph. d . John M. Coulter, ph. d., ll. d.. Thomas H. Herdman, d. d . A. E. Turner, a. m . . J. B. McMichael, D. d . H. J. Kiekhoefer, A. M . B. W. Baker, A. M . A. Mueller, o. s. f . . Olof Olsson . Nicholas Leonard, o. s. f . A. A. Hendrick, d. d . . W. H. Klinefelter, a. m . Chas A. Blanchard . Geo. S. Burroughs, ph.d., d. d.. Andrew Baepler . T. C. Reade, a. m . William T. Stott, d. d . John P. D. John, d. d . D. W. Fisher, d. d., ll. d . W. H. Davis . Scot Butler, a. m . L. J. Aldrich, a. m., d. d . John H. Martin, a. m., d. d _ Thomas E. Walsh, c. s. c . Joseph J. Mills, a. m., ll. d _ F. E. Knopf . Fintan Mundwiler, o. s. b . James Marshall, a. m., d. d _ Frederick Schaub, a. m _ .... W. W. Chandler, ph. d . Wm. S. Perry, d. d.,ll. d.,d.c.l. Laur. Larsen . . . H. L. Stetson, d. d . G. T. Carpenter, a. m., ll. d _ Ambrose C. Smith, D. D . John W. Bissel, a. m., d. d . George A. Gates . Alexander G. Wilson, d. d . Fletcher Brown, a. m., b. d _ Charles A. Schaeffer, ph. d Frederick Munz . C. L. Stafford, d. d . Wm. F. King, ll. d . Blackburn University . Carthage College . University of Illinois . St. Ignatius College . University of Chicago . Evangelical Proseminary.... Eureka College . Northwestern University.... Ewing College . Northern Illinois College.... Knox College . Lombard University . Illinois College . Lake Forest University . McKendree College . Lincoln University . Monmouth College. . Northwestern College . Chaddock College . St. Francis Solunus College.. Augustana College . St. Joseph’s Diocesan College Shurtleff College . . Westfield College . Wheaton College . Indiana University . Wabash College . Indiana Normal University.. Concordia College . Taylor University . Franklin College . De Pauw University . Hanover College . Hartsville College . Butler University . Union Christian College .... Moore’s Hill College . . University of Notre Dame... Earlham College . Ridgeville College . . St. Meinrad’s College . Coe College . German English College .... Amity College . Griswold College . Luther College . Des Moines'College . Drake University . Parsons College . Upper Iowa University . Iowa College . Lenox College . Simpson College . State University of Iowa ... . German College . Iowa Wesleyan University .. Cornell College . Carlin ville, Ill. Carthage, Ill. Champaign, Ill. Chicago, Ill. Do. Elmhurst, HI. Eureka, 111. Evanston, Ill. Ewing, Ill. Fulton, Ill. Galesburg, Ill. Do. Jacksonville, Ill. Lake Forest, Ill. Lebanon, Ill. Lincoln, Ill. Monmouth, Ill. Naperville, Ill. Quincy, Ill. Do. Rock Island, Ill. Teutopolis, Ill. Upper Alton, Ill. Westfield. Ill. Wheaton, Ill. Bloomington, Ind. Crawfords ville, Ind. Evansville, Ind. Fort W ayne, Ind. Do. Franklin, Ind. Greencastle, Ind. Hanover, Ind. Hartsville, Ind. Irvington, Ind. Merom, Ind. Moore’s Hill, Ind. Notre Dame, Ind. Richmond, Ind. Ridgeville, Ind. St. Meinrad, Ind. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Charles City, Iowa. College Springs, Iowa. Davenport, Iowa. Decorah, Iowa. Des Moines, Iowa. Do. Fairfield, Iowa. Fayette, Iowa. Grinnell, Iowa. Hopkinton, Iowa. Indianola, Iowa. Iowa City, Iowa. Mount Pleasant, Iowa. Do. Mount Vernon, Iowa. NAME REGISTER. 667 I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Cont’d. Name of president. A. M. Haggard, a. m . . Absalom Rosenberger, a. b., LL. B . John Stuart, b. d., ph. d . Wilmot Whitfield, d. d . John M. Linn, a. m . Wm. M. Brooks, A.M . A. M. Beni, a. m . George Grossmann . Jacob A. Clutz, d. D . — . Innocent Wolf, O.'S. B., D.D - Wrm. A. Qnayle, a. m . J. D. Hewitt, d. d . J. A. Weller, d. d . . . Albert B. Irwin, a. m . E. J. Hoenshel . F. H. Snow, PH. D., LL. D . C. M. Brooke, a. m . . . C. A. Swensson, A. M . F. W. Colegrave, a. m . . Henry J. Yotel, s. J . Aaron Schuyler, ll. d . . . . F. M. Spencer, d. d . Peter McYicar, a. m., h. d . Edward T. Mathes, b. s . Milton E. Phillips, d. d . Wm. G. Frost, ph. d . . Wm. A. Obenchain, a. m . W. C. Young, d. d . W. S, Giltner, a. m . D. F. Boyd . , . R. M. pudley, d. D . . A. C. Kuykendall . J. C. Gordon, b. s . Charles L. Loos . Chas. E. Stoaks, a. m . L. H. Blanton, d. d . W. S. Ryland, d. d . David Fennessy . . E. M. Coleman . D. W. Batson, a. m . J. W. Nicholson, a. m . James H. Blenk, s. m . ¥/. L. C. Hunnicutt, d. d . C. W. Tomkies . . . D. McKiniry, s. J . E. C. Mitchell, d. d . . . L. G. Adkinson, D. d . Oscar Atwood, a. m . Wm. P. Johnston, ll. d . William De Witt Hyde, d. d. . . Oren B. Cheney, d. d . B. L. Whitman, a. m . Thomas Fell, ph. d., ll. d . D. C. Gilman, ll. d . Francis J. Wagner, d. d . John A. Morgan, s. j . Charles W. Reid, ph. d . University or college. Oskaloosa College Penn College . Address. Oskaloosa, Iowa. Do. Central University of Iowa.. University of the Northwest- ■ Buena Vista College . Tabor College . . Western College . Wartburg College . Midland College . St. Benedict’s College . Baker University . College of Emporia . Central College . Highland University . Campbell University . University of Kansas . Lane University . Bethany College . Ottawa University.... . St. Mary’s College . Kansas Wesleyan University. Cooper Memorial College . .. . Washburn College . Garfield Central Memorial University. Wichita University . Southwest Kansas College . . Berea College . Ogden College . Centre College . . . Eminence College . . Kentucky Military Institute. Georgetown College . South Kentucky College .... Garrard College. . . . Kentucky University . Hopkins College . Central University . Bethel College . St. Mary's College . West Kentucky Classical and Normal College. Kentucky Wesleyan College. Louisiana State University.. Jefferson College . Centenary College of Louisi¬ ana. Keachie College . College of the Immaculate Conception. Leland University . New Orleans University . Straight University . Tulane University . Bowdoin College . Bates College . Colby University . St. John’s College . Johns Hopkins University... Loyola College . Morgan College . Washington College . Pella, Iowa. Sioux City, Iowa. Storm Lake, Iowa. Tabor, Iowa. Toledo, Iowa. Waverly, Iowa. Atchison, Ivans. Do. Baldwin, Kans. Emporia, Kans. Enterprise, Kans. Highland, Kans. Holton, Kans. Lawrence, Kans. Lecompton, Kans. Lindsborg, Kans. Ottawa, Kans. St. Mary’s, Kans. Salina, Ivans. Sterling, Kans. Topeka, Kans. Wichita, Kans. Do. Winfield, Kans. Berea, Ky. Bowling Green, Ky. Danville, Ky. Eminence, Ky. Farmdale, Ky. Georgetown, Ky. Hopkinsville, Ky. Lancaster, Ky. Lexington, Ky. Madisonville, Ky. Richmond, Ky. Russellville, Ky, St. Mary’s, Ky. South Carrollton, Ky. Winchester, Ky. Baton Rouge, La. Convent, La. Jackson, La. Keachie, La. New Orleans, La. Do. Do. Do. Do.- Brunswick, Me. Lewiston, Me. Waterville, Me. Annapolis, Md. Baltimore, Md. Do. Do. Chestertown, Md. 668 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Cont’d. Name of president. Brother Denis.. . F. L. M. Dumont, d. d . Edward P. Allen, d. d . A. M. Jelly, d. d . Thomas H. Lewis, a. m., d. d. Merrill E. Gates, ph. d., ll. d. University or college. Address. . Rock Hill College . . - St. Charles College . . Mount St. Mary’s College _ . New Windsor College . . Western Maryland College .. , Amherst College . Ellicott City, Md. Do. Mount St.Mary’s, Md. New Windsor, Md. Westminster, Md. Amherst, Mass. L. H. D. Edward I. Devitt, S. J . William F. Warren, ll. d . Charles W. Eliot, ll. d . Calvin E. Amaron, a. m., b. d . . Elmer H. Capen, d. d . Franklin Carter, ph. d., ll. d. . G. Stanley Hall, ph. d., ll. d . . Michael A. O’Kane, s. J . J. F. McCulloch, a. M., ph. b . . . L. R. Fiske, d. d., ll. d . August F. Bruske, d. d . James B. Angell, ll. d . Wm. W. Prescott, a. m . . S. B. Harvey, a. m . M. P. Dowling, s. J . Daniel Fuleomer, A. M . George F. Mosher, ll. d . Charles Scott, d. d . A. G. Slocum, ll. D . W. G. Sperry . Bernard Locnikar, o. s. b . George H. Bridgman, d. d . Georg Sverdrup . Cyrus Northrop, ll. d . O. Hoyer . James W. Strong, d. d . Thorhjdrn N. Mohn . Franz L.Nngler, d. d . Matthias Wahlstrom, a. m .... Gideon A. Burgess, a. m . R. A. Venable, D. d. . . 1 . Ben. M. Drake . C. A. Huddleston, a.m .... . Charles E. Libby, s. t. d . Robert B. Fulton, a. m . W. H. Pritchett, a. m . R. E^L. Burks, a. m . Will. Z. Long, a. m . Simpson Ely, a. m . Francis V. Nugent . Salem G. Pattison . Richard H. Jesse, ll. d . W. H. Lowry, b. l . J . D. Hammond, d. d . Wm. Hoge Marquess . Chas. C. Hemenway . J. H. Selden, a. m . W. B. Anderson, a. m., ph. d . . . J. F. Cook, A. M., ll. d . E. McNair, a. m . J. P. Greene, d. d . Boston College . Boston University . Harvard University . French Protestant College. .. Tufts College . Williams College . Clark University . College of the Holy Cross . . . Adrian College . Albion College . Alma College . University of Michigan . Battle Creek College . Benzonia College . Detroit College . Western Michigan College .. Hillsdale College . Hope College . Kalamazoo College . Olivet College . St. John’s University . Hamline University . Augsburg Seminary . University of Minnesota . Dr. Martin Luther College.. . Carleton College . St. Olaf College . Macalester College . St. Paul’s College . Gustavus Adolphus College.. Parker College . Mississippi College . Cooper Normal College . Hunt and Huddleston Col¬ lege. Rust University . . University of Mississippi .... Northwest Missouri College. Southwest Baptist College .. Pike College . Christian University . St. Vincent’s College . Carthage Collegiate Insti¬ tute. University of the State of Missouri. Grand River College . Central College . Westminster College . Pritchett School Institute .. . Ozark College . Western College . La Grange College . Lawson Presbyterian College William Jewell College . Boston, Mass. Do. Cambridge, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Tufts College, Mass. Willamstown, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Do. Adrian, Mich. Albion, Mich. Alma, Mich. Ann Arbor, Mich . Battle Creek, Mich. Benzonia, Mich. Detroit, Mich. Grand Rapids, Mich. Hillsdale, Mich. Holland, Mich. Kalamazoo, Mich. Olivet, Mich. College ville, Minn. Hamline, Minn. Minneapolis, Minn. Do. New Ulm, Minn. Northfield, Minn. Do. St. Paul, Minn. St. Paul Park, Minn. St. Peter, Minn. Winnebago City, Minn. Clinton, Miss. Dale ville, Miss. Harperville, Miss. Holly Springs, Miss. University, Miss. Albany, Mo. Bolivar, Mo. Bowling Green, Mo. Canton, Mo. Cape Girardeau, Mo. Carthage, Mo. Columbia, Mo. Edinburg, Mo. Fayette, Mo. Fulton, Mo. Glasgow, Mo. Greenfield, Mo. La Belle, Mo. La Grange, Mo. Lawson, Mo. Liberty, Mo. NAME REGISTER. 669 I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts— Cont?d. Name of president. University or college. Wm, H. Black, d. d . J. B. Ellis . C. C. Woods, d. d . L. M. McAfee . James A. Lanins . Brother Paulian, f. s. c . Joseph Grimmelsman, s. J . Wintield S. Chaplin, a. m . T. E. Peters, a. b . . J. A. Thompson, a. m . F. A. Z. Kumler, a. m . H. A. Koch, d. d . James Reid, a. b . David R. Kerr, ph. d., d. d . David R. Dnngan, a. m . David B. Perry, a. m . O. C. Hubbell, a. m . James H. Canfield, a. m _ ... H. K. Warren, a. m . James F. X. Hceffer, s. J . Charles F. Creighton, d. d . J. George, a. m . Stephen A. Jones, ph. d . W. J. Tucker, d. d . Cornelius Ecke, 0. S. B - .... Austin Scott, ph. d., ll. d . Francis L. Patton, d. d., ll. d . Wm. F. Marshall, a. m . F. H. G,uicheteau, s. p. m . Arthur E. Main, d. d . Joseph F. Butler, o. s. f. . . Robert B. Fairbairn, d. d.,ll. d David H. Cochran, ph. d.,ll. d. Brother Jerome, o. s.f . J. A. Hartnett, c. m . John I. Zahm, S. J . Alpheus B. Hervey, ph. d . M. Woolsey Stryker, d. d . John Scully, s. J . . . Eliphalet N. Potter, s. t. d., ll. d., d. c. L. N. L. Andrews . Jacob G. Schurman, sc. d., ll. D. George H. Ball, d. d . Wm. O’B. Pardow, s. J . Alexander S. Webb, ll. d . . Seth Low, ll. d . Brother Anthony . H. M. MacCracken, d. d., ll. d. P. V. Kavanagh, c. M . David J. Hill, ll. d . Harrison E. Webster, ll. d _ Chas. N. Sims, r>. d., ll. d . George T. Winston, ll. d . D. J. Sanders, d. d . Missouri Valley College . Morris ville College . Scarritt Collegiate Institute . Park College . St. Charles College . College of the Christian Brothers. St. Louis University . Washington University . Shelbina Collegiate Institute Drury College . Tarkio College . Avalon College . Central Wesleyan College ... College of Montana . University of Omaha . Cotner University . Doane College . Fairfield College . University of Nebraska . Gates College . Creighton University . Nebraska Wesleyan Univer- sity. York College . . . State University of Nevada.. Dartmouth College . St. Benedict’s College . Rutgers College . College of New Jersey . Seton Hall College . College of the Sacred Heart. . Alfred University . . . St. Bonaventure’s College . . . St. Stephen’s College . Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn. St. Francis College . St. John’s College . Canisius College . St. Lawrence University . Hamilton College . St. John’s College . Hobart College . Colgate University . Cornell University . Keuka College . College of St. Francis Xavier. College of the City of New York. Columbia College . Manhattan College . University of the City of New York. Niagara University . University of Rochester . Union University . Syracuse University . University of North Carolina. Biddle University . Address. Marshall, Mo. Morris ville, Mo. Neosho, Mo. Parkville, Mo. St. Charles, Mo. St. Louis, Mo. Do. Do. Shelbina, Mo. Springfield, Mo. Tarkio, Mo. Trenton, Mo. Warrenton, Mo. Deer Lodge, Mont. Bellevue, Nebr. Bethany, Nebr. Crete, Nebr. Fairfield, Nebr. Lincoln, Nebr. Neligh, Nebr. Omaha, Nebr. University Place, Nebr. York, Nebr. Reno, Nev. Hanover, N. H. Newark, N. J. New Brunswick, N. J. Princeton, N. J. South Orange, N. J. Vineland, N. J. Alfred Center, N. Y. Allegany, N. Y. Annan dale, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Do. Do. Buffalo, N. Y. Canton, N. Y. Clinton, N. Y. Fordham, N. Y. Geneva, N. Y. Hamilton, N. Y. Ithaca, N. Y. Keuka College, N. Y. New York, N. Y. Do. Do. Do. Do. Niagara University, N. Y. Rochester, N. Y. Schenectady, N. Y. Syracuse, N. Y. Chapel Hill, N. C. Charlotte, N. C. 670 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. I. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Cont’d. Name of president. University or college. Address. J. B. Shearer, d. d., ll. d John F. Crowell, litt. d L. Lyndon Hobhs, a. m. . Davidson College Trinity College . . Guilford College . Davidson, N. C. Durham, N. C. Guilford College N.C. J. D. Shirey, a. m . . J. C. Clapp, d. d . H. M. Tupper, d. d . R. L. Ahern ethy, a. m., d, d J. C. Price, d. d . Chas. E. Taylor, d. d., litt. b . . H. F. Wogan, ph. d., d.d . Reuben A. Beard . Wm. H. Becker, ll. b . W. Merrifield, a. m . M. Y. B. Knox, d. d . Orello Cone, d. d . Tamerlane P. Marsh, d. d . D. C. Christner, d. d., ll. d _ Chas. W. Super, ph. d . Joseph E. Stubbs, d. d., ll. d.. Wm. Nast, d. d . James Rogers, c. s. c . H. A. Schapman, s. J . W. O. Sproull, PH. d., ll, D .. H. J. Ruetenik, d.d . Chas. F. Th wing, d. d . C. H. L. Schuette, a. M . Wm. H. Scott, ll. d . James W. Bashford, pii. d . J. R. H. Latchaw, d.d . Theodore Sterling, ll. d . Orvon G. Brown, a. m . D. B. Purinton, a. m., ll. d _ Fenton Gall, b. s . . . Ely Y. Zollars, a. m . Elmer E. Henderson . John W. Simpson, d. d . W. A. Williams, D. L> . Jesse Johnson . Wm. G. Ballantine, D. d., ll. d. Wm. O. Thompson, d. d . Geo. W. MacMillan, ph. d., d. d John M. Davis, ph. d . Wm. L. Dixon, D. D . Samuel A. Ort, d. d . John A. Peters, d. d . Thomas F. Moses, a. m., m. d Thomas J. Sanders, pii. d _ S. T. Mitchell, a. m,, ll. d . James B. Unthank, m. s . S. F. Scovcl, D. D . Daniel A. Long, d. d., ll. d. .. D. R. Boyd, a. m . D. Atkins, d.d . J. W. Johnson, a. m . Thomas McClelland, d. d . T. G. Brownson . . Thomas Newlin . Wm. S. Gilbert, a. m . George Whitaker, d. d . North Carolina College . Catawba College. . Shaw University . Rutherford College . Livingstone College . Wake Forest College . ~ Weaverville College . North Dakota University... Fargo College . Rolla University . University of North Dakota. . Red River Yalley University. Buchtel College . Mount Union College . Ashland University . Ohio University . Baldwin University . German Wallace College .... St. Joseph’s College . St. Xavier College . University of Cincinnati .... Mt. Pleasant, N. C. Newton, N. C. Raleigh, N. C. Rutherford College, N.C. Salisbury, N. C. Wake Forest, N. C. Weaverville, N. C. Bismarck, N.Dak. Fargo, N. Dak. Rolla, N. Dak. University, N. Dak. Wahpeton, N. Dak. Akron, Ohio. Alliance, Ohio. Ashland, Ohio. Athens, Ohio. Berea, Ohio. Do. Cincinnati, Ohio. Do. Do. Calvin College . Western Reserve University. Capital University . Ohio State University . Ohio Wesleyan University . . . Findlay Coilege . . . Kenyon College. .; . Twin Yalley College . Denison University . Hillsboro College . Hiram College . Hopedale Normal College _ Marietta College . Franklin College . Muskingum College . Oberlin College . . Miami University . Richmond College . Rio Grande College . Scio College . Wittenberg College . Heidelberg University . Urbana University . . Otterbeiu University . Wilberforce University . Wilmington College . University of Wooster . Antioch College . University of Oklahoma . Corvallis College . University of Oregon . Pacific University . McMinnville College . Pacific College . Philomath College . Willamette University . Cleveland, Ohio. Do. Columbus, Ohio. Do. Delaware, Ohio. Findlay, Ohio. Gambier, Ohio. Germantown, Ohio. Granville, Ohio. Hillsboro, Ohio. Hiram, Ohio. Hopedale, Ohio. Marietta, Ohio. New Athens, Ohio. New Concord, Ohio. Oberlin, Ohio. Oxford, Ohio. Richmond, Ohio. Rio Grande, Ohio. Scio, Ohio. Springfield, Ohio. Tiffin, Ohio. Urbana, Ohio. V/esterville, Ohio. Wilberforce, Ohio. Wilmington, Ohio. Wooster, Ohio. Yellow Springs, Ohio. Norman, Okla. Corvallis, Oregon. Eugene, Oregon. Forest Grove , O regon . McMinnville, Oregon. Newberg, Oregon. Philomath, Oregon. Salem, Oregon. NAME REGISTER. 671 I.— ^Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Ccmt’d. Name of president. W. J. Holland,' ph. d., d. d . Theodore L. Seip, d. d . E. B. Bierman, a. m . Leander Sehnerr . . . W. P. Johnston, a. m - George E.Reed, d. d., ll. d — . C. E. Hyatt, c.e . H. W. Super, d. d., ll. d . E. D. Warfield, ll. d . H. W. McKnigkt, d. d., ll. d. . . F. A. Muhlenberg, d. d . Isaac C. Ketler, ph. d . Isaac Sharpless. sc. d„ ll. d — Solomon F. Hogue . . John S. Stahr, ph. l>., d. d . John H. Harris, ph. d . Isaac N. Rendall, d. h. . D. H. Wheeler, r>. d., ll. d . Aaron E. Gobble, a. m . R. G. Ferguson, d. d . Henry C. Johnson, ll. d . Brother Isadore . Wm. Pepper, m. d., ll. d . E. M. Wood, D. D., ll. d . John T. Murphy, c. s. sp . Charles De Garmo, ph. d . Christopher A. McEvoy, o. s. a James I). Moffat, d. d . E. B. Andrews, x>. d., ll. d . H. E. Shepherd, a. m., ll. i> - John I. Cleland, a. m . Joseph W. Morris, a. m., ll. b . . James Woodrow, ph. d., ll. d.. W. M. Grier, d. d . Charles Manly, D. D . . G. W. Holland, ph. d., d. h . L. M. Dunton, i>, D . . . James H. Carlisle, ll. d . Wm. M. Blackburn, D. D . J. W. Handier, m. s., a. m . Wm. Brush, d. d . D. M. Evans . Joseph W. Mauck, a. m . Albert T. Free, a. m. . J. Albert Wallace, d. d. _ _ _ _ Isaac W. Joyce, d. d., ll. d _ George Summey, d. d . J. T. Pritchett . . G. M. Savage, a. m., ll. d . J. S. McCulloch, d. d . Chas. W. Dabney, jr., pii. d., LL. D. University or college. Western University of Penn¬ sylvania. Muhlenberg College . . . Lebanon Valley College . St. Vincent College.. . — Geneva College . Dickinson College _ _ _ Pennsylvania Military Acad¬ emy. Ursinus College . . . Lafayette College - - Pennsylvania College - Thiel College . Grove City College . Haverford College . . Monongahela College . Franklin and Marshall Col¬ lege. Bucknell University . Lincoln Un iversity _ _ _ St. Francis College . Allegheny College . Central Pennsylvania College Westminster College . . Central High School . La Salle College . University of Pennsylvania . Dnquesne College _ _ Holy Ghost College . . Swarthmore College - Villanova College. . Washington and Jefferson College. Brown University . College of Charleston . Presbyterian College of South Carolina. Allen University . South Carolina College _ ... Erskine College... . Furman University . Newberry College . . Chaffin U ni versi ty . . Wofford College . . Pierre University . Black Hills College . Dakota University . Red field College . University of South Dakota. . Yankton College . King College . . U. S. Grant University . Southwestern Presbyterian University. Hiwassee College . Southwestern Baptist Uni¬ versity. Knoxville College . University of Tennessee . Address. Allegheny, Pa. Allentown, Pa. Annville, Pa. Beatty, Pa. Beaver Falls, Pa. Carlisle, Pa. Chester, Pa. College ville, Pa. Easton, Pa. Gettysburg, Pa. Greenville, Pa. Urove City, Pa. Haverford College, Pa. Jefferson, Pa. Lancaster, Pa. Lewisburg, Pa. Lincoln University, Pa. Loretto, Pa. Mead ville, Pa. New Berlin, Pa. New Wilmington, Pa. Phil adelp kia, Pa. Do. Do. Pittsburg, Pa. Do. Swarthmore, Pa. Villanova, Pa. Washington, Pa. Providence, R. I. Charleston, S. C. Clinton, S. C. Columbia, S. C. Do. Due West, S. C. Greenville, S. C. Newberry, S. C. Orangeburg, S. C. Spartanburg, S. C. East Pierre, S. Dak. Hot Springs, S. Dak. Mitchell, S. Dak. Redfield, S. Dak. Vermillion, S. Dak. Yankton, S. Dak. Bristol, Tenn . Chattanooga, Tenn. Clarksville, Tenn. Hiwassee College, Tenn. Jackson, Tenn. Knoxville, Tenn. Do. 672 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. 1. — Colleges for males and coeducational colleges of liberal arts — Cont’d. Name of president. University or college. Address. N. Green, ll. d . W. B. Sherrill, a. m . S. W. Boardman, ll. d . Brother Maarelian . . . J. Hop wood, a. M . J. T. Henderson . J. Braden, D. d . E. M. Cravath, D. D . Alfred Owen, d. d . Landon C. Garland, ll. d . Thos. F. Gailor, s. t. d . AV. N. Billingsley, a. m . J. L. Bachman . Jere Moore, d. d . James T. Cooter, a. b . Leslie AVaggener, ll. d . A. J. Emerson, a. m., d. d . Oscar L. Fisher, a. m., b. d . Theobald AV. Butler, s. J . John H. McLean, a. m., d. d ... A. T. Seitz . P. A. Cool . S. M. Luckett, d. d . B. D.Cockrill . . Addison Clark . R. C. Burleson, d. d., ll. d . I. M. Burgan, d. d . Matthew H. Buckham, d. d _ Ezra Brainerd, ll. d . AVm. AV. Smith, a. m . AVra. M. Thornton, ll. d . James Atkins, a. m., d. d . Richard Mcllwaine, D. d . G. AY. C. Lee, ll. d . B. Puryear, ll. d . Julius D. Dreher, a. m., ph. d . . F. N. English, a. m . Thos. M. Gatch, ph. d . Calvin AV. Stewart, d. d . Aegidius Junger, d. d . James F. Eaton . Archibald McLean, a. m . Thomas E. Peden . E. M. Turner, ll. d . Chas. AV. Gallagher, d. d . Edward D. Eaton, d. d., ll. d. . H. A. Muehlmeier, d. d . F. P. Dalrymple . Chas. K. Adams, ll. d . AVm. C. AVhitford, a. m., d. d . . . R. J. Meyer, s. J . Rufus C. Flagg, D. D . Joseph Rainer . A. F. Ernst . A. A. Johnson, a. m., d. d . Cumberland University . Bethel College . Maryville College . . Christian Brothers’ College.. Milligan College . Carson and Newman College. Central Tennessee College. .. Fisk University . . Roger AVilliams University.. Vanderbilt University . University of the South . Burritt College . Sweetwater College . Green eville and Tusculum College. AYasliington College . University of Texas . Howard Payne College . Fort AVorth University . St. Mary’s University . Southwestern University .... Hope Institute . AViley University . Austin College . Trinity University . Add-Rann Christian Univer¬ sity. Baylor University . Paul Quinn College . University of Utah . University of Vermont . Middlebury College . Randolph-Macon College - University of Virginia . Emory and Henry College.. . Hampden-Sidney College - AVashington and Lee Univer¬ sity. Richmond College . Roanoke College . Colfax College . University of AVashington .. AVhitworth College . St. James College . AVhitman College . . . Bethany College . AVest Virginia College . AA7est Virginia University . .. Lawrence University . Beloit College . Mission House . . Gale College . . University of AVisconsin . Milton College . Marquette College . Rip on College . Seminary of St. Francis of Sales. Northwestern University University of AVyoming . Lebanon, Tenn. McKenzie, Tenn. Maryville, Tenn. Memphis, Tenn. Milligan, Tenn. Mossy Creek, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. Do. Do. Do. Sewanee, Tenn. Spencer, Tenn. Sweetwater, Tenn. Tusculum, Tenn. AA7ashington College, Tenn. Austin, Tex. Brownwood, Tex. Fort AVorth, Tex. Galveston, Tex. Georgetown, Tex. Italy, Tex. Marshall, Tex. Sherman, Tex. . Tehuacana, Tex. Thorp Spring, Tex. AVaco, Tex. Do. Salt Lake City, Utah. Burlington, ATt. Middlebury, Vt. Ashland, Va. Charlottesville, Ara. Emory, V a. Hampden-Sidney, Va. Lexington, Va. Richmond, Va. Salem, A7a. Colfax, AA7ash. Seattle, AVash. Sumner, AVash. Vancouver, AVash. AValla AValla, AVash. Bethany, AV. A7a. Flemington, AV. A7a. MorgnntoAvn, AV. Va. Appleton, AAis. Beloit, AVis. Franklin, AATis. Galesville, AVis. Madison, AVis. Milton, AVis. Milwaukee, AVis. Ripon, AVis. St. Francis, AVis. AVatertown, AA7is- Laramie, AVyo. NAME REGISTER. 673 II. — Colleges for women. Name of president. College. Address. Howard W. Key, a. m., ph. d . . . A. B. Jones, D. d., ll. d . J. D. Anderson . S. W. Averett . Jas. D. Wade, a.m . P. P. Winn, a. m . Horace H. Epes, a. m . Alonzo Hill, a. m . John Massey, ll. d . Mrs. C. T. Mills . Sister Amclie de St. Joseph . . . Martha E. Chase . Miss M. Rutherford . P. S.Twitty . . . G. J. Orr . Rev. James E. Powell . A. W. Van Hoose . Rufus W. Smith, a. m . Chas. C. Cox . Wm. C. Bass . J. Harris Chappell . A. J. Battle, d. d., ll. d . John E. Baker . . . W. F. Short, d. d . E. F. Bullard, a. m . C. W. Leffingwell, d. d . Sarah F. Anderson . . . J. F. Hendy, d. d . Elisha S. Thomas, s. t. d . Benj. F. Cabell . Miss C. A. Campbell . . . J. J. Rucker, ll. d . Athens Female College . Huntsville Female College .. Huntsville Female Seminary. Judson Female Institute .... Marion Female Seminary. . . . Isbell College . Central Female College . Tuskaloosa Female College.. Alabama Conference Female College. Mills College . College of Notre Dame . Santa Rosa Seminary . Lucy Cobb Institute . Andrew Female College . Dalton Female College . Monroe Female College . Georgia Female Seminary . . . La Grange Female College .. Southern Female College .... Wesleyan Female College . .. Georgia Normal and Indus¬ trial College. Shorter College . Young Female College . . Illinois Female College . Jacksonville Female Acad¬ emy. St. Mary’s School . Rockford College . College for Yo ung Ladies .... College of the Sisters of Bethany. Potter College . . . Caldwell College . Georgetown Female Semi- Athens, Ala. Huntsville, Ala. Do. Marion, Ala. Do. Talladega, Ala. Tuskaloosa, Ala. Do. Tuskegee, Ala. Mills College, Cal. San Jose, Cal. Santa Rosa, Cal. Athens, Ga. Cuthbert, Ga. Dalton, Ga. Forsyth, Ga. Gainesville, Ga. La Grange, Ga. Do. Macon, Ga. Milledgeville, Ga. Rome, Ga. Thomasville, Ga. Jacksonville, Ill. Do. Knoxville, Ill. Rockford, Ill. Oswego, Kans. Topeka, Kans. Bowling Green, Ky. Danville, Ky. Georgetown, Ky. J. M. Bent, D. D . E. W. Elrod . Jno. Aug. Williams . ... J. B. Skinner . H. B. McClellan, A. M . . Cadesman Pope . Miss M. F. Hewitt . W. H. Stuart . Erastus Rowley, d. d . . A. G. Murphey . Miss L. Y. Sullivan _ John M. Hubbard, a. m. S. W. Pearcy, A. m . George J. Ramsey, a. m Wm. S. Burks . A. B. Allen, a. m . Edgar M. Smith . John F. Goucher, d. d . . Wm. H. Purnell, ll. d . . J. H. Turner, a. m . C. C. Bragdon, a. m _ nary. Liberty Female College . Lynnland Female College . . . Daughters College . . Hamilton Female College . . . Sayre Female Institute ...... Millersburg Female College . J essamine Female Institute . Owensboro Female College.. Kentucky College for Young Ladies. Logan Female College . Stuart Female College . Stanford Female College _ Winchester Female College.. Silliman Female Institute . . . Jefferson Davis College . Westbrook Seminary . Maine Wesleyan Seminary and Female College. Woman’s College of Balti¬ more. Frederick Female Seminary . Lutherville Female Seminary Lasell Seminary for Young Women. Harvard Annex . Glasgow, Ky. Glendale, Ky. Harradsburg, Ky. Lexington, Ky. Do. Millersburg, Ky. Nicholasville, Ky. Owensboro, Ky. Pewee Valley, Ky. Russellville, Ky. Shelbyville, Ky. Stanford, Ky. Winchester, Ky. Clinton, La. Minden, La. Deering, Me. Kents Hill, Me. Baltimore, Md. Frederick, Md. Lutherville, Md. Auburn dale, Mass. Cambridge, Mass. Arthur Gilman, a.m., secretary ED 91 - 43 674 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. II. — Colleges for women — Continued. Name of president. College. Address. L. Clark Seelye, d. d . Mrs. E. S. Mead, a. m . Helen A. Shafer, a. m . R. B. Abbott, r>. D . . . W. T. Lowrey, a. m., d. d . Lewis T. Fitzbugb - Walter Hillman, ll. d Robert Frazer, ll. d.. N. Lena Elgin . Cbas. W. Anderson _ H. N. Robertson, a. m . W. V. Frierson . Miss M. E. Compton . L. M. Stone . . . Cbas. H. Otken, ll. i> . W. A. Oldham, a. m . T. W. Barrett, a. m . Hiram D. Groves . H. C. Evans, a. m . Lina Mosley . B. T. Blewett, ll. d . W. A. Wilson, a. M . Archibald A. Jones . J. D. Blanton . Smith College . Mount Holyoke Seminary and College. Wellesley College . Albert Lea College . . . Blue Mountain Female Col¬ lege. Whitworth Female College .. Hillman College . Industrial Institute and Col¬ lege. Corinth Female College . East Mississippi Female Col¬ lege. Union Female College . Chickasaw Female College . . Port Gibson Female College.. Shuqualak Female College . . Lea Female College . Christian Female College . .. Stephens Female College ... Howard Payne College . Synodical Female College.. . Presbyterian College . St. Louis Seminary . Baptist Female College . Central Female College . Elizabeth Aull Female Semi¬ Northampton, Mass. South Hadley, Mass. Wellesley, Mass. Albert Lea, Minn. Blue Mountain, Miss. Brookhaven, Miss. Clinton, Miss. Columbus, Miss. Corinth, Miss. Meridian, Miss. Oxford, Miss. Pontotoc, Miss. Port Gibson, Miss. Shuqualak, Miss. Summit, Miss. Columbia, Mo. Do. Fayette, Mo. Fulton, Mo. Independence, Mo. Jennings, Mo. Lexington, Mo. Do. Do. A. K. Yancey . Robert Irwin, i>. d Jesse M. Durrell . . Gertrude G. Bowen . J. H. Mcllvaine, d. d . Edward S. Frisbee, d. d . Truman J. Backus, ll. d . Charles Van Norden, d. d . Ella Weed, chairman . . George W. Samson, d. d., ll. d James M. Taylor, n. d . Benj. E. Atkins . S. A. Wolff . B.F. Dixon . Joseph L. Murphy, a. m . John D. Minick, a. m . S. D. Bagley . . . John B .Brewer, a. m . R. P. Troy . N. Penick . John H. Clewell . H. W. Reinhart . Silas E. Warren . G. K. Bartholomew, a.m., ph. d. W. K. Brown, a. m., d. t> . Cbas. F. Thwing, d. d . L. D. Potter, d.d . . . D. B. Hervey; ph. d . D. B. Purinton, ll. d . nary. Hardin College . Lindenwood Female College New Hampshire Conference Seminary and Female Col¬ lege. Bordentown Female College. Evelyn College . Wells College . Packer Collegiate Institute.. Elmira College . Barnard College . Rutgers Female College . Yassar College . . Asheville Female College .... Gaston College . Greensboro Female College.. Claremont Female College .. Davenport Female College . . Louisburg Female College . . Chowan Baptist Female In¬ stitute. Wesleyan Female College... Oxford Female Seminary .... Salem Female Academy . Thomas ville Female Col¬ lege. Wilson Collegiate Institute . Bartholomew English and Classical School. Cincinnati Wesleyan College. Cl eveland College for Women Glendale Female College .... Granville Female College .... Shepardson College . Mexico, Mo. St. Charles, Mo. Tilton, N. H. Bordentown, N. J. Princeton, N. J. Aurora, N. Y. Brooklyn, N. Y. Elmira, N. Y. New York, N. Y. Do. Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Asheville, N. C. Dallas, N. C. Greensboro, N. C. Hickory, N. C. Lenoir, N. C. Louisburg, N. C. Murfreesboro, N. C. Do. Oxford, N. C. Salem, N. C. Thomasville, N. C. Wilson, N. C. Cincinnati, Ohio. Do. Cleveland, Ohio. Glendale, Ohio. Granville, Ohio. Do. NAME REGISTER. 675 II. — Colleges for women — Continued. ‘ Name of president. Faye Walker, d. d . Miss Mary Evans . ~ - J. W. Knapp enberger, a. m - J. Blickensderfer, a. m . Jamea E. Rhoads, ll. d . Jolin Edgar, ph. d . J. W. Sunderland . H. A. Brickenstein . . - . E. E. Campbell, a. m . Frances E. Bennett . ) Sylvia J. Eastman . $ A. H. Norcross, d. d . Samuel B. Jones, d. D . . W. R. Atkinson, d. d . Mrs. L. M. Bonner . H. P. Griffith . Alexander S. Townes . H. G. Reed . S. Lander, a. m . D. S. Hearon, d. d . Tli. Smith, a. m . . Ivate McFarland . Robert L>. Smith, a. m . Wilbur F. Wilson . A. M. Burney . . A. W. Jones, d. d . N. J. Finney, a. m . Miss V. O. Wardlaw, a. m . Geo. W. F. Price, d. d . B. H. Charles . . . R. M. Saunders . Wm. M. Gray bill, a. m . R. J. Hayes .... . . . N. A. Flournoy . . . . Otis M. Sutton . P. H. Eager, a. si . S. M.Godbey . R. O. Rounsavall . . S. N. Barker . Kate M. Hunt . . Wm. P. Dickinson . Mrs. E. T. Taliaferro . . R. H. Sharp, jr — . J. T. Averett.... . . . Samuel D. Jones, b. l . Chas. L. Cocke . J. J. Scherer, a. m . J. A. I. Ca-ssedy _ _ ■ _ Arthur K. Davis, a. si . John H. Powell . James Willis, a. si-. . Mrs. J. E. B. Stuart . Wm. A. Harris, d. d . John P. Hyde, d. d., lb. d . Mrs. H. L. Field . Ella C. Sabin . Charles R. Kingsley, pii. d _ College. Oxford College . Lake Erie Seminary . Allentown Female College .. Moravian Seminary for Young Ladies. Bryn Mawr College . Wilson College . Pennsylvania Female College Linden Hall Seminary . Irving Female College . Ogontz School . . Pittsburg Female College . . . Columbia Female College - Presbyterian College for Women. Due West Female College ... Cooper-Limestone Institute . Greenville Female College. Walhalla Female College.... Williamston Female College. Sullins College. . Brownsville Female College. Union Female Seminary . Columbia Athenaeum . Tennessee Female College ... Howard Female College . Memphis Conference Female Institute. Cumberland Female College. Soule Female College . Nashville College for Young Ladies. Ward Seminary . . Martin Female College . Synodical Female College . . . Shelbyville Female College.. Somerville Female Institute. Mary Sharp College . . Baylor Female College . Chappell Hill Female College Waco Female College . Martha Washington College. Stonewall Jackson Institute. Albemarle Female Institute . Montgomery Female College. Danville College for Young Ladies. Roanoke Female College .... Southwest Virginia Institute Hollins Institute . Marion Female College . Norfolk College for Young Ladies. Southern Female College .... Richmond Female Institute . Staunton Female Seminary.. Virginia Female Institute.. . Wesleyan Female Institute.. Valley Female College . Parkersburg Seminary . Downer College . Milwaukee College . Address. Oxford, Ohio. Painesville, Ohio. Allentown, Pa. Bethlehem, Pa. Bryn Mawr, Pa. Chambersburg, Pa. Collegeville, Pa. Lititz, Pa. Mechanicsburg, Pa. Ogontz, Pa. Pittsburg, Pa. Columbia, S. C. Do. I Due West, S. C. Gaffney City, S. C. Greenville, S. C. Walhalla, S, C. Williamston, S. C. Bristol, Tenn. Brownsville, Tenn. Do. Columbia, Tenn. Franklin, Tenn. Gallatin, Tenn. Jackson, Tenn. McMinnville, Tenn. Murfreesboro, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn. Do. Pulaski, Tenn. Rogersville, Tenn. Shelbyville, Tenn. Somerville, Tenn. Winchester, Tenn. Belton, Tex. Chappell Hill, Tex. Waco, Tex. Abingdon, Va. Do. Charlottesville, Va Christiansburg, Va. Danville, Va. Do. Glade Spring, Va. Hollins, Va. Marion, Va. Norfolk, Va. Petersburg, Va. Richmond, Va. Stauntou, Va. Do. Do. Winchester, Va. Parkersburg, W. Va. Fox Lake, Wis. Milwaukee, Wis. CHAPTER XIX. HISTORY AND STATUS OR PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS AND fiCOLES GARDIENNES IN SEVERAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES.1 I. — Belgium. The very history of this interesting kingdom is intimately connected with its educational interests. In 1814 Belgium was united with Holland, and much was done at once ky the now government to place public instruction on a good footing. These efforts, however, deeply offended the clergy. Restrictions were placed on their influence and on their control of their own schools. These they interpreted as attacks upon the liberty and autonomy of the Belgian people, and the liberal party joined them in the demand for freedom of instruction. Under the influence of the French Revolution of July, 1830, outbreaks took place in Belgium, which led to the establishment of a provisional government in September, and to the declara¬ tion of Belgian independence in October. The new constitution declared: “Instruction is free; every preventive measure is forbidden; measures of super¬ vision and repression are regulated by the law ; the public instruction to be given at the expense of the state is also regulated by the law.” However, this law was a long time coming. In the meanwhile the clergy, always well organized, regained more than it had. lost in matters of instruction; and the liberal party, poorly organized and compelled to turn now against those who had aided them so effectually in the attainment of independence were rapidly losing their foothold. They succeeded, however, in successive struggles (more particularly in 1835, 1842, 1850, 1859, and 1878) in establishing a system of public education which challenges the admiration of the world and which the clerical party, since its last victory in 1884, has in vain attempted to undo. We are, however, here concerned only with the infant schools of the little kingdom. These were originated in 1826 by the same philanthropic spirit that had resuscitated the salle d’asile in France. In the larger cities, which had a vast industrial popula¬ tion, societies were formed that established and maintained these salles d’asile, ecoles gardiennes and creches, whose organizations were after French patterns2. However, in 1857, Rogier, minister of the interior department, summoned Madame Marenholtz-Buelow to Brussels. He had made her acquaintance during a session of “ the International Charity Congress” at Frankfort, where she had delivered two addresses. On her arrival at Brussels, she found that Madame Guillaume, a kinder- gartner from Hamburg, had just established a kindergarten. “ Nevertheless,” she reports, “the cause and even FroebeFs name were wholly unknown, and endless labor was needed in order to obtain a modest circle of hearers for my weekly lec¬ tures.” Later on, however, these were attended by many prominent men and women. At 1 Prepared, for the Bureau of Education by W. IT. Hailmann, superintendent of public schools, La Porte, Ind. £ Private devotion to educational progress organized in associations is even now in Belgium the chief hope of the schools, whose interests the liberals declare to be threatened at every point by the reactionary measures of the ruling clerical party. Thus the workingmen of Ghent are organized as “ Lovers of Freedom, ” the workingwomen of the same city are banded together in an association, sig¬ nificantly named “Joy in Duty” ( Nreugd in Deugd). Elsewhere we find rather humorous names, such as “Reclining Academicians,” “ Standing Academicians,” “Marching Academicians,” “The Guard of the Communal Schools,” “The Impermeables, ” “The Eive Earthings,” etc. The object of all of these is to diffuse instruction among the people and to support certain features of the schools which, for reasons of their own, the clergy are steadily attempting to restrict or abrogate. 676 PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 677 the same time a normal class, or course for teachers, was organized; and, at her request, the Government (Rogier) invited Mademoiselle Breymann to aid in this work. The movement was further aided hy Mademoiselle Chevallier, a Parisian kindergartner, who had come to Brussels to give instruction to a number of nuns; still more by the publication of the Manuel dcs Jar dins d’Enfants, which was the joint work of Mademoiselle Marenholtz, School Inspector Jacobs, Mademoiselle Breymann, Mademoiselle Chevallier, and Madame Reulens, a Belgian poet of some note. In 1858 Rogier commissioned the inspectors-general of the Belgian provinces to look into the merits of the Froehelian method and to report the result of their examination. Their report is so classical that some of its principal portions are given here in full. They wrrote as follows : “Prominent educators, filled with the love of mankind, have labored to discover the nature and powers of the human mind in order to bring education and instruc¬ tion into efficient and harmonious unity. The influence of new psychological expe¬ riences enabled them successfully to modify the method of teaching. The majority of them, however, confined themselves to the enunciation of theoretical principles, which indicated only very imperfectly the road to be followed. “Froebel supplied this deficiency to a remarkable degree. The principle under¬ lying his system demands that the child be developed by means of his own sponta¬ neous activity. Education should stimulate his physical, moral, and intellectual powers, furnish him materials that call forth and serve his activity, and lead him to the harmonious and complete development of his humanity.” The report then goes on to detail the value and meaning of play, and of Froebel’s gifts, and continues with the following remarkable thoughts: “According to Froe- bel the family should be the center of education. Yet the family alone is not suffi¬ cient to develop every side of the human being. The kindergarten is meant to sup¬ plement family education by offering opportunities for the practice of social virtue. Froebel regards the kindergarten as the most necessary auxiliary of the mother in every condition of life. * * * Community of interest in the kindergarten affects the young souls much more strongly than is generally supposed. Children between the ages of two and seven learn to adapt themselves to a fixed order, to obey a law which acts so beneficently because it secures to them much coveted joy and activity; and they enjoy these pleasures only by fulfilling concurrent duties.” The recognition of these principles on the part of Belgian educators, and the utter failure of French leaders of educational thought to apprehend them, explain the fact that in Belgium, in spite of unfavorable conditions and in the face of deter¬ mined opposition on the part of a reactionary government, Froebel has achieved even at this advanced epoch his brightest triumphs (at least as far as European countries are concerned), whereas in France, in spite of most favorable conditions and a government eager for progress, the spirit of his work seems to be hopelessly buried beneath heaps of meaningless technicalities. From Brussels Madame Marenholtz went to Ghent and Antwerp, where her lec¬ tures aroused much interest. Many kindergartens were established in these and other cities of Belgium, and the work continued to flourish. However, the major¬ ity of nursery schools ( ecoles gardiennes ) were still conducted largely on the plan of the salle d’asile, and a constant struggle was required to prevent reversion into the easier methods of the claquoir. Thanks, however, to the determined devotion of a num¬ ber of persons of influence and insight the work prospered into ever greater purity in the leading cities of Brussels, Ghent, Antwerp, Liege, etc., and ultimately the kinder¬ garten triumphed and impressed its principles and tendencies permanently on the ecoles gardiennes (nursery schools) of the kingdom, which had been established in 1842. Up to 1870 the ecoles gardiennes had been subject to the exclusive control of the communal authorities. In most cases they were asylums for neglected children and subject in their somewhat precarious existence to shifting economic whims and preju¬ dices of the communes. The desire to remedy this state of affairs led to the intro¬ duction of the following paragraph into the law of July, 1879: Salles d’asile or ecoles gardiennes are to be connected with the communal schools in every locality where the Government deems it necessary. In consequence of the manifest interest in these schools which followed the pro¬ mulgation of the law, the ecoles enfantines increased rapidly in number, in effi¬ ciency, in character. During the year 1880-81 the number of these schools rose from 394 to 684, and in 1884 their number had risen to 850. Similarly their population had risen from 52,500 children in 1881 to 74,000 in 1884. In 1879 the expenses for the ecoles gardiennes and ecoles d’adultes amounted in round numbers to 2,255,000 francs, the state contributing 620,000 francs ; in 1884 the ecoles gardiennes alone cost 2,300,000 francs, of which the state paid 900,000 francs. 678 EDUCATION REPORT 1890-91. That the minister of public instruction (P. Vanhumbeeck1) had risen to a full ap¬ preciation of the value of these schools and had learned to place a high estimate on Froebel’s educational aims and means is amply attested by the circular and pro¬ gramme for the ecoles gardiennes issued to the governors of the provinces in Sep¬ tember, 1880. The programme indeed had been prepared by skillful hands, by a commission appointed for the purpose, among whom were M. Jacobs, principal in¬ spector of primary instruction at Brussels ; M. Minnaert, subdirector of the normal school of Ghent ; Madame Op Den Berg, directress of the kindergartens of Liege, and Mademoiselle Van der Molen, from the normal school of Brussels. In this programme the aim of the e'cole gardienne, which was now rapidly becoming a jardin d’enfants (kindergarten), was formulated as follows: To cultivate tlie physical powers and to assure to the children robust health ; to secure by the exer¬ cise of the senses, an early development of the faculty of perception to the spirit of observation ; to encourage the impulse of imitation, and to stimulate the inventive faculties ; to teach children, within the limits of their power, to express clearly their observations and judgments; to habituate them to cleanliness, order, politeness ; to inspire them with the love of the beautiful ; to train them to obedi¬ ence, veracity, diligence; above all, to make them kind, amiable, generous. The method to be used is based on the natural laws that control the physical, intellectual, and moral development of the child. In its great principles, as well as in its fundamental practical applications, this method has been created by the genius of Froebel. It comprises a series of graduated plays, exer¬ cises, stories, or conversations, song, and manual occupations, which in happy harmony bring into activity all the powers and faculties of the child. In order to succeed in this work of maternal education, it is necessary that the teacher in the full apprehension of Froebel’s spirit, should rely more on pedagogical principles than on the study of the details in a manual; that she should shun purely mechanical devices and the mere memorizing of formulas; that she should know how to vary the talks and invent new exercises, and lead the children to invent, to create ; that she should endeavor to acquire the affectionate and persuasive language of the mother; that, finally, she find all her joy in seeing herself surrounded by children beaming with health and happiness. These beautiful introductory words, as well as the painfully detailed programme of Avork, which is reproduced in Appendix D, reveal, together with the many ex¬ cellences, also the shortcomings of the Belgian interpretation of Froebel, which Avill appear more clearly later on. The minister of public instruction in the circular accompanying the programme of work points to the fact that as a rule “ education is a secondary consideration in charity nurseries, which attempt to gather under the direction of one teacher from 60 to 100 and even more children, and expresses the hope that the organization of the communal kindergartens will be such as to limit the number of children intrusted to one teacher to 30 or 40 at most.77 A similar observation may be made in our own country. Charity kindergartens frequently unite in one room from 100 to 150 chil¬ dren, and seek to “keep them in order 77 by placing at the disposal of the teacher a number of inexperienced apprentices, who in blundering fashion pay Avith their time for the privilege of “learning the kindergarten.77 There is no greater obstacle to the diffusion of a proper appreciation of the kindergarten than the cjiarity kinder¬ gartens organized in this miserly fashion. The minister of public instruction concludes his remarkable circular with the fol¬ lowing far-reaching words : “ If these institutions are pervaded by the principles of Froebel, if they hold in high esteem the cultivation of the senses and of the incipient faculties, if they open the heart of the child to moral influence, if they give him habits of order and indus¬ try, there can be no doubt that the primary school and the school for adults in con¬ tinuing and completing a culture so well begun will secure that rounded education which renders the pupil intelligent and efficient, prepared for individual and for social life, capable of Avorking out his own improvement.77 In accordance with the spirit of the law of 1879, the communal ecoles gardiennes were freely subsidized by the state, and the need of private enterprise in this direc¬ tion was signally reduced. At the same time strenuous efforts were made to secure competent teachers for these schools. For this purpose persons who desired to teach in the ecoles gardiennes were required to hold a special diploma as proof of a satis¬ factory examination showing among other things a knowledge of the method of Froebel and familiarity with the didactic exercises of the kindergarten. Admission to these examinations was accorded only to those who had passed satisfactorily through preparatory schools, and, for the present, to those serving at the time in the i The Revue Pedagogique Beige just brings the news (September, 1890) of the death of this educational benefactor of Belgium. He became minister of public instruction in 1878 and filled this important office until the fall of the Liberal ministry in 1884. The Revue says concerning the results of his ad¬ ministration : “ Under his administration hundreds of schools were built even in the remotest ham¬ lets; schools for adults, normal schools, and atheneums multiplied in every province; special and _ superior institutions were reorganized, supervision was strengthened, the position of the teachers im- " proved and honored; the state created the first intermediate schools for girls and assumed the organ¬ ization of kindergartens left heretofore wholly to the initiative of private enterprise and the com¬ munes; the programmes were entirely recast and gave to popular education the scientific and integral character corresponding with the requirements of our time ; in short, it was a real intellectual awaken- PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 679 communal ecoles gardiennes, in tlie communal primary schools or in tlie practice schools of State normal schools. In order to secure the needed preparation the Government had planned the estab- nient of special normal schools for the training of kindergartners. For the period which must necessarily elapse before the realization of the plan it had established tem¬ porary normal courses in a number of prominent cities. These courses lasted for ten weeks, required a high degree of preparation in those who entered, and gave much time to thoroughly professional work under excellent teachers. Persons who at¬ tended these courses could secure by suitable examination a provisional license to teach. They had after that three years’ time to prepare themselves for obtaining their final special diploma, which alone could render their appointment permanent. In 1880 these normal courses were attended by 830 students ; of these 720 secured the provisional license. Out of 492 who attended in 1881 439 secured licenses. In 1884 three-quarters of the teaching corps (over 1,400) had secured the full special license. Subsequently additional opportunity for improvement was offered by teachers’ con¬ ferences, four of which are held annually under the auspices of the Government. We reproduce in Appendix F the plan of the conferences at Antwerp for 1882. Indeed, in his triennial report published in 1884, the minister of public instruction, Van- liumbeeek, could write : .“ The exercises of the mellwde Froebel have penetrated, to a great extent at least, into all the Ecoles gardienn.es subject to our inspection. There are no longer any classes in which the children do not practice the folding, plaiting, and cutting of paper; where they have not frequent talks on the persons and things in the school and in the family, on the productions of nature and of the arts; where the children can not recite some small pieces of children’s prose and poetry; where they are not able to render a pleasing song, to execute some regular marches or some gymnastic games. In all there is taught a little arithmetic and drawing, and in the greater number the children are skilled in producing the constructions and arrangements implied in an intelligent use of Froebel’s gifts.” Still here, too, popular ignorance and prejudice had compelled the teachers in a number of places, notably in the provinces of Hainault and Namur, to make conces¬ sions to false notions and to teach the rudiments of reading and writing in order to secure the attendance of children. “ Certainly,” he concludes , “ the interpretation of the thought of Froebel is not yet perfect in all the schools; a number of the teachers render the work with the occupations too mechanical and fail to arouse the spontaneous activity of the chil¬ dren; but in general there is considerable progress, and we may safely say that we are far in advance of the old nurseries ( garcleries ) where the poor little children veg¬ etated in idleness and disorder and in a fatal -torp or of head and heart.” The bright prospects of an indefinite progress, however, received a serious check with the accession to power of a reactionary government in 1884. In September of this year the beneficent law of 1879 was abrogated and a new law promulgated which practically disowns the dcoles gardiennes so far as the state is concerned. It reduces these schools to the status of 1842, leaving the communes “free to establish or suppress ecoles gardiennes without the intervention of the Government.” The state, however, reserves the right of inspection over all ecoles gardiennes organized by the communes or subsidized by the state, the province, or the commune. It still places in its budget a certain sum for subsidizing such schools, if the commune solicits this aid and the state finds the existence of the school justifiable and its character satis¬ factory. At the same time the plans for the establishment of special normal schools for the education of competent teachers were abandoned and the special normal courses, established for the same purpose, were dropped. Attendance on the conferences for the improvement of teachers ceased to be a matter of interest to the state, and laws requiring special licences became inoperative so far as the state was concerned. The disastrous effects of this hostile legislation soon became apparent. It is true that according to the reports of the Government the population of these schools and the number of teachers continued to increase. With reference to attendance the Government finds for the period from the 1st of January, 1884, to December 31, 1887, an increase of 33,953 children .reporting for the latter date a population of 99,296 children in the ecoles gardiennes of the kingdom. It should be observed in the first place that the period referred to includes the year 1884 during 9 months of which the schools were under the law of 1879, and, inas¬ much as the population of these schools, on June 30, 1884, had reached 74,383 chil¬ dren, the increase claimed would, by this consideration alone, be reduced to 24,913. Again, one chief inspector complains that in some schools children are kept in these schools to the age of 9 or 10 years, and another regrets he has found in these schools “many children of 12, 15, and 18 months.” It goes without saying that such irregularities would be more apt to be tolerated in the “ adopted and subsidized ecoles gardiennes which are virtually under the con- 680 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. trol of religious associations or private interests, than in the communal schools, which are wholly under public control. Now, the immediate effect of the law with¬ drawing the impelling and encouraging offices of the Government from the com¬ munal ecoles gardienjies was the reduction in the number of such schools and their replacement by so-called “ adopted or subsidized ” ecoles gardiennes, i. e., schools estab¬ lished under the auspices of religious associations or private interests that fulfilled certain conditions which might entitle them to the support of the commune, the province, or the state. Thus, on September 30, 1884, there were in the kingdom 850 communal and 16 subsidized ecoles gardiennes. On the 31st of December of the same year, three months after the inauguration of the new regime, the number of communal schools had been reduced to 685, and the number of “adopted” schools had been increased to 109, an aggregate reduction of 72. During the next three years the number of communal schools was further reduced to 665 and that of the “ adopted” schools increased to 282, ah aggregate increase of 81 schools over September, 1884. On the other hand, the contribution of the Government to the expenses of these schools had amounted during the period of 1882-84 to 2,800,000 francs. During the period of 1885-87 they were reduced to 1,500,000 francs. At the same time the provinces, following the example of the state, reduced their contributions by nearly one-half, nearly 350,000 francs for the three years, while the communes increased their share of the expenses by less than 300,000 francs for the same period. The average annual expenditure for these schools fell from 2,435,000 francs to 1,910,000 francs. That under these conditions these schools must have suffered in efficiency is to be expected. In 1884 22 teachers were paid less than 1,000 francs per annum; in 1887 641 received less than 1,000 francs; the average income of the chief instructresses had been reduced nearly 100 francs, and exceeded the average income of the sub¬ instructresses less than 100 francs. The percentage of teachers furnished with diplomas had decreased steadily, and in the “ adopted ” schools full 40 per cent had no diplomas. In these nearly one-half the teachers were members of religious orders. The inspectors, says the official report, “ while acknowledging the devotion and the heart qualities of the teachers, regret that a great number of them are weak in the matter of professional education.” In the rdsunffi of inspectors’ reports, prepared by M. Sosset, secretary of the council for the improvement of primary instruction, this gentleman writes : “In the Ecoles gardiennes conducted by licensed teachers and possessing a suffi¬ cient outfit, the greater part of the exercises continues to be conducted in accordance with the Froebel method ; but in the others they are far from doing all that is needed to strengthen the body by gymnastic exercises suited to the children’s age, far from arousing the faculties of the intellect and from instilling noble sentiments. “ Too frequently the teacher transforms into machine work the occupations which are best suited to exercise the spontaneous activity ; rarely even does she express her¬ self with sufficient ease and correctness to enable her to do useful work in the for¬ mation of the language of the children. “Nearly everywhere outside of the great cities there is a more and more pro¬ nounced tendency to substitute for the conversational talks, for the instructive and entertaining games, for the folding and other occupations, the monotonous and usu¬ ally mechanical exercises in reading and writing, in arithmetic and recitation, in which the teacher aims more at the form than at the contents.” In view of the fact that even the officials of the government arebeginning to see and to venture to point out the growing retrogression there is, possibly, some hope of a re¬ turn to the healthy and sensible methods of the law of 1879. In the interest of the cause of universal education, which is the cause of humanity, it is to be hoped that Belgium will soon reassume the leadership in the popular kindergarten movement which she so summarily relinquished in 1884 b In the meanwhile, the larger cities of the kingdom are exerting themselves gener¬ ously to uphold the cause. At their own expense they not only maintain the kinder- 1 At the meeting of the thirty third congress of the Belgian Federation of Teachers, which took place September 1-5, 1890, at Ghent and which was attended by over 800 teachers, an inquiry into the condition of the national primary schools formed the chief subject of discussion. The' com¬ plaints of the teachers were freely announced. It appeared that the Government had considerably re¬ duced its subsidies for primary instruction and had thus rendered it impossible for the communes to meet the public demands. More than 800 communal schools and over 1,200 schools for adults had been suppressed. In the rural districts the kindergartens had disappeared. Zealous teachers had been discharged and replaced by the personnel of the so-called free schools (consisting chiefly of members of religious orders or their partisans) who can offer no guaranty of fitness. Similar mismanagement has placed the normal instruction and even inspection into the same hands. Even now comes the news that the Hicole Nor male des Humanites of Liege, devoted to the education of professors for inter¬ mediate schools, has been suppressed, and that a similar fate is in store for the ficole Normale det Sciences at Ghent. The Congress of the Federation in the vain hope of finding relief for this sad con¬ dition of affairs has decided to petition the King. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 681 gartens previously established, but add new ones where they seem needed, organize training schools for kindergartners, teachers’ conferences, and do all in their power to “ hold the fort.” This is so much the more commendable, since similar additional burdens are heaped upon them by the Government’s neglect of the schools for adults and by its parsimony with reference to communal primary schools and normal schools. The present status of the kindergarten movement in Belgium, so far as its brighter side is concerned is, therefore, best studied in the work of her larger cities, such as Brussels, Antwerp, Liege, Ghent. To these we turn for the purpose indi¬ cated. Brussels. In 1877 Brussels assumed full charge of its six nursery schools ( ecoles gardienncs), and in 1878 M. Allard, the superintendent of public instruction, announced that after the lapse of a certain period the teachers should undergo an examination which would decide their fitness for the work. This examination was held under the pres¬ idency of his successor, M. Buis. He was struck with the lack of suitable prepara¬ tion on the part of the teachers and with their scanty knowledge of Froebel. Con¬ sequently he called upon Madame J. Guillaume to give them a course of normal in¬ struction which should prepare them for the final transformation of the dcoles gardi- ennes ( salles d’asile) into kindergartens ( jardins d’enfants). He prepared at the same time a most remarkable report to the communal council, and drew up regulations, which were adopted in October, 1879, and have remained in force to this day. Concerning this document, Madame Guillaume writes to me under date of April, 1890: “It is the opinion of competent persons that this is the loftiest and at the same time the clearest presentation of this subject. We still strive to realize this programme with the same persistence as during the earliest period.” A few extracts from the refort of M. Buis will prove the correctness of Madame Guillaume’s judgment. He writes: “ The kindergarten is the basis of the primary school. Without it public educa¬ tion is without foundation and vitiated from the start. “When the primary school is not preceded by a kindergarten it is too often filled with wretched, stunted, coarse children, bred in hovels and already corrupted by street vagabondage. “The kindergarten should supplement the material and intellectual insufficiencies of parents who are unable to watch over the earliest physical and moral develop¬ ment of their children. It should come to the aid of too numerous families, and this aid will be more efficacious to them than the meager allowances of the bureau of charities. “If, however, it is to accomplish its purpose well it must be organized in accord¬ ance with Froebel’s method — i. e., it must be a place where the child’s powers, his intellect, and moral sense are cultivated in a rational manner, based on the observa¬ tion of the child’s faculties. “ The kindergarten, then, is to fulfill a portion of the mother’s duty. It is not a school in the ordinary sense of the word. It is not its business to teach, but to develop the child’s intellect by an appeal to his creative powers, by furnishing him impressions which they could not receive in their ordinary surroundings. “ By means of a graded series of games, of exercises, occupations, and of moral and instructive stories, the children are led to see well, to hear well, to acquire correct ideas, to feel an interest in all that is around them; they are led to observe, to express themselves clearly, to use their inventive and creative powers ; they learn to appreciate the necessity of order and cleanliness, they acquire a taste for work, and learn to love goodness — the triple basis of all {esthetic and moral education. “The things to be followed in the kindergarten should not be chosen, therefore, because of their knowledge value, but rather because of the facilities they afford for leading the children to observe, to think, and to express their ideas. “They should be aroused from the intellectual somnolence due to ignorance, avoiding with care, however, all stimulation by artificial means ; it is not by tickling that a child should be brought to laugh. Joy, like curiosity, should result from the natural expansion of their being, content to live and attracted by the novelty of external things. “ The kindergartner will labor to combat the natural selfishness of the child by giving him opportunities to be good and amiable to his comrades. “ In order to furnish to the primary school well-prepared children the kindergart¬ ners should be penetrated with the spirit of Froebel’s method, and should in no way indulge in a hybrid compromise between kindergarten and school.” He then continues to demand for the kindergartner careful normal preparation ; advocates a moderate number of children as the share of each teacher; discusses the arrangement of the buildings and grounds, the furniture, etc. Concerning the government of these institutions, he says: ** The government of the kindergarten should be humane, but not effeminate. The 682 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. children should learn to rely on themselves, to hear the consequences of their thought¬ lessness and awkwardness, to clean what they have soiled, to help themselves; in all things, they should he led hy a gentle hut firm-hand. “ The children of the advanced division should work as much as possible for those of the lower divisions, so that they may gain the feeling of that solidarity and fra¬ ternity which ought to unite all human heings. “ They will then feel the satisfaction — so dear to children — of knowing that they are useful ; they will taste the pleasure of being busy and working for those weaker than themselves, a sentiment which is the foundation of the great law of charity and love, to which is attributed the superiority of modern society over ancient civiliza¬ tion.” He concludes this remarkable report with a tribute and an appeal to the ladies of Brussels, as follows : “We would establish, in connection with each kindergarten, a school committee. “ Forthis purpose we would draw on the assistance of the ladies of Brussels. What better way to employ their kindness, their natural charity, than this watching over the education of the poor children. How frequently could they find opportunities to give useful advice to mothers and to mitigate concealed suffering ! They ought to aid us in this great work of civilization ; it is they who, above all else, could be¬ come the uniting link between the rich and the poor, the ignorant and the cultured. u Fortunately our country is free from the hatred of classes which so cruelly divides the rich from the poor in other lands. Would that all the women whom fortune has favored might understand that on their charity and on their devotion to the interests of the people depends the maintenance of this favorable condition of affairs.” From the regulations appended to this report we gather the following facts : Chil¬ dren from 3 to 6 years old, and living in the commune, are admitted to the kindergar¬ tens gratuitously. The kindergartens are open from 8 o’clock a. m. to 4 o’clock p. m. Children may bring their dinners and remain during the noon hour under the super¬ vision of assistant teachers and janitors. Children are received at any hour of the day. The pedagogic supervision is confided to an inspectress. The principal of the kindergarten is subordinated to the inspectress; she has charge of the general super¬ vision of the kindergarten, and fulfills at the same time the special functions of kin- dergartner in one of the divisions of the school. In addition to the principal, the kindergarten employs other kindergartners, assistants, and women for general serv¬ ice. They are forbidden from absenting themselves without the permission of the Aldermanic College, to engage in any work not prescribed, or to sing songs and dis¬ tribute images not approved by the college, to receive presents of any kind from the parents. Four times a day the kindergartners record the degree of temperature ; at the close of each week they report the average to the principal, who transmits the report to the hygienic bureau. Children before presenting themselves at the kin¬ dergarten should be washed and their hair combed; they should be provided with a handkerchief; they should change their linen on Mondays and Thursdays. Every day before beginning the class work the kindergartners inspect the handkerchiefs, and see to it that the children’s stockings are properly fastened, their shoes tied and blacked. They demand particularly careful bathing of the body, and insist that the boys’ hair be cut close and the girls’ hair well combed. Untidy children are washed by the women for general service. Fifteen minutes before the departure of the children, they are again inspected, so that they may be sent home perfectly clean and in good condition. In addition to the food brought by the children who remain at noon, they are furnished an abundant supply of substantial soup. They take their meals seated in good order and under supervision. It is formally forbidden to strike the children; they should always be reprimanded with gentleness. Only in cases of absolute necessity they may be requested to take a seat away from the others, but always in sight of the teacher, or denied participation in the exercises; yet these punishments shall not last longer than during one exercise. For each kindergarten a special school committee is appointed whose mission is to observe the work and to suggest improvements to the communal administration; to seek out children who do not frequent the kindergarten; to see to it that the care and discipline of the school be maintained in the kindergarten . Each of these committees consists of six memoers chosen by the communal council, and holding office for four years. To the courtesy of Madame Guillaume, inspectress of the Brussels kindergartens, I owe an account of A Day in the Kindergarten, prepared by Mademoiselle Van Molle Andrd, as well as the Walk of the Children and the story of Tony, written by other kindergartners. These accounts, taken from the actual work, will convey an excel¬ lent idea of the spirit and character of the work done at Brussels. They are ap¬ pended to this report, together with a translation of the official program and time table (see appendices A, B, C, D). The perusal of these appendices will convince the reader that these kindergartens have, indeed, much to commend them. There breathes in them a spirit of unassum¬ ing charity and sincere respect for childhood, a generously humane tendency which PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 683 does great credit to tlie mind and lieart qualities of all concerned iu tlie work. On the other hand, the plan of the work in each section, as indicated "both in the pro¬ gram and in Mademoiselle Andre’s account, seems to take its points wholly from the means and subjects of instruction and takes little account of spontaneous inter¬ est and the immediate needs of self-activity in the child’s development. Antwerp. Concerning the kindergartens of Antwerp I owe .much valuable information to Jan Van Rijswijck, who occupies the important position of director of public instruc¬ tion in that favored city. In the letter accompanying the documents which he sent me he says : “ It is said that our institutions may be considered as the best attempt made in that direction in Belgium and, perhaps, in Europe. The result has been successful beyond our expectations. The pupils of our baby-schools ( Jcinder-tuinen , or javelins d’enfants ) on entering the primary school, at the age of 6 or 61-, are already used to the discipline of the school and prove the best pupils. Their understanding is quicker and clearer, since it has been developed by rational practice and graduated exercise.” Mr. Van Rijswijck transmitted to me at the same time an account of Three Days in a Kindergarten of Antwerp (which forms appendix E) and a monograph on the Kindergartens of Antwerp by Alexis Sluys, published in 1890. From this valuable monograph we learn that the kindergartens were introduced in Antwerp by M. Evariste Allewaert, for many years director of public instruction of the city of Antwerp. “M. Allewaert,” says the monograph, “ had learned to appreciate the fact that the work of the primary school was virtually without foundation so long as it could not rest on a well-directed early education. He resolved that in order to secure this early education he would substitute the action of the commune for that of parents unable to fulfill their duty. He was theoreti cally, at least, acquainted with the system invented by Froebel to stimulate in children the unfolding of all their faculties. In 1875, he undertook a journey to Germany and to Holland, in order to familiarize himself with the organization of kindergartens. In the following year he sent to Leiden to the Froebelian Normal School of M. Van Aerdenberg three communal teachers chosen from among the most intelligent; three others were sent later on. These teachers followed the course of the Froebelian school for three years and familiarized themselves completely with the theory and practice of the kindergarten work. In 1880 they were placed at the head of the first maternal schools opened at Antwerp by the communal administration. Since that time, a dozen additional institutions of this kind have been opened. They contain actually a population of 4,200 children, a personnel of 13 principal teachers, 85 teachers, 2 piano teachers, 45 assistants, 27 servants. The budget of this department comprises 10,040 francs for general expenses, 168,585 francs for salaries, besides 2,100 francs for the normal Froebel course.” M. Sluys ascribes the success and superiorly of the Antwerp kindergartens to the determination and care with which M. Allewaert insisted on the pedagogieprepara- tion of his teachers. The paragraphs which M. Sluys devotes to this question should be carefully read and considered by the teachers and parents of American children, and more particularly by those among them who control the schools of the land. Much of the noisy inefficiency, weak sentimentality, and quackery that characterizes some American kindergarten work might be avoided by heeding the 'example of wisdom afforded by the deliberate modes of procedure followed by M. Allewaert. “Many persons,” writes M. Sluys, “imagine that it is possible to prepare a kindergartner with little expense and trouble; that it is sufficient to re¬ quire of the candidate a little elementary information and the attendance during a few weeks on a limited course where the theory of the gifts and occupations is ex¬ plained. This is a serious blunder. This practice of breakneck speed, followed in so many cases, has given us, with a few exceptions, only very mediocre results; and to this hasty preparation is due the failure of the Froebel system in a great number of kindergartens, which, in spite of external appearances, are in reality only ‘gar- deties de moutards,’ into which the spirit of the master has not penetrated and where the gifts and occupations have fallen into simple routine devices. The first education of children requires extensive information and many special personal qualities and aptitudes. “ The kindergartner should be at least as well informed as the elementary teacher ; she should know and understand the physiology, hygiene, and psychology of child¬ hood, and have thorough control of the theory and practice of the Froebelian exer¬ cises; she should, besides, know how to observe the character of the children and, what is still more difficult, she should know how to play with them; tact and good taste are other necessary conditions of success in her mission. Our ordinary normal schools (M. Sluys himself is director of the normal school of Brussels) are not in 684 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. condition to develop in young girls that fund of knowledge and aptitude. Tlie Froebel system, which in reality ought to be the foundation of the pedagogic cul¬ ture of our teachers, barely forms in these schools the subject of a theoretical course comprising a very limited number of lessons. Besides, the girls who graduate from our normal schools generally have little taste for the work of Froebelian teachers and do not feel at home in the kindergarten. Indeed, because of the unpedagogic character of our normal schools, the primary schools, in spite of the reforms intro¬ duced in them, continue to bear the character rather of intermediate schools, where literary and scientific matters are taught, than of Froebel schools which concern themselves with the integral culture of the faculties by means of methods based on the very nature of the children. “When those who direct public instruction shall have reached a scientific idea of the education of children, our normal and primary schools will undergo a thorough transformation; the latter will become institutions of integral education in which Froebelian methods will be used with all the developments they imply, and the nor¬ mal schools will assume their true character of pedagogic and professional institu¬ tions devoted exclusively to the science and art of education. “We said above that Mr. Allewaert had sent to Leyden six primary teachers who studied there for three years the Froebel system. To this first nucleus was intrusted the task of organizing the first kindergartens at Antwerp, and to prepare the per¬ sonnel that might be needed later on. “This preparation is accomplished as follows: The most intelligent, the best gifted young girls that have obtained a certificate of capacity in the communal schools of Antwerp, are admitted to the normal Froebel course, which is given by special teachers, from 6 to 8 o’clock in the evening, four times a week. Among these pupils, 15 to 16 years of age, a committee chooses the assistants, who, for at least two years, practice in the kindergartens under the direction of trained kindergart- ners. Thus these young girls become initiated in the theory and practice of the profession. * * * A final examination, both theoretical and practical, confers on those who have furnished proofs of real capacity the diploma of Froebelian teacher.” The buildings are well constructed for the purposes in view. The accompanying ground plan of an Antwerp kindergarten has been kindly transmitted to me by Mr. Van Rijswijck. Its description, however, I cull again from the monograph of Mr. Sluys. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 685 686 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. “ A central corridor divides tlie building into two parts. Four class rooms face four play rooms. These arrangements permit the admission of a double population, for all these rooms are constantly occupied. During every hour of the day there are always four groups in the class rooms, busy with the gifts and occupations, and four groups in the play rooms, singing, dancing, or going through with gymnastic exercises. “ The class rooms (in our ground plan, the play rooms) open on a covered court connected with an open play ground which is bounded by garden subdivided into plats. Here, when the weather permits, the children play freely, breathing pure air and playing gardener, for each school (or group) is provided with a sufficient number of watering pots, spades, rakes, adapted to the size of the young horticul¬ turists. * * * “The children remain at school the entire day, from 8:30 to 4 o’clock. At noon they are served a substantial meal, consisting of soup, vegetables, and meat or milk. Until 1884 this meal was served gratuitously to the poor children ; but the reaction¬ ary ministry suppressed this state aid to the kindergartens, hoping thereby to sup¬ press them,1 and the communal administration of Antwerp has been compelled to require of the parents a small fee for the noon meal. The expenses for this purpose amount annually to 62,311 francs, which is .0626 francs per meal, or 15.65 francs per year for each child. “ The class furniture consists of small tables, to which two small benches with backs are adapted on the same side. All the children, therefore, front the blackboard, on which the teacher demonstrates her lessons. This arrangement has some advan¬ tages, but also serious drawbacks. It tends to transform the kindergarten into a school. Now, the kindergarten should be rather an overgrown family than a school in miniature. We prefer large tables around which the children can be seated com¬ fortably • ■*** the children should be at liberty to talk with each other during all the exercises, to communicate to each other their impressions, desires, plans. This is the very essence of the Froebel system. The Antwerp furniture excludes this familiarity. The child is too much isolated in his place; he has no companion during his exercises. * * * The teacher, too, is too much tempted to give col¬ lective instruction, not leaving enough initiative to her little world of active and spontaneous beings.” Concerning the exercises, the reader will find much in Appendix E, Three Days in an Antwerp Kindergarten, and in the official programme printed below. Mr. Sluys speaks in enthusiastic commendation of their drawing. In this the artificial Froebel drawing. tends to disappear and to make room for drawing from nature. He men¬ tions, too, with praise, an exercise he witnessed in a kindergarten. The teacher told a story which appealed strongly to the children’s sympathies. Immediately after¬ wards, in the playroom, the scenes of this story furnish the subjects for the game, which is accompanied by a song whose stanzas recall the incidents of the story. In their songs the children are accompanied by the piano, which all the teachers must khow how to play. On the whole, the teachers have enough to do. They keep a daily journal in which they record all the exercises made; they are expected to make careful preparation for every exercise of the following day. They enter the school at 8 o’clock a. m., and do not leave it until sometime past 4 o’clock in the afternoon. They serve the noon meal of the children. For this the regular teachers are paid 1,000 to 1,600 francs. The directresses or principals are paid 1,600 to 2,500 francs and lodging, or an indemnity of an additional 1,000 francs to pay for a lodg¬ ing; and the assistants receive annually 350 to 600 francs. Such is, in its principal features, the organization of the kindergartens of Antwerp. In 1887 the communal kindergartens of this city were attended by over 4,000 children, taught by 95 teachers of all grades. In 1889 the city expended for her kindergartens 279,727 francs. Liege. An interesting letter addressed to me by Mr. Reuleaux, director of public instruc¬ tion at Liege, not only gives an account of the character of the work done in that city, but indicates the high plane from which the Belgian teachers view educa¬ tional work. •It is claimed that by the reactionary revolution of 1884, which gave supremacy to the clerical party, there has been constant retrogression in educational work. This retrogression is felt more particularly in the ecoles enf an tines, or kindergartens, and in the schools for adults. In proof of this the following facts are cited : “ The expenses for ecoles gardiennes (kindergartens) and adult schools, which in 1882, 1883, and 1884 reached the average of 3,816,911.55 francs, fell in 1877 tc 2,890,431.36 francs. This, in spite of the fact that the communes pay more junder the present administration. The annual average of the communes rises from 1,511,410.24 francs to 1,602,093.86 francs. The share of the provinces is reduced from 248,839.24 francs to 132,294.05 francs. However, the greatest economy falls to the share of the state. The average which, under the preceding ministry had reached 1,581,041.67 francs, was reduced during the following three years (1883-’87) to only 804,491.77 francs. This economy is due to the suppression of more than 1,600 kindergartens and adult schools. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 687 “ Our city,” he writes, “is endowed with 17 kindergartens, established in buildings constructed and arranged with reference to their special purpose, where light and air are supplied in abundance, and provided with covered and open playgrounds, where children have an opportunity to play in every season, “ The kindergartens are attended by more than 4,000 children. The educational methods of Froebel are used in them. “Inasmuch as the object of these schools is to develop the child physically, intel¬ lectually, and morally, the teachers should be in possession of at least solid, if not extended, general information, of a knowledge of pedagogics, of special and general methodology, psychology, and hygiene. “ A Froebel normal course, established in 1862 by the city of Liege, secures capable instructors. In the application of the means proposed by Froebel for the develop¬ ment of the faculties of the child, the teachers aim to leave it as free as possible; they avoid formal lessons, engage in motherly story-telling, in which the child has a large share, and from which are excluded all set or memorized answers. “ In the occupations they distinguish three phases of work : (1) The instruction by which the child learns intuitively liow to make a weaving pattern, a folding form, a building form, etc. ; (2) the practice, in which the child carries out given direc¬ tions ; (3) the free work, which permits the child to give vent to his inventive and creative powers. “ The kindergarten is a large family or a small society; the teacher leads the child gently to the practice of family and social virtues. Flore order and discipline are ob¬ tained, not imposed; they rest on the respect and affection with which the teacher inspires the child ; on the variety which she brings into the games and occupations ; on the tact with which she makes them pleasant to him and insures his success in their use. The pupil never acts under compulsion ; if he refuses to play or to work, the school does not insist; he is not lectured, and very soon he returns of his own de¬ sire to take his place among his companions. The children are happy in these in¬ stitutions. Indeed, those who are kept away for a time from any cause whatever impatiently ask to be brought back to them. “The primary school teachers notice a remarkable difference in the development of pupils that come to them from kindergartens, as compared with those that come directly from the home. In another direction we notice the happy -effect of these institutions on the physical development of the children, who usually enjoy in them robust health. This result is due to the good hygienic conditions of the buildings, to the judicious care bestowed on the pupils, to their games and other gymnastic exercises, to the joyousness and cheerfulness of the place, to the wholesome and varied food served to the children every day at noon. Those among them whose health seems to demand this are given, besides, doses of cod-liver oil. “These results influence the whole life of the child, and this influence will be more deeply felt in the measure in which the primary school will follow Froebelian prin¬ ciples in its work. “These principles may be summed in a few words: Direct observation (intuition, anscliammg), and consequent development of the spirit of observation, of perception, and the acquisition of personal ideas; application of the acquired knowledge to manual occupations, development of manual skill, of keenness in estimating measure¬ ments, of the intuitive impulse, and of the creative powers; games which establish a happy equilibrium between the intellectual and the physical education. “No one to-day doubts the necessity of basing all primary instruction on intuition, and very few consider the manual occupations incompatible with the programme of these schools. Manual work is recognized as an educational factor, and is derived directly from the Froebelian occupations; the child whose sight and touch have been trained will pass without trouble to more solid work, based on geometrical applica¬ tions, such as card board work, woodwork, etc. “ The manual work of the household has an equally obvious relation to the Froe¬ belian occupations ; indeed, the games furnish the occasion for affording practice to the little girls in household vrork, e. g., the games of the housekeepers, of the cooks. Pricking and embroidering prepare for sewing; Aveaving, for mending and darning; cutting out, for the handling of scissors; drawing, the coloring of engraA^- ings, the decoration of the class room, and the selection of the colors of chains and festoons, develop the aesthetic sense. “Reading, writing, and knitting are reserved for the primary school, inasmuch as these things fatigue the children, Without benefit to their development. “ FToebel is the precursor of the introduction of manual work into the primary schools. Fie has the glory of having opened new outlooks to educators, of'kaAring taught them the fact that the only salutary education is that which prepares the child for life; that which does not separate study and work, but merges the one into the other.” The arrangements and order of work in the kindergartens of Liege are still vir¬ tually the same as reported for the Paris Exposition of 1878 by Mme. Op Den Berg, 688 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. general directress of the kindergartens of the city. They seem to differ little in the essentials from those of Antwerp and Brussels, so satisfactorily described in the ap¬ pendixes to this report. We notice here, too, certain indications of schoolish for¬ malism which, however, under the circumstances, may he excusable. There is much of the military subordination in the distribution of teachers. Each establishment has a first kindergartner, who receives her orders from the general directress and controls the work of the second and a number of third kindergartners. The chil¬ dren, seated on benches before kindergarten tables, face in the same direction, an arrangement which can not fail to place the children in more or less schoolish sub¬ ordination over against the artificially superior teacher. This tendency is intensified by the fact that the teacher is seated on an elevated platform, from which she can overlook and control the entire class, and, perhaps, still more by the practice of having each child on entering the class room formally salute the teacher, take from a basket strips or sheets of paper, and engage quietly in individual work at his place. This practice evidently has no other object than that of keeping the child quietly busy ; for when the class is called to order he shows his work and deposits it in a common basket, past which all the children file into the courtyard; and subsequently these papers are unfolded by some one of the personnel and, if still fit, used again the next day. It certainly must be a severe trial to a child to see daily that those whose judgment he esteems most highly at¬ tach no value to his work and undo it for the sake of the material which in itself has no value to him. All these criticisms, however, fall into insignificance before the many excellent qualties of the work, and above all before the spirit of genuine benevolence that seems to rule every phase of the work, and the never-failing regard for the child’s humanity in every detail. Mme. Op Den Berg herself sums up the beneficial results of the kindergarten in the following concise fashion : “The parents of the children of the working class may be divided into two cate¬ gories: Those who gain their livelihood at home and those who are compelled to seek it away from home. “For both of these the kindergarten is a great benefit; a permanent, inestimable blessing; it secures the moral, intellectual, and often even the physical life of their children. “ Play, motion, are natural to the young human being ; he is equally in need of companions of his age, who think as he does, who respond to his prattle. Now, the child of the working class would too often be condemned to remain at rest in a nar¬ row room, deprived of air, serving as bedroom, kitchen, and workshop. Should he move about father and mother would scold, and the little thing would sicken, would suffer physically and morally. * * * “Under more fortunate conditions, even where the parents enjoy a certain com¬ fort, there are few mothers who are fit to conduct the first education of their chil¬ dren and to do this in the full sense of the word. “ Still sadder would be the picture where father and mother leave the house in the morning. Here the child would be turned over to the care of a mercenary neigh¬ bor. It would run the streets, exposed to all kinds of physical and moral dangers. “Such is not the fate of the children in the localities where kindergartens are established ; here they are housed during the entire day ; they are surrounded by thoughtful, maternal solicitude, led to the love of work, to taste for study; devel¬ oped physically, morally, and intellectually. They are happy; their countenances declare it. They carry to their homes a reflection of this happiness; they tell their parents what they did, what they learned, and these are touched and lifted by their recitals.” Thus she sums up the direct results as “harmonious development of all the facul¬ ties of the human being, security of the parents during their long hours of work, the happiness of the children.” Concerning the indirect results, she says: “We should not lose sight of the fact that the child of to-day will be the man of to-morrow; consequently, to work at hi§ education is to work on the amelioration of humanity. We should have to despair of ever succeeding in such amelioration if great results could not be expected from an intelligent application of Froebel’s method. In fact, it appeals to the child’s individuality; it develops his special aptitudes; it stimulates the will and forms the judgment which is to guide it; it awakens the spirit of observation, of research; it develops a taste for work and arouses the inventive tendency ; it teaches that happi¬ ness comes from duty well done ; it trains at the same time touch, sight, hearing, and speech. Without doubt children thus educated must be well prepared for more extended instruction ; must work intelligently in whatever career they may subse¬ quently choose, must struggle vigorously against ill fortune, for resignation is not always a virtue. “ Surely this is a powerful remedy against pauperism, that wound of society. A feeling of human dignity has been cultivated in the kindergarten ; the child has PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 689 learned that ‘ poverty is a vice/ if it is not combated by continuous work; if the products of its efforts are not used in an orderly and economical manner. While very young, be has enjoyed comforts and advantgages procured by a government solicitous for the welfare of the people; be knows, for this thought has been im¬ planted in bis heart, that later on be must, by bis own strength, conquer for himself this sum of comforts and advantages. He knows it, and be will do it.” It is very evident from this summary of beneficial results that the public kinder¬ garten in Belgium is still to a large extent an engine of public benevolence. Prob¬ ably it shares in this respect the condition of the public school as a whole in many of the older European civilizations. On the other hand, it is equally obvious through¬ out that the educational leaders of this little kingdom are aware, in a higher degree than the rest of Europe, of the true relations between the kindergarten and the primary school, as well as between Froebel’s educational principles and the develop¬ ment of humanity in man. I can not take leave of this generous city without noticing a very remarkable book which had much influence on the direction of the Belgian kindergarten devel¬ opment. This work is the History of a Kindergarten (Histoire d’un Jardin d’Enfant) by Mile. Octavie Masson. In 1861, the city of Liege entrusted the task of organizing her e'coles gardiennes to Mile. Octavie Masson, a large-hearted lady of rare energy and intense devotion to her cause. She had made a special study of Froebel’s Method and succeeded in trans¬ forming the 4coles gardiennes into kindergartens, establishing at the same time a normal course for the preparation of comj>etent teachers. In 1863 Mile. Masson was appointed general directress of the kindergartens of the city, a position which she filled until her death in 1875. The success of her wrork attracted general attention. The effects of the kindergarten training on the children of the poor were so obviously uplifting, that ladies of the wealthy classes who visited these institutions deter¬ mined to secure for their children similar benefits, and opened in 1869 the Froebel Institute, a kindergarten for the children of well-to-do people who were able to pay for each child an annual fee of 60 to 80 francs. This institute, too, was placed under the direction of Mile. Masson. In 1872 she published her History of a Kindergarten, in which she gives a some¬ what detailed account of the growth of the work in her ideal kindergarten. Inas¬ much as this book gave direction to the kindergartens not of Liege alone, but of Bel¬ gium as a whole, it deserves more than passing notice. The book is divided into twenty chapters whose headings, with two exceptions, are the names of the succes¬ sive gifts and occupations, and deal almost exclusively with the information that may be conveyed with the help of these, describing at the same time suitable devices for conveying this information effectively. Only occasionally the child is permitted self-actively to take the initiative in an exercise, and the opportunities for using gifts and occupations in the expression of his own ideas are extremely rare. Evidently we have to do in Mile. Masson’s kindergarten with a most charming school, a school taught by a woman of rare resources, of remarkable vivacity, pos¬ sessing a large funfi of love of childhood, a wonderful magnetism in manner and speech, but nevertheless a school whose chief business is the acquisition of informa¬ tion and the proper formulation in speech of the information acquired. A few passages taken from the book will render this clear. In the very introduc¬ tion we read: “ The teacher asks, the pupil tries to answer; but in his answer he carefully reproduces completely the very phrase contained in the question. For in¬ stance, if, after naming and introducing the cube, the teacher exhibits it to his audience and asks: 1 What is the object I hold in my hand?’ the pupil is invariably expected to answer: 1 Madam, the object you hold in your hand is a cube.’” This petrified hyper-Pestalozzianism is much insisted upon throughout the book. When the teacher brings to the children, concealed under her apron, a box containing the balls of the first gift, much time and interest are spent in an effort to secure the full answer : “ Madam, you have a box under your apron. ” In other cases where this is not feasible the teacher falls into lecturing or, worse still, the children merely repeat sentences spoken by the teacher. Thus, on the occasion of a “ lesson” on the soap-bubble, the children, after labor¬ iously finding out that the stem of the pipe was “long, round, and straight,” that the pipe itself was “ hard, stiff, and brittle,” were at last permitted to look at a soap- bubble made by the teacher, who immediately set to work to explain away the charm and mystery of the spectacle in the following fashion : “ — My dear children, the colors of the bubble are the decomposed colors of light. Light is white, it is true, but very learned men have noticed that a ray of light on passing through a prism shows distinctly the colors which you found on the big worsted ball. A prism is a triangular piece of clear glass. Hero is one !” and the teacher showed them a glass prism, which was eagerly examined by the children. She resumed her conversation. She taught them that the soap-bubble was hollow, very thin, that the water constantly flows down along the sides of the bubble, and ED 91 - 44 690 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. that therefore these constantly diminish in thickness; that it acts like a prism, and that for this reason it shows successively all the colors of the light. “ Observe it well (she says to the children), when it is about to hurst; it is almost black. At that moment there is, so to speak, no more light.” To this “ lecture,” I add an example of mere Pestalozzian word-teaching from a lesson on the third gift. Some child had made the remark to his neighbor that the children were in the class room like the cubes in their box. The little neighbor objected, because if it were so they would not have enough air to breathe. Then the teacher comes in. “There is a space above us and around about us which seems empty; but in reality, dear children, this space is filled with air. This is true; it is also true that the air is indispensable to life. Every day, even in winter, we have to open the windows to let fresh air come into the room.” “ When the little cubes are put into the box, ” said one of the little hearers, “ the air disappears.” “Yes, ” said another, “but as soon as they are taken out, the air goes back in the same quantity.” “My dear little Adrian, ” I said then, “when we speak only of the space which a thing occupies without referring to its mass, its weight, the exact word is then ‘volume.' “Repeat carefully with me: When we take the cubes out of the box, the same volume of air goes into the box. “ The hollow space of a thing meant to hold another thing is called its capacity.” Thus the lesson continues giving definitions of the terms “solid,” “liquid,” and “gaseous,” and then concludes: “The solids and the gases are contrasts ; the liquids are the intermediates. I have already explained to you what a contrast is; I told you that the sphere and cube are contrasts, and that united in an intermediate they yield the cylinder.” The same spirit' prevades the entire book. Throughout the chief concern is to have the child understand the things he handles, rather than to enable him to use them for purposes of his own. The spirit is Pestalozzian rather than Froebelian. Nevertheless the book is a charming contribution to educational literature, and bears on every page testimony to the unselfish devotion and motherly sympathy that characterized the writer's intercourse with the children. A similar spirit seems to prevade, to some extent,, the work at Antwerp and Brussels, as will appear from the descriptions in Appendices A and E. The work is based largely on the gifts, and consists largely in giving lessons, as on the blue color of the ball, on the half of the cube, etc. Nevertheless there is here increasing freedom and a wider scope tor self-activity, and much evidence of a deeper appre¬ hension of Froebel’s meaning. Every evidence, indeed, goes to show that genuine child-love presides over the work, and this can not fail to lead the devoted workers ultimately to the goal they seek. Appendix A. A DAY IN A BRUSSELS KINDERGARTEN. By Mile. H. Yan Molle Andr£. From 8 to 9 o’clock. — It is 8 o'clock. The kindergarten has opened its doors to the little ones, who assemble gradually. The kindergarten, too, does not present the smiling aspect of later hours, but, as the hour advances, the animation grows, and soon the children come in great numbers, as if they were assembling for a pleasure excursion. At half-past 8 o'clock the teachers are all at their posts, and the pupils, in groups of 10 or 12, assemble in the passageways, where they discuss the games they expect to play, for they know that hoops, wheelbarrows, balls, and ropes will be at their disposal. The older ones give themselves up heartily to their plays, while from prudence or egoism they seat then' younger friends on the benches that sur¬ round the garden. These seem contented with their lot, for as they rest from the long walk, they follow attentively all the intricacies of the games. From 9 to 9:80. — At last the regular time for beginning the work has come. Broth¬ ers and sisters, relatives, friends, and neighbors must separate. Then occur those endearing and charming scenes which never cease to touch those who witness them daily. The pupils of the higher and middle divisions step into line and, after inspec¬ tion by the teacher, who assures herself that all the recommendations with reference to cleanliness have been punctually followed, enter the class rooms, where the work with folding awaits the former, and that of tablets the latter. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 691 In the upper division the square papers are counted and placed at the corner of each of the three tables around which 36 hoys and girls are seated. In the middle division a dozen boxes, each containing 8 square tablets (red on one side and blue on the other), are placed in columns at the edge of the table. Tho pupil at the corner passes them to his smaller companions, who thank him with a pleasant ges¬ ture. The boxes are opened eagerly ; the slight stir occasioned by the noise of slip¬ ping the covers under the boxes makes the little ones laugh heartily. The teacher asks the children to form a square of a uniform color with four little squares. This square is turned with an angle in front, and the other tablets are added, two at a time, in such a way as to preserve always the symmetry that belongs to the occupa¬ tion. The outer tablets, differing in color from the inner ones, are placed successively in different positions around the central square. The series of designs obtained is reproduced on the blackboard, and when the first form has been reached again the work becomes free. Each one tries his best, and after ten minutes of imaginative effort, the hour for recreation has come. Let us pass to the children of the higher division. They have folded their square to the double fundamental form, from which a great number of life-forms are de¬ rived. They are already familiar with quite a number of these; for on the shelves of the class room entire series are displayed, but to-day they are to learn a new form. The teacher shows it to them made from a much larger paper. It is the gondola. The interest of the children increases ; all try their skill. At last the most skillful one has obtained the new form. The frail vessel floats gracefully on the water con¬ tained in a trough placed on the teacher’s table for this purpose. Other gondolas follow, and soon half the class have succeeded. The last pupils seem discouraged; but even at this age they already have the habit of kindergarten life, and the more successful ones aid their little companions with much alacrity. All are busy at their work, nothing seems to distract them, not even the laughter and songs of the little ones in the next room; for when the older ones, as if to give the example to the younger ones, went to their work, the younger ones were playing a game under the direction of their teacher. The children were arranged in a cir¬ cle in which a little girl imitated the leap of a small rabbit following the rhythm of the song which accompanied the game. From 9:30 to 10 o’cloclc — Our little workers quit their places in order to yield them to the little children of the lower sections, and very soon we see in the two class rooms 36 children, 3 to 4 years old, installed at their work tables. A box containing *8 small cubes is given each one of them. They open it together, in an orderly man¬ ner, in such a way as to bring out the entire cube. They seem familiar with it, for they decompose it perfectly, and after constructing a form dictated by the teacher, each child makes another at pleasure. Here it is a bridge, under which the neigh¬ bor glides with his train of cars made with his cubes ; here, we see a number of the usual forms — the mother’s chair, the kitchen table, the doll’s bed, the bench for the tired travelers. Each form gives rise to some conversation between the children and the teacher who inspects them all. While these little children are busy with the material of the third gift, those of the . advanced class, with a charming swagger, defile in military fashion, for it is the hour for gymnastics. They arrange themselves in rows and carry out with all the exact¬ ness of which such children are capable the various gymnastic movements required of them. In another class room the teacher has selected exercises to train the hear¬ ing and touch of her children by engaging them in the play of the blind man. From 10 to 10:30. — At Iff o’clock the little children leave the benches, which are immediately occupied by the pupils of the higher and intermediate divisions. To the latter slates and slate pencils are distributed. While waiting for the teacher’s instructions, one little fellow tries to draw the tumbler which he sees on the table, another designs some simple pattern on the network of his slate. But a little girl brings in a number of ivy leaves from the garden ; each one of the pupils is given one of these, holds it with the left hand on the slate in order to obtain the outline of it by passing the peneil around it. Some of them have succeeded perfectly and add the veins in order to complete the drawing. At the same time there is perfect silence, all the little faces are attentively turned toward the teacher, who talks to her pupils about the walk they took the day before. They had followed a portion of the boulevards on the outskirts of the city and had noticed the trees. An engrav¬ ing on the wall representing a magnificent tree suggests to a little girl the very cor¬ rect remark that the trees on the boulevard did not present the same aspect as the tree on the engraving. The teacher then talks to them about buds and the leaves that come from them. She transforms a leafless tree she had drawn on the black¬ board into a tree whose branches are covered with leaves. While our little friends have thus been occupied with drawing in one room, and in another wholly absorbed in the conversation, the children of the lower sections, arranged in two large concentric circles, have played and sung the “ Imitation” game. 692 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. From 10:30 to 11. — A short and rapid march brings the little ones back to the class room, where each one is given a weaving mat of stiff American linen ( ?) and a num¬ ber of Bristol board strips. All follow the first weaving dictation (one up, one down) ; the more advanced bring with the design a variation due to the difference in the width of the strips; they follow in their work a similar formula (one wide, one narrow). Their little chubby hands already manage the material skillfully, and they arrange little races among themselves as to who should first finish filling the weaving-net. In the adjoining playrooms the pupils of the intermediate class have their gym¬ nastic exercises, in another the teacher of the higher division has them play the “tree” game, which appropriately follows the talk that had just elicited so much interest from them. From 11 to 11:30. — For the last time the older pupils take the places occupied by the little ones. For the intermediate division each one has been given a box of beads of different colors. In order to train them to patience and at the same time familiarize them with the colors, the teacher has them select red and blue beads. During this time wires for stringing the beads are distributed, and the children fol¬ lowing carefully the teacher’s dictation produce a pretty lace pattern. They work very earnestly at this; for, anticipating the punishment, they avoid the overturn¬ ing of their boxes. The pupils of the higher division are engaged in interlacing slats. Each child has received 8, with which he has formed the octagonal star. This the teacher draws on the blackboard in order to accustom the children to draw from nature. Then the interlaced star is modified/ each child following his own suggestions, and at least three-fourths of tbe pupils produce good designs. The time for closing has come. The material used in the last lessons is put up in the closets by the most skillful little girls. The little ones who, during the last period, were engaged in free play are all dressed and waiting in the playroom, where the older ones come to find them and to take them home. From 11:30 to 12. — At the door of the school the impatient mothers await the de¬ parture of the children, who do not leave their teachers without some affectionate sign of gratitude. About a score of little ones have remained in the vestibule. They are those whom fortune has not favored. They can not, like the others, re¬ turn home at noon, for both father and mother, in order to supply the necessities of the household, are out at work for the entire day. A neighbor, a brother, an older sister, have given them their breakfast, too often only a piece of bread. They re¬ turn to one of the class rooms which the woman of general service has transformed into a dining room. The tables are covered with long, smooth tablecloths, and set with plates and spoons. The little guests take their seats; a delicious soup is served by two of the teachers who will share their meal with them. Towards noon the greater half of these pupils leave the school ; the others continue at their luncheon under the supervision of one of the teachers who, subsequently, permits them to play freely. At 1 o’clock the doors are reopened. The teachers and pupils return, the latter awaiting their schoolmates in the garden. From 1:30 to 2 o’cloclc. — At half-past one the older pupils enter their class room and the younger ones the playroom. In the intermediate division second- gift boxes have been distributed, and, after some exercises that show the relation of the ele¬ ments of the gift, the teacher passes to the play part of the lesson. A column is constructed with the cube, cylinder, and ball in the middle of the table. A pupil tries to overthrow the structure with his ball. He fails repeatedly, but another who has a more practiced eye succeeds at the first trial. Repeated applause is heard, for all are interested in the game which is continued until the hour for leaving the class room. The higher divisions in the meanwhile are busy with cardboard work. Each child has a small envelope containing its work. One draws on the square-ruled cardboard the development of the cube he is going to cut out. Another constructs a cube whose six faces are embroidered with a design of his own. A third finishes an oblong box which he wishes to present to his mother on her birthday. These good intentions wonderfully stimulate the pupils ; they take up their work each time with renewed zeal until the little ones claim their seats in the class room. The little ones themselves come from the playroom, where they have played the game of the “little fishes.” From 2 to 2:30. — The younger children are seated around the tables on which they let the balls of the first gift dance. The movement, slow at first, becomes more and more accelerated, and soon explosions of laughter are heard. The teacher then passes to the formation of the first numbers, which is accomplished by combining the colors. On the playground the cries of joy show that it is recess for the middle division. One can not hear his own voice ; each one wants to rule. At last one of the little despots carries his point: “Let us play horse.” The partisans of his view engage PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 693 in tlie game merrily, while the others in various groups amuse themselves at pleasure. Some little girls play mamma; some hoys imitate soldiers; and here is a group playing school, conducted hy a very severe little teacher. The pupils of the higher class are also occupied in playing, hut they are engaged in the game suggested hy their teacher in her class journal, and get out of it as much amusement as the intermediate section do from theirs. It is the game of “cat and mouse.” From 2:30 to 3 o’clock. — At half past 2 o’clock recreation ceases and work begins afresh. As if she wished to furnish a contrast to the noisy games of the intermedi¬ ate division, the teacher gives them an occupation that rivets their whole attention; i. e., perforation. Each one has his piece of felt, his perforating card, and pricking needle. The higher division are husy with sticks. Each one with 13 sticks has made a little element for a design, and these carried out on the four sides produce elegant designs, developing sesthetic designs. These symmetrical forms are modified hy a variety of changes made hy the pupils. At the same time the little ones in the playroom imitate the trotting and gallop¬ ping of horses, singing the appropriate song. From 3 to 3:30. — For the last time, at 3 o’clock, these little ones return to the class room in order to interlace paper hands. Each one has two hands of different colors with whichhe makes the “ cat-steps.” During all this time they talk together; and one even accompanies the song which the pupils of the intermediate class are sing¬ ing in the adjoining playroom, where they are playing the game of “ the child who seeks a place in the circle.” The oldest division have their free recess. One group are engaged in hunting for a hall which the teacher has concealed on the playground. The others are playing “ prisoner.” From 3:30 to 4 o’clock. — After recess the pupils hy twos march into the class room. In the intermediate division, at each table, a child distributes among the children a certain quantity of moist sand. At the same time they are given a tin mold which they fill with the sand in order to recast its shape. These children, opposite one another, exchange molds, and, ultimately, the two arrange their forms in a square or in a circle. In the higher division the pupils are engaged in ring-laying. They have made a design composed of five rings, one large one and four small ones in this one. The large one is surrounded hy four large half rings and eight medium-sized half rings. By suitable modifications three new designs are made, and then they work freely. The little children of the lowest division have been dressed in the meantime and the time for closing has come. The boxes with rings are put hack in the case and the pupils leave the class rooms to get ready for their departure. At 4 o’clock the doors of the kindergarten are opened for the dismissal of the 150 little ones who passed the day so pleasantly within its walls. Appendix B. EXCURSION OE A BRUSSELS KINDERGARTEN TO TUE BOIS DE LA CAMBRE. For three days great excitement has animated the kindergaiten. The pupils are full of joy; their countenances beam. The teacher has promised them, as a reward of their obedience, to take them on an excursion. For three days they have besieged the teacher with questions to which she opposes a silence that only increases their curiosity. At last the eve of the great day is at hand. While they are working in silence, the teacher attracts their attention to her own work. She is preparing paper squares which, contrary to usage, will not he used in a folding lesson, but for notices to he taken hy the children to their mothers. Pressed with questions she reads the contents of the note to the children, and they learn to their intense joy that an ex¬ cursion to the woods is fixed for the following day. On leaving school each child carries off its note and promises to rise early in order to be among the first. On the next day they are punctual, dressed in their best attire, and provided with their dinners. While waiting for their departure, they are continually examining the little baskets and studying their contents. At a quarter of 9 they are assembled and arrange themselves in file hy threes and direct their steps toward the gate of Schaerbeek where they are to take the tramway for the woods. What pleasure to mount the trams, especially for those among them w*ho 694 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. have never been upon them; they take their places hut no one wants to keep his seat, all want to see the things along the line. Soon they notice the column of the Congress, the lions that surround it, and they want to know the name of the person on the column. Some notice the statue of Gen. Belliard, then that of Godfrey of Bouillon, whom they call a great cavalier. Sub¬ sequently their way leads them al»ng the boulevard and the avenue of the woods. To their great surprise the conveyance stops ; they have to get out and are at the same time sorry and pleased. It is 10 o’clock ; they have reached the woods ; what shall they do ? The teacher is getting ready to direct their attention to the characteristic things. The great number of trees strikes them at once ; then the great size of the trees. They recog¬ nize those which adorn the playground of the kindergarten, and those which they have seen in the park. They name the chestnut tree, the plane tree, the acacia, etc. ; and for a time their conversations deal only with the trees and their fruits so far as their knowledge extends. To this the teacher adds new information; she directs their attention to the beech tree which yields the beechnut of which they are so fond, the filbert tree which gives the filberts, and the poplar, remarkable for its height, etc. ; she induces the little society to gather some leaves from these trees in order to put them in their herbarium. Subsequently they repair to the lawns dotted with flowers. They wish to gather some of these, and among the gathered flowers several are new to them. They hasten to show them to their teacher and to ask for their names. At her advice, they put them with the leaves that are to be carried home. The permission to play freely is granted them. What game will they choose? “Let us play wolf,” says Arthur, “for we are in the woods.” “No, no,” says Marie, “we might call him, and I am very much afraid.” At these words all begin to laugh, for they know very well that the teacher would not take them to a danger¬ ous place. They begin their game. A second and a third game follow; then the teacher calls them to dinner. All are content, for they are very hungry. They go to the nearest dairy, hasten to open their baskets, and eat with an enviable appe¬ tite. After the repast, which lasts only a few minutes, they take a walk to aid di¬ gestion. Then the teacher plays a number of games with them ; shows them the fish which they like to imitate, entertains them in the ravine, then again grants them free play, when they seize the ropes, the balls, the hoops brought from the school, and amuse themselves royally. At last the hour for returning has come. The hats are gathered up and the dif¬ ferent objects laid on tho grass are picked up; the children, arranged in the same order in which they arrived in the morning, march to the entrance of the forest. Here they enter again the trams which are to take them home. They are no longer as inquisitive as they were in the morning; fatigue has overcome them; all are seated, and a number have gone to sleep. From the terminus of the tram they march to the kindergarten, wkere anxious parents await their return. The next morning they have a thousand things to say to their schoolmates, and the teacher avails herself of their eagerness to extend their knowledge, making comparisons, rendering them more familiar with the great persons they met, and directing their attention to the provisions for the herbarium. Thus she gathers all possible good results from this excellent excursion. Appendix 0. A STORY TOLD IX A BRUSSELS KINDERGARTEN. Tony. On the banks of the Senne, a short distance beyond Lacken, there lived a family of peasants whose work consisted chiefly in raising vegetables for the market of Brussels. The husband was named Peter and his wife, Mary. They had three chil¬ dren, Paul, John, and little Louise. (Here I trace on the blackboard the house and add successively the things of which I speak.) Their house was on the banks of the river. In front there was a tolerably large lawn. The vegetable garden was behind the house. Around the garden there was a fence which Peter had built from small branches of shrubbery. The peasant had a large dog whose name was Tony. He had also many chickens. Tony was a splendid dog who had already done great service to the family. At night he guarded the house. In the morning he left early hitched to a small wagon full PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 695 of vegetables on bis way to the market with Mary. On bis return be walked about and, wlien tbe children of tbe neigbborbood came to play with Paul and Jolin, Tony was of tbe party ; tbe children mounted on bis back, or they made him go through with bis drill, having him to sit up bolding a stick in bis paws. Little Louise loved him much, but the jmor child was always sick and tormented everybody, especially tbe dog, who, however, bore her no ill will. At one time, in summer, a rain storm kept Peter from going to market. It rained for four days. Finally, on going to tbe window, tbe peasant saw that it bad almost stopped raining, but tbe water of tbe river bad risen to tbe edge of tbe bank. Tbe field and vegetables were covered with water. Peter, however, left with tbe dog, but they bad bard work to return, for tbe roads were covered with mud and tbe rain bad again set in. Peter changed bis clothes, and Tony lay down before tbe fire. Mary bad prepared a good soup, but her husband ate very little, for be was sad. Tbe rain kept on; tbe sky was covered with gray clouds, tbe wind shook tbe win¬ dows, -and in tbe country tbe wheat was laid low by tbe weight of water. Peter was in despair. He thought if this continued until tbe next morning tbe river would be in tbe garden and their home inundated. In tbe afternoon a neighbor, whose bouse was lower down, came to say to Peter that tbe water bad entered bis dwelling, that be bad been compelled to take refuge with bis family in tbe barn. He bad brought bis youngest child with him, and asked Mary to keep it until tbe next day. Tbe afternoon was passed in preparing for tbe worst. Peter took into tbe hayloft tbe linen, provisions, etc. Tbe rain kept on . “All will go well/7 said Peter to bis wife, “if tbe dike (I explain tbe word) a short distance from here is not broken by tbe flood; but if it should break, it would be terrible. I shall see if I can help our neighbor and shall return very soon.” An hour later be came back as be bad promised. “All is well,” he said to bis wife ; “ tbe dike bolds out well and our bouse is well built.” Tony was in bis corner, bis large nose between bis paws. He watched tbe rain; be was not afraid of water, for be could swim like a fish. Tbe peasants retired to sleep. Tbe children were in tbe bedroom side by side. Paul and John slept together, and Louise shared her bed with tbe neighbor's little girl. In tbe night Mary and her husband were suddenly aroused by Tony’s bowls. Peter sprang from tbe bed and cried out: “We are already in tbe water; tbe dike is broken. Take tbe children quickly to tbe loft.” Tony bowled at tbe door, and tried in vain to open it with bis heavy paws. Mary took Paul in her arms and car¬ ried him up. Peter took John and opened tbe door for bis dog. Tbe water in tbe bouse bad risen up to tbe knees. “ Stay in your bed,” exclaimed Peter to tbe other two children. “ I shall be back directly; do not be afraid.” But while be ascended quickly to tbe loft, Louise sprang out of tbe bed and was carried away by a current of tbe rising water. When Peter came down be beard tbe neighbor’s little girl cry out tbe name of Louise and point to tbe door. He did not lose bis bead, but called bis dog and showed him something white which floated out toward tbe river, saying: “Tony, quick; fetch Louise.” Tbe good dog swam after her, caught her by tbe end of her gown, and soon brought her back to Peter, who carried her to tbe loft. Tbe mother took charge of her, but Louise bad to stay in bed for six weeks. For several days tbe water covered tbe country around. Most of tbe people that lived on the banks of tbe river were ruined, but Peter and Mary were still quite happy to have their little Louise ; and Mary often said to Tony, patting him : “ Good Tony, you have saved our little Louise.” 696 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Appendix D . PROGRAMME OF WORK FOR THE KINDERGARTENS OF THE CITY OF BRUSSELS, Lower division. Time. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday. Saturday. 9 to 9 :30 . 9 :30 to 10 . 10 to 10 :30 . . . . 10:30 to 11 .... 11 to 11:30 .... 1 ;30 to 2 . Free play... Stories . Game . Free play. . . Drawing.... Game . Free play.... Building . Game . Free play.... Second gift . . Game. _ ... Free play. .. Stories . Game Free play. Drawing. Game. Weaving. Game. . Free play. Sticks. Game. Sand. Game. Balls . Weaving Game . Counters .... Game _ _ ... Tablets . Balls . Game ... _ Ga,m e _ _ _ Game Free play... Building.... Game . Free play. .. Sticks . Free play .... Stories . 1 j j> Recess.... | Free play... Building. . . . Game 2 to 2 -30 . 2 -30 to 3 ... Game . Game. . . . 3 to 3 -30 Beads . Sand . Plaiting . Beads __ 3 -30 to 4 . Game _ Game ...... Game . Game Intermediate division. Time. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday. Saturday. 9 to 9 -30 Drawing. ... Game _ . . Tablets . Second gift .. Game . Tablets . Bookmarks - Game . Drawing. Game. Sticks. Gymnastics. Tablets. Weaving. Game. Bings. Free play. Sand. 9 -30 to 10 Game . Game . 10 to 10:30 .... 10 :30 to 11 ... . 11 to 11 :30 . . . . 1:30 to 2 . 2 to 2 -30 Building. ... Gymnastics. Stories _ _ Drawing. . . . Gymnastics . Slats . . Sticks . Weaving .... Gymnastics.. Sewing . Building. . . . Gymnastics. Stories Gymnastics . . Beads . Folding . Game ...... Building.... Game . Bookmarks . . Game . jBecess....j J l Folding . Game _ 2 -30 to 3 Beads . •Free play. .. W eaving . . . Balls . Stories . Slats _ 3 to 3:30 . a -an tn 4 Free play. .. Pricking. . . . Free play. ... Sand . Free play... Plaiting .... Higher division. Time. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday. Saturday. 9 to 9:30 . 9:30 to 10 . 10 to 10:30 .... 10:30 to 11 .... 11 to 11:30 .... 1:30 to 2 . 2 to 2:30 . 2:30 to 3 . 3 to 3 :30 . 3:30 to 4 . Book-marks. Gymnastics. Cutting . Game . Story . Tablets . Free play... Cardboard. . Game . Building.... Folding . Gymnastics. Slats . Game . Drawing. . . . Weaving Free play. . . Sticks . Game . Bings . Building . Gymnastics . Interlacing . . Game . Tablets . Beads . Free play. . . . Stories . Game . Modeling .... Cardboard. .. Gymnastics.. Drawing .... Game . Building . jBecess . j Building. ... Gymnastics. Cutting . Game . Stories . Bings . Free play. . . Sewing ..... Game . Beads . Drawing. Gymnastics . Sticks. Game. Weaving. Folding. Free play. Interlacing. Game. Modeling. Appendix E. THREE DAYS IN A KINDERGARTEN OF ANTWERP. Tlie kindergarten is free, lias an attendance of 300 children in 6 classes, with 6 teachers, 3 assistants, and 2 servants.] Tlie children begin to arrive at the school at 8 o’clock. They play freely until 9 o’clock, either on the playground or in one of the play rooms. In summer the chil¬ dren of the two older classes are busy with the gardens, whose care is incumbent on them. After each exercise, which lasts on an average 30 minutes, the children go to the playground. Indeed, they remain here if the weather is favorable and the character of the occupations permits it. Every class-room exercise is followed by games and songs in the play room. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 697 There are 6 classes, in reality 3 classes (each in two divisions) and 3 play rooms. The noon lunch is taken at half past 11. After the meal, until half past 1, the chil¬ dren play freely without the intervention of teachers, as before 9 o’clock. At 4 o’clock the children leave school. Those who can not go home alone wait, under the care of a teacher, until they are called for or are taken home. Occupations of three days. FIRST YEAE — CHILDREN OE THREE YEARS. Weekly order of exer¬ cises. x Plan of exercises. Remarks. Monday morning. 1. Eirst gift 2. Games 8. Sticks To distinguish the blue color. — The teacher shows the blue hall. All the children look for the blue hall in the box, take it out, and show it. Various exercises with the blue ball: Putting it back into the box, taking it out again, passing it from the left to the right hand, rolling it on the table in differ¬ ent directions, etc. Show various blue ob¬ jects, look for such in the class room. Mix the baEs ; take out the yeEow baE, the red ball, the blue ball. Play with the balls. — The children, at a signal given by the teacher, alternately throw each of the known balls into a large basket, until they make no more blunders; e.g., (1) yeEow balls, (2) red balls, (3) blue balls. The chair. — Talk about the chair. Its uses. Some children sit down in it. The chair is made with sticks, the work of the teacher serving as a model to the children. The chEdren try to place it in different direc¬ tions, as below : Generally the children have in their hands the objects with which the lesson deals. This is particularly the case with the gifts and occupa¬ tions. In the lowest class we deal only with the three colors, red, yeEow, and blue. The ball is used in all classes in games which grow in complexity. The teacher takes every op¬ portunity to strengthen good tendencies and to weaken bad ones, to accus¬ tom them to proper con¬ duct, etc. The teacher draws the chair on the black¬ board. “ How should we sit down on a chair?” If time permits, the children lay several other figures previously laid. If a child invents a new figure, he makes it at the teacher’s desk, and the other children imitate it, each in his place. Afternoon. 1. Singing 2. Third gift 3. Erec games. The teacher sings a very simple children’s song. The children are pleased with it and express a desire to learn it. They, at first, hum the tune of it, accompanying the teacher. They then learn the words, which are well pronounced and weE explained, and finaEy sing the words. Einding the half of the cube : Divide the cube into two half cubes, in imitation of the teacher; the children separate and reunite the half cubes or change their places re¬ peatedly. With the help of the teacher they try to find other ways of dividing the cube. Then they divide without any help. Di¬ vide a paper strip, a bun, a fruit into two equal parts. When we receive an apple, a cake, we give half of it to someone else, to the brother, the chum. The children march in file. All the move¬ ments of the leader are imitated by the rest. The children form a circle ; each in its turn passes around on the inside of the circle, walking, running, or leaping in some fash¬ ion. All gifts are used as much as possible for three distinct ends: (1) To represent com¬ mon objects; (2) To con¬ struct artistic forms; (3) To represent geometrical forms, and for arithmetical exercises. 698 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Occupations of three days — Continued. SECOYD YEAR — CHILDREN OE FOUR YEARS. Weekly order of exer- ercises. Plan of exercises. Remarks. Wednesday morning. 1. Folding. 2. Singing 3. Slats Afternoon. Construction of the double boat. — Take a square folding sheet of any color. Observe its sides and angles. Place the lower edge on the upper and crease in the middle. R otice the oblong. Open the paper and fold simi¬ larly from right to left, etc., etc. The song of the ship. — The song is accompa¬ nied with imitations of the movements of ships and sailors. In the work room tLere is a large vessel with mast, sails, cordage, rudder. In the ship there is room for three or four children who can do work there, such as casting out the anchor, hoist and take in the sails, work the rudder, etc. Two interlaced triangles. — Forming different angles with two slats. Construct different triangles with three slats. Make two equi¬ lateral triangles; place one on the other; interlace them ; count and compare the new small triangles. Such a lesson always begins with a talk on the object in question. Different kinds of ships should be shown the children. Familiar com¬ ments; moral stories are always in place. After the exercise which appeals to the senses and the intellect comes the little story that appeals to the heart. 1. Exercises in the gar- Purpose: To arouse in the children a desire to den. work in the garden and to prepare them for next year’s duties. Talk about all they see, the beds, the trees, the flowers, etc., about the work in which the children ot the third year are at that time engaged in their little gardens. The children freely ask questions of the teacher. They begin to work in the part of the garden reserved for them; they spade, rake, make clods, ditches, wells, etc. They also learn to handle some garden tools. Finally, by way of recom¬ pense, the children receive the ripe fruit and eat them. 2. Drawing with tab¬ lets. 3. Free games. Drawing a star with triangular tablets. Some observations about the tablets. Their name, comparison with the square tablet sides and angles. Hare them draw the angles on the Hack board. Make a square of two tablets. Unite four of these in a larger square, etc. (until the fol¬ lowing star is reached). This fignreis drawn on the slate. The children use a tablet to And the chief points which they join afterwards with straight lines in free hand drawing. Children that have suc¬ ceeded well in their task, make another figure of their own invention and copy it afterwards on their slates. The prisoners. — Three children, tliree pris¬ oners, are shut in the circle formed by the remaining children, hand in hand. If they succeed in their efforts to escape, those who permitted them to escape take their places. Throwing a ball as near as possible a given mark. Throwing balls towards an object from a line drawn on the floor at increasing distances from the goal. The children of the two high¬ er classes have gardens of one or two square meters in which they sow and plant at pleasure. Each one has a spade, a rake, and a water¬ ing pot. The plants are ob¬ served in their daily growth. The harvest is gathered every year. The common parts of the garden are cared for by the teachers, the chil¬ dren observing their work. There are many cherry trees, apple trees, gooseberry bushes, raspberry bushes, strawberry plants, fruits of which are distributed among the children. Drawing begins at the close of the first year. Throughout we follow the method indi¬ cated by Froebel, grouping similar elements, joining by intermediate forms dis¬ similar elements, going from center to circumference, from left to right, top to bot¬ tom, etc. Tim children are thus prepared to find other figures easily. Slate draw¬ ing goes hand in hand as soon as possible with pencil drawing on paper. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 699 Occupations of three days — Continued. THIKD YEAR — CHILDREN OF FIVE YEARS. Weekly order of exer¬ cises. Plan, of exercises. Remarks. Friday morning. 1. Story 2. Singing 3. Plaiting. Afternoon. The teacher tells with interesting details and much feeling a moral, instructive, and probable story, and draws the principal scene on the blackboard before the eyes of the children. Subject. — The ground is covered with snow. A child feeds the sparrows who suffer from the cold and hunger. Drawing on the board. — The home of the child ; two trees ; snow everywhere ; a child that scatters bread crumbs ; sparrows flying all about. Some questions are put; the differ¬ ent parts of the design are shown ; the whole story is told, without interruption, by sev¬ eral children. If time is left, the children are allowed to draw the easier parts of the design, and they are induced to tell other stories previously told. Repetition of three familiar songs with piano accompaniment: The Blacksmith, The Gardener, House-Building. The tools of the blacksmith, of the gardener, the things needed for the construction of the house are in the children’s hands. The words in¬ dicate the work and the motions. Plaiting a festoon with six strips. (Full directions of the form are given, hut are here omitted.) Stories begin to he told with the beginning of the second year. Preference is given to family scenes, to events of child' life. The piano is in the play room of the higher class ; 'it is at the disposal of the teachers of the lower classes once a week. The paper work (plaiting, weaving, and folding) is begun at the close of the first or beginning of the second year. 1. Gymnastic exercises. 2. Modeling 3. Free games A number of exercises of special parts of the body, and marches with piano accom¬ paniment. It should furnish occasion to move every part of the body. It comprises marches and countermarches in the shape of the square, the cross, the circle, spiral, the wavy line, * * * gymnastic movements of ail sorts with the ropes, hoops, wands, and other light apparatus. A graceful, firm gait, and the greatest exactness are re¬ quired. The whole should produce an agreeable impression. Modeling an apple in clay. This exercise is preceded by an object-lesson on the apple. A model apple in clay is examined and serves as sample. The children first make a ball ; this is flat¬ tened and worked until the desired form is obtained ; the lesson closes with inventive exercises. ‘* 1 2 3 4 5 Two are enough and three are too many ; then one or two chosen by the children. This prepares for the gym¬ nastic exercises of the pri¬ mary school. The children use chiefly their fingers in shaping the ap¬ ple; only for final touches they use the modeling tool. When the real objects are not too complicated, they serve as models. In all exercises tlie children are granted all the freedom compatible with the order and discipline that should reign in a school. They may talk with one another, speak to the teacher without asking permission whenever the nature of the occupation allows this. Appendix F. CONFERENCES OF K1NDERGARTNERS. Usually the order of exercises is as follows : 1. Reading of the minutes of the previous conference. 2. Didactic exercises. — One or several teachers are designated to give the lessons of the programme. 3. Discussion of these exercises. 4. Criticism of home work. 5. Communications and recommendations. REMARKS. 1. Each exercise occupies at most thirty minutes. 2. The didactic exercises begin with a song and close with gymnastic game by the pupils. 3. The work and the collections of pupils and teachers are exhibited in one of the schoolrooms. 700 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. PLAN OP CONFERENCES POE ANTWERP, 1882. FIRST CONFERENCE. ,1. Some work. — Write three moral children’s stories on any subject. 2. Didactic exercises : (a) First year pupils. — Third gift. Divide the cube into two parts in all directions. (&) Second year pupils. — Tablets. The isosceles right triangle. (c) Thir d year pupils.—- Peas and sticks. Rectangular prism and pyramid. Differences and re¬ semblances. SECOND CONFERENCE. 1. Some work. — Duties of the teacher to the children, the parents, and the authorities. 2. Didactic exercises : (a) First year pupils.— Analysis of the fourth gift. Comparison with the third. (b) Second year pupils. — Any moral story. (c) Third year pupils.— Sowing and planting in the little gardens. If the weather precludes this or if the kindergarten is without a garden, the drawing of curved-line designs on the slate will be substituted. THIRD CONFERENCE. 1. Some work. — Show that the Proebel method develops naturally and harmoniously body and mind. 2. Didactic exercises : (а) First year pupils. — Plaiting the cat-steps. (б) Second year pupils. — Slats. Figures composed of six slats. Explanation about angles. (c) Third year pupils. — Daily care of plants in the little gardens. In case of hindrance, explana¬ tion of a child’s poem. FOURTH CONFERENCE. 1. Some work. — How can the teacher make the school pleasant to the children. 2. Didactic exercises : (a) First year pupils. — Comparison of first and second gifts. It is supposed that the children see the second gift for the first time. Each child receives two boxes. (b) Second, year pupils. — Folding geometrical forms. (c) Third year pupils. — Familiar talk about the turnip. II.— Switzerland. A strange country is little Switzerland, harboring a motley people that — marvelous in Europe — rests its nationality not on language or common origin, hut wholly and alone, spurning all external considerations, on the love of liberty. Switzerland boasts not of great military leaders, nor of great names in polite literature, and other achievements in the realms of selfgratification ; but the vast love-burdened tide of educational development which promises to dispense the blessings of peace and good will to all mankind, lias its sources in the freedom-loving Alps. Rousseau, Pere Girard, and Madame Necker de Saussure, Planta and a, Porta; Francesco Soave and Alberto Lamoni; Pestalozzi, Fellenberg, and Wehrli, represent educational Rhones and Adiges, Pos and Rhines, carrying life-dispensing floods in the four direc¬ tions of the compass to the plains below. Even Froebel, the father of the kindergarten, owes the discovery of his true call¬ ing and the unfolding of his mighty genius to the influence of this little republic. In 1805 Froebel had reached Frankfort with the intention of seeking occupation as architect. Here he was introduced to Gruner, a young enthusiast who had estab¬ lished in the city a model school conducted in the spirit of Pestalozzi. Repeated intercourse revealed to Gruner FroebePs inmost soul, and in friendly advice he ex¬ claimed : “ Architecture is not your calling. You must become a teacher. I need a teacher (of mathematics) in my school; the position is yours, if you will accept it;” and Froebel accepted. Then followed his first visit to Pestalozzi at Yoerdun, during the vacation in the fall of 1805, and three years later his second visit as tutor of three boys intrusted to his care. Still later, in 1831, when ruin was rife and threatened his work in Germany, he found an asylum again in Switzerland, where he established consecu¬ tively the model schools at Wartensee and Willisau, and, iu 1831, accepted the di¬ rection of the orphan asylum at Burgdorf, which he retained until 1836. It would be an interesting task to trace the subtle influences through which the work of the Swiss reformer culminated in the genial “Come, let us live with our children,” of his Thuringian disciple. Butin a sketch of the kindergarten develop¬ ment among the Swiss, such an analysis would not be in place. Indeed, the kinder¬ garten idea was a somewhat later fruitage of Froebel’s mind. Yet his first clear utterances concerning the kindergarten (1837-J40) followed so closely upon his stay in Switzerland that one wonders how the little republic could be among the last PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 701 European countries to establish the kindergarten . It is reported that kindergartens existed for short periods in different cities as early as 1845, and among these one founded by Carl Froebel in Zurich, but that they failed because of the incompetence of the teachers. Thus it happens that here, too, the first successful establishment of kindergartens is linked with the name of the Baroness Marenholtz-Buelow. In 1856 she labored in Zurich, without, however, achieving direct practical results. In the meanwhile Fr6d£ric Soret, a well-known writer, had prepared, on the basis of lectures deliv¬ ered by the baroness at Frankfort in 1854, an elaborate report on kindergartens for the Societe de VutiliM publique of Geneva. This report was read before the society in January, 1858. In 1859 Prof. Raoux, of Lausanne, entered into corre¬ spondence with the baroness and established a kindergarten in his own home. In 1860 the baroness came to French Switzerland and aroused a deep and abiding in¬ terest through her lectures, which resulted in much permanent good and led to the establishment of public kindergartens in a number of cantons, more particularly in Geneva, of which a detailed account will follow. In a number of places there existed infant schools whose establishment was due to the influence of Oberlin’s efforts in the Alsace. These were quite numerous in French-speaking Switzerland and in Basle. In these, too, attempts began to be made about this time to introduce the use of FroebeTs occupations and games, more particularly sewing, weaving, and pricking. In all directions the work grew, until in 1881 the first general statistical report sho wed that Switzerland maintained 404 infant schools. Of these 75 were pure kin¬ dergartens, 138 were partial kindergartens, and the remainder had not been touched appreciably by the spirit or work of Froebel. In these infant schools 550 teachers taught about 15,000 children. In many cantons the state or the respective communities contributed largely to the support of these infant schools, and in Geneva 58 kindergartens and infant schools were maintained wholly from the public funds. The last available general report is for the years 1887-’88. The number of infant schools had risen to 1)44, that of the teachers to 611, that of the children to 20,745, and in all the cantons except five the state exercised some degree of supervision and control over these schools. It is a notable fact, however, that the kindergartens in these five cantons enjoyed a high degree of efficiency and sustained a high educa¬ tional character. This was notably the case with the canton of St. Gall, which gave the first impetus to the establishment of training schools for teachers and to the organization of the Swiss kindergarten association. In 1865 an infant school was established in the orphanage under the direction of the venerable Wellauer. The results of this work of the teachers, in spite of their zeal, were quite unsatisfactory, and in 1866 two talented young ladies were sent to a training school for kindergartens in Germany in order to prepare themselves for the work of teaching the little orphans. The success of their work on their return was so marked that the teachers of St. Gall requested Wellauer to prepare a report on the subject of FroebeTs educational system for a conference held in 1869. The influence of this report was immediate. Steps were at once taken to organize a kindergarten association, and in 1870 the first public kindergarten was established with as many children as the building could accommodate. So great was the demand for admission that in 1872 a large building was erected, at a cost of about $12,000, for the accommodation of about 100 children. The building is provided with the necessary occupation rooms and play rooms, and admirably lighted, heated, and ventilated. A large playground, thoughtfully arranged for running and leaping games and bordered by flower beds, is laid out on the south side of the building. On the east side a large open space has been provided, filled with vast heaps of sand for the use of the little gardeners builders, and engineers; and on the opposite side of the street there is a beautiful small flower garden, planted and cared for by the children. Inasmuch as the work of the good people of St. Gall became the type of effective work done in the greater portion of Switzerland, and inasmuch as it would afford an excellent type for needed work in many of our American copamunities, the chief points of organization are noted here. The association aims “to advance the interests of national modes of educating infants by establishing and conducting in the city of St. Gall kindergartens in accordance with FroebeTs principles.” The financial means are provided from annual contributions, school fees, eventual presents, and legacies. All are full members who pay the annual contribution. The association meets at least once a year, decides finally concerning the establishment of kindergartens, elects for a triennial period of service an executive committee of seven members and an auditing committee of three members, and decides all questions of policy and administration. The executive committee elects its own secretary and treasurer from its members, appoints a supervising committee of four ladies, and carries out the plans and reso- 702 EDUCATION EEPOKTj 1890-91. lutions of the association, and makes an annual report to the association. For each kindergarten at least one professionally trained teacher is employed; as soon as the number of children exceeds 30 an assistant must he engaged. Children are admitted between the ages of 3 and 6. The teachers are engaged for a period of six years. The plan of work is drawn up by the college of kindergartners and approved by the executive commission. The execution of this plan is intrusted to a supervisor selected from the college of kinder- gartners for a period of six years. This supervisor presides also over the monthly con¬ ferences of kindergartners and reports annually the results of this work to the asso¬ ciation. Each kindergartner is aided by a janitor, who keeps the rooms in order and receives and dismisses the children, seeing to it that their wraps are properly cared for. The children pay a monthly fee of from 1 to 5 francs according to circumstances, or may be admitted for still less at the option of the executive committee. The ses¬ sions are from 9 to 11 :30 in the forenoon, and from 2 to 4 in the afternoon, except on Wednesday and Saturday, which are holidays. The half hour from 10 to 10:30 is de¬ voted to a luncheon and to play. Children, however, are permitted to bring for luncheon only bread and fruit, a most wholesome limitation. Eight weeks of vaca¬ tion are distributed as follows: Two weeks in April; three in August; two in Octo¬ ber; one at Christmas. The close of the winter term in April is celebrated with a play festival, to which parents and friends are invited. A training school for kindergartners is connected with the institution. This school is conducted by the supervisor. The course lasts for one year. Students must have passed the seventeenth year, must also show a good scholastic education, and be able to sing. They have four lessons weekly on kindergarten theory and practice ; two lessons weekly in general pedagogies and hygiene ; two lessons weekly in natural his¬ tory and botany ; two lessons weekly in geometry and geometrical drawing; one les¬ son weekly in calisthenics, and two lessons weekly in singing. St. Gall also has the honor of having originated the idea of the Swiss kindergarten association, which did so much to lift the kindergartens of German Switzerland upon an almost idealdevel of efficiency. In 1881 J. Wellauer and his enthusiastic friend, Charles Ed. Mayer, a gifted minister of the Gospel, issued a call to the friends of Froebelian education in Switzerland to assemble at St. Gall. The meeting was largely attended. Among other things it was resolved to establish a Swiss kinder¬ garten association, whose purpose it should be to labor in the interest of rational infant education, to diffuse a better knowledge of the principles and means of such an education, and to induce the communities to make the establishment and conduct of kindergartens an affair of publicdnstruction. In less than two years the provi¬ sional organization numbered 662 members. At the same time the provisional com¬ mittee, with rare energy, published, under the editorial management of Director Rnettel, of Lucerne, a monthly periodical devoted to the interests of its cause. This excellent paper, which was published for seven years, did much to give to the Swiss kindergartens the character of pure, unaffected child-joy, of simple religious inten¬ sity, of affectionate soeial unity, of cheerful earnestness, and a sensible regard for the practical needs of life, which brings them nearer to FroebeFs ideal than the kinder¬ gartens of other neighboring lands. The second meeting of the association took place in Zurich in 1884, and completed the organization. The only notable change in the provisional constitution was in the paragraph which had proposed as one of the aims of the association “efforts to render the introduction, maintenance, and conduct of kindergartens a part of public education.” It was maintained that neither cantonal nor federal red-tape could properly conduct the kindergarten cause ; that the establishment of kinder¬ gartens by the state implied the step of rendering them compulsory, which would interfere with the rights of the family, and that such a step would complicate still more the already complicated problem of public education. On the other hand, it was conceded that the state might do much to aid the movement by interesting itself in the professional education of kindergartners. A compromise in this sense was effected, declaring it to be the aim of the association “ to establish kindergartens, to secure the professional education of kindergartners as far as practicable, and to enlist the factors of public administration in efforts to aid the kindergarten movement.” To this day the association has continued to flourish. Its membership in 1886 had reached 1,319, and at its last meeting, in Winterthur, in 1890, exceeded 2,000. The most cultivated men and women vie with each other in efforts to advance its labors, and in every direction there is growth. Among the papers read at the last meeting of the association, one of the most notable was that of Dr. Hiirlimann, a practical physician and intelligent student of the kindergarten. He maintained that a well-conducted kindergarten, provided with all needful apparatus and suitable play grounds, is a fountain of all good things for body and mind; that, on the other hand, the so-called infant schools, devoid of FroebeFs spirit, aTe a constant source of injury, burdening the children precociously PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 703 and hindering physical development. He praised Froebel for his reverence for child- nature, and honored him as a pioneer mind in all that relates to educational hygiene. More particularly is this illustrated in the stress which Froebel places on social games and occupations. Through these, more than by any other means, the body becomes the efficient servant of the mind. Courage, perseverance, decision, forbear¬ ance, become habits of the soul. The social games are as a sun for the child’s dis¬ position ; without them it languishes into egoism, weakness, and isolation. He advises the kindergartners not to be too punctilious in their following of Froebel, and to study the child more than the writings of Froebel and hi s followers. The chief test of her work is the joyous cheerfulness of her children; where this is lacking in¬ jury must result. The experiment of Switzerland to establish and maintain kindergartens by means of organized private effort and to admit state aid only in the way of assistance to prfvate effort has yielded significant results. Public sentiment has steadily grown in their favor and is actively enlisted; the greed of speculation and clerical as well as denominational interference have been successfully kept out of the way. Every¬ where kindergartens flourish and are on the increase. Nowhere else is "there such alacrity in meeting the requirements of childhood with reference to buildings, play¬ grounds, and appliances of all kinds. The average of thirty children to the teacher is scrupulously maintained, and professional preparation of teachers receives most care¬ ful attention, A beautiful spirit reigns in the kindergartens themselves, a reverence for childhood and for common sense in the treatment of children which it is delightful to meet in these days of forced growth and system- worship. In a late report of the kindergar¬ tens of Zurich we read: “ The physical welfare of the children was carefully consid¬ ered. Daily, if the weather permitted, they were taken into the open air for a walk. The abundance of fresh air and their permanent state of cheerfulness and joy bore excellent fruit. Many mothers acknowledged gratefully how much the children had gained in vigor and health through the influence of the kindergarten. * * * An additional advantage derived from this daily walk lies in the fact that it removes the temptation of having the children work excessively — a temptation which is abun¬ dantly offered by Froebel’s occupations.” Much stress is laid throughout on the proper respect for the child’s spontaneity as the starting point and source- of all development, and on its direction into habits of order and industry. Kindliness, active love of the neighbor, and reverence for all things, great and small, are inculcated in truly Froebelian manner. Everywhere system, which in Geneva is so prominently emphasized, yields to the deeper needs of soul development. In the canton of Geneva, and in French Switzerland generally, infant school work is of much older date. It originated in Geneva in 1826 under the influence of similar work done in France; and, as in France, the ecoles enfantines of Geneva were organ¬ ized after the manner of the English infant schools. These schools were in great favor with the people, and their expenses were cheerfully borne by the communes. In 1848 the state decreed that every commune that established an e'cole enfantine should receive a subsidy of 200 francs. The law of 1872 made it the duty of every commune to establish such a school, placed all these schools under the supervision of the state, and materially increased the amount expended for them by the state. In 1876 these ecoles enfantines were placed under the supervision of Madame von Por- tugall, who labored with a great degree of success to transform them into kinder¬ gartens. In accordance with the regulations of 1888 their organization is as follows : 11 The infant schools are meant to guide and enhance the bodily and intellectual development of the children, and to prep'are them for the primary school. They are composed of a lower division for children between the ages of 3 and 6, and a higher division for children 6 to 7 years old. In both divisions the instruction consists -chiefly of object lessons ( legons de choses), manual occupations, games, and songs. These schools are gratuitous, but not obligatory. Children are admitted at four different periods during the year — at the close of the summer vacation, October, in January, and after the Easter holidays. The infant schools are open daily, except on Sundays, Thursdays, and legal holidays, from 8 to 11 a. m., and 1 to 4p. m. Each class has one teacher. When the number of children permanently exceeds 40, an assistant must be provided. The duty of the teaehers is to watch over the intellec¬ tual, moral, and physical education of the children; to inculcate good principles, establish good habits, proper manners, and correct language. They must carefully abstain from all denominational teaching.” In 1887 the canton of Geneva maintained 68 public kindergartens, accommodating 3,268 children, with 78 teachers. The following programme, which prevailed under the administration of Madame von Portugall, and which has not since been materially modified, will give an idea of the inner working of these institutions : 704 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Programme of work for the kindergartens of the city of Geneva. FIRST DIVISION— CHILDREN 5 TO 6 YEARS OLD. Time. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Friday. Saturday. 8 to 8 :30 . 8:30 to 9:20 ... 9:20 to 9:35 ... 9:35 to 10:10 .. Reception and toilet. Story (moral) .... Luncheon . Games, songs, and marches. Numbers . Reading and writing. Numbers . Story (natural history) . 10:10 to 10:55 . 1 to 1 :30 . Reading and writing. Reception and toi¬ let. Reading and lan¬ guage exer¬ cises. Bui 1 d i n g or thread games. Reading and writing. Penmanship. 1:30 to 2:20 ... 2:20 to 3:10 ... W eaving or thread games. Songs and games Pricking or sing¬ ing. Folding or past¬ ing. W eaving o r slats. Folding or rings. 3 :10 to 3 :55 ... Drawing or fold¬ ing. Embroidery .... Rhymes or songs Pricking o r drawing. Modeling or gardening. SECOND DIVISION— CHILDREN 4 TO 5 YEARS OLD. 8 to 8 :30 8:30 to 9:20 Reception and toi¬ let. Story (moral) . Folding or tab¬ Rhymes, lan¬ Story (natural 9:20 to 9:35 9:35 to 10:10 10:10 to 10:55 Luncheon. Games, songs, and marches. Building . lets. Slats or rings. .. guage exer¬ cises. Building (num¬ history). Slats or weav¬ 1 to 1:30 1:30 to 2:20 Reception and toi¬ let. Sticks or sand Stringing beads - bers). Pricking . ing. Folding or tab¬ 2:20 to 3:10 3:10 to 3:55 games. Games, song, and marches. Drawing or free Ball games . Embroidery or lets. Drawing or play. tree play. sand games. Building. Pricking <*. drawing Stringing beads. Modeling or free play. THIRD DIVISION— CHILDREN 3 TO 4 YEARS OLD. 8 to 8:30 8:30 to 9:20 Reception and toi¬ let. Story . Sticks or sand . . Stories and Stringing Tablets or 9:20 to 9:35 9 :35 to 10 :10 10:10 to 10 :5o Luncheon. Games, songs, and marches. Building . . Drawing or slats rhymes. Tablets or paste¬ beads. Drawing or building. Folding or in¬ 1 to 1 :30 1:30 to 2:20 Reception and toi¬ let. Stringing beads.. Folding or tab¬ board and but¬ tons. Building. . ball games. Pasteboard terlacing. Free games; 2:20 to 3:10 3:10 to 3:55 Games, songs, and marches. Balls or paste¬ lets. Chains or inter¬ Free play and and buttons. Chains or fold¬ playthings. Modeling or board and but¬ tons. lacing. sand games. ing. sand games. It is very evident, both from the regulations and the programme, that the spirit of Froebel has not entered very deeply into these kindergartens. The average number of children assigned to one teacher is too great ; the time assigned to the occupa¬ tions is too long, more particularly with the younger children; the occupations themselves seem to come like subjects of instruction; and the entire programme is too sedentary. Nevertheless, there speaks from every line of reports and decrees concerning these schools a deep-seated respect for childhood which will sooner or later liberate the little ones from the thraldom of schoolishness and the superstitious worship of 11 systbme.” PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 705 III. — Germany. The available information concerning kindergartens in Germany is very incomplete. In most cases the kindergartens are maintained by private effort or by associations, and the communal or public kindergarten is comparatively rare. As a consequence there are many different kinds of kindergartens to suit the purposes of the founders. There is the “ private kindergarten,” (private par excellence) established by the teacher either* for the sake of earning a livelihood or with a view of pioneer work in the cause of Froebel; the “ association kindergarten,” established and main¬ tained by associations whose members have more or less clearly recognized the edu¬ cational value of this work; the “ family kindergarten,” maintained by one or more families who desire to control the associations of the children; the “ public kinder¬ garten” ( Volkskindergarten ), not unlike our charity kindergarten and day nursery, which takes care, usually during the entire day, of children whose parents are negli¬ gent or engaged in work; and the “ communal kindergarten,” established and main¬ tained by communities in connection with the communal schools. The ideal or “normal kindergarten” receives the children for a limited time dur¬ ing the day, from 9 to 12 or 1 o'clock, or from 10 to 12 in the forenoon, and from 2 to 4 o’clock in the afternoon. Its purpose is to relieve the family during the busiest hours of the housewife, and at the same time to supply the social training which the family can not give. Itfis usually limited in the number of children, in order to obviate the necessity of dividing them into groups and classes in accordance with their age or state of progress. Froebel himself had insisted with much urgency upon the indi¬ viduality of the kindergarten. This wholeness was needed for the “ all-sided unity of life” which his ideal demanded, and which called even for the regular attendance of mothers and children of school age. Yet when kindergartens grew in number of children this demand of Froebel was set aside and kindergartens of two or even three grades or classes were established. Thus industrial and commercial hindrances rendered it necessary, even in Germany, to deviate largely from Froebel’s beautiful ideal, and to subordinate the educational value of the kindergarten to questions of social expediency. Many factors seem to militate against the general introduction of kindergartens in Germany, all of which seem to have their root in the excessively conservative ten¬ dency of the German character. Hence the opposition of the clergy, of school men, of the constituted political authorities to this “innovation.” Hence the notorious decree of the Prussian minister of education, von Raumer, in 1851, which prohibited the establishment of kindergartens in Prussia on the ground of their alleged social¬ istic and atheistic tendency, a decree which was maintained in spite of the protests and explanations of Froebel and his colleagues until 1860. Hence the bitter attacks on the part of teachers who could see little good in an institution that taught chil¬ dren “ to play” and which employed women as teachers. More concerning this will be found in two interesting letters published in the appendix and addressed to me, by Rev. B. Baehring, of Winfeld, one of the most venerable as well as most active defenders of Froebel. Yet this opposition is steadily met andis gradually yielding before the rare devotion, equally marked in the German character, on the part of those who have become con¬ vinced of the truth and value of Froebel’s teachings. It will be of interest in this connection to illustrate, with the aid of a few typical instances, the devotion which characterizes the establishment of kindergartens in most cases. Until about twelve years ago there were no kindergartens in the beautiful city of Aachen. There were day nurseries, but these were carried on without method and pedagogic insight or followed the models of the English infant school; Froebel had no share in them. About 1878 Hubert Kneppers, a teacher in the city of Aachen, through some accident, became a devoted student of Froebel’s ideas, and his enthu¬ siasm ripened rapidly into living deeds. He was the father of two children under school age. These and four children of the neighborhood, invited for the purpose, were formed by him into a kindergarten, taught after school hours by him and his excellent wife, who presided also over a small private school. At the same time a young lady wTio had caught the inspiration studied the sub¬ ject under the direction of the excellent couple, so that early in 1879 a public kin¬ dergarten, with 17 children, could be established. Prejudices of all kinds then beset the young enterprise, but Mr. and Mrs. Kneppers only redoubled their efforts. For¬ tunately the local press was favorable, or at least not hostile, and opened its columns to Hubert Kneppers, who wielded his pen so effectively that the more intelligent portion of the community became actively interested in the work. In the fall of 1879 it became necessary to find more spacious quarters, and the number of children — who now paid a monthly fee of about 3 marks — rose to 50. In 1881 Mrs. Kneppers discontinued her jjrivate school, in order to devote herself, with her husband, wholly to the kindergarten and to a rapidly growing school for the training of kindergarten ED 91 - 45 70 6 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. teachers. One year later the “ Industrial Association/’ which conducted a number of day nurseries, requested Mr. Kneppers to transform these nurseries into kinder¬ gartens. In this work he was so successful that two years later he had under his direction six kindergartens, with nearly 1,000 children, and in 1890 the number of public kindergartens maintained by the e ‘ Industrial Association ” had risen to nine¬ teen, requiring an annual expenditure of 70,000 marks. Less brilliant, hut not less instructive, is the history of the first kindergarten efforts at Karlsruhe, the capital of the Duchy of Baden. In 1870 a clergyman, who had learned to appreciate the value of the genuine kindergarten, began to agitate among his friends for the establishment of such an institution. Immediately he was beset from all sides with many anonymous protests and otherwise called upon to abandon his godless undertaking. But he continued his efforts and opened, in the fall of the year, a kindergarten with 22 children, in the lower story of his parsonage. The kindergarten was successful enough, and has held its own to this day, hut he has found it impossible to transform into true kindergartens the numerous infant schools and day nurseries of the city, and to overcome the indifference of the people at large to the better ways of Froebel. In the majority of instances the kindergartens are the work of associations of intelligent and philanthropic men and women. Thus, in 1875, a number of gentle¬ men under the presidency of Burgomaster Ammann, of Heidelberg, decided to form a “Froebel Association,” whose purpose it should he to establish kindergartens in the good old university town. In February, 1876, the organization of this associa¬ tion was completed, and in May of the same year an association kindergarten was opened with 94 children. The ideal of this association is tersely stated in its first annual report, which declares it to he the purpose of the association “to establish kindergartens in accordance with FroeheTs system, institutions in which children of all social ranks may he occupied for a few hours each day in such a way that all their faculties may he developed naturally. Such kindergartens are not schools which are meant for older children, nor are they devoted to mere arbitrary play as day nurseries; they are, rather, methodical institutions in which children from 3 to 6 years old are to he cultivated naturally in social union with other children of the same ages, their powrers being unfolded and directed in their growth by means of play and work, and their hearts being led to a generous and sympathetic self- activity.” In 1877 an auxiliary association composed of ladies was formed, and during the same year a public kindergarten ( Volkskindergarten ) was established in the western suburb of Heidelberg. For this enterprise the city council had placed temporary rooms at the disposal of the association, and had voted an annual contribution of 400 marks on condition that the association should not require the children to pay more than 20 pfennig (about 5 cents) weekly fee. One hundred and thirty-eight children sought admission in this kindergarten, but only 50 could be received. The status of the association and its kindergartens seems to have remained prac¬ tically unchanged to this day. The report of 1888 shows that the average attend¬ ance of children in the “association kindergarten” (Yereins kindergarten ) has re¬ mained the same, and that of the “public kindergarten” ( Volkskindergarten ) has been very slightly increased. The amount of gratuitous work done by the members of these associations is remarkable. This circumstance speaks well for the public spirit of participants. It is to be remarked, too, that members are recruited chiefly from the cultured classes who seem to be fully aware of the additional responsibility which superior culture puts upon them. Probably these general characteristics of the Froebel work in Germany are nowhere more clearly illustrated than in Leipzig, Breslau, Dresden, Berliu, and Hamburg. For this reason the organization and work of associations in these cities have been singled out from the vast mass of similar material to which almost every German city contributes. At Leipzig a number of high-minded ladies and gentlemen met and organized in 1871 the “Association for the establishment of Volkskindergarten” A circular was issued setting forth the object of the society. A few extracts from this circular will do much to illustrate the great advance such associations had made in their views concerning child culture over the friends of infant education in France, Belgium, Italy, and England. After prefacing that the advancement of popular education is the most important concern of the present time and that “ every man of culture must feel it to he a duty peculiarly his own to aid in every effort that looks to the en¬ hancement of popular education;” the circular proceeds as follows concerning the attitude of the society towards the “kindergarten pedagogics of Frederick Froebel It is clearly a matter that concerns the honor of the cultured men and women of our people that so precious and propitious an idea born in our midst should no longer be permitted to remain in abey¬ ance because of unfavorable circumstances, and that they should aid it by furnishing every opportun¬ ity for the manifestation of its high value in the best form. In many cities this has been done ; in our city, however, there are very few institutions that fully represent the purpose of the kindergarten. Consequently the high significance of the kindergarten is not properly understood in Leipzig, and PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 707 its "blessings are lost to the public education of our city. Probably it is on this account that the city authorities have not yet seen fit to establish ‘kindergartens in connection with the public schools ( Volks schulen), although the “ Teachers’ Association ” and the “Pedagogic Society ’ ’ have recommended that girls should serve for a period in a good kindergarten and receive at school instruction in kindergarten principles, and although the pedagogic world generally holds it to be desirable to make the kindergarten the first or lowest class of tlie public school. These requirements can not remain permanently ignored, at least in a city which means to keep pace with progress in her public education. At the same time kindergarten principles fail to enter the homes of the people and to influence home education, because the opportunities to observe its means and outcome are so rare. For fre¬ quent visits to a good kindergarten would prove instructive and beneficial for the daughter of the wealthiest family as well as for the poorest nurse-girl, with the only difference that the former would have better opportunities for quick perception and careful meditation. Again, many parents who would gladly avail themselves of the kindergarten for their children are unable to pay the required fee. To all these the public kindergarten would afford relief. That Leipzig is not devoid of charity when physical misery calls for relief is known even in foreign lands, and this same generous sympathy has long ago labored to aid the children of the poor by the establishment of a few day nurseries. But the mere gratification of bodily wants and prevention of bodily injury is not enough for the children of the poor. We should at the same time labor to improve and better their condition by means of education, so that they may find in culture and orderly living essential elements of happiness. Efforts to solve this problem will of necessity point to Froebel’s kindergarten principles as the key and beginning of a rational education. In order to secure the blessings of this to our people we.need not only a sympathetic heart, but also a sympathetic intellect, so that our interest in the cause may be enhanced by insight into its requirements. In a subsequent call for membership the executive committee says, on the same subject: Among the weighty problems of our time that of education occupies the foremost place. The great importance, not only of school education, but also of domestic and prescholastic education, is gener¬ ally recognized. In many cities of G ermany the necessity of a wider diffusion of kindergartens and of kindergarten principles in the domestic education of little children has been persistently empha¬ sized It is, obvious that poor parents labor under great disadvantages in this respect, and yet it is of the greatest importance that the children of these parents should from earliest infancy receive ele¬ vating and helpful impressions and be guarded against pernicious influences. For the whole people it is a matter of deepest concern that the children of the poor, too, should be placed under most favor¬ able conditions with reference to their religious, moral, and intellectual development. Hitherto private philanthropy has labored to meet this want by means of establishing day nurser¬ ies. In these institutions the children are kept during the entire day, and for a nominal fee receive also their noon luncheon. Although it is desirable to perfect these by the introduction of kinder¬ garten principles in the treatment of the little children, their costliness hinders their general diffusion. Besides these are many parents who would gladly secure to their little ones the benefits of a kinder¬ garten without the aid of a day nursefy, if the expense could be kept within their means. This association, therefore, will labor to establish, maintain, and conduct cheap kindergartens (Volkskin- dergarten) for the benefit of these parents, and at the same time to aid existing day nurseries. The attainment of this aim is of vast importance to the prosperous development of our city, and general participation in the work on the part of both ladies and gentlemen is desirable. The membership of the association grew rapidly, so that in May of the year 1872 the first Volkskindergarten of the association was opened with 40 children. Appli¬ cations, however, came in snch numbers and the interest in the work of the associa¬ tion had become so well developed that it was decided to erect a building for the purposes of the association. In June, 1873, the 40 little children marched from the old building to their own new home, carrying little flags and fragrant bouquets and singing an appropriate song, and their number rapidly grew to 120. About the same time, in December, 1871, there was organized at Leipzig another association of similar import, yet of wider scope, and counting among its founders and members many of the members of the association just described. It assumed the name “ Association for the Advancement of Domestic and Popular Education” ( Verein fiir Familien- und Vollcserziehung). ' Its aim was not onlyt he support of kindergartens but the education of kindergartners and the culture of girls and mothers in general for their educational vocation. The first report of this association was published early in 1873. During the first years of 'its existence the members had displayed a most remarkable and all-sided activity. They had arranged for and delivered six public lectures free to all comers, as follows : (1) The philosophical significance of Froebel’s principles of education, by Prof. Dr. Ahrens. (2.) The significance of the kindergarten in the education of women, by Mrs. Dr. Goldschmidt. (3) The connection of the kindergarten with the school, by Dr. Friedlaender. (4) The ideal kindergarten and the ideal kindergartner, by Miss Angelica Hartmann. (5) A rational method of musical instruction, by Mr. Dix. (6) Treatment the child should receive on entering school, by Mr. Hrusche. In addition to these lectures, two courses of weekly lectures on pedagogics and hygiene had been provided for ladies who might wish to join them. These courses were attended by about fifty ladies, and proved so successful that one of the courses was continued during the summer. For the benefit of members a number of pedagogic journals were kept for circula¬ tion among those who might desire to read them, and a beginning of a circulating educational library was made. There existed in Leipzig at the time of the organization of the association ten or twelve private kindergartens, many of which were in very incompetent hands. In 708 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-al. some cases young girls who had acted as assistants for a number of months had established their own private kindergartens. With the help of the better private kindergartens the association proposed and, in a measure, established certain ideal requirements concerning the arrangement and conduct of kindergartens and thus exercised a healthy moral pressure, materially limiting the field and popularity of incompetent kindergartners. The work of establishing public kindergartens ( Volkskindergdrten ) devolved upon a committee under the leadership of Mrs. Dr. Goldschmidt. In order to secure an initial fund, the ladies arranged for a lottery, which proved quite successful. This fund was further increased by loans that bore no interest and which were to be paid back in very easy installments. The city council granted the use of a suitable piece of ground; some well-built barracks that had served their purpose in 1870 were bought at a low figure and moved to this piece of ground; and in July, 1872, the kindergarten was opened with 60 children under a competent kindergartner and two assistants. One month later the number of children had risen to 100, and it be¬ came necessary to engage a second. kindergartner; and in September a third kinder¬ gartner and assistant had to be employed, inasmuch as 150 children had obtained admission. Subsequently additional Volkskindergdrten were established in other parts of the city. Another enterprise of this association was the establishment of a training school for kindergartners. They limited themselves, however, to the preparation of young women for family kindergartens. Up to the year 1878 140 kindergartners of this character had graduated from the institution. The course of study comprised, in addition to specific kindergarten subjects, instruction in the German language, ped¬ agogics, hygiene, geometry, and natural history. The course occupied one year. The pupils paid a monthly fee of 2 thalers. Each pupil was held to visit the kindergarten on three days each week. During these visits they were expected to help in the reception and dismissal of the children, and in every kind of service which the presiding kindergartner might require. During the second quarter they were required to assist in conducting games and occupations ; during the third quarter they were expected to be able to conduct a kindergarten independently; and the last quarter was devoted wholly to theoretical work. The entire work of the Volkskindergdrten in their connection with the training school is under the supervision of a director, who is a member of the pedagogic sec¬ tion of the association and responsible to this section for the character and conduct of the training school. In addition, a committee of ladies is appointed for each kindergarten for purposes of general supervision, and to whom certain cases of discipline and nonattendance are referred. It is expected that one or more of these ladies be present in the kinder¬ garten during some portion of each session. My efforts to obtain reliable information concerning the growth of this remarkable work after 1880 have utterly failed. Enough, however, has been here presented to reveal the depth of philanthropic ardor that animates the association, as well as the marvellous devotion to recognized duty — so ingrained in the German character — and the philosophic thoroughness that pervades every portion of the enterprise. An equally remarkable experience, though of wider scope and richer in results, is that of Breslau. Additional interest attaches to its history, too, from the fact that in its inception it is the work of women, and women have borne a prominent part in its administration to this day. In 1861 Madame Konge, in an address before a number of intelligent and large-hearted ladies, presented the claims of FroebeTs educational principles and of the kindergarten upon their consideration and active sympathy. The immediate result was the organization of an association with the object of establishing kindergartens. A most formidable obstacle presented itself at once in the almost hostile attitude of the authorities towards their project. It was said in these quarters “that in view of repeated scandalous proceedings in kinder¬ gartens, great care was requisite in the granting of concessions for opening such institutions.” A kindergartner was obtained from the training school of Madame Froebel at Hamburg, but the magistrate decided that “inasmuch as the persons who issued the certificate of the lady were foreigners, and, therefore, unknown to the magistrate, the ministry alone could grant her appointment,” and that “unless a directress agreeable to the magistrate were appointed at once, the kindergarten must be closed without further delay.” Consequently a kindergartner was obtained from nearer quarters, and at the same time it was decided to establish a training school for kindergartners under the aus¬ pices of the association, which was opened in 1863. Up to that time two kindergar¬ tens had been established. In 1869 the number of these had risen to nine, and in 1874 to twelve. Five of these were styled association kindergartens ( Vereinskinder- garten), and seven public kindergartens ( Volkskindergdrten ). In the former the monthly fee was about 75 cents ; in the latter, 10 to 20 cents. The number of chil¬ dren registered in 1874 was 1,130, with an average attendance of about one-half that PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 709 number. These numbers seem to have been maintained until 1887, when an addi¬ tional kindergarten was established in honor of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the association. The course of study in the training school for kindergartners comprises in one year the subjects of general pedagogics, kindergarten theory and practice, natural'liis- tory, hygiene, drawing, singing, and calisthenics, with review lessons in German and arithmetic. In 1884 the association established also a course of instruction for nurse girls. Candidates for admission must be 15 years old, and must be able to give evidence of satisfactory elementary instruction. They are to be prepared in a six months’ course to take the care of children between the ages of 2 and 6, and at the same time to do light housework. They are instructed in FroebeTs principles of educa¬ tion and practical kindergarten occupations, in hygienb for little children, in Ger¬ man (particularly in the art of telling stories and in reading to children), in wash¬ ing, ironing, darning, and in the use of the sewing machine. The energetic, all-sided activity of this association overcame all opposition. In due time the magistrate and local administrative bodies opened not only their hearts but the public purse for the support of its kindergartens, and the province of Silesia has now not a city in which growing kindergarten work is not done by some mis¬ sionary who owes her skill and her zeal to the training school at Breslau. The kindergarten history of Hamburg is doubly interesting, partly because of the success of the movement and partly because of the part which Froebel and Madame Louise Froebel had in its development. The reporter owes most of his information concerning the work in this city to Madame Louise Froebel, Miss Margarethe Kroeger, and Heinrich Hoffmann, a direct pupil of Froebel. The letters of these friends are printed in the Appendix. It appears that the first kindergarten in Hamburg was established by Madame Doris Lutkens. This lady, directress of a private school at Hamburg, had met Froebel and listened to his memorable presentation and defense of the kindergarten at Rudolstadt. On her return to Hamburg she made an enthusiastic plea for FroebeTs educational ideas, and for his views on the mission of women, before the Woman’s Association, and herself immediately, with the aid of Alwina Middendorff, opened a kindergarten in connection with her school. In the following year two additional private kindergartens were established, and the “ Woman’s Club,” under the leader¬ ship of Mrs. Johanna Goldschmidt, invited Froebel himself to spend a winter at Hamburg, in order to aid in the training of kindergartners and in the establishment of new kindergartens. Froebel accepted the call, but sent his friend Middendorff to precede him and to clear the way. In the latter part of September he arrived himself and labored faith¬ fully until the spring of the following year, expounding his educational views in pul lie lectures, instructing young women in the theory and practice of kindergarten work, tilling the soil for a rich and copious harvest which even the celebrated edict of von Raumer could not blight. He was much aided in his work by Dr. Wichard Lange, the affianced of Alwina Middendorff. This enthusiastic young teacher, who was destined to play an important part in the ed ucational development of Germany, published several popular pamphlets in support of the new education, and undertook in January, 1850, the editorial management of Friedrich FroebeTs Wochenschrift, which revealed FroebeTs plan in many important details. Froebel had the satisfaction of seeing the first fruits of his toil in the establish¬ ment of the third private kindergarten and of the first Burgerkindergarten, not unlike the VolTcsJcindergdrten of other cities, but intended for less needy classes of the population. It was the first success of the kindergarten association, and opened in the spring of 1850 with 70 children, Froebel himself delivering the dedicatory address. Two other Burgerlcindergarten followed soon after. At present Ham¬ burg has nine such kindergartens, each one with a capacity of about one hundred children, and conducted by a supervising kindergartner and several assistants. The expenses are defrayed from the children’s fees, from the annual contributions of members of the association, endowments, and legacies. Each kindergarten is under the immediate care of six ladies and three gentlemen, and two gentlemen and one lady from each of these committees constitute the general executive committee which directs the entire work. The fourth kindergarten was established in 1854 under the direction of Madame Louise Froebel. During the forenoons she devoted herself to the kindergarten; during the afternoons she instructed a number of young ladies in the theory and practice of the work. This led the central committee to the establishment of a school for the training of kindergartners in 1856. Madame Froebel was transferred to this school, to which she gave her energies until 1860, when she established a private kindergarten, transition class, and training school. Another organization, the Froebel Association, conducts a flourishing kindergarten and a training school for young ladies who desire to prepare themselves for family 710 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. kindergartens. Similarly the “Association for the Advancement of Industrial Activity among Women” has a kindergarten and a training school for kinder- gartners. A private training school of considerable note is conducted by Miss Mar- garethe Kroeger. Since 1878 Heinrich Hoffmann has conducted a flourishing institution for the train¬ ing of family kindergartners and nurse girls. Heinrich Hoffmann, a direct disciple of Froebel, had made his first attempt in the same direction at Hamburg in 1850. At this time he instructed forty young girls free of charge for two hours daily in the principles and practices of the new education; hut the decree of von Rrumer interfered with his activity, inasmuch as he had not yet acquired citizenship at Hamburg and was, -therefore, subject to Prussian laws. His own interesting letter, printed in the Appendix, will give additional details of the activity of this excel¬ lent man. In addition to this, Hamburg maintains at present thirty to forty private kinder¬ gartens of a high character and a number of Wcirte-Schulen (day nurseries). In all of these kindergarten principles are at the helm. The children are received at 8 or 9 o’clock in the morning, and are kept until 6 or 7 o’clock in the evening. They receive their regular meals and pay from 3 to 16 cents per week. On the whole, it seems that the cause is in good ways because it is in good hands. “ There are, indeed,” as Miss Kroeger writes me, “still many who oppose the kinder¬ garten, even among teachers; a number of physicians, too, are hostile. They claim that the children are taxed excessively, or made precocious, or that they are exposed to infectious diseases, or play too much, etc.; but in spite of all this'the cause of Froebel flourishes and thrives. Those who persist in their opposition do not take the trouble to visit a good kindergarten, else they would surely change their opin¬ ions, as so many others have done after a few hours stay in a good kindergarten.” In a spirit of much gratitude Madame Louise Froebel writes : “If now we ask what has been the outcome of the last fifty years of toil and growth, the answer comes : Through the grace of God the outcome is most gratify¬ ing, and is strengthened and enriched from year to year. The little tree planted fifty years ago has been bent and torn by many a storm ; but from every attack it rose with new vigor. The educational principles of ihoebel have entered the family. Many unconsciously follow his guidance, and very, very many have clearly appre¬ hended his teachings. The late development of homes of refuge for boys and girls are a necessary consequence of his efforts; indeed, their beginnings are found in his educational institutions. Should the spirit of love, of industry, of generous produc¬ tive work become more generally diffused — as in the light of past experience we may well hope — Froebel’s ardent hope to give to mankind peace, and joy, and freedom will surely be realized.” Perhaps no other city of Germany has done as much as Dresden to establish and diffuse the educational ideas of Froebel in their purity and far-reaching significance. Possibly, too, the kindergarten history of Dresden gains in interest from the fact that within its walls was established the first kindergarten, even before Froebel had found the name kindergarten and had opened his own “occupation school” ( Be - schaftigungs-Schule ) or institution for the cultivation of little children ( Kleinl'inder pflegeanstalt) at Blankenburg. Adolf Frankenberg, who had shared the vicissi¬ tudes of Froebel’s life at Willisau and had returned with him to the institution at Keilhau under Barop’s direction, was the founder of this school. In 1838 he accom¬ panied as guide and teacher 20 pupils of Barop’s institute on a pedestrian trip to Dresden. He carried with him a few samples of the gifts Froebel had so far com¬ pleted, the ball, cube, and cylinder and a box of eight small cubes. He explained the use of these things to Prof. Peters, an influential teacher. Prof. Peters became interested and convinced. He urged Frankenberg to return. The latter reported this invitation to Froebel, who immediately decided to go with Frankenberg to Dresden and himself to present his ideas. Froebel’s historians dis¬ agree materially concerning the issue of his direct effort. Some maintain that he failed to interest his audience, that his words were ill chosen, his presentation of the subject chaotic, that his illustrations were childish and ridiculous, and that he disgusted Queen Mary with his entire scheme, he retaining her after the close of his address and importuning her with endless volubility. Others praise the logical crystallization of his thought as presented in this memorable address and emphasize as 'facts that he convinced and inspired with enthusiasm the best among his hearers, and that the Queen was deeply interested and remained (of her own accord) after the address to ask for further explanations, and in thanking him praised his “beauti¬ ful and noble endeavors.” At any rate, Froebel was induced still further to expound his plan in*the presence of a number of doctors, professors, and other lovers of science and. education, and to visit with Frankenberg a noted day nursery where the latter for several weeks used the gifts with the children and secured the favorable judgment of many influ¬ ential and philanthropic ladies and gentlemen. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 711 Indeed, a number of these prevailed upon Frankenberg to remain in Dresden and to open an “ occupation school” (Beschaftigungs Schule). Much annoying red-tape hindrance had to be overcome before legal concession for the continuance of the en¬ terprise could be secured and Frankenb erg’s enterprise could become an insured success. On the 19th of April, 1845, Frankenberg married Louise Hermann, who played an important part in the subsequent development of the Froebel work in Dresden; and two days later — on Froebel’s birthday — 40 little children, in festive array, bearing wreaths of flowers and led by Froebel and Frankenberg, marched from their old quarters to a new and more attractive school, where their new “ auntie ” received them. Froebel began on this occasion at Dresden, and continued, in the winter of 1848, his agitation for the formation of educational associations, which subsequently did so much for Germany, and of which Dresden was destined to furnish a most notable example in the “General Educational Association ” ( Allgemeiner JErziehungsvei'em), whose history and constitution will be discussed later on. Froebel’s memorable visit to Dresden (1848) was due chiefly to the efforts of Mad¬ ame Louise Frankenberg, by which she had organized for him a course of instruc¬ tion for the training of kindergartners. This course was remarkably successful; a number of new kindergartens and training schools for kindergartners were estab¬ lished and Dresden became the chief center of kindergarten agitation, the Mecca of the Froebel worshipers, after Froebel and Middendorf had closed their eyes for¬ ever. In 1853 Dresden had three training schools for kindergartners, the most prominent of which was that of Bruno Mar quart. A few years later Otto Kellner established, together with his wife, a similar institution, which has flourished down to our days under the genial direction of its founders. A new impetus was given to the kindergarten propaganda when, in 1871, the bar¬ oness Marenholtz-Buelow made Dresden her home. She induced a number of influ¬ ential public-spirited men and women to organize the “ General Educational Asso¬ ciation” ( Allgemeiner Erziehungsverein ), which was to have its headquarters at Dresden, but its members and branch associations in other places as well. Its aim was “the advancement of physical and intellectual (Imblich-geisti g), religious and moral (religios-sittlich) , education in the homes and in public institutions.” For this purpose it endeavored to arouse general interest in education, to diffuse correct views on the subject of education, and to advance educa tion by the establishment of prac¬ tical institutions — snch as institutions for the higher culture of women, with special reference to their universal educational vocation, institutions for the training of pro¬ fessional educators of both sexes, kindergartens, school gardens, and other institu¬ tions for the education of the young. The immediate object of the association was the establishment of a Froebel institute, which was to serve as a model for all similar institutions. Membership is secured by individuals by the payment of an annual fee of 3 marks ; by corporate bodies by the payment of 3 per cent of their regular annual fees, or by the payment of from 15 to 30 marks, according to the number of their members. Such associations may secure permanent membership by one payment of 150 marks. The Froebel Institute was opened in 1872. Its chief work is the training of kinder¬ gartners. This is done in two departments. The first department comprises those who prepare for the directorship of kindergartens and those who would secure scien¬ tific preparation for the work of education in their own families. The second de¬ partment is for family kindergartners and kindergarten assistants. The course of instruction for the two departments is practically the same, and lasts eighteen months. It comprises general pedagogics, theory and practice of Froebelian educa¬ tion, anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, natural! history, with special reference to horticulture and the needs of little children, the elements of geometry, with special reference to the gifts and occupations, German language, the art of story-telling, object lessons, Froebel’s mother and nursery songs and the finger games, theory and practice of .the gifts and occupations, drawing in the network suggested by Froebel, singing, kindergarten games, and calisthenics. The tuition is 100 marks for the entire course. The expenses for material are estimated at 75 marks. The stu¬ dents are held to regular attendance at the Vollcslcindergcirien school gardens, day nurseries,' and at the children’s hospital, where they observe the work done and fur¬ nish such assistance as may be required of them. Students must be at least 16 years old, and must }3ass an entrance examination be¬ fore admission. At the end of this course, a public examination is held and the stu¬ dents obtain diplomas which are signed by the officers of the Institute and by a royal commissioner who represents the state on these occasions. An interesting feature of this course is the Uebungsdbend, an evening set aside one or twice a month during the winter term, when students in the presence of the officers of the institute go through certain practical exercises with the children, dis¬ play their own work, and in other ways report progress. 712 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. A third department of instruction receives young girls who desire to prepare them¬ selves as Kinderpflegerinnen, children's nurses. The course for these lasts one year, and requires a fee of 24 marks, and an expenditure of about 25 marks for material. The subjects of instruction are : Physical care of little children, German story-telling, object lessons, FroebePs principles of education, occupations and movement games of the kindergarten, elements of natural history, domestic occupations (such as wash¬ ing, ironing, mending, etc.). The members of this department, too, are held to regu¬ lar attendance at kindergartens, day nurseries, and the children’s hospital for obser¬ vation and such assistance as may be required. In 1881 the institute established the first Froebelian school-garden (Schul-Garten) . The children who take part in this are received on Wednesday and Saturday after¬ noons, when school is closed, and practice drawing, modeling, cutting, and other occupations in advance of the kindergarten requirements. At the same time they are kept busy in the garden, make excursions to the fields and woods, and are afforded opportunities for games and calisthenic exercises. The great value of the beneficent work of this institute appears from the fact that since its organization about 2,000 young women have graduated from its three de¬ partments, and have carried the gospel of Froebel into all phases of early child-cul¬ ture. Another beneficent work of the AUgemeine Erziehungsverein is the uniform organ¬ ization of public kindergartens in the various districts of Dresden. Of these there are now seven in operation attended by about 600 children, under the guidance of ten directresses and a number of assistants. Each kindergarten is the special care of a district association which supplies whatever means may be needed to supply deficits in the income from monthly fees and the annual contribution from the All- gemein e Erziehungsverein . For the guidance and emulation of these district associations the central associa¬ tion has drawn up ideal regulations concerning the character and management of kindergartens. These regulations require for each kindergarten two or three spacious rooms; one of these is to be used for the movement games, the others for the play with the gifts and occupations. Each occupation room is to be furnished with the necessary tables and benches and with two glass cases ; in one of these the occupation material is kept, in the other the finished work of the children, curious objects, material for object-lessons, and the like. The walls are adorned with tables and pictures for the usual object lessons. The garden — indispensable in a fully-equipped kindergarten — should afford a play¬ ground for the milder season, a sand heap for the smallest children, and space for a sufficient number of garden beds to be planted and cared for by the children. Only carefully-trained kindergartners with sufficient experience should be em¬ ployed as directresses. They should be at least 20 years old, of gentle disposition, irreproachable character, of pleasant voice, and sufficiently skilled in musie to be able to use good methods in teaching songs and singing. The number of pupils for one kindergartner should not exceed twenty, inasmuch as it is impossible for one person to afford the needed care and individual attention to a greater number of children. [The regulations, however, grant that financial reasons may compel the public kindergarten to exceed this number, but insist that in no case should more than 40 children be in the hands of one person. As soon as this number is passed an assistant should be employed. This assistant, however, should be as well qualified for her work as the directress. In no case should young and inexperienced persons and persons without professional training he engaged for this purpose .] A general programme for the work is to be prepared by the proper authorities. But in its application the spontaneity of the children should in no way be sacrificed; nor should it be followed pedantically, but modified in accordance with the needs and desires of the children, the prevailing weather and season, and other conditions. Great care is recommended with reference to order, cleanliness, ventilation, heat¬ ing, the hygienic condition of the children, the use of occupation material, the proper length — or rather shortness — of exercises, and all matters that fend to pre¬ serve the mental and physical vigor and elasticity of the pupils. Inasmuch as the AUgemeine Erziehunzsverein , through the agency of the Froebel Institute, ha's furnished the teachers of the public kindergartens and by its annual contributions to their support enjoys a directing influence in their administration, these kindergartens are steadily approaching the ideal set before them. Rudolf Benfey praises the unity of procedure in their work, and the fidelity and thorough¬ ness with which each and all seek to carry out Froebel’s directions in every phase of their work. In addition to these public kindergartens Dresden has a number of private kin¬ dergartens, patronized by the children of the wealthier classes. Most of these are in excellent hands. They owe their superiority largely to the efforts of Mr. and PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 713 Mrs. Kellner, whose training-school for kindergartners aims to supply the wants and needs of this class of institutions. The beneficent influence of the Allgemeine Erzieluinzsverein is, however, not confined to Dresden, but extends to many of the larger cities of Germany, Austria-Hungary, to Switzerland, Italy, and England. The Froebel associations of Hamburg, Cologne, Kassel, of London and Manchester, are connected with it as branch associations, and many prominent names from different countries are found in its list of members. BERLIN. We are informed by Hanschmann, in his admirable biography of Froebel, that Madame von Marenholtz-Buelow, during her short stay in Berlin, in 1857, had founded an association for the advancement of Froebelian methods in education. Although no kindergartens could be established because of the hostile decree of von Raumer forbidding their establishment, much was done by this association to diffuse better notions concerning kindergartens and, possibly, to prepare the way for the abrogation of the decree in 1860. In 1861 Madame von Marenholtz made Berlin her home. She found that the association had ceased to exist and had trans¬ ferred its interests to an “Association of Ladies for the Advancement of Froebelian Kindergartens,” which had been formed in 1859. She was made honorary president of this association, and assisted in the establishment of the first two Veveins Kinder¬ garten (association kindergartens), and of the first Volkskindergarten. This name was suggested^ by her for kindergartens, not unlike the , Biirgerlcindergdrten of Hamburg. According to her own statement, however, she found the “Ladies’ Asso¬ ciation” inadequate for her purposes, and founded in 1863, with the aid of Professors Gneist and Virchow, Dr. Tappenheim, Inspector Poesche, and other prominent persons, the Verein fur Familien- und Volkserziehung (Association for Domestic and Popular Education). This association had added to the aims of the Ladies’ Asso¬ ciation, the establishment of schools for the training of kindergartners, children’s nurses ( Kinderjpf-legerinnen ), the discussion of educational problems, and the diffu¬ sion of sound educational principles. In 1874 the two associations united under the common name of Berliner Froebel- Verein (Berlin Froebel Association) and formulated their purposes as follows : The association will labor to advance a form of education that cultivates and strengthens mind and body, particularly in accordance with the principles of Fred¬ eric Froebel. It will seek to accomplish this by instructing women in their calling as educators, by establishing and maintaining kindergartens, by training teachers for the same, by training children’s nurses for families, and by introducing these educational principles in existing day nurseries. In 1876 this association conducted 8 Vereinskindergarten for children of well-situ¬ ated parents, and one Volkskindergarten for children of poorer parents. The num¬ ber of children in attendance in the former was about 400; the Volkskindergarten was attended on an average by 75 children. In 1888 the number of Vereinskinder- gdrten had been reduced to five, with an average attendance of about 150 children; in the Volkskindergarten the average attendance had been reduced to 50 children. Dr. Pappenheim, the director of these kindergartens during their existence, sees in this decrease a symptom of success. He ascribes it to the establishment of kinder¬ gartens by local associations, by schools, by enterprising kindergartners, and by families, who unite for the purpose of maintaining a “family kindergarten” for their own children. However, a second Volkskindergarten was opened in 1889. In 1890 the municipal authorities granted the society pecuniary assistance for the conduct of the two Volkskindergarten, on condition that provision be made for the children of needy parents. Consequently, while the society maintains the hours from 9 to 12 a. m. and 2 to 4 p. m. as the regular kindergarten hours, it admits children whose parents work away from home at 8 a. m., permits them to remain until 7 p. m., and gives them their meals for 10 pfennige (3 cents) a day. In order to meet these additional requirements the number of kindergartners employed has been increased. A second enterprise of the Froebelverein is the training school for kindergartners under the direction of Inspector H. Reinecke. The course lasts one year. It com¬ prises pedagogics (general and Froebelian), kindergarten occupations and games, natural history, hygiene and calisthenics, singing, rudiments of geometry, and methods of elementary teaching. The hours of instruction (twenty per week) are in the afternoon. On three forenoons each week each student is assigned to a kin¬ dergarten, where she observes the work and assists according to directions from the regular teachers. Students must be at least 16 years old and must have a fair school education, more especially in the knowledge of German language and literature, in the history of Germany, and in singiug. Students pay an entrance fee of 5 marks, and thereafter 27 marks quarterly for full work. Since 1888 the school admits to its 714 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91, lessons young women who do not care to become kindergartners, but who, for their own fuller education, desire to acquaint themselves with Froebel’s principles and practice. The third institution established and maintained by the association is the Kinder- pflegerinnen-Schiile (school for the training of children’s maids and nurses). This school also is under the direction of Dr. Pappenheim. Its object is, in the words of Froebel, “to train young girls so that they may afford the housewife needed help in her domestic duties and relieve the mother by assuming the nurture and education of the little children.” This school was first established in 1864 as a Sunday school, in which ladies of the Froebel Association taught gratuitously. In 1868 the association found an energetic colaborer in Director Zelle, of the municipal orphan department. A regular school was organized with a six months' course. During three hours (2 to 5 o’clock) in the afternoons the pupils were instructed in the use of the gifts and occupations — including peas work and clay modeling, in the rudiments of educational science, and in the manual arts of the home. During the forenoons they assisted, under suitable direction, in the Munici¬ pal Orphans’ Home in housework and in the care of little children, or they were sent for similar work to some VolksMn dergarten . At the same time they were permitted to visit the “creche” of Dr. Albu and the children’s hospital, where they might learn to nurse sick children. In 1869 the municipal orphans’ department established an independent school of this character for orphan girls, and the association continued the general work alone. Gradually the course was extended to one year and the curriculum was correspond¬ ingly enlarged by additional instruction — the Froebel occupations, reading, writing, arithmetic, and in the use of the sewing machine. The number of weekly hours of instruction rose from twenty to twenty-two. In 1889 the school had 53 pupils, and its list of graduates had risen to 600. Pupils pay an annual fee of 36 marks and 6 marks for material used in instruction and prac¬ tice. On the other, hand the wages of such girls, which in 1868 varied between 80 and 120 marks annually, had risen to a minimum of 135 marks and a maximum of ISO marks annually. Fichte- Kindergarten* — A typical history, which reveals much of the character¬ istic tendencies of the German mind with reference to this movement, is- that of the Fichte-Kin dergarten. Its foundation was determined upon by the district association “Moritzplatz” as a suitable testimonial of devotion to Fichte, the great regenerator of German popular education, on the occasion of the celebration of his one hundredth anniversary in the spring of 1862. On the 3d day of November of the same year it was opened with 3 children; in May of tfie following spring the number had risen to 50. The monthly fee of 1£ marks was, however, too high for the children of the working people ; hence the fee was put on a sliding scale in ac¬ cordance with the means of the parents, and children were received for both fore¬ noon and afternoon sessions. At last in the spring of 1865 a special association, the Yerein fur den Fichte Kindergarten took charge of the institution and trans¬ formed it into a YoYkslcindergarten. In this form it has continued to this day through many vicissitudes of fortune, arising chiefly from the fact that .for lack of means it has been compelled “to live” in rented quarters, which it was always diffi¬ cult to retain and a few times even difficult to secure. In 1881, externally the most prosperous year of the association, its membership had risen to 170, the number of registered pupils reaching the monthly average of 106. These were taught at an ex¬ pense of 3,060 marks. The monthly tuition fees (varying from one-fourth mark to 4£ marks per child) amounted to 1,327 marks for the year, so that the association had to make up a deficit of 1,733 marks. In 1889 the number of members was 137, the monthly average of registered children 72. They were taught at an expense of 3,030 marks. The monthly tuition fees (varying from one-half mark to 3 marks per child) amounted to 1,040 marks for the year, so that a deficit of 1,990 marks had to be covered. Undoubtedly the decrease in attendance and membership is due here, too, to the foundation of additional kindergartens of all descriptions. Much opposition had to be overcome with reference to the curriculum. Invete¬ rate prejudice, nurtured by the school and by the day nursery or infant school on the English model, looked upon reading, writing, knitting, and other “useful” occu¬ pations as of chief value. All these, however, remained persistently excluded. At the same time the association spared no pains to show in its reports the superiority of Froebel’ s plan. Thus we read, in the report of 1867 : “The school and the kindergarten have different tasks. The kindergarten should not anticipate the work of the school, but only by all-sided development of the child prepare the way. If in this direction we may express hope with reference to our institution, it would be that of being able in due time to give to our kindergarten that degree of inner and outer development that children might remain with us for a longer time than is now possible. At a time when education knew no other means of early culture than those of the primary school, it was proper and necessary to PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 715 place the lower limit of school age at 6 or 7 years. But now, since the genius of Froehel has found new ways, the friends of the hindergarten can not fail to see that possibly the means of Froehel might suffice for even a longer period; that the deferring of reading, writing, and arithmetic to a later period, when the child is steadier and stronger, would yield good results with less effort and more readily,” The report of 1869 discusses the question more at length. This report recognizes the indispensable value of reading and writing, but does not grant the necessity of beginning with it at too early a period. It continues: “ Have you never heard of efficient and great men who learned to read and write in their twentieth or thirtieth year? Are there not, indeed, nations who formerly accomplished much in commerce and manufactures, in art and science, in war and diplomacy, although butffew could read and write? And are there not to-day thousands of men efficient in their voca¬ tions who know little of reading and writing or make scarcely any use of it ? * * * Whence, then, comes the efficiency of these, if it is not due to the arts of reading and writing? “ This question is easily answered. Eye and ear, hand and foot, are the media through which man learns the most and many things most thoroughly. It is by seeing, hearing, and going himself, and above all, by doing, by producing himself, that man obtains his best knowledge and his best powers. You may tell a man ten times how a wagon or a plow looks, and his knowledge is not half as satisfactory as when he sees these things once. He may many times read in a book how a seed is to be laid in the ground and carefully tended when it has sprouted, and he will not understand the matter half as well as when he does it once himself. Self-doing is the best means for the culture of man. His understanding and his hand learn most by self-doing, and his industry, his conscientiousness, the knowledge of his own power, respect for the industry and property of others, self-control and persistence, cheerfulness of dis¬ position are not by anything so well cultivated as by self-activity. “ Everyone admits that this is true of grown people, but it is true in a still higher degree of the little children. The little child is, as it were, from the day of its birth; all eye and ear, hand and foot, full of inner unrest, and yearning for occupa¬ tion and activity. A self-active child is contented, is well behaved ; a self-active child grows constantly in experience and knowledge, in skill and expertness, in dili¬ gence and perseverence; it is cheerful and without whims, sympathetic and help¬ ful; it is maturing internally, gradually but surely, and, what is most important, without precocity and presumption in thought, speech, and learning; finally noth¬ ing so keeps a child in bodily health and mental vigor as does varied creative activ¬ ity. “ * * *■ Yes, you say, but how about reading and writing? Writing? The child must learn to walk before it can skip and run ; similarly, it must first learn to draw and then to write, for writing is only a particular sort of drawing. And read¬ ing? Why, indeed, should a child learn by reading how a house, a right angle, a horse, a plow looks, what the farmer and miller do, how the bee and the dove saved one another’s Ike, or about Snow-White and Red-Riding-Hood? Why not rather hear about these things, and, so far as feasible, see and do and represent these things? Will not these things be to him in these ways clearer, more living, and more impressive than reading about them could make them?” The efforts of these associations to instruct the public concerning the meaning and value of the kindergarten and to obtain the active cooperation of the home in their work are unceasing. These efforts are quite instructive to us who are so prone to delegate all these things to ill-cliosen boards of education ; they explain much of the superiority of German and Swiss kindergarten instruction over what goes by the same name in France and even in Belgium. By way of illustration an additional extract is here added from a public address by Dr. Ritter, printed in the society’s report for 1888 : “The kindergarten would not intrust to mere chance the preservation of the natural vigor of children during the three years when they are largely left to themselves awaiting school age, but it affords thoughtful and systematic means to aid in the preservation of the child’s health and, if need be, to restore it; at the same time it nurses the hope that its principles and methods may find introduction into the family, so that their salutary influence may continue to be applied in the home.” The address then continues to contrast the aimless and inconsistent home treatment of exclusive hbrne education with the thoughtful and methodical proced¬ ure of the kindergarten ; shows that far from depriving the mother of a portion of her educational mission it instructs and encourages her in its fulfillment; far from entailing estrangement between mother and child, it intensifies their mutual instinc¬ tive love by adding to this a mutual intelligent appreciation; far from depriving the child of its only period of full liberty it preserves this from degenerating into lawless license, which is the very worst slavery. The address then points out its value in social education: “In the kindergarten children find companions of their own ago, whom they instinctively seek. Many of 716 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. tliese have already learned to obey the kindergartner with alacrity, and thus the newcomers soon are lifted into a degree of docility to which at home they were strangers. It is a common observation in the kindergarten that without artificial straining it converts even excessively turbulent and self-willed children in a short time to natural childlike vivacity and adaptability, and removes apathy as by magic. “Thus the kindergarten becomes, indeed, a garden where the children are not merely kept, but, like tender plants, by an intelligent gardener, are carefully nurtured by intelligent and devoted love. In the kindergarten the child’s instinct of activity is lifted without forcing into an eager desire for purposeful occupation. Clay-model¬ ing, weaving, building with blocks and sticks, trains and exercises the muscles of the hand, and, inasmuch as each occupation lasts for only a short time, the eyes are not strained but themselves suitably trained, and song, which adds to the children’s joy and cheerfulness, affords at the same time an exercise for the ear and develop¬ ment for the lungs. “However, the kindergarten aims with these games and occupations at hygienic advantages of a still different sort. Froebel has shown that the child will learn most thoroughly the things that most enlist his interest and excite his curiosity. Now these things are not accomplished, as has been thought heretofore, by the mere showing of things on the part of adults and mere observation on the part of the children, but rather by permitting them to represent and to make things themselves. Thus, the child learns much about a bird by embroidering its outline or by drawing it on his slate, and without formal or forced instruction. Similarly, the child in building with its blocks tables and chairs learns from the occasional directions and remarks of the kindergartner the significance of right and left, of corner, face, and edge. In stick laying and weaving the child becomes familiar with numbers with¬ out formal instruction in arithmetic; and in a similar fashion it learns to distinguish plants, animals, and stones without formal lessons in natural history.” Such efforts on the part of the people to supply deficiencies in governmental work in matters of education can not fail in due time to lead the nation to higher intelligence, deeper morality, and fuller liberty. Pestalozzi-Froebel Haas — The efforts to realize Froebel’s ideals which have been so far described, with the exception of those made in German-Switzerland, have a more or less obvious leaning towards the ways of the school. It remains for us now to give an account of a brilliant experiment to render the spirit and ways of the family supreme in the work of the kindergarten. Possibly the desire to correct an unques¬ tionable abuse renders the eminent experimenter extreme in the opposite direction; possibly she thinks it desirable to do this in order to enable others to find some true golden medium. The experiment referred to is made again at Berlin, and the eminent leader of the work is Madame Henrietta Schrader, nee Breymann. Madame Schrader is a direct pupil of Froebel. Up to her marriage she conducted a well-known girls’ school and kindergarten at Wolfenbuttel. In 1871 her husband’s business made it necessary that they should take up their home in Berlin. Here she took at once a deep and active interest in the kindergartens, more particularly in the Vollcskindergarten of the district in which she lived. This institution was at the time in a dormant con¬ dition. Through her efforts the association that had conducted it was reorganized, grew in interest, numbers, and activity, and soon entered enthusiastically into her plans. It assumed the name “Association for the advancement of FolksUndergdrten and Volkserziclmng of the southwestern Friedrichstadt” (the name of the district). She called to her aid a gifted friend and pupil of hers, Miss Annette Schepel, who took charge of the kindergarten ; she herself opened a course of lectures which, in the course of time, developed into a training school for kindergartners and chil¬ drens’ nurses, and added from time to time other valuable features to the work of the association. In 1880 a few wealthy members of the association bought the house 16 Steinmetz-Strasse, which to-day is the Pestalozzi-Froebel House, and harbors the philanthropic longings of its founder. This institution comprises at present the following departments : (1) The VolTcsMndergarten, with four sections. (2) A transition class. (3) A primary class. (4) A school for sewing and mending. (5) A bathing establishment for children. * (6) A training school for kindergartners and nurses ( Kinder# flegcrinncn ). (7) A home for friendless girls. (8) A cooking school. (9) A commission for the advancement of hygienic living among the poor. The VolJcskindergarien is situated on the first floor of the building, in four depart¬ ments of not more than twenty children each. This limited number of children affords ample opportunity for individual treatment of the children and for the main¬ tenance of the “family spirit,” which is a characteristic of the work of this institu- PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 717 tion. Each division is in charge of a competent kindergartner, who is variously aided by visiting members of the training school connected with the institution. A somewhat detailed account of the work in the VolksMndergarten will be found in the appendix. From the kindergarten the children pass in their sixth year of age to the transi¬ tion class, and from this to an elementary or primary class. In these classes the children are gradually introduced into the aims and ways of the school. Much stress is laid upon the various needs and arts of home industry. The chil¬ dren assist in the cleaning of the rooms, the washing of windows and doors, the care of the house plants. They scrub the little wooden boards on which tlieir luncheon is served, and do all kinds of domestic chores. The girls busy themselves with the laundry of their dolls; the boys repair paper hangings, pictures, and broken play¬ things. Even after their transfer to the regular school the children return to the Pesta- lozzi-Froebel House during certain afternoons of the week. On these occasions the girls are taught mending, darning, and plain sewing; the boys learn to weave rugs from straw or rags, to make baskets, to do all kinds of cardboard work, and to handle the carpenter’s tools. The school for the training of kindergartners consists of two departments. The students of the first department must have passed through a secondary school fox girls and possess good health. They pay an entrance fee of 3 marks, and 25 marks quarterly (foreign students pay a quarterly fee of 75 marks). The subjects of instructions are hygiene, pedagogics, history of education, kindergarten theory and practice, natural history, rudiments of geometry, German, drawing, singing, calisthenics, the arts of housework and home gardening, observation and practice in the schools of the institution. The course lasts from one to two years, according to the state of progress of the respective students; and graduates, according to age and culture, are supposed to be fitted for educational work in homes and kindergartens. The students of the second department must have a fair common-school education and' be in good health. They pay an entrance fee of 3 marks and a quarterly fee of 15 marks. Their course of instruction is on the same general lines as that of the first department, but much more limited. It lasts from one to two years and fits its graduates to become assistants in kindergartens and in home education. Of late a third department has been added for persons who have passed through a course of normal kindergarten training and who desire to fit themselves for teach¬ ing in training schools. This course lasts from six to twelve months and requires a fee of 60 marks for six months or of 100 marks for the year. In 1889 the training school had fifty-five students. Of these thirty-six were in the first and nineteen in the second department. Financially, the institution seems to be'in a fair way of becoming self-supporting. With an annual expenditure in 1889 of nearly 35,000 marks, its deficit to be covered from existing funds amounted to not quite 4,000 marks. Other instructive details of this remarkable institution will be found in the appendix. Appendix A. The following notes were sent me by Froebel’s widow, Madame Louise Froebel, who resides at Hamburg : On the 28th day of June, 1840; Froebel celebrated at Blanhenburg, in Thuringia, the inauguration of .an institution for the cultivation of children; a German kindergarten, founded by women of Germany. After his inaugural address the children, who had been taught for some time by Froebel, engaged in plays and occupations. Subsequently kindergartens were established in many places. Froebel in¬ structed the kindergartners and engaged much in missionary activity in order to prepare the ground for their work. Madame Doris Liitkens, at Hamburg, a generous friend of childhood, had been gained for this holy work by Froebel’s writings and established the first kindergarten at Hamburg in connection with her private school in 1848. In the following year two additional kindergartens were opened, and an asso¬ ciation of ladies induced Froebel to spend a winter at Hamburg in order to train kindergartners and to present his educational principles in public lectures. In May, 1850, the first Burg erkindergar ten (citizens’ kindergarten) was opened by Froebel. Soon two others followed. Froebel followed the progress of the work with great joy. During his sickness Middendorff came to him with reports from Hamburg which gave him much joy in his sufferings. After the death of Froebel and Middendorff I went first to Dresden, in order to serve the cause with all my strength. However, in consequence of the prohibition of kindergartens in Prussia, and a similar disposition at Dresden, I was not received with favor, and I found it difficult to obtain a permit of residence. In the fall of the same year (1S54) a fourth Burger kindergarten was to be opened at Hamburg, and I offered to assume its direction. The kindergarten kept me occupied for a few hours in the forenoon, so that during the afternoons I was at liberty to instruct a few girls, an opportunity which was embraced with alacrity by the kin¬ dergarten assistants. 718 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Two years later the executive hoard of the Burgerkindgarlen established a training school for kin- dergartners, in which I taught with a number of others. In the meanwhile a Froebel society had been formed, and this society also established a training- school for kindergartners which was always well patronized; its graduates mostly took charge of children in families and did much to render these favorable to our work. In 1860 I established a kindergarten for the children of the wealthier classes, with which a few years later I combined a transition class in order to gratify the parents of my pupils. During the entire period I continued my efforts to train kindergartners. Among my students there were a few Eussian ladies, and at their request I spent a few months at St. Petersburg in order to aid in the establishment of the work in that city. I do not know how many children I instructed in the course of years, hut I have the great satisfac¬ tion of meeting many of my former pupils who are now citizens and parents active in the service of whatever to them is true, beautiful, and good. In my sixtieth year I was compelled by ill health to give up my own kindergarten, but was still able for a number of years to work for the Volkskindergarten and for the training school. At present the excitement and noise of large assemblies is too severe for me, yet I have the good fortune of meeting little ones in families and of being greeted by them with manifestations of cordial affection. If now we ask what success has crowned the labor of the past fifty years, the answer, through God’s grace, indicates remarkable growth, increasing from year to year. The tender tree planted in 1810 had to bear many storms and other hindrances, but has always been strengthened by these things. The educational principles of Froebel have taken root in the families ; many unconsciously follow his guid¬ ance, and very many heed his instructions with intelligent appreciation of their value. The efforts to establish hemes of refuge for boys and girls area necessary consequence of our endeavors ; indeed, they existed in their rudiments in Froebel’s institute. If, as in the light of past experience we have a right to hope, the spirit of love, of industry, and of generous creative work will become more and more general, Froebel’s desire to bring to mankind peace, joy, and freedom will be fulfilled. Appendix B. Tlie following notes were sent me by Heinrich Hoffmann, a direct pupil of Froebel, now residing at Hamburg: In 1848 an article written by Mme. Doris Liitkens directed my attention to Froebel and the kindergar¬ ten. I paid a visit to the kindergarten established by this lady at Hamburg. Following her advice I applied to Froebel. He received me at once as one of his pupils, and in the fall of 1848 I went to Dres¬ den to receive his personal instruction. This was a great event for me. Henceforth my whole life was devoted to childhood as a whole. The mighty enthusiasm, the wealth of thought amazed his hearers, although he seemed to labor to find the right expressions for his revelations. Never again have I found so indefatigable a worker. From 9 o’clock in the morning until 10 at night he taught the various section s of the school and limited the tim e for his personal wants to a minimum. At 10 o’clock, when the weather was favorable, he loved to invite us for a walk. These were precious hours * * * "When afterwards we had retired to rest, our master worked until 3 or 4!o’clock, and worked and studied about new forms and arrangements, songs and games, and whatever else might enrich the children’s mind and heart or enhance "their vigor. In the spring of 1849 the work at Dresden came to a close. On the 4th of July of the same year, I opened the second kindergarten at Hamburg, and, at the invitation of several ladies, Froebel came in the fall of that year to Hamburg, in order to conduct a six month’s course. Many influential men and women of advanced culture were gained for the cause, and when Middendoff, with his wonderful power of speech, had kindled the fire of enthusiasm in every heart, a brilliant success seemed assured. Although much disappointment and sorrow came to the venerable master, he had nevertheless the satisfaction of witnessing the opening of a Burgerkindergarten, to which subsequently many others were added. My efforts were directed to the educational needs of the family, on the one hand the kindergarten, on the other hand the training of girls for the work of education. At first I instructed young girls for two hours daily jn order to prepare them for the requirements of the nursery. As this was a gratui¬ tous work, I secured in a short time 40 pupils. To me personally this afforded valuable practice in the art of presenting even highest educational truths in a simple and intelligible manner, even to persons little skilled in thought. Unfortunately a serious interruption intervened in this. The kindergartens were prohibited in Prussia, and, not being a citizen of Hamburg, I was consequently compelled to leave the city. For a year I went as a peripatetic teacher from town to town in Hanover: Hanover, Bildes- heim, Elze, Gronau, Goettingen, then Bremen and Oldenburg. In all of these I delivered courses of lectures in which I presented the method of Froebel, established kindergartens, instructed young girls in the work, and labored to meet the accusations and misunderstandings that beset the cause. In 1854 Prince Albert opened a universal educational exposition in St. Martin’s Hal], London. A request to take part in this induced me to venture upon the journey well provided with material kindergarten work and means for illustration. I was assigned a prominent place and could display my things to advantage. The success was greater than I had anticipated. Unfortunately I was not an adept in the English language, but my material helped me out, and from 9 o’clock in the morning until 8 at night I was surrounded by groups of hearers to whom I attempted to furnish a general out¬ line of the idea. I had intended to return after the close of the exposition, but Lord Shaftesbury, Ivin naird. Dr. Playfair, and others induced me to remain. I found a field of work in the Home and Colonial Society, in the Wesleyan College, and in a number of noble families. The interest grew steadily. * * * I remained in London for seventeen years, but in 1871 1 returned home. At first I established myself as teacher of English at Altona, hut soon I gave my energies wholly again to the work nearest iny heart. Since 1878 I have conducted six month’s courses in which young girls are trained for the educational requirements of the nursery, as well as a flourishing kindergarten. A few years ago I was requested by Joseph Hughes to write a biography of Froebel tor his “ Prac¬ tical Teacher.” This I did, and he published my manuscript in the years 1883 and 1884. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 719 Appendix 0. THE MONTHLY SUBJECT IN THE KINDERGARTEN. Madame Ilenriette Schrader, the genial founder of the Pestalozzi-Eroebel House at Berlin, makes much of what she calls the Monatsg eg en stand (monthly subject or subject for the month) in the kindergarten. In one of her reports (1890) she fur¬ nishes an instructive illustration of this. The subject chosen is the pine tree. For the smallest children of the kindergarten it furnishes material for play. The kindergartner on the first morning brings to the little ones — 3 to 4£ years old — a covered basket filled with pine sprays. After the children have examined them and admired them, they plant with their aid and some sand a pine forest. This is filled with animals from “ Noah’s ark. ” The kindergartner rapidly fashions from wax a squirrel which visits all the children and leaps nimbly from tree to tree. Suddenly it begins to snow, small pieces of white paper fall upon the trees, the squirrel hides himself in one of the trees, and the ahimals, too, seek suitable shelter. The children sing a suitable song. On another day the kindergartner brings pine cones for the play. Some of the children fill the scales with sand and stick small leaves and flowers into this. The cone is smoothed off on one side with a knife, and the charming bouquet is pre¬ sented to one of the assistants. The other children transform pine cones into horses and cows and build a stable for them from blocks,, or manufacture wagons, to which the horses are hitched. The children express themselves freely and during the play learn many things about the pine tree and its uses. The second division — 44 to 5£ years old — had planted small pine trees last spring, and these have been carefully nursed by the children. In the month of December these pine trees and whatever else the children may have seen and heard about pine-trees, become the subject of earnest andfrequent instructive conversations, and the central figure of songs and games. Pine trees and pine cones are drawn with the help of stencils and suitably colored. Pine cones are adorned for the Christ¬ mas tree, and fashioned from clay, and all culminates in the story of the Christ- cliild and conversations on the significance of Christmas. In the transition class children to 6 years old learn to express their expe¬ rience and knowledge in regular correct sentences. Thus, after a visit to the botanical gardens, they are led to say: “The pine tree is dressed in green. The leaves of the june tree are called ..needles. The pine tree stands quite straight. The pine cones are brown. In the pine tree there are many small tents. In these tents the seeds are sheltered, etc. ;; In the occupations, too, connected with the subject everything is done more systematically than in the kindergarten proper. Bertha Meyer, author of “From the Cradle to the School,” gives a full sketch of a day in this institution. We take the following notes from this : At 9 o’clock all the children of the kindergarten assemble in the large play room. The kindergar¬ ten designates two children from each division, who, while the rest are engaged in their movement games, arrange the occupation material in the respective division rooms. These children hold the office for a week. After -the games comes roll call, and at 9 :30 each kindergartner marches her division into the music room, where transition class and primary class assemble at the same time. Here all sing a sim¬ ple morning prayer. Only the smallest children, 2\ to 4 years old, are excluded from this and remain in the play room. Thereupon all children return to their respective occupation rooms and the day’s work begins. The division of the smallest children, too, had its two arrangers. Let us stop with these at first. We notice that the playthings of the nursery are not banished from their room. We see here dolls, dolls’ beds and carriages, cooking utensils, a Noah’s ark, hollow forms for the sand game, a railroad, and many other things. Fre¬ quently they may use these things as they please, yet at other times much is pru¬ dently withheld. One of their regular occupations is stringing of beads. During this time they are told a story or sing a song, or give vent to their own fancies in free conversation. Here a bead strung on a thread plays varied parts. Now it is a bell, swinging to and fro, now a locomotive puffing noisily away. The various col¬ ors of the beads enable the children to discover many instructive distinctions among them. Thus they vary song and work until the time is past. Another favorite oc¬ cupation is the sand game. The children fashion, with the help of their hollow sand forms or suitable kitchen utensils, a variety of things from moist sand, cooking ranges, all sorts of cakes and pastry, or they make little gardens, which they adorn with real flowers or pine sprays, or with paper trees and birds which the upper di¬ visions have made for them. Another occupation is the drawing out of threads from coarse woolen rags. These threads they tie into dolls, little birds, or mice, or they make brooms with them, or lay them loosely into a small basket or clay saucer 720 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. to represent the nest of birds or mice, or they manufacture them into small beds for dolls cut from paper or wood. However, after the very first occupation the signal for luncheon is given. The children march again to the large play room. In the meanwhile the two little help¬ ers place at each seat a small round piece of board upon the table, and on each of these boards a small slice of bread and butter is laid and cut into small pieces. When all preparations are made the children march back to luncheon amid suitable calis- thenic exercises. After breakfast the children again repair to the play room, while the little helpers clear the tables and prepare for the new occupation. This lasts until 11.45, when the children are dismissed to their homes, with the exception of those whose mothers work away from their homes, who receive their dinner at the kindergarten. These remain under supervision during the entire noon- recess, and should they feel tired they take a nap on mattresses provided for this purpose. The afternoon session lasts from 2 to 4 o’clock and is spent chiefly in free play or movement games. Let us turn to the other divisions. In the Froebel occupations the children are not allowed to do as much as in other kindergartens. The more difficult and deli¬ cate work is reserved for the transition class and the primary class, when they do not strain the nerves and eyes excessively. Geometrical terms, too, are avoided in the kindergarten and are consigned to the advanced classes. The squares on the network are called boxes; the vertical and horizontal lines in drawing have various names, as remote resemblance or fancy may dictate, such as soldiers, handkerchiefs, etc. Much stress is laid on intelligent intercourse with nature and on the activities of daily domestic life. Subjects for instruction are chosen chiefly from nature and in accordance with the seasons. Thus, in March, the lessons and plays dealt with pease, lentils, and beans ; in April, with violets and spring beauties ; in May, with some prominent May -blossoms and the bird- tree ; in June, with grass and cereals ; in July, with chickens; in August, with bees and butterflies; in September, with water; in October, with the apple tree and ivy ; in November, with the mouse and baked apples ; in December, with the pine tree; in January* witb the joiner and what he makes from pine; in February, with the titmouse, etc., according to choice or opportunity. In the transition class the work in the Froebel occupations is gradually combined with the rudiments of school work. Instruction begins at 8.30. In writing they learn to make simple letters; in arithmetic they analyze numbers, with the, help of sticks and lines, from 1 to 5 ; in German they learn to form simple sentences and to analyze them into words and these into syllables; in drawing they draw from sten¬ cils the outlines of right triangles, squares, etc.* and fill these with lines ; they learn to recognize angles and to draw them; in home geography they learn to know the cardinal points of the compass and the directions in which to find familiar buildings and localities ; they observe the position of the sun and other similar facts. They measure the schoolroom and distances of objects from each other, and make a ground-plan of the house and its contents. They become familiar with native plants and animals. For religious instruction they are told the stories of the Old Testament, and shown pictures of incidents connected with the stories. In music they learn to recognize and keep time with the aid of u orchestral performances” on triangles, castanets, tambourines, and trumpets. In the primary class these things are done more and more fully in the ways of the school. Appendix D. STATUTORY REGULATIONS FOR AUSTRIA CONCERNING KINDERGARTENS AND INFANT SCHOOLS. A. — Kindergartens. (1) The purpose of the kindergarten is to aid and supplement home education during the earlier years of childhood, and, consequently, to prepare the children for public school education (Volks-schul- unterricht) by systematic training of the body and of the senses, as well as by appropriate culture of the intellect. (2) The means of kindergarten education are to be found in occupations which develop the creative and formative instincts, in movement games with or without singing, in conversations about things and pictures, little stories and poems, and light garden work. All instruction peculiar to the school is strictly excluded. (3) Children may not be admitted to the kindergarten before they have entered on their fourth year, and they must be discharged therefrom, in accoi'dance with the imperial school law of 1879, at the close of "their sixth. Within these limits they may be received or discharged at any time, as their parents or guardians may desire. Children troubled with afflictions that are fraught with danger to other children shall not be received in kindergartens. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 721 (4) Kindergartens may be established by provinces, school districts, municipalities, associations, as ■well as by any self-dependent private individual of good character in accordance with the conditions set forth in sections 5 to 16. The establishment of such institutions requires the approval of the provincial school authorities. Kindergartens establised by provinces, school districts, and municipalities are public kindergartens ; those established by associations and private individuals are private kindergartens. (5) The kindergarten may exist alone or in connection with a public school ( Tolksschule ). It occu¬ pies the children daily, except on Sundays and holidays, for two or three hours in the forenoon and two hours in the afternoon. Arrangements, however, may be made to receive children for the remainder of the day for supervision and board. (6) The number of children in the care of one person shall not exceed 40. (7) The rooms destined for kindergartens must be safe and easy ot access ; must have a perfectly healthy location, good light, and ample opportunities for the unhindered movements of the children. In addition to suitable rooms, there must be a sufficiently large, cheerful, and adequately sheltered space for play and movement in the open air. Exceptions may be made only in large cities and in private kindergartens. (8) The kindergarten must be provided with the necessary apparatus for occupations and instruc¬ tion, the requisite number of seats and benches, tables ruled with networks, and suitable arrange¬ ments for the bodily needs of the children. (9) Every kindergarten must be conducted in accordance with regulations and a time-table adapted to local needs. (10) The founder is responsible for the external condition, the director (or directress) for the peda¬ gogical guidance of the kindergarten. (11) The direction of a kindergarten connected with the Volksschule shall be in the hands of the director of the school. The directors (directresses) of independent kindergartens must enjoy a good moral character, must be 24 years old, in possession of the certificate of graduation from general com¬ mon schools, and must show that they have familiarized themselves with the nature of kindergarten education by attendance (as observers) for at least three months in a good kindergarten. Only in cases where other proof of the requisite pedagogic attainments can be furnished, the minister of public instruction may dispense the candidate from the certificate of graduation. (12) The practical training in the kindergarten, and the intercourse with the children, are to be placed in the hands of kindergartners which can furnish the required proofs of competence for this work (§§ 20-23) . The directress, if she furnishes proof of possessing the required competence, may also be kinder- gartner. (13) Any vigorous and intellectually normal person of unquestioned morality may be attendant ( War ter in) in the kindergarten. (14) The engagement of the director (directress), of the kindergartners, and attendants is to be made by the founder on approval of the district school board. The founder will also determine the extent of the fee to be paid for attendance at the kindergarten. (15) The district school board shall be informed of all contemplated changes in the management or conduct, as well as in the location, of the kindergarten. (16) The public .shall be permitted at all times to visit the kindergarten, provided previous notice is given of such visit. (17) The kindergartens are under the supervision of the regular school authorities. The pedagogic supervision is within the duties of the imperial district school-inspector. In other matters the public kindergartens are under the supervision of the local authorities, the private kindergartens under the supervision of the district authorities. The local authorities may appoint a committee of ladies for the immediate supervision of any public kindergarten. This committee shall then visit the institution from time to time, and report to the local authorities the needs of the same. (18) Kindergartens which fail to observe these regulations or show defects that prevent the attain¬ ment of- their legitimate purpose, shall be Closed by the provincial school authorities. (19) For the training of kindergartners, in so far as this is not done by public normal schools for female teachers, special courses shall be established in some of the schools. (20) Certificates of graduation, showing that the candidate possesses satisfactory theoretical and practical knowledge of the kindergarten, entitle the holder to become a kindergartne'r. (21) Besides these special courses in public normal schools for female teachers, training courses may also be combined with well-conducted public and private kindergartens, with the consent of the min¬ ister of education. Such schools may be granted by the minister the privilege of issuing certificates that shall be valid throughout the state on condition that the curriculum shall not differ essentially from that of public normal schools, that the teachers be approved by the provisional school board, and that the final examination be conducted by a member of this board, whose consent shall be necessary lor the granting of a certificate. (22) Girls in the higher classes of public schools (Volks- und Burger schulen) shall be permitted to take part in divisions in the games and occupations of the kindergarten whenever this is feasible. Besides, the directors of kindergartens may instruct girls, that have satisfied the provisions of the school laws, in the science and art of natural child culture, and issue to them certificates of success. (23) Day nurseries. — The object of the day nursery is to receive children of working people for daily care and suitable occupation, and to accustom them to cleanliness, orderliness, and good behavior, as well as to instill into them love of work. These institutions shall not receive children under 3 years of age. The establishment of a day nursery requires the approval of the provincial school board, which may also fix the conditions of such approval. The Supervision of day nurseries is under the same regulations as the supervision of kindergartens. Special care is to be taken to see that all arrangements satisfy the modern pedagogic and sanitary re¬ quirements, and that all school instruction be excluded. I Y.— France. France claims as the first germ of her interest in the systematic education of in¬ fants in public institutions the remarkable philanthropy of Oberlin. John Fred¬ eric Oberlin was borii*at Strasburg in 1740. In 1767 ho assumed the pastorate of Waldersbach in the Ban-de-la-Roche (Steinthal), a rocky and sterile valley in the Vosges Mountains of Alsace. He found his people in a condition of utter wretchedness, which he attributed to their dense ignorance. In his efforts to alleviate this wretchedness he sought, therc- ed 91 - 46 722 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. fore, to dissipate the prevailing ignorance by teaching the peasants better agricul¬ tural and horticultural methods, the establishment of new industrial pursuits and of commercial relations with neighboring parishes, the art of building roads and bridges. At the same time, he'realized that his most important concern was the education of the children of his parish. After two years of earnest striving he succeeded in giv¬ ing to his people a schoolhouse. This success he followed up by securing the con¬ struction of similar houses in several adjoining villages. However, these schools brought no relief to children under 6 years of age, who were sadly in need of care. The mothers, compelled to labor in the fields, left them at home where they were either without supervision or in the doubtful care of older brothers or sisters who thus were themselves deprived of the benefits of the town school. At this juncture Oberlin learned that in a neighboring village there was one Sarah Banzet who taught the children of the place the art of knitting. He hastened to en¬ gage her to teach the children of Waldersbach in some spacious rooms which he had rented for this purpose. .Here, we are told by Legrand, lie wished the children might find motherly guidance. The smallest played, the larger ones learned to spin, to knit, to sew. Colored pictures of scriptural subjects and of natural history furnished means for pleasing instruction. The work was enlivened by song, and simple stories were told. In summer they gathered flowers, learned the names of plants, as well as their peculiarities and uses. Oberlin’s wife, Salome Witter, and his servant, Louise Schoeppler, aided in this work of love ; and after the death of Sarah Banzet, which occurred a few years later, Louise Schoeppler continued the work for over fifty years. In 1794 the national convention of France eulogized the efforts of Oberlin in a public decree; and his “knitting-schools” began to attract favorable imhlic atten¬ tion and found a number of imitators, who, however, succeeded poorly, possibly be¬ cause they failed to bring to the work the spirit of pure, unselfish devotion that characterized the efforts of Oberlin. Another notable attempt in a similar direction was that of Madame de Fastouret, who, in 1801, established in Paris a salle cVhospitalitc, a sort of day nursery, for a limited number — -10 or 12 — little girls. Her enterprise failed in spite of the ample means which she devoted to it. M. Durand1 ascribes this failure chiefly to the fact that her work was more religious than philanthropic, for she helped only those who were remarkable for piety, and the exercises of the school were chiefly of a religious character. It seems, however, that her failure did not discourage her, for in 1826 wo find her at the head of a committee of ladies engaged in similar efforts, although of a broader, less narrowly ecclesiastical character. In these she was joined by the excellent M. Cochin, mayor of the twelfth district of Paris, and by Abb6 Desgenettes. Funds were collected, the general council of charities was prevailed upon to contribute 3,000 francs, and to furnish a suitable room for a new institution for the care and education of neglected children. In order to defeat open and concealed opposition, it was decided that Madame Millet, enthusiastically devoted to these plans, should go to England in order to study the methods by which Buchanan, Wilderspin, and their followers had attained their marvelous results. -She undertook the journey in 1827, and was soon joined by M. Cochin himself, who was eager to leave nothing undone that might contribute to tile success of the noble work of charity and education, from which he expected so much for the wretched poor of the twelfth district. On his return, in 1828, M. Cochin established a model salle d’asile (house of refuge) or infant school after the English pattern, and, in connection with it, a normal course for the training of teachers under the direction of Madame Millet. From this time on success seems to have been assured. In Paris alone there were in 1830 six such schools, and in 1836 their number had risen to eighty. Other cities were equally active, so that in 1837 Salvandy could report to tlie King that 800 such schools were open in France, and that 261 of these were supported partly by public funds. In the meanwhile, however, and in the measure in which municipalities began to interest themselves in these institutions, their educational value became more and more prominent, and their charitable features lost in importance. At the same time there arose conflicts of authority between the municipal administration and the committee of ladies, who struggled to retain control at least of the supervision of the salles d’asile: These conflicts resulted in the defeat of the committee of ladies, 'who resigned their functions near the close of 1836. In his report to the King, dated on the 2 2d of December, 1837, M. Salvandy, the minister of public instruction, deplores this. He feels that the success of these insti¬ tutions can not be assured unless the daily inspection of the schools as well as the examination and supervision of the teachers, is in the hands of mothers. Deeply La Legislation cles Scales Maternelles. Paris, 1883. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 723 impressed, at the same time, with the usefulness of the salles cVaslle, ho urges the King to give them a legal existence, and to secure for them the maternal inspection and^control so neeessary to their success. This request was answered by a royal decree bearing the same date, in which for the first time the salles d’asile are assigned a place in the public education of the state. They are declared to be “ charitable institutions to which children of both sexes may be admitted up to the age of 6 years (the seventh birthday) in order to receive the motherly supervision and first education which their age requires. ” Here they were to receive “the first principles of religious instruction and element¬ ary notions of reading, writing, and oral arithmetic, to which may be added instruc¬ tive and moral songs, needlework, and all kinds of manual work.’7 The regular visitation and daily inspection of these schools, in so far as they were public institutions, were placed in the hands of ladies. Each school was to have one inspectress, who, however, might select deputies to aid her. These were to supervise “the conduct of the salles cVasile in all that touches the children’s health, their moral disposition, their religious education, and the treatment they receive.77 At their request the license to teach is withdrawn from any attendant “ whose hab¬ its, conduct, and character are not in conformity with the spirit of the institution.77 The inspectresses render to the jn’oper authorities quarterly reports of the status and needs of the work. If they see fit they may take part in the discussion of these re¬ ports. Departments and communes are empowered to appoint permanent inspec¬ tresses, and the minister of public instruction appoints a permanent inspectress as a member of the supreme educational commission of the state. The reason for stating here at such length the provisions of this decree lies in the fact stated by Mile. Matrat 1 that “ all subsequent decrees and orders merely modify, restate, complete, or sanction the decree of December 22. 77 The regulations concerning the details of work in salles cVasile were based wholly on a. manual published by M. Cochin in 1833. They bear the stamp of their English orioin, and are distressingly schoolish. In the decree of the central authority pub¬ lished on the 24 tk of April, 1838, it is ordered that the rooms in which the children are to be exercised should be situated on the ground floor. The floor itself is to be covered with planks, tiles, asphaltum, or cement. The rooms are to be lighted from both sides by windows placed at least 2 meters above the floor, “so that the chil¬ dren’s attention may not be disturbed by outdoor attractions.77 The rooms are to be of a rectangular shape, 4 by 10 meters for 50 children, 6 by 12 meters for 100 children, 16 by 20 meters, 200 or 250 children. The last number is fixed at the maximum. The children are seated at one end of the room in at least five nor more than ten rows, on terraced seats extending across the entire width of the room. However, passages are left down the middle of the terraces, or amphi¬ theater, and on the sides for the purposes of classification, and the better control of the children. A general view of such an estrade is given in Fig. 1 and sectional viewr in Fig. 2. JFig.T. — View of an estrade. The rest of the room is provided with benches fastened to the floor, leaving, how ¬ ever, an empty space in the middle for evolutions. In front of the bencucs, in the play room, circles are painted on the floor indicating the places where groups of chil¬ dren are to stand before suspended pictures and charts used in the work. Similar charts are hung on the walls of the room. Indeed, M. Cochin recommends that the i Histoire ds V Education Enfantine PuMique. Par Mile. Matrat. 724 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. “ script letters and ciphers, as well as a number of geometrical figures, be painted on tbe walls, so that they may be continually before the children’s eyes for imitation.” The subjoined cut which, together with Figs. 1 and 2, is taken from M. Narjoux’s ficoles Primaires ct Salles d’Asile gives a very fair idea of the interior arrangement of a salle d’asile. A courtyard is provided, at least three times the size of the work room ( salle d’exercices ) just described, partly covered and partly open. [At a later period this was divided lengthwise into two halves, one for the boys and one for the girls.] In the courtyard various provisions are made for games, "and the covered portions are furnished with movable benches. Wherever it is feasible there is also a room in which the children take their meals and keep warm in winter. This is suitably furnished with shelves for the children’s baskets, with movable benches, porringers, and other utensils. The furniture for the work room proper, in addition to the things needed for the children’s toilet and other comfort, comprises a clock, a large bell conveniently hung, a claquoir,1 a whistle for sounding signals for the various exercises, blackboards and charts, slates and pencils, an abacus with 10 rows of 10 balls each, one or several books and portfolios with pictures, and various provisions for needlework and other manual work. In each salle d’asile there is at least one teacher ( surv$illante ) and one woman for general service (femme de service). Should the number of children exceed 100, a least 2 assistants are given the teacher. Admission is granted to children from 2 to 6 years old. . The schools are open every week day from 9 o’clock until sunset in winter, from 7 o’clock in the morning until 6 o’clock in the evening during the remainder of the year. In urgent cases children may have to be received before the stated hours and kept for a longer time and during the holidays. On the other hand the hours for actual teaching may not be more than four daily nor less than two, and no exercise is to last longer than ten or fifteen minutes. This is the substance of the official directions of 1838. There is in all of them unquestionably an oppressive air of schoolishness. This schoolishness gave rise in due time to that “ methode des salles d’asile ” in which Madame Kergomard sees “the absoluto negation of Oberlin’s principles,” and the only truly redoubtable weapon at the disposal of opponents of schools foi early childhood.2 Nevertheless, these schools were the outcome of an earnest spirit of philanthropy. There is no better proof for this than the classical directions concerning the care and instruction the children are to receive, which form the second chapter of Villemain’s rescript of April 24, 1838, approved by Salvandy. According to this rescript “the rooms and courtyard must be cleaned and swept every morning thirty minutes before the arrival of the children. At the time set for the children’s arrival the teacher ( surveillant or surveillante ) should receive them, inspect each one with regard to cleanliness and neatness, examine the food brought with reference to quantity and wholesomeness, see that the baskets are placed on the shelves, and make suitable reports on these things to parents or guardians. A child that is sick when brought shall not be received, but taken to its home or immediately sent to the physician. 1 This is a wooden instrument resembling in size and shape an ordinary snuff box. With this the teacher makes sharp clicks resembling those made with a castanet. Those clicks serve as signals or accentuate the steps of the children marching. 2 L'Pcoie Maternelle, par Madame Pauline Kergomard , inspectrice-generale des ecoles maternelles , membre du Conseil Superieur de V Instruction Publique. Paris, 1889. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 725 “ The teachers and women for general service, impressed with the sacredness of their charge in the persons of these little children, should strive to fulfill their mis¬ sion with unchangeable gentleness and true Christian patience. The children should never be struck. The inspectress should see to it with the greatest care that no excessively long or severe punishment be inflicted. aThe teachers should always superintend the exercises and recreations; they should always be in position to obtain at any moment and at the first signal complete silence. Whatever attention may be needed for the children’s health should be im¬ mediately given by the teachers. Children who are tired or indisposed should rest on the cots provided for this purpose, or in the teacher’s lodging, until they can be returned to their families. “ The evolutions of the children, and the games suitable to their age, should always be directed and superintended in order to avoid all quarrels and unpleasant acci¬ dents. In the courtyard the ground should always be covered with a deep layer of sand. The periods of intermission afford intelligent and attentive teachers constant opportunities for instruction concerning cleanliness, deportment, politeness. The 726 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91 tliousancl little incidents of each day may serve as texts for useful lessons that, will never be forgotten, and which in due time will bear most grateful fruit. 1 1 The teacher should ascertain each day who are absent and who are present, not by subjecting such young children to a roll call, but by reading all the names on the register and by calling to his aid, in his observations, the waiting maid and a few of the older children. When, after the last period of instruction, the children are not called for by some member of their families, the teacher should retain them, so that they may not be alone in the streets. This they should do until all the children are in safe hands. Should parents, after due notice, continue in such negligence, the inspectress may authorize the teacher to refuse further admission to the child. In case of the reiterated absence of the child, without some known cause, the teacher should ascertain the cause of such absence and record it for the information -of the inspectress. “On Sundays and other holidays, the teachers, if the parents desire it, should assemble the older children at the salle cVasile in order to conduct them to divine service. It will also be proper, if on the same days the teachers visit sick pupils; talk with parents about the character and conduct of their children, of the faults and failings that deserve special attention ; discuss with the mayor and with philan¬ thropic persons the most pressing needs of certain children or of the school itself.” The philanthropic spirit that dictated these directions led the more sanguine friends of these schools to the most extravagant expectations. Thus, in a circular — Mademoiselle Matrat calls it a poem — which Salvandy addressed the prefects of departments, dated in August, 1845, (his generous minister of public instruction, says : “This blessed institution promises to our nation generations sounder in mind and body, more deeply impressed with principles of order and discipline so needful in an epoch of popular liberty and activity like ours — generations better informed, more capable, better prepared for work and for the achievement of prosperity. * * * By means of these institutions the communes can transform their people, instruct them, elevate them, and substitute for their evil tendencies principles of sound morality and habits of practical integrity.” In another circular, dated September, 1846, the same enthusiastic minister informs the prefects that “ the scilles d’cisile render the family and society invaluable service. By daily gathering the children during the hours when the family can not take care of them without giving up a part of its daily labor — which is its only wealth — they afford the children greater liberty, more comfort, and greater security. They give to the children the first education which their parents have always lacked. This education will secure to our land more moral, stronger, better disciplined, bet¬ ter instructed generations.” In the actual work of the schools, however, the teachers were so hemmed in by directions, manuals, and inspections concerning the most self-evident externals of their duties that they could reach a truly educative activity scarcely in any phase of their work. It remained at best and always mere verbal information, tested by verbal recitation, and class drill tested by class unanimity. M. Cochin himself says that jiersons who have merely looked in on a scille cVasile must be impressed with the fact that here the pupils are carried on by a common movement that holds the entire class, not one finding himself able to raise a doubt or to offer resistance; that here the children follow the right way in which they are placed ; that thus habit is formed and education achieves its triumphs without dif¬ ficulty. Mademoiselle Matrat points to this passage as indicating most conclusively “ to what extent the salle cVasile annihilates individuality, crushes the spontaneity, the self-activity of the child.” * * * “ The habits thus formed,” she continues, “ are purely disciplinary and have no bearing on the habits of practical life. We are, therefore, safe in concluding that, in spite of the best intentions, the salle cVasile fails in its educational aim from the very start, since all that is clone conspires to make of the child a passive being, an atom in a conventional whole, and there is nothing to start his progressive and rational development by enlisting his self¬ activity.”1 The system is arraigned with, equal directness by Madame Kergomard. “ The salle cVasile ,” she writes, “ encumbered from the very beginning by too great a number of children, formed them into regiments, imprisoned them by hundreds in vast rooms, the windows of which were two meters from the door; it made them march, all welded together, hands on shoulders in long chains like convicts; it dressed them in close rows on shelving steps or on benches riveted to the floor; it made them rise together at the signal of the claquoir ; it made them sit down at the signal of the claquoir ; it had them wipe their noses at the signal of the claquoir; it made them count, recite, respond altogether and always at the signal of the claquoir. 1 Histoire del' Education Enfantine Publique, par Mademoiselle Marie Matrat, inspectrice-generale des ecoles maternelles. Paris, 1889. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 727 u Deprived of his liberty of movement, incessantly benumbed by routine, tbe child had at school neither originality nor personality, was merely one of the links of the chain, one of the wheels of an unconscious machine. The method of the salle d’asile, indeed, avoided confusion and tumult, it obtained silence, but at what price, * * * and it finally deceived the teachers concerning their own fitness, for it over¬ whelmed with praise not those who knew the children best, but those who, having most completely absorbed the processes, made children go most successfully through the drills." That under such conditions great stress should be laid on mere verbal information is to be expected. Even the manual of M. Cochin shows that this was the case. He demands “not reading, but a knowlege of the letters ; * * * not industrial teach¬ ing, but a certain amount of information about common things; * * * not moral and religious instruction, but some impressions concerning morals and religion." This led to all sorts of strange devices in letter-teaching, to the memorizing of the most incomprehensible or unmeaning descriptions and definitions; and, in morals and religion, to the smaller catechism. A few samples from the manual of Madame Pape-Carpantier, so closely identified with the growth and development of the salle d’asile, will render this clear. For teaching the reading of words she recommends the phonomimic method of Grosselin. By this method the word is analyzed into its series of spoken sounds and the corresponding written signs of these sounds. Each sound is, at the same time, successively associated with some animal or some familar fact, and impressed upon the memory by having the children imitate the animal or indicate the fact in some gesture corresponding to the spoken sound and its written sign which is pointed out to them. Thus the word chapeau (hat) is handled as follows : ch The children place a finger on the lips to indicate silence, and say : sh ! a They raise their hands in admiration: ah! p They blow explosively on the back of the hand, as if to blow away a feather : p ! eau They extend their hands forward, expressive of repulsion, saying: oh! In a “ grammar " lesson in which the child is to find out what words are, the teacher, after a few leading questions, addresses the children as follows: “Well, children, letters arranged in such a way as to make us think of some person or thing form words. Words serve to express, to make known what we want. When you say, ‘ I am hungry/ you say words. When you say, ‘I am going to bed/ these, again, are words which you repeat as you have heard others repeat them. For we all speak in words, and written words are formed with letters, like those I have just written. What, now, is the use of the letters of the alphabet? Do you know it now?" Among the first lessons in numbers is the following: Teacher. How much is a 6 worth, standing alone ? [Here the figure 6 is shown with the pointer.] — A. Six units. Teacher. What is a unit? — A. A whole object. Teacher. Show me 6 units. [The child drops 6 balls on the abacus.] In drawing, Madame Pape-Carpantier would have the children learn, after a num¬ ber of explanations and comments, all sorts of geometrical definitions, such as of a straight line being the shortest distance between two points, etc. In the first lesson on the human body the children find head, arms, legs, body. They are then regaled with the following dialogue : Teacher. Had Adam and Eve, our first parents, a body, arms, and legs like ours? — A. Yes. Teacher. Then we are made as God made our first parents? — A. Yes. Teacher. Then God gives to the little children the same form which he gave to the parents. Here, too, is found a lesson on the “symmetry of the organs." A lesson on the circulation of the blood gives all possible information about arteries and veins, the course of the blood, aqd its relation to respiration. The height of pedantry is reached, however, in the lessons on “the soul," “the invisibility and sovereignty of the soul," and “■ the separation of soul and body." A lesson on conscience in the religious instruction concludes as follows : Teacher. Do you know why God has given us a conscience capable of thus reward¬ ing us for our good actions? — A. Because He is good. Teacher. But why has He made it capable also of punishing us for our bad actions? — A. Because he is just. Another lesson on sin is so grossly immoral in its tendencies that one shudders to find it in a book that bears the imprint of 1885. Do we wonder that with these facts before her Mademoiselle Matrat, the clear¬ sighted general inspectress of maternal schools, should stigmatize the salle d’asile as a “dead body." Must we not sympathize with heT when she sums up her criticism in these words : “As fast as the uniform and crushing discipline of Lancaster disappeared from the primary school it identified itself with public infant education to such an 728 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. extent that to-day it paralyzes the hole maternelle, which will die because it allowed itself to he engrafted on a corpse!” The name 4coles materneUes (maternal schools) was officially given to these insti¬ tutions in an order dated April 28, 1848. For a long time previous to this date the people in many places had found the name salle d’asile distasteful. It suggested to them a somewhat ostentatious charity and seemed to degrade to the level of beggars the working people, who chiefly patronized them. Yet these patrons were of the bone and sinew of the nation. They labored hard to live honestly ; even the mothers joined in the heroic struggle against the very beggary which the salle d’asilc implied. On the other hand, far from affording a sort of voluntary alms, these schools seemed to these hard-working people rather a practical acknowledgment of a sacred duty which the State owed to them, a duty to be to the children of these heroic mothers what, because of their industrial duties, they could not be themselves. This relation was so well expressed by the term ecole maternelle that long before the order of the 18th of April the name had become current in many localities. If, at the same time, the method of the salle d’asile had become odious among thoughtful educators, the new name would offer an opportunity to symbolize reform and to cast the odium that attached to the method upon the old name itself. It wras fitting that the Republic of 1848 should give official sanction to these voic¬ ing^ of a correct popular instinct, declaring that “the salles d’asile, improperly called charitable institutions, are institutions of public instruction, and will hence¬ forth bear the name ecoles materneUes.” This order was signed by Carnot. Perhaps it was equally fitting that the first decree on this subject, signed by Louis Napoleon, should unceremoniously reinstate the old name which persisted during his reign; and fitting again that it was reserved for the third Republic, in a decree of August, 1881, to rehabilitate the more popular name and to declare that “the tfcolcs materneUes are educational establishments where children of both sexes receive the care which their physical, intellectual, and moral development requires.” The Empire came, indeed, like a cloud over these schools. In the spring of 1854 the centra] committee of patronage had been placed under the auspices of the Em¬ press, who became protectress ex officio of the salles d’asile. In the spring of the fol¬ lowing year a decree was published fixing the status of the salles d’asile wffiich con¬ tains little of note, unless it be the fervor with which it emphasizes the claims of the church upon the children. Henceforth in the Catholic salles d’asile the relig¬ ious instruction is to be given under the direction of the bishop, and in every such school a crucifix and an image of the Holy Virgin are to form an obligatory part of the furniture. In all salles d’asile, too, a portrait of the Empress must be suspended. The decree provided for more detailed regulations to be prepared by a committee and approved by the Empress. These regulations, issued on the very next day, were in the same spirit. The religious instruction demanded “ comprises particularly the first chapters of the smaller catechism.” * * * “ The moral exercises comprise the recital of historical incidents which tend to inspire the child with a profound sentiment of love to God, of gratitude to the Emperor and to their august protect¬ ress, to teach them their duties to their parents and to their superiors; to render them gentle, polite, and kind to one another.” In other respects the programme is more schoolish and bookish than before. “Reading comprises the vowels and consonants, the large and small letters of the alphabet, the different kinds of accents, syllables of two or three letters, words of two syllables. * * * Arithmetic comprises knowledge of the single numbers, their representation by Arabic ciphers, addition and subtraction taught with the abacus, the multiplication tables memorized with the aid of singing, an explanation of weights and measures with the help of solids or of tables. * * * A knowl¬ edge of common things embraces the divisions of time, the seasons, the colors, the senses, the shapes, the materials and uses of familiar objects; notions about ani¬ mals and plants, simple trades, the elements, the shape of the earth, its principal divisions, the names of the departments of France with their capitals, and what¬ ever other rudimentary ideas may help to form the judgment* of the children;” if, indeed, adds Madame Kergomard, the preceding rubbish has not rendered them hopelessly stupid. The regulations then proceed to detail the manual and singing exercises, andcon- clude as they began with the religious and moral exercises: “The lessons and the religious and moral exercises” begin and end with a short prayer; they take place from 10 o’clock until noon and from 2 to 4 o’clock. There is one ray of light, however, in the following article: “It is forbidden to overload the memory of the children with dialogues or dramatic scenes destined for public occasions.” By a strange coincidence the year 1855, which reriveted ancient fetters upon the salles d’asile, saw the arrival in Paris of the gifted Baroness Marenholtz-Buelow. She knew, as she says, not a single person and had come without any letters of rec¬ ommendation. Her first visit was to Marbeau, president of the “International PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 729 Society of Charity,” ancl founder of the creche. He took a deep interest in her work and aided her in many ways. For three years she remained in Paris, delivering lec¬ tures under all imaginable conditions, writing articles for the press, publishing pamphlets, superintending the publication of a practical manual,1 and directing experimental work in a number of salles d’asile. In order to secure recognition for Froebel in the salles d’asile , it was necessary thai she should gain the favor of Cardinal Morlot and of the Empress. The former presided over the committee of patronage of these schools, the latter was president of the central committee. She was successful beyond her most sanguine expecta¬ tions. The official journal of the ministry of instruction published shortly after her arrival that at the “ request of Baroness von Marenholtz, her majesty in her anxiety for the "welfare of the children had ordered the creation of a commission to examine Froebel’s new method of education in his kindergartens, and eventually to intro¬ duce it in our salles d’asile .” This commission was appointed and the salle d’asile in the normal school of Madame Pape-Carpantier designated for the experiments. For three months the chil¬ dren were here instructed in the games and occupations by a young teacher under the direction of Madame von Marenholtz, and under the supervision of the com¬ mission. The subsequent report of the commission is quite favorable. It points out the facts that Froebel’s occupations prevent indolence and employ usefully all the powers of the child; that even in so short a time there was noticeable a great improvement in the morals and manners of the children. It requests the minister of public instruction to order the introduction of Froebel’s occupations in all the salles d’asile, “ so that the children of the working classes may thereby learn to love activity and work; gain manual skill, keenness of vision, bodily strength, and be generally prepared for subsequent working and learning.” However, this intro¬ duction was not to be obligatory, chiefly because the method could be profitably used only by trained teachers. Madame Pape-Carpantier herself says about these experiments: “ The devices of the ‘ methode Froebel’ would prove very helpful. They would occupy the children usefully, and by that alone would lighten thenow too heavy burden of the directresses. During the entire series of manual experiments made at our normal school ( cours pratique) the children’s interest was aroused and held without fatigue on the part of the teacher, as well as without constraint on the children’s part. Inasmuch as the first manifestation of life in the child is an impulse of activity and movement, it is easy to see how devices that appeal to the senses and keep hands and eyes busy, devices that keep alive curiosity by their exhaustless variety and that reward the busy child with almost certain success, should be welcomed with joy and preferred to the drudgery of listening and listening again and constantly to monotonous lessons heard a hundred times over by the teacher.” Unfortunately this was practically the end. It is true that the “ methode Froe¬ bel” was introduced in a number of asiles, that many persons were deeply interested in Froebel’s educational principles, and that the press praised Froebel as the dis¬ coverer of a new educational method based on a knowledge and appreciation of man’s innermost nature; but the political storms that held the Empire constantly on the verge of dissolution, and which necessarily kept educational interests at a low ebb, and, still more, the unfortunate error that saw in Froebel’s educational gospel only a new mdthode, another way for reaching an old end, caused the work of the gifted prophetess to become almost forgotten. To such an extent was this the case that Mademoiselle Matrat, in her history of Public Infant Education, puts the date of the arrival of Madame Marenholtz in Paris “ about 1864,” and gives the honor of authorizing the first experiment in kindergar¬ ten work to M. Grdard. At any rate there was no notable advance or new development in the salle d’asile as a whole between 1855 and 1879. It is true their number increased, and conse¬ quently the need of increased facilities for the normal training of teachers was felt more and more deeply. Yet in their educational character they remained well nigh stationary, to such an extent that Mademoiselle Matrat, who entered upon her duties as inspectress in 1879, says that she was “so struck with their antiquated, mummi¬ fied, conventional, and artificial makeup, that her first inspection left on her mind an impression like that of a visit to the land of 1 The Beauty in the Sleeping Forest.’” Another inspectress, Mademoiselle Loizillon, reports in 1880 : “ Some teachers have completely transformed their asiles into schools where the children write, recite grammar by heart, make analyses, conjugate verbs, and .make copies in order to learn orthography.” In the same year the teachers’ congress in Paris resolved unanimously that the usalles d’asile ought to give less negative results.” 1 Manuel pratique des Jar dins d' Enfant de Frederic Froebel, a V usage des institutrices et dcs meres de famille , compose sur des documents allemands par F. F, Jacobs, avec une introduction de Mme. la baronne de Marenholtz. Bruxelles, 1859. 730 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Again, in 1881, Mademoiselle Matrat reviews the methods, which the new decree of that year would supersede, in the following vivid terms : “Now what has been, the ideal method of the salle cVasile up to this day? It has been that of a ten minutes’ talk or dissertation on the teacher’s part, followed by questions frequently on subjects of advanced science, such as the metallurgy of iron, the extraction of rock-salt and of sea-salt, the influence of the moon on the tides, definition of the three kingdoms of nature, their divisions and subdivisions, etc. The children keep silent, the teacher talks for ten minutes. What is the result? Alas ! she knowrs it, and acknowledges it readily. When the time for questioning has come, she finds that the silence in their minds was as great as that in the room.” In 1879 a special commission was appointed under the presidency of Ad. Mourier, charged with the reorganization of the salles cVasile. As the result of their labors a new decree came in August, 1881, and new regulations in 1882. The decree of 1881 definitely establishes the name ecole maternelle, and recognizes the claims of intellectual in addition to physical and moral development. It sub¬ stitutes for the first principles of religious the first principles of moral instruction ; these in the public e'coles maternelles are inculcated not under the form of special and connected lessons but by means of conversations, questions, stories, and songs, calculated to inspire a sense of their duties torrard the family, the fatherland, and toward God, wholly free, however, from all sectarian teaching. The decree requires, furthermore, instruction on common things (clothing, shelter, food, color, shape, division of time, seasons, etc.); the rudiments of drawing (stick¬ laying, copying on the slate, easy designs drawn on the blackboard, outline repre¬ sentations of simple objects) ; language exercises, training the children in expressing what they have heard or seen ; collective or concert exercises in reading and writing ; exercises in the combinations of numbers between 1 and 10 and from 10 to 100, the four operations in the most elementary form and, at first, within the limits of 1 to 10, the representation of numbers by figures, simple applications of the metric sys¬ tem, all with the help of blocks and sticks, etc.; the rudiments of natural history with the help of objects and collections made by the children and teachers; notions of geography (the cardinal points, land and water, the rivers, mountains, and prin¬ cipal cities of France) ; stories on the grand facts of national history and on common objects; manual exercises (plaiting, weaving, folding, light knitting), but “nothing that will fatigue the children ;” graded gymnastic and calisthenic exercises ; the sing¬ ing of simple time and tune exercises, and of one-part and two-part rote songs to ac¬ company the games. It reduces the minimum age of the directress from 24 to 21 years, and that of the subdirectress from 21 to 18 years; provides for general inspectresses, who shall be at least 35 years old, and shall have taught at least five years; and department in¬ spectresses, at least 30 years old, and for three years teacher. It requires that les¬ sons shall not exceed fifteen or twenty minutes, and be interspersed w'ith songs, gymnastic exercises, marches, and evolutions, and establishes a number of judicious practices, which indicate clearly that the state has learned to take a broader and deeper viewr of the educational problem and has gained a truer insight into the nature and needs of childhood. “Each line of this programme,” writes Madame Kergomard, “is a protest of peda¬ gogic science against routine; it gave a mortal blow to the ‘meihode des salles d’asile .’ ” For this statement she offers as proof the preface of a detailed programme of studies, circulated by the ministry of education (Jules Ferry) in July, 1882. This preface is so classical that it is here given in full. It says: “The ecole maternelle is not an ordinary school; it forms the transition from the family to the school; it preserves the affectionate and indulgent tenderness of the family, while at the same time it initiates the child in the work and discipline of the school. “The success of the directress of an ecole maternelle is, therefore, measured not by the mass of imparted knowledge, not by the number and length of lessons, but rather by the sum of good influences with which the child is surrounded, by the pleasure it feels in the school, by the habits of order, neatness, politeness, attention, intellectual activity it acquires there, as it were, in play. “Consequently, the directresses should aim to promote to the primary school not so much children already well advanced in instruction, but rather children well pre¬ pared to receive instruction. All exercises of the ecole maternelle should accord with this principle ; they should favor the development of the various faculties of the child without fatigue, without compulsion or excessive application; they should make him love the school and give him at an early period a taste for work by nevei requiring of him a kind of work incompatible with the weakness and instability of tender years. “ The end in view, while considering the diversity of temperaments, the precocity of some and the slowness of others, is not to bring all to a certain grade of skill iD reading, writing, and arithmetic, but it is that they know well what they may PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 731 know, that they love their tasks^ their games, their lessons of any kind; it is par¬ ticularly that they may not have a dislike for those first school "exercises, which would so readily become distasteful if the imtience, the versatility, the ingenuous affection of the teacher did not contrive' to vary them, to enliven them, to get from them or attach to them some pleasure for the child. “ Good health; the senses already trained by a series of little games and experi¬ ments calculated to educate them; childlike, but distinct and clear ideas on the first rudiments of what will become primary instruction; a start in the formation of habits and tastes on which the school may base its regular teaching ; a taste for gym¬ nastics, singing, drawing, pictures, stories; eagerness to listen, to look, to observe, to imitate, to ask and answer questions; a certain power of attention resulting from docility, confidence, and good exposition ; finally, an awakened intelligence and a soul open to all good moral impressions ; these are effects and results to be asked of the ecole maternelle, and if the child comes from it to the primary school with such a preparation, it matters little whether it has acquired a few pages more or less of the syllabus.” The circular then proceeds to discuss the method to be followed and finds it in the imitation of the method followed by an “ intelligent and devoted mother.” It con¬ demns “the exclusive following of any special method founded on an exclusive and artificial system ;” but, taking from every school its simplest exercises, it “seeks to form a course of instruction and education that may answer all the various needs and call into play all the faculties of the little child. * * * It is a method essen¬ tially natural, unconstrained, always open to progress, always susceptible of extem sion an,d reform.” These excellent suggestions are followed by detailed programmes, setting forth the things and exercises to be presented to the children in each of the two sections (from 2 to 5 and from 5 to 7 years, respectively) and during each season. These pro¬ grammes are so simple and thoughtful, so thoroughly adapted to the child’s needs, and so happily connected with his spontaneous interests, so wholly free from science- aping, that to this day they may well serve as models for guidance in the work of the infant school and of the lower primary grades. Yet it seems that, in spite of their simplicity and in spite of the unmistakable dis¬ tinctness and clearness with which they insist upon their simplicity, the teachers failed to apprehend their spirit. “ The children,” writes Madame Kergomard, “ from 2 to 6 years old remained in our ecolcs maternelles subjected to a system of artificial physical activity fatal to their bodily development, and exposed to prema¬ turely advanced work most injurious to their intellectual development.” This state of affairs led to the formation of anew commission under the presidency of M. Grearcl, whose labors culminated in a new decree and programme published in January, 1887. In its programme, this decree laid first stress on physical education as the underlying basis of all education. This is to be attained by means of plays, games, graduated calisthenic movements accompanied by singing, and, lastly, by manual work. The very enumeration of these means proves that tho framers of this programme took a broad organic view of physical training, and endeavored to con¬ nect it closely at every step with intellectual and moral elements, appreciating the fact that physical training derives its only value from this connection. This is beautifully expressed by Madame Kergomard, who writes : “While playing with his comrades the child learns to live in association with others, his conscience is aroused, the first principles of morals are revealed to him. Without ever hearing a set moral lesson, he learns to understand gradually that he must not be overbearing, or brutal, or selfish, or indolent, that he should love and obey parents and teachers. Day by day he gains in generosity and gentleness, in love of work, in fellow feeling, in kindness. He ought to know these things before he knows how to read and write. ’; In the second place, the decree lays stress on “ the first principles of moral edu¬ cation,” and lastly, on the requirements' of intellectual culture — a knowledge of common things, language exercises, stories, the first rudiments of reading and writ¬ ing, as well as of drawing and singing; yet on all these things within narrowest limits and within the child’s scope of ready comprehension. At the same time the decree emphasizes the necessity of instructing boys and girls together, confirms the establishment of two sections of children (from 2 to 5 and from 5 to 6 years old, respectively), and increases the number of holidays by adding two full weeks to the Sundays and principal religious and national' holidays heretofore granted. On the other hand, it forbids, in special regulations added to the decree;, the keep¬ ing of any kind of domestic animals in the rooms of the school, and reaffirms the practice of giving merit cards, which may.be exchanged for pictures and playthings, but prohibits the giving of prizes. A significant paragraph suggests the introduction of small movable oblong tables, each accommodating eight children. “ Those honest tables,” says Madame Kergo¬ mard, “where the child has a comrade on each side and comrades opposite; those good tables, which permit chatting, an exchange of impressions and discoveries.” 732 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Unquestionably these tables, together with movable single chairs, and with the Froebel material that must accompany them, will do much to banish the reprehen¬ sible “ metliode cle la salle d’asile ,” and to establish not only Froebel’s method, but FroebeFs principles, a consummation which seems to be earnestly sought by the leaders of educational progress in this movement. The subjoined cuts of tables in use before the gradual adoption of the far-seeing suggestion of the decree of 1887 will give an idea how thoroughly schoolish was the first French interpretation of Froebel’s thought. Every precaution is taken to iso¬ late the child. Even in the (i Model Froebel Table” (Fig. G), with its quasi social bench, the surface of the table is managed in a way to isolate the individuals and to ostracize every approach to social work. Similarly, the fact that all the children face the teacher excludes all truly spontaneous activity, and renders impossible mutually helpful spontaneous interest on the children’s part. A glance at these tables will satisfactorily explain Madame Kergomard’s enthusiasm in favor of the “ honest” oblong tables that will accommodate 8 children at their four sides. Fig. 4.— The “ Little Beginner’s ” table. Fig. 5.—“ iZcole Maternelle ” table (Paris model). Another achievement of this decree is the final practical abandonment of the “ ecole enfantine.” These schools were the outgrowth of a practice of sending chil¬ dren to school before the age of 6 years. In the course of time these younger chil¬ dren were gathered in special schools, which, without assuming the unpopular name of salle d’asile, followed many of its practices. A ministerial circular of 1882 fixed the age of admission to these schools between 6 and 8, and gave them the character of transition schools between the ecole mater¬ nelle and the primary school. For smaller communities that have no ecole maternelle, the circular authorized for children between the ages of 5 and 8 the establishment of the classe enfantine in connection with the primary school. The decree of 1887 abandons the ecole enfantine as coinciding with the ecole mater¬ nelle, but retains the classe enfantine for children between the ages of 4 and 7, and requires that their programme be in conformity with that of the older section of the ecoles maternelles as well as with that of the elementary course of the primary schools. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 733 In the selection of teachers for the ecoles maternelles much care is exercised. No" one is admitted to the examination for the certificate of fitness before the age of 18, and without a certificate of moral character and others showing where she has resided and what occupations she has followed for at least three years previous to her application. The examination itself is quite strict, calling for skill in orthogra¬ phy, penmanship, arithmetic, the writing of letters and simple essays, reading, drawing, and singing, as well as for a fair knowledge of the principles of moral education, literature, grammar, geography, the history of France, the elements of natural history, and of hygiene. Written and oral tests on these subjects are supple¬ mented by practical tests in some ecole maternelle, which the candidate may visit for two days previous to the tests. In these the applicant fills during one portion of the session the office of directress, and during another portion that of subdirectress. Still more is required of the general inspectresses. These must be atTeast thirty- five years of age: must have taught at least five years, and be provided with a license to teach in the superior primary schools, with a certificate of pedagogic fitness and a certificate of fitness for the inspection of ecoles maternelles. The latter requires the writing of a satisfactory essay on some subject of x>edagogics as applied to these schools, an essay on their hygiene, oral tests on the same subjects and on questions of legislation and administration concerning these schools, as well as a practical test, consisting in the actual inspection of some ecole maternelle and an oral report thereon. The law provides also for department inspectresses ; but very few departments have availed themselves of this provision. It is claimed that this is due chiefly to the unpopularity of female supervision. Yet the hand of woman — or rather her head, rendered so clear in all that pertains to education by the love she bears to child¬ hood — is the one prominent and unfailing factor in the development of these remark¬ able schools. However, this unpopularity is steadily yielding before the luminous and fearless enthusiasm of general inspectresses, such as Madame Thomas, nde Matrat, and Madame Kergomard, who rank among the foremost educational forces of France. In order to secure satisfactorily prepared teachers for these schools, an ecole ma- iernelle normale was created by a public decree in Paris in 1848. The courses of study were short enough — only four months. Their purpose was “ to complete the elementary instruction of the students, and, particularly, to teach them to direct the ecoles maternelles in the spirit of the Republic. ” The special programme for this school was decreed in the following year, and Mademoiselle Pape (later Madame Pape-Carpantier) was made directress of the school. In fact, however, the school had been established by private philanthropy in 1847, and Mademoiselle Pape, who had distinguished herself as a thoughtful writer on the subject of the salles d’asile and as a successful directress of salles cVasile at Mans, had been called to its direc¬ tion at that time. In 1848 and ;49, the Government assumed control of this school and continued Mademoiselle Pape in its direction. In 1875 the two annual courses of four months each were united in one course. In 1878 it received the name Ecole Pape-Carpantier; and in 1882 its duties were trans¬ ferred to special normal courses established in connection with the normal schools for lady teachers ( dcoles normales d’insUtiitrices ) in the various departments of the Republic; and the Ecole Pape-Carpantier received the special charge of preparing directresses and professors for these normal courses. 734 EDUCATION REPOET, 1890-91. In tlio normal courses of the department normal schools the programme embraces “xi course of general instruction hearing on the work of the hrst year in the maternal schools, a course in pedagogics, and practice teaching in the maternal school annexed to the institution.” In the Iicole Pape-Carpantier the |)rogramme requires a course in psychology and ethics as applied to education, a course in critical his¬ tory of pedagogic doctrines, with special reference to the education of earliest infancy, various courses on the subjects taught in the department normal courses of the ecoles maternelles, model lessons and practice exercises in the school itself as well as in the ecoles maternelT.es and in the classes enfantines instruction concerning the legislation and administration of maternal schools and infant classes. An important decree of 1884 added a new triumph. It requires the establishment of an ecole maternelle in connection with every normal school for lady teachers, in order to enable every teacher to form an estimate of their character and value, to enable her to study child-nature within wider limits, and thus to protect her from the snares and pitfalls of a narrow empiricism. A similar wisdom has induced many of the normal schools in our own land to establish kindergartens in connection with their practice schools ; and there seems to be little doubt that this measure, afford¬ ing rich opportunities for the direct observation of growing childhood, does much to banish from the schools the evils of mere lesson-giving and equally much to establish a truly educational practice in our primary schools. One of the most charming features of the ecole maternelle is the warm meal which it secures to every child at noon. A quite full account of this excellent custom will be found in Mademoiselle Hardy’s account of “ A Day in the Maternal School,” appended to this statement. On the whole, indeed, in si>ite of repeated legislative attempts to emphasize the educational character of these schools, they still continue to be conducted largely as charitable institutions. There is no better proof of this than the “ conclusions ” of Madame Kergomard in her monograph on uLes Ecoles Maternelles .” Here she declares them to be “ absolutely indispensable in large cities and industrial centers;” she would render them “ obligatory for neglected children;” she would require “ the daily attendance of children whose mothers work daily and all day away from home ; ” and would have them receive “ other children during the hours when their mothers can not take care of them.” She would also have them (notice the s:gnifi- cant term) “ give hospitality during the hours of recreation to children who have neither brothers nor sisters.” Finally, in comparing the maternal schools of France with the infant schools of London, she points with special pride to the fact that in the former the children “found at least warm meals to strengthen their poor little bodies, and warm caresses to comfort their hearts.” Somewhat different conclusions are reached by Mademoiselle Matrat (Madame Thomas) in her Histoire cle V Education Enfantine PtibUque . She finds that the ecole maternelle such as the superior council had in mind, exists only in eight or ten large cities; that elsewhere it has not displaced the salle d’asile (see Appendix). She shows that public statistical reports on this subject are misleading. These report, in 1889, 3,700 public institutions of this character,1 2 distributed in 2,000 com¬ munes, and receiving 500,000 children. Mademoiselle Matrat shows that, because of cer¬ tain peculiarities of registration, this number should be reduced to 350,000, and that of these, even in the good season, only 280,000 actually attend school. In addition, she points out the fact that while these reported schools are distributed in 2,000 com¬ munes, there are 34,000 other communes without public e'coles maternelles. She concludes, therefore, that the services rendered by the ecole maternelle are of a local character, and belong to exceptional situations, and do not justify the efforts and sacrifices made in their behalf.- While, therefore, she would let actual asylums for little children continue to exist, she would not create new ones at public expense; she would give up the attempt of “making the education of all little children a public, uniform, and universal affair; ” but would rather organize In a general way the education of these children by the family. In order to accomplish this, she would, in the first place, modify the school pro¬ gramme for girls. She would teach them less about the battles and treaties of the 1 The official repoTt of 1888-’87 enumerates, in addition to 3.597 public ecoles maternelles, attended by 543,839 children, 2,493 private ones, attended by 217,583 children. 2 This conclusion seems rashly taken. France, during the current century has gone through many revulsions unfavorable to the development of educational interests. Lorain (Tableau del' Instruction Publique) reports in 1837 that rural schools in summer were usually empty ; that parents even refused offers of money to send their children to school, claiming that they could not spare them from the fields. In one commune of 128 children, the municipal council refused to establish a school because the money was needed to build roads. In some departments only 7 per cent, in others only 4 per cent, Lad schools. Under such circumstances many generations would he required to enable the people to appreciate the benefits of education, and probably the ecole maternelle would be the last to find favor. In our own country the primary school is still in many sections much neglected, and the kindergarten will remain a beggar for years to come. Yet it would be rash to argue from this that these institu¬ tions are not needed. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 735 Middle Ages, less albout political economy and fractions, Tbnt more about hygiene and the treatment and education of little children, more about sewing and the fitting of garments; she would pay more attention to(drawing, and instruct the girls in every technical and industrial handicraft which does not call for great physical strength. She would then — just as now mothers who nurse their children themselves receive assistance from the state — remunerate mothers, in all cases where poverty demands this assistance, for whatever loss they may sustain by educating their chidren at home until the age of five. “ However,” she continues, “ as the child needs companions, as the mother is com¬ pelled now and then to leave the house, let all communes — great and small — estab¬ lish, instead of the excessively expensive salle d’asile, a children’s garden, a garden in the plain French meaning of the word, with a playroom for rainy days, a garden which will serve as the Tuileries of the children of the people.” Even in the absence of her special reservation on this score, it maybe doubted that in Mademoiselle Matrat’s mind these “ children’s gardens” had anything in com¬ mon with Frocbel’s bimlergarten or child-garden. As previously indicated, French educators see in Froebel only the inventor of a new methode. They rarely rise to an appreciation of underlying principles; and when Froebel, in the contemplation of the infinite responsibilities of his work, fails to find clear and definite utterance for the thought- emotions that fill his being, they set him down as a half-learned mystic whom it would be folly to follow. This may be largely due to the fact that Madame Marenholtz, who brought Froebel’s message to Paris in 1885, under the pressure of circumstances laid great stress on Froebel’s methode as distinct from that of the salle d’asile, labored to introduce it in the salles d’asile which were already established, and in her publications emphasized the charitable and industrial application of the kindergarten. Compayr6, strangely enough, stamps Froebel as the originator of the salle d’asile , which, as we have seen, is a distinctly French interpretation of an English enterprise, and — even in its French dress— of much earlier date than the kindergarten. He gives Froebel credit for tenderness and nobility of sentiment, and for a certain de¬ gree of insight into “the instinct of the child,” as well as for ingenuity in “system¬ atizing” the children’s plays; but he has little patience with the persistence with which Froebel insists on respect for the child’s spontaneity and freedom, and with what he is pleased to call Froebel’s “habitual symbolism” that sees in the child “a living pledge of the presence, goodness, and love of God.” Froebel’s faith in the omnipresence and omnipotence of a Creator who has indelibly and unmistakably imjxressed himself on all manifestations of universal being is to Compayr6 a vague pantheism, and in Froebel’s wonderful stroke of genius which taught him to lead the child to see all things, however varied, in the light of the three fundamental forms (cube, cylinder, ball), Compayrd sees an attempt to “begin with the abstract in order to arrive at the concrete,” as if Froebel meant to dogmatize on these forms in¬ stead of using them as mere types which aid the child in apprehending the deeper similarities of things. Subsequently, however, he seems to have reconsidered this judgment; for in a later work he applauds Froebel for the Pestalozzian spirit in which he develops be¬ fore the child’s eyes successively the marvels of the six gifts, exhibits to his view concrete objects, such as balls of colored worsted and geometrical bodies, and teaches the child to discern their solidity, form, and substance. Madame Matrat finds in “ la methode Froebel” much exaggeration of details, much tedious ado about self-evident matters, a confusing medley of geometrical terms, and at the very heart of the system a certain mysticism. All of these things she deems ill-suited to the French mind; they account, therefore, in a large measure for the little favor the “ methode” has attained in France. Even more is made of this want of adaptation on the part of the mdthode Froebel to the “ French temperament ” by M. Delon, who, together with Madame Delon, did much to introduce some of Froebel’s devices in France. In a letter on this subject, which M. Delon had the kindness to address to me in April, 1890, he writes : “It was, indeed, I who, in 1872, introduced in France the Froebelian method. A few attempts had been previously made, but had failed of success, because the zeal¬ ous persons who had undertaken to introduce among us a method of German origin had tried to import it, such as it was, without any change. Nearly all of these were ladies charmed with the feminine and sentimental side of the system. They took no account of the changes needed in order to adapt the method to the other customs, other ideas, otheT temperaments — a different race.” Under the auspices of an association of ladies “familiar with the tendencies of the modern mind and who understood that, while there are in Froebel some things worthy of approval, there are others that must be rejected,” M. and Madame Delon studied the question and visited kindergartens in Switzerland, Belgium, and Ger¬ many. On their -return they were empowered to open a small experimental school, based on their interpretations, in connection with the school of which Madame 736 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Delon was directress. Two years later, however, Madame Delon died, and the experi¬ ment was discontinued. On the other hand, a course in general pedagogics together with a special course on the “Froebelian method” had been organized at the same time by M. Delon, and has been continued by him to this time. This course is attended annually by “ twenty young women or girls, who are teachers or prepare themselves for the work.” In writing of his modifications of the “ Froebelian method” M. Delon says : “Froe- bel, although infinitely ingenious, unfortunately lacked erudition. I felt that it was necessary to supply for the education of earliest childhood a firmer basis, and one more in keeping with the scientific spirit of modern society. For this reason I began with the establishment of the synthesis of the method of education and instruction on a scientific basis, at the same time excluding the mystic element and the excess¬ ive symbolism brought into it by Froebel, and even exaggerated by the women who continued his work. Not that I excluded sentiment and poetry, but I purposely confined myself to the poetry of nature and of life, avoiding the reveries of a sym¬ bolism which is inaccessible to children. Nature, human labor, family life, home affections, human sympathy seemed to me to be the only sources of a true and liv- ing poetry.” 1 From another point of view, he first made a sharp distinction between the method and its devices, then between general devices and special Frobelian devices. The general devices correspond with those of the intuitive method in its general fea¬ tures, a method in which the child is taught by means of observation and work and which is typified in the object-lesson ( legon de choses.) With reference to the special Froebelian devices he claims to have shown that they were and could be only special cases of some general device, distinguished merely by certain forms and certain details; that, indeed, all these special devices (the exercises with the cubes, prisms, sticks, rings, etc.) together constitute an in¬ tuitive study of geometry and an introduction to the intelligent construction and realization of geometrical forms. 11 Consequent^',” he continues, “ I have grouped them all around the most important exercise of the series, the one exercise which represents the general thought most clearly, viz., drawing. I connected all these exercises, not exclusively, but principally, as a gradual introduction to drawing, or as a variation of drawing.” It is scarcely needful to add another word in order to show how little Froebel is understood by his French disciple. Froebel’s constant effort, even in his plays with the gifts, to lead the child to a more intelligent observation of the things suggested by the plays ; his constant endeavor to insure clearer thought and more definite thought-expression ; his constant aim to lead the children with the help of those plays to see more fully and to appreciate more reverently as well as more lovingly the relations of things to life; and — most of all — his unceasing endeavor to develop and strengthen in the children through these plays, in addition to a growing sense of individual power, a correspondingly increasing sense of social responsibility, of duty to man and to God — all this is overlooked, and nothing remains but a little Pestalozzian knowledge-getting and a new way to teach drawing. 1 M. Delon gives ns illustrations in bis Lectures Expliquees of tbe poetry of ■which he approves for early childhood. These.consist of a number of dictations to he given to the children and followed by explanations of certain portions of the dictation. I take one of them at random; it is entitled “ The Moth,” and reads as follows: ”0 moth, pretty little moth with velvety wings, more delicate than the leaf of a rose, lighter than the feather carried away by the wind, little capricious, roving thing ! Flutter about in the dusk of the evening, drink the dewdrops on the leaves, skim over the water of the pond, graze with thy wings the eaves of the house, rest thyself on the flowers of the garden or upon the white walls which the moon lights up. Go, come, free as the bird; roam, dance, and whirl; but beware of the owl and her glistening eyes; beware, above all, of the treacherous flames that give us light in the evening.” “ One day the window was open, the lighted candle was on the table. The moth, outside, perceived it. Did he mistake it from afar for a star? He flies towards thelight; he enters the room.’ “ Alas ! little foolhardy pet who playest with danger, who lovest whatever burns, little doting moth who fliest towards all shining things, pet moth beware ! ” He flies about the candle flame ; he passes to and fro, flies away and returns; frightened, then dazzled, whirling nearer and nearer, drawn by the flame, so near that he burns the tip of his wing. And, then, it is over, one more turn, then two others, and he rushes into the middle of the flame, a slight sudden flash, a rustling sound, a little smoke, it is all over.’ “ Alas ! alas ! poor little moth ! ” This is followed by a little oral treatise on moths, informing the little child that they are insects ; that they have a head, a thorax, and an abdomen ; that they have six legs ; that they undergo meta¬ morphoses, and so on, the entire science somewhat boiled down. In the first paragraph of another piece the oak has been felled, its wood is prepared for the stove. The second paragraph gives the history of the tree from the acorn up through a hundred years. The third paragraph enjoys the heat of the burning wood, enjoys seeing the forest tree compelled to return to us in the bottom of the furnace the heat and the light which a hundred summers ago, under the blue heavens, it took from the sun.” This is followed by learned disquisitions on the chemistry of combustion, not hesitating to disclose to the little child tie atomic composition of its products, car¬ bonic acid and water. We leave those who are familiar with Froebel’s Nursery Songs to judge on whose side lies the true poetry, and which will kindle a bright light in the child’s soul — Froebel’s “ mysticism” or M. Delon’s learned mystifications. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 737 Even M. Gr6ard, to whom Mademoiselle Matrat assigns the honor of having au¬ thorized the first experiments with the ‘‘methods Froebel” (see page 729) and who is a most thoughtful and earnest lover and student of childhood, fails to reach the heart of the kindergarten. He recognizes correctly enough that Froebel in his play- work with the child appeals to the child’s instincts of inquisitiveness, of activity, and personality, but sees the work wholly in its relation to intellectual development and ignores its influence on the development of the moral and social nature of the child and its bearings on the humane and religious tendencies. THE PUBLIC E COLES MATERNELLES OF PARIS. From the official report of M. Duplan, subdirector of primary instruction, the fol¬ lowing account of these schools is culled: The public ecole maternelles of Paris are organized virtually oil the basis of the decree of August, 1881, which would transform the salle d’asile from a purely char¬ itable institution into an ecole maternelle with definite purposes of instruction, a special programme, and peculiar methods of procedure. It is claimed that Paris lias been able to accomplish this transformation more completely than other parts of France. In proof of this, the official regulations, time-table, and programme are adduced. (See Appendix B.) The assential points of transformation are — (1) The definite separation of the children into sections in accordance with their age and degree of intellectual development. There are three of these sections, com¬ prising, respectively, children of 2 to 3£, 3£ to 5, and 5 to 7 years old. In the former salle d’asile all the children were united for purposes of occasional purely oral instruction in a single room and seated on an amphitheatral estrade. During the greater part 'of the day the children played as they pleased, under the supervision of the teacher, in the play-room or in the open court. In some cases efforts were made to teach the children in groups according to age, but this expedient proved quite unsatisfactory. In the ecole 'maternelle, the children are divided definitely into groups not exceeding fifty children, and each group is under the direction of its own special teacher. (2) The consequent establishment of three classrooms, and the gradual abandon¬ ment of the amphitheatral estrade. (3) The provision of furniture, seats, and tables, which enable the children to practice drawing, waiting, and to do manual work with kindergarten material. In this direction there is a gradual development from the double-seated school desks, with the children facing the teacher, to the movable kindergarten tables and chairs. (4) The definite introduction of Froebel’s occupation material, and consequent efforts to instruct the teachers in the intelligent use of it by means of conferences conducted by the inspectresses,. All new teachers are required to be proficient in the use of the new methods. In order to enable the teachers to carry out the plans of the administration, the city places at their disposal an extensive list of books and school apparatus from which they may cboose freely to the extent of 1 fr. 40c. per pupil and per year. Concerning the specific subjects of instruction, the following facts are of interest: The greatest difficulties are encountered in the teaching of reading; “the phonetic alphabet is too abstract to enable the children to understand readily that a certain letter or group of letters form a symbol suggesting a certain sound. ” Consequently the teaching of reading has been combined with exercises in writing. At first the child learns to imitate the forms of letters with the help of sticks; he then learns to reproduce these forms on his slate, and during the latter part of his stay in the tcole maternelle he is permitted to write on paper. As a rule, at the age of six or seven, they read and write passably well. Arithmetic is taught within the limits of counting from 1 to 100 and from 100 to 1,000 with the help of balls, sticks, cubes, etc. At the end of the school period the multiplication table is learned, and some very rudimentary notions of the metric system are given. 'Geographical notions within narrowest limits afford much satisfaction; but history, inasmuch as itffieals writh facts beyond the children’s horizon, seems to offer much difficulty. Singing gains in the measure in which the teachers gather musical knowledge and skill for themselves. In the use of the Froebel games some restrictions are imposed by the lack of space. The free gymnastic movements which are used in all the schools seem to have little interest for the children, and the ordinary gymnastic apparatus is excluded because of the dangers its use involves. This portion of M. Duplan’s report closes with an account of a regulation day in a maternal school, which we translate in full: “At half past 6 in summer, and at half past 7 in winter, the school is opened, the femme de service is at her post, the fire is burning if the weather requires it; every¬ thing is in its place. ED 91 - 47 738 EDUCATION REPOST, 1890-91. “Tlie teacher on duty is the first to enter; she has to receive the children and to supervise them. Until 9 o’clock the children as they arrive are gathered in the court in fine weather, in the playroom in unfavorable weather, and play freely. “At 9 o’clock all the teachers are at their posts; at the signal given by the direc- ' tress, silence reigns and the children group themselves in classes. “From 9 until half past 9 the inspection for cleanliness takes place and the chil¬ dren are led to the closets; finally, at half past 9, they enter the classrooms singing. “The nest period lasts until half past 10; for an entire hour intenseness of thought! Care is taken, therefore, to vary the exercises; a little reacting and writing, object lessons, and language exercises. After each exercise songs and marching around the class room. Thus the hour passes rapidly and the fifteen minutes recess which fol¬ lows suffices to relax the fatigued little minds. “At three-quarters past 10 the work is taken up again, varying each day. At one time the teacher tells instructive and moral stories, at another time she takes up geography. “At half past 11 the hour for luncheon has come. The children eat what they have brought or what the school fare furnishes them. Then they play. “At half past 1 the work begins again as in the morning, with reading and lan¬ guage exercises. At 2 o’clock follow arithmetic or singing, alternately, for thirty minutes. “From half past 2 to 3 o’clock the little ones play in the playroom or in the. court¬ yard, while the larger children are engaged in gymnastic exercises. “From 3 to half past 3 o’clock, drawing and manual work. Well handled these exercises are a veritable recreation; so that the lessons (in morals or hygiene, or in natural history) which follow from half past 3 to 4 o’clock find the children’s atten¬ tion still bright. “After 4 o’clock the children play in the courtyard or on the covered play ground, awaiting the arrival of their parents, who are to come for them. Very often an older brother or sister, themselves pupils in the adjoining primary school, are charged with this care, and thus spare their parents a disturbance prejudicial to their daily work. “At 6 o’clock the last children have left. The doors of the school are closed. The child will return the next day, happy to find again the comfort and the vigilant atten¬ tion which this truly maternal house offers to him.” The personnel of the ecoles maternelles of Paris consists of directresses, sub-direc¬ tresses (or assistants), and substitutes, who take the places of absent teachers. In addition, each school has one or more femmes de service . In point of requirements the teachers arc on the same footing with primary teachers. They must be provided at least with the brevet elementaire (elementary license).5 Besides, those who Would aspire to the position of directress need the cer¬ tificate of pedagogic aptitude.1 2 Again, since 1886, the applicant must not be con¬ nected with any religious order. The personnel may be recruited from among the pupil teachers of the Normal School of the Department of the Seine who have finished a three years’ course; from among the pupils of a private school “ Cours Normal des Itcoles Maternelles ,”3 subsidized by the minister of instruction and by the city of Paris; and from among other candidates who have prepared themselves independ¬ ently for the work of teaching. In 1888, out of 430 teachers of maternal schools in Paris, 35 had been furnished by this private “ cours normal ,” the remainder had pre¬ pared themselves for the work independently. Their salaries are the same as those of teachers in primary schools for girls, and reach for directresses from 2,750 to 3,450 francs, and for assistants from 1,500 to 2,500 francs. In addition to the teachers each ecole maternelle has a doorkeeper {concierge) and one or mor e> femmes de service. The latter receive a salary of 800 francs. In 1888 Paris possessed 127 public ecoles maternelles. seating 22,879 children. These places are more than filled by 25/700 registered children. In addition to these there are 5,177 “expectants” waiting for vacancies. For the accommodation of these, in so far as they are unable to pay the fees of private maternal schools, funds have been created to pay these fees for them. However, the funds secured were sufficient for only 745 of these children. In 1877 Paris expended for her public maternal schools 2,147,000 francs; in 1888 she 1 This implies a somewhat rigid examination in orthography, punctuation/ penman ship, composi¬ tion, arithmetic, free-hand drawing, gymnastic exercises, needlework, reading (with comments), grammar, national history, civics, geography, singing, natural sciences. 2 This implies an essay on an educational subject chosen by the inspector of the academy, a day’s teaching in accordance with a programme furnished twenty-four hours in advance, an oral examina¬ tion on a variety of practical matters. 3 This school was founded in 1882 by the State on the initiation of a society for the study and propa¬ gation of the new methods in infant schools (Societe des Ecoles Enfantines). Since 1885 the manage¬ ment of this school is in the hands of the society, under the supervision and control of the State. The course lasts three years. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 739 expended 3,606,000 francs, an increase of 1,459,000 francs or 68 per cent. This amounts to 140 francs annually for each, registered child. A significant fact, proving the popularity of these schools among educated classes, ,as well as the democratic spirit of the French people, is brought out in a table ex¬ hibiting the callings of the registered children. This shows that the liberal pro¬ fessions are represented by 533 children; the public functionaries by 1,671; commer¬ cial employes by 3,289; merchants and manufacturers by 2,305; workingmen by 15,755; servants by 1,139; undetermined, 928 children. The report justly looks upon this table as a proof that the ecole maternelle has permanently lost its purely charitable character and is more and more universally looked upon as a desirable educational institution.1 APPENDIX A. The following account of “A day in the Maternal School ” has been kindly furnished me by Mademoiselle Marie Hardy, subdirectress of the ecole maternelle, 94 Rue du Point du Four, at Paris. It affords a charming view of the inner life of these institu¬ tions : “ Our school is situated in one of the pleasantest and healthiest quarters of Paris. Well built and of smiling aspect, it affords every opportunity for the care of little children. “ The class rooms are large, well lighted, and cheerful. The reception hall2 in which the children eat their meal is spacious and gives access to the play ground. Planted with large and beautiful trees, which, in spite of their dense foliage, admit air and light, this play ground is at once entertaining and instructive. En¬ tertaining because here the children engage in their merry games, and instructive because it possesses a plat, band, or border in which Mademoiselle Blanvillain (the directress) every year, in order to please the bigger children, has them sow wheat, rye, barley, oats-, hemp, and flax. These planes, which the children are pleased to watch in their growth, furnish topics for interesting, and profitable lessons. “ As the useful should be united with the agreeable, a number of blooming plants surround the border, planted in boxes and in pots. It is difficult to imagine the care and attention the children bestow on their little garden. The largest ones water the plants and weed the beds, and if, accidentally, one of the smaller children would touch a'plant, they quickly interfere, though with much gentleness and politeness. “Last spring when there were many violets, Mademoiselle Blanvillain, in order to please the older children, gave them permission to gather each a little bouquet of a limited number of flowers and leaves. It is- impossible to describe the joy of all these children. In a short time all had adorned themselves with these bouquets, yet not one had taken one violet more than his comrades. This, however, ceases to bo astonishing when one remembers the lessons of morals which we give daily and in every connection, and in which we seek to inculcate a sense of diligence,, of honesty, and duty. “If I have Laid so much stress on the arrangement and charms of our school it was done in order to show that our dear country is concerned not only with efforts to enlighten and increase the intelligence of her children, but would procure them all necessary comforts and pleasure like a loving and devoted mother. “Yesterday, at 7 o’clock, the school was opened and children began to arrive, each bringing a small basket with provisions, such as bread, some beverage, and dessert for the noon meal. On their arrival they handed to one of the teachers 2 sous which an ever watchful mother had carefully wrapped in a piece of paper or tied in a cor¬ ner of the handkerchief. They received in return a copper check, furnished with a string; this they fastened themselves to their baskets. For the 2 sons the children received food, varying each day, and suited to the season. Yesterday the bill of fare consisted of beef broth, beef, and preserved fruit. After handing over their money the children went to play freely in the courtyard, waiting for the opening of the class room. (In winter they wait in the reception hall ( preau ), and one of the teachers has them sing or go through with some movements suited to their age' and power.) “ At half past 9 they were called into the preau, where each teacher inspected ner respective pupils with reference to their cleanliness. Then they entered the class room, marching in step and singing, in order to begin the day gaily and their work with zest. tin the Revue Pedagogiquc of December, 1889, Madame Kergomard says that there are many localities where the mothers of from 50 per cent to 80per cent of the 'children who attend the ecole maternelle could keep their children at home without inconvenience to themselves. In some cases this percentage rises even higher, as at Cahor3, where of an average attendance of 330 children there are not ten whose mothers work away from home, there being no factories in that city and scarcely any indigence. 2 Preau, originally a covered play ground, has gradually come to be a combination of vestibule cloak room, eating room, toilet room, and assembly room. Frequently, indeed, these various departments are separated from each other by partitions, breaking up the original preau into several rooms. 740 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. “ Quickly to work; now ; time is precious, was exclaimed. The younger ones read at the blackboard, the more advanced studied a lesson from a book. At 10 o’clock the books were put away; the time for writing had come. Each child took from its little compartment a slate and pencil, and copied as faithfully as possible the letters written on the blackboard by the teacher, while she passed through the ranks en¬ couraging some, writing model letters for others, correcting bad postures. “At half past 10 all the slates were put away. At a given signal the children formed in ranks, and singing marched out to the playground. One might have taken them for a flock of sparrows set at liberty; for whoever has worked well can play vigorously, and this our young pupils never fail to do. “At 11 o’clock the whistle was sounded, the children again formed in ranks, and returned to the classroom for a new lesson. It treated of the human body in gen¬ eral and of its different parts. I asked many questions and did all I could to enable the children to find the answers in order to stimulate indolent intellects. After ex¬ plaining everything, I had two children repeat all that had been said. Then, as nothing should be left undone to lift the soul of the children to Him who is Father of all, I showed them how grateful they ought to be to God who endowed us so per¬ fectly, and that in order to thank Him it was our duty to take good care of our body and to preserve it in health and cleanliness. “This lesson closed at half past 11, and with it the work of the morning had reached its close. The children left the room and were conducted to the closets. Subsequently those who take their meals at the school returned to the prtau in line for their meals. Here they assembled around the tables, on which are arranged bowls with soup. During the meal two hired women busied themselves helping the little ones.. After the soup each child was given a piece of meat and a piece of bread covered with fruit preserves. A special school fund, called caisse des ecoles,1 renders it possible to furnish indigent children the same food as their comrades, and without pay on the part of their parents. “At half past 12 the meal was over; the children went to the playground, where the children take up and abandon a great variety of games with the fickleness characteristic of childhood. At half past 1 they reassembled in th epre'au, they were inspected as to cleanliness, and then entered the classroom in order. “ The arithmetic lesson was taken up. After a few very simple operations in addi¬ tion and subtraction the teacher gave them some easy problems on things with which the children are familiar, or which were before their eyes. These they are ex¬ pected to solve mentally and as promptly as possible. Like all the others, this lesson occupies thirty minutes. Subsequently they resumed their readers and carried on the exercise in the manner of the morning lesson. “At half past 2 the children again returned to the playground and resumed the interrupted games. This short recreation of only about thirty minutes sufficed to relax the muscles and to relieve the attention of the children. At 3 o’clock a new lesson, this time of manual work, was begun. The children make paper sailboats, an dmany succeed quite well in their simple foldings and cuttings, which not only render the hand more nimble and skillful but develop the taste of the children. “After some short exhortations concerning the work and the conduct, the distri¬ bution of “good points” took place. All who were prominent by their applica¬ tion and good conduct received good points.2 At the close of the month they will receive in exchange for them rewards or prizes, such as playthings, books, pictures, etc. “At the stroke of 4 the children who go home alone were dismissed in line, fur¬ nished each with his basket. “Those who have to wait until some one calls for them remained in the pre'au under the supervision of one of the teachers, who is expected to remain until 7 o’clock in summer and 6 o’clock in winter. “ Such is the day for the older ones. The little ones have but one hour of work in the morning. During this time the teacher has them read in a singing voice a few letters; then she has them talk. Yesterday they repeated a short fable, entitled ‘ I have the cross.’ This very simple and very short piece is readily learned. 1 The caisse des ecoles originated in 1849 in associations formed by some companies of the national guard in some Parisian quarters for the purpose of aiding in the education of poor children. In 1867 these associations were legalized, and the law of 1882 rendered them obligatory in every commune. The revenue results from assessments, gifts, legacies, and the likS, and in some cases the state aids these funds directly. They furnish indigent children not only with clothing, hooks, school material, and money, hut rewards and prizes. They aid not only in the school meals, but in the outfit of school cadets and of vacation trips and of school colonies. In 1875-76 in Paris and the Department of the Seine the receipts of these institutions amounted to 343,500 francs, and in 1887-’88 to 1,030,806 francs. Surely this is a public charity, administered in a manner most commendable and worthy of imitation. I would call the attention of our patriots who would leave all such matters to the school hoards to this example. 2 On the other hand the only punishments permitted by law are exclusion for a very short time from work and common games and withdrawal of “ good points.” PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 741 “In the afternoon they practiced cutting (decoupage1) and some children obtained very pretty designs. “ During the remainder of the time they went through with some very simple ex¬ ercises of the limbs; they sang and took part in a number of pleasing games ar¬ ranged by the teachers.” APPENDIX B. OFFICIAL TIME TABLE OF THE flCOLES MATERNELLES OF PARIS. 9 to 9:30 Inspection of cleanliness. Conducting the children to the closets. Entering the class¬ room. 9:30 to 10:30 Reading, writing, and language exercises. 10:30 to 10:45 Recreation in the classroom and children’s games. ^Anecdotes, stories, biographies from national history. Stories, accounts 10:45 to 11 :30 and Friday.' ‘ °f traTels’ notIons of SWKraphy. jaMlsatarday tsday^ ’potions on common things. (Lemons de c hoses. 11:30 to 1 Leaving the classroom, luncheon, and recreation. 1 to 1 :30 Conducting' the children to the closets, to the wash room ; return to the classroom. 1 ;30 to 2 Reading and language exercises. to 2:30- KSMS&ta,. ^Arithmetic, laldfaturday. Recreation on the playground. Gymnastics. 2:30 to 3 [Monday, . Wednesday, >D i Q tn 3-30> and Friday. $ h- to 3. C Natural his- ? l tory. 3 C Writing . . . } 1 Reading ... 3 Home geogra¬ phy. Geography. . . . f Natural his- ? ( tory. 3 C Reading . . . ? ( Arithmetic 3 Hymn . Poetry . 3 Poetry . ( (Arithmetic . 3 Gymnastics .. Occupations . . Gymnastics .. Occupations . . Gymnastics .. Occupations .. Gymnastics .. Hymn . Reading .... Scripture . . . C Writing ... ( Drawing. . . Singing . Grammar... | Writing ... j Singing. . . . Hymn. 3 Arithmetic. (Sums. (Natural his- ( tory. ^Reading. (Home geogra- { phy- (Geography. _ 3 Natural hia- ( tory. (Reading. (Arithmetic. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 763 Appendix A — Continued, Siodcwell Training College, 1888. TIME-TABLE.— INFANT PRACTICING SCHOOL. Time. Class. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Morning : 9 to 9:05. 9:05 to 9:10. 9:10 to 9:40 ... ) :40 to 9:50 _ 9:50 to 10:20 10:20 to ll 11 to 11:20 .... 11:20 to 12 Afternoon: 2 to 2:05 .. 2 :15 to 2 :20 . . . . 2 to 2:50 .... 2 :50 to 3 3 to 3:30 3 :30 to 4 Marking o f registers. Opening prayer. Learning Scrip ture verses or hymns. Tables or spell¬ ing and clos¬ ing of regis¬ ters. Reading . Writing . Reading _ Writing . Number . Reading _ _ Writing . Reading . Exercises, singing, or play. Writing . Number . . .“. .do . . - do . . Marking of registers. Closing of reg¬ isters. Boys, drawing. - do . Girls, knitting, - do . Marking o f registers. O p e n i n g prayer. Scripture les-{ son. Tables ot spelling and closing of registers. Reading . Number . Marking of registers. Opening prayer. Seri pture lesson. — do - Sinking. Reading Number Object 1 e s ■ son. Exercises, singing, or play. Number _ Reading - Number - Reading - Tables or spelling and closing of registers. Recitation . . - do . Reading W riting Number . . . . - do . Writing Readi n g (books). Exerci s e s , singing, or play. Geography . . . . .do . Recitation . . - do . Marking of registers. Closing of registers. Boys, draw¬ ing. _ do . Marking of registers. Closing o f registers. Boys, draw¬ ing. _ do . Girls, knit¬ ting. _ do . Girls, sew- ing. _ do . Change or play. Reading , _ do .. Spelling - do . . Modeling in) clay. « Sewing, to il-< lustra to ob-< ject lessons. < Dismissal - Change or play. Reading - ...do ... Writing ...do _ Writing . . .do — Reading . Making balls. Dismissal.... Change o r play. Boys, spell¬ ing. _ do . Girls, draw¬ ing. _ do . Reading ...do ... . _ do . Threading beads. Dismissal. Marking of registers. Opening prayer. Singing - Exerci s e s , singing, or play. Number . . . . — do . — do . ....do . . Marking of registers. Closing o f registers. Boys, draw¬ ing. _ do . Girls, sew- ing. _ do . Change o r play. Reading ...do . . ...do . ... do . Geography . . .do . Sewing, to illustrate object les¬ sons. Dismissal . . Friday. Marking of registers. Opening prayer. Singing, or i object les- f son (9:30 to 10). Tables or sp.e 11 in g and closing of registers. Reading. Writing. Reading. Writing. Number. Reading. Writing. Reading. Exerc ise s , singing, or play. Writing. Number. Do. Do. Marking o f registers. Closing of ! registers. ) Sewing, toil- > lustrate ob- ) jectlessons. Writing. Do. Change or play. Reading. Do. Do. Making balls. ^Physical ex- 5 ercises. Mar chin g and games. Dismissal. 764 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Appendix A — Continued . StocTcivell Training College, 1888 — Continued. TIME-TABLE— KIHDERGARTEH. Time. Class. Monday. Tuesday. W ednesday. Thursday. Eriday. Morning: 9 to 9 :05 9:05 to 9:30 .. 9:30 to 9:40 .. 9:40 to 10:15 . 10:15 to 10 :45 10:45 to 11:15 11:15 to 41:55 11:55 to 12. Afternoon : 2 to 2:05 .. :05 to 2:25 2:25 to 2:30 2:30 to 3 3 to 3 :10 3:10 to 3:50 3 :50 to 4 11^ III Marking of registers. Hymns and texts. Closing o f registers. Reading . . . . - do . Nnmb e r (sticks). Games and physi cal exercises. Writing Drawing.... Eorm (tab¬ lets). Arithmetic. Humber (sticks) . Drawing. . Dismissal. Marking of registers. Boys, priek- ing. Girls, needle¬ work. Sewing . ....do . Marki n g of registers. Singing . ...do .\ . ...do . Marking o f registers. Scripture . . . Hymns . — do . Closing of registers. Arithmetic . . . Reading . Humber (tab¬ lets). Games and physical ex¬ ercises. Writing . Drawing . Eorm (bricks) . Reading (11:15 to 11:30). Object lesson (11:30 to 12). Humber (bricks). Drawing . Dismissal. Marking of registers. Boys, tables.. .. Girls, knit¬ ting. Drawing . _ do . Closing of registers!. Reading . . . . - do . Hum b e r (beads). Games and physical exercises. Arithmetic . Drawing.... Eorm (sticks) >Modelim Humber (tablets). Drawing. .. Dismissal.. Marking of registers. Writim Sewing _ do .. II in Closing o f registers. Pricking. . . . Heedlework. Paper - fold¬ ing. - do . Closing of registers. Writing . Knitting . Mat-plaiting. .do Closing of registers. t Arithmetic < Paper-fold¬ ing. _ do . Singing and exercise. Paper-cut¬ ting. Modeling . . Sewing Dismissal... Singing and exercise. Reading . , Sewing . . Beads ... Dismissal Singing and exercise. Reading Building. Sewing . . Dismissal... Marking of registers. Scripture . ...do . ...do . Closing of registers. Arithmetic . . . Reading . Humber (bricks) . Games and physical ex¬ ercises. Writing . Drawing . _ do . Reading (11 :15 to 11:30), Object lesson (11:30 to 12). Humber (11 :15 to 11:30). Object lesson (11:30 to 12). Eorm (11:15 to 11:30). Object lesson (11:30 to 12). Dismissal .... Markin g of registers. Boys, writing Girls, needle¬ work. Drawing . . _ do . . Closing of registers. Reading . Knitting . . Paper-folding _ do . Reading (3 to 3:30). Sewing (3 to 3:30). ....do . . Drill (3 :30to 4) _ do . . Sewing (3 :30 to 4). Dismissal.... Marking of registers. Singing. Do. Scripture. Closing of registers. Arithmetic. Reading. Humber (sticks). Games and physical exercises. Writing. Drawing. Do. Reading. Humber (tab- lets). Form (tab¬ lets) . Dismissal. Marking of registers. Boys, pea work. Girls, knit¬ ting. Sewing. Do. Closing of registers. Pea work. Heedlework. Mat-plaiting. Do. Drawing (3 to 3:30). Modeling (3 to 3:30). Sewing (3 to 3:30). Singing to 4). Do. Sewing to 4). (3 :30 (3:30 Dismissal. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. Appendix A — Continued. Saffron Walden Training College and School , 1S89. 765 TIME-TABLE, KINDERGARTEN AND TRANSITION CLASS. Day and liour. Class- II. in. IY and Y. Morning (a). Monday: 9:45 . . 10 . 10:30 . 11 . 11:30 . Tuesday: 9:45 . , 10 . . 10:30 . . 11 . . 11:30...... W ednesday : 9:45 . . 10 . 10:30 . . 11 . . 11:30 . Thursday : 9 :45 . 10 . 10:30 . 11 . 11:30 . Friday : 9:45 . 10 . . 10:30 . . 11 . . 11:30 . . Afternoon (6) Monday : 2:30 . • 3 . . 3:30 . Tuesday : 2:30 . 3 . . 3:30 . Wednesday: 2:30 . 3 . 3:30 . Thursday : 2:30 . 3 . 3:30 . Friday : 2:30 . 3 _ _ 3:30 . . Opening school Scripture verses. Jointed lath (c)... Gift (3) . . Lunch and games . Threads . Opening school Scripture story. Gift (3) . Jointed lath (c). ... Lunch and games . . Sewing . . Opening school Scripture verses. Gift (3) . Mat weaving . . Lunch and games. Drawing (objects) Opening school Scripture story. Gift (3) . Jointed lath . Lunch and games . Sewing . Opening school Scripture verses. Gift (3) . Jointed lath (c) . . . Lunch and games. Drawing . . Mat weaving . . Games . . — Beads. . Drawing . Singing . . Sewing . Beads . Games . Threads . . Mat weaving . . Singing . Sewing . Threads . Recitation . . Modeling (c) . Opening school. Scripture verses. Gift (4) . Sticks and rings (c) Lunch and games . . Threads . . Opening school. Scripture story. Sticks and rings (c) Gift (4) . Lunch and games . . Sewing . Opening school. Scripture verses. Mat weaving (c) . . . Gift (4) . Lunch and games . . Drawing (objects) . Opening school. Scripture story. Sticks and rings' (c) Gift (4) . Lunch and games . . Sewing . Opening school. Scripture verses. Sticks and rings (c) Gift (4) . Lunch and games. . Drawing . Mat weaving . Games . Beads . Drawing . . . Singing . . Sewing . Beads . Paper folding . Threads . Mat weaving . Singing . . . Sewing . Threads . Recitation . Modeling (c) . Opening school Scripture verses. Sums . Reading . . Lunch and games . Writing . Opening school Scripture story. Sums . Reading . Lunch and games - Sewing . Opening school Scripture verses Paper cutting .... Reading . Lunch and games. Object lesson Opening school Scripture story. Gift (4 or 5) . Sums . Lunch and games. Drawing . . Opening school Scripture verses, Sums . Reading . . Lunch and games . Object lesson ..... Geography . Recitation . Writing . Paper folding . Singing . Reading . Reading . Grammar . Writing . Mat weaving - Reading . Writing . Drawing . Recitation . Reading . Opening school. Scripture verses. Sums. Reading. Lunch and tables. Writing. * Opening school. Scripture story. Sums. Reading. Lunch "and dicta¬ tion. Sewing. Opening school. Scripture verses. Sums. Reading. Lunch and tables. Object lesson. Opening school. Scripture story. Sums. Gift (5). Lunch and games. Drawing. Opening school. Scripture verses. Sums. Reading. Lunch and dicta¬ tion. Object lesson. Drawing. Recitation. Geography. Writing. Singing. Grammar. Reading. Dictation. History. Writing. Reading. Geography. Drawing. Recitation. Grammar. a Registers marked and closed at 9 :55 ; dismissal at 12 o’clock. 6 Registers marked and closed at 2 :25 ; dismissal at 4 o’clock. c These as the year goes on develop into other but similar occupations. 766 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Appendix A — Continued. Her old’s School, Bermondsey. TIME-TABLE, INFANTS’ DEPARTMENT, 1888. Time. Monday. o Morning : 9 . 1 2 3 Open i n g shcool, texts, l r 9:10 . < l 9:30 to 9 :55. . j f 9 :55 . . . ■{ t j 10 to 10:30.... 10:30 to 11 ... 11 f 11:15 to 11:45 J l f 11:45 . j 2 O 4 1 2 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 [ Holy Scrip - j ture. Number . _ do . . Reading . - do . I Registers V marked and dosed. Reading . - do - - - Writing . . - do . . ....do . - do . Reading . . - do . ) Drill, recrea- j tion, etc. Reading . - do . Kindergarten . - do . I Mental arith- [ metie, ta- [ Ides, etc. 1 Dismissal.... f Afternoon : 2 . 2:15 2:45 to 3 3 . 3:15 _ 4:15. Rep eating songs, etc. Registers marked and closed. Reading Number . Kinder gar- ten games, play, etc. Kindergarten Prayer and dismissal. Tuesday. W ednesday . Thursday. Friday. Open i n g O p e n i n g Open i n g Opening school, texts, school, texts, school, toxts, school, texts, etc. etc. etc. etc. Holy Scrip- Holy Scrip¬ Holy Scrip¬ J Holy Scrip¬ ture. ture. tures. ture. Number _ _ _ Number . N umber. _ do . _ do . Do. Reading . Reading . _ do . Reading . _ do . Reading. Do. Regi ster s Registers Registers Registers marked and marked and marked and marked and closed. closed. closed. closed. Reading . Reading . _ _ do . Reading . _ _ do . . . Reading. Do. Writing . Writing . Writing. .do °. . _ do . Do. Do. _ do . _ do . Do. Reading _ Reading . 1 Reading. _ do . r. . _ do . _ do . Do. Drill, recrea¬ Drill, recrea¬ Drill, recrea¬ Drill, recrea¬ tion, etc. tion, etc. tion, etc. tion, etc. Object lesson f]f> _ Kino-in o- _ Reading ..... Reading. _ no _ _ _ do . Do. do . . do . . Number . Kindergarten Do. do do . _ do . Mental arith¬ Mental arith- Mental arith¬ Mental arith- metic, ta¬ rnetic, ta¬ metic, ta¬ m e t i c, t a- bles, etc. bles, etc. bles, etc. bles, etc. Dismissal.... Dismissal . Dismissal. ... Dismissal. Repe a t i n g Repeating Rep e a ting Rep eating songs, etc. songs, etc. songs, etc. songs, etc. Registers Registers Registers Registers marked and marked and marked and marked and closed. closed. closed. closed. Needlework . Knitting . Needlework . Reading. Needlework . Knitting . Needlework . Number. K i n d e rgar- Kindergar¬ Kin dergar- Kindergarten ten games, ten games, ten games, games, play, play, etc. play, etc. play, etc. etc. Reading . | Recitation .... Reading . Kindergarten. Prayer and Prayer and Prayer and Prayer and dismissal. dismissal. dismissal. dismissal. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 767 Appendix A — Continued. Herold’s School, Bermondsey — Continued. KINDERGARTEN TIME-TABLE, CHILDREN UNDER 5. Time. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday. Morning : 8:50 _ _ Learn hymn ; Learn hymn; Learn hymn; Learn hymn; Learn hymn; open school. open school. open school. open school. open school. 9:10 . Holy Scrip¬ Holy Scrip¬ Holy Scrip¬ Holy Scrip¬ Holy S crip- ture. ture. ture. ture. ture. 9:30. . . Learning songs. Learning songs Learning songs Learning songs Learning songs 9:45 . Register s R e gisters Registers Register s Registers marled and marked and marked and marked and marked and closed. closed. closed. closed. closed. 9:55 . . Ball games, etc. Ball games, et<*» Ball games, etc. Ball games, etc. Ball games, etc. 10-45 Play . Play . Play . Play . Play. 11 . Stick laying. . . . S tick laying . . Stick laying . . Stick laying . . Stick laying. Afternoon: 1:45 . . Learn song.... Learn song . . . Learn song. . . . Learn song ... . Learn song, 2:5 . . . . Register s Registers Register s Registers Registers marked and marked and marked and marked and marked and closed. closed. closed. closed. closed. 2:15. . . Stick laying... Paper tearing Paper folding. Paper tearing. Stick laying. 3 . Exercises . . Exercises . Exercises . Exercises . Exercises. 3:15 . Ball games, Ball games, Ball games, Ball games, B all g ames, molding, m o Iding, mol ding, mol ding, mold i n g, etc. etc- etc. etc. etc. 4 . Close school Close school Close school Close school Close school and dismiss. and dismiss. and dismiss. and dismiss . and dismiss. British school, Northfteet. TIME TABLE— INFANTS’ CLASS— 1888. Time. Morning : 9 to 9:10 . 9 rlO to 9 :30 . . . . 9 :30 to 10 . . . . £ 10 to 10:30 ... | ’ 10:30 to 11 | 11 to 11:15 . 11:15 to 11:55... 11:55 to 12 . Afternoon : 2 to 3 . . 3 to 3:30 . | 3:30 to 4 . 4 to 4:10 . Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday. Tables . Tables . Tables . Tables _ Tables. Scripture les¬ son. Mark- ingregister. Arithmetic. •Reading. Reading. Writing. Spelling. Number. Recreation. Kindergarten. Dismissal. Needlework. Reading. Writing. Number. Dismissa. -Scripture 1 e s - son. Mark¬ ing register. Reading.. . Scripture les¬ son. Mark¬ ing register. Arithmetic . . . Reading . Scripture les¬ son. Mark¬ ing register. Writing . Reading _ . . Scripture les¬ son. Mark¬ ing register. "R.fiPmin p* Writing . -. Writing _ Writing . Reading . Reading _ Writing _ Reading _ 1 _ Figures . Writing _ Readin _ ... Arithmetic . Writing . Spelling _ _ Arithmetic . . . Fi gn res Number . Writing . Recreation. . . . Object les¬ son. (a) Dismissal . N umber . . Recreation . Lesson on form and color. Dismissal . Recreation _ Kindergarten . Dismissal. .... Recreation _ Object lesson . Dismissal _ Needlework .'. . . Reading . Emitting . Needlework .. Reading _ _ _ Knitting . Writing _ Writing _ Writing . Reading . Writing . Reading . Recitation . Singing . (Writing . (Reading . Dismissal . ^Singing (a).... Dismissal. . . . Dismissal . Dismissal . a Given by mistress. 768 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Appendix B. Paper read before the Froebel Society. London, by Miss E. A. Manning, May 11, 1889. THE KINDERGARTEN IN INDIA. One proof of tlie soundness of Froebel’s principles of education lies in the fact that they have been found practically useful in the training of children of various nations and of various races. The experiment made in a retired German village had within it such wise elements that it has extended itself with success not only into many countries of Europe and into America, but also to the East. At the Health Exhibition a few years ago we found that some of the little Japanese children share at least the in¬ terest of Froebel’s occupations, and I wish to bring before you this evening some indications that his healthy natural system is beginning to be appreciated in India. Because Froebel observed children faithfully— and it is for his having done this, and having told us what he observed, that we owe him endless gratitude — it followed as a matter of course that the German villagers Gretchen and Hlinslein could not be the only children to profit by his discoveries. For boys and girls under 6 years old are very like each other all over the globe. Everywhere they have same eagerness to investigate as to what sort of a world they have entered. The same clinging depend¬ ence on their elders, the same impulse to test their new powers, the same sociability, the same faults, the same charm, the same method of development. Therefore, the German teacher and philosopher, while guiding the mothers of his own valleys, was really counseling mothers and teachers in countries and epochs far distant from his own. It is true that there are hereditary differences, and differences due to variety in surroundings, which are noticeable even in the earliest stages of a child’s life. National characteristics show their mark even before children can talk. One race of people is more active than another, one more vindictive, one more thoughtful, one has more delight in the beautiful, and as the phases of life in an individual are in¬ dissolubly linked together from beginning to end, such peculiar qualities exhibit themselves from the first. But FroebeTs principles include so much width of ap¬ plication, they have such elasticity as well as strength, he looked so fully at human nature through the German villager’s nature, that these differences can be met and dealt with easily. And after all even a dozen English children have al¬ most as much variety of temperament and of tendency as if they were children of several nationalities. Froebel supplied certain leading truths, and, accepting these truths, those who can carry out his ideas have just to give due attention to special good or bad points of character and to the special aptitudes which need to'be drawn out and exercised in accordance with race peculiarities, and thus his system becomes of world-wide application. In regard to the practical methods of the kindergarten, however, it is very im¬ portant that habits and circumstances should be taken carefully into account. One of Froebel’s principles was that the child should always pass from the known to the unknown — that familiarity is valuable both in regard to mental and moral growth — and thus he followed the bent of the children around him in arranging his series of occupations. But he would have been the last to stereotype his methods, because in doing so he would have felt that he was going against his own principles. Even these methods, as children are so much alike in all countries, prove very much in accordance with tastes and tendencies everywhere. But it is most important to util¬ ize the self-chosen occupations of the little ones of any particular nationality and to recognize and to fit things in with the associations that have molded them. Hence the introduction of the kindergarten into a fresh country requires much care and resource, much judgment and sympathy. Now, 1 have lately returned from a visit to India, and I have been asked to give some information as to what is being done there in regard to kindergartens. Perhaps, when you have heard what I have to tell, you will consider that the kindergarten can hardly be said to exist in India, and I should almost agree with you. But there is a decided effort, especially in one part of India, to enliven the old methods of teach¬ ing, to introduce manual and physical training among the younger classes in schools, and to make the teachers understand better the nature of children. Therefore, though 1 have not much to tell you of kindergartens as we know them here, apart from school training and in connection with home influences, yet something is going on which is decidedly valuable, and which, but for all that has been spoken and written upon Froebel’s principles, would not have been carried out. Moreover, there is continual progress noticeable, and with a large supply of qualified teachers very much more might be attempted; for the educated men of India have many of them heard and read of this kind of training, and they are very anxious to see it spread in their country. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 769 The part of India which I have referred to as that -where a decided effort is being made in the kindergarten direction is the Presidency of Madras. There is an ex¬ cellent inspectress of girls’ schools in that presidency, Mrs. Brander, who cares very much that the younger children in the schools should be appropriately dealt with. Mrs. Brander has spent many years in India, first as superintendent of the government training-school for mistresses, and now as inspectress. In her present capacity she visits numbers of girls’ schools in distant districts as well as those in the city of* Madras, and latterly a second inspectress, Miss Carr, has been appointed. These two ladies undertake the inspection, personally or through their deputies, of all the presidency girls’ schools. In no other part of India is such an arrangement made ; partly because it is not easy to find qualified ladies for the work and partly because Madras has always been rather forward, owing to the zeal of the mission¬ aries, in education. Mrs. Brander was in England a few years ago, and she inter¬ ested herself much about Froebel’s methods and read books on the subject. She had, even before, as superintendent of the training college, adopted the occupations and games to a small extent in the practicing school, and gradually she has become more and more convinced of their value. Miss Carr, her colleague, was, till last December, head of the same training school, many students of which are now set¬ tled as teachers in various places. Miss Carr, partly with the help of two Madras students who spent a year or two in England, did a great deal to improve the in¬ fant classes of the practicing schools and to instill rational ideas on education into the minds of the students. So now Mrs. Brander and Miss Carr on their tour of in¬ spection are able to encourage the former students and to keep up this standard of teaching, and they both pay special attention to the kindergarten teaching. Mrs. Brander has seen the great importance of adapting the methods to the sur¬ roundings of the little Indian children. You can hardly realize how very narrow the life of these children is. Seldom going out of their houses; with no shops con¬ taining pictures and other educating objects to look at; living among elders who are extremely ignorant and who believe in all sorts of superstitions, and married, or, as we should call it, betrothed, before they are 10 or 12 years old, they grow up with unobservant faculties, untrained habits of conduct, no knowledge of the out¬ side world, and altogether undeveloped. In the treatment of such children when they are allowed to attend school it is difficult to find a basis to work from. Even pictures do not readily convey ideas to them, and the games that are interesting to European children have to do with ways and phases of life of which they have never heard. At the same time these children have bright capacities, they are very eager to improve, and, as little pupils, they aTe exceptionally good. The great thing there is to utilize the sights and sounds that they are accustomed to, and the occupations which are familiar to them. Mrs. Brander devotes much care to this. She selects native songs that may be suitable, and the materials which can be bought in the bazaar (this for another reason also, that they are cheaper), and she lets the children practice beadwork, in which they are very ingenious, and play with familiar seeds and berries. Some of the native methods, as forming letters in the sand, are quite in accord with kindergarten plans, but in the oldfashioned schools the exercises are done without joyousness, with great monotony, and under severe threats and punish¬ ments. All the world over it seems to have been assumed that children hate learning, whereas to learn, under right conditions, is to most children a real pleasure. Now, will you pay a visit with me in imagination to a school in Madras to which a kindergarten is attached — that is, the younger children are taught on Froebel’s method, as far as it can be managed. Mrs. Brander and I went to see this school one morning during my visit to Madras, driving to it in that glorious Indian sun¬ shine, of which there is not too much in December, though even then we have to pro¬ tect ourselves against it. Well, we arrive in a rather crowded street at the central school and kindergarten, which, with five other schools, is supported by the Maha¬ raja of Yizianagrum, and is under the.supervision of the committee of the National Indian Association. The house is one of typical native arrangement. Entering from the street we came upon a small courtyard, and beyond it was another. The rooms all round the court on the lower floor were quite open, something like an in¬ terior veranda, with supporting pillars. It looks extremely picturesque to see at one glance the groups of children sitting in these open rooms in their bright varie¬ gated sarees. The head mistress, Miss Jupe, came to meet us. She is chiefly occu¬ pied upstairs with the elder girls, but she superintends the kindergarten with great care and interest. In the right-hand room of the court we see seventeen tiny boys and girls, all occupied with mat plaiting. The needles are now made in Madras, for it costs a great deal to get them from England. The children sat on benches with desks before them. I wish I could convey to you an idea of how they looked. Rich brown faces, large dark eyes, black smooth hair plaited behind in a knot, or hang¬ ing down, and most of them very gaily dressed. They wear very small short-sleeved jackets and a skirt, and over all, a long saree, a sort of scarf of several yards, twisted ED 91 - 49 770 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. all about and raised over the head when required. In that part of India the dress is of cotton. One little girl had a red jacket and a wh'te saree; another, a green saree; another an orange one over a white skirt. One child had a spot of red paint on her forehead, ear ornaments- all about the ears, and many bangles. Most had these ornaments on, but no shoes and stockings. A little boy had a green jacket and gay cap. I tell you these details that you may form a picture in your minds of the scene. Then the native teacher, who also had bare feet, wore a red jacket and a saree, with shawl stripes (red, green, and yellow). Round her neck was a coral chain set in silver, a flat gold ornament in her hair, and she wore spectacles. All the children seemed interested in this, mat-plaiting, and they got on with it as well as English children might. Then we went to see about twenty of a baby class, all sitting on a long strip of mat on the floor, which is much more comfortable for them than benches. These babies were busy with bricks. The teacher had a ma¬ genta jacket and a cream-colored saree with gold border. She told them to make two chairs with their bricks for the ladies, which they did with alacrity. Then they made, with five bricks, a fireplace and a “ chattie” (a pot) upon it for boiling rice. “ What do you do with the rice” ? asked the teacher. “ Eat it,” said they, thinking of the invariable daily meal. One little boy had a coat and cap of yellow and red silk, and he wore toe rings. The very small girls do not yet wear sarees. They sang a Tamil song about something very familiar to them, “mittai,” — that is, sweetmeats. “ Who make the sweets”? “Brahmins,” they replied. This is so, because what Brahmins made everyone may eat, but things made by those of a lower caste may not be eaten by a higher. Leaving these dear little children we found some rather older, playing in the courtyard. They were pretending to draw water from a well in tiny chatties, imitating the dipping of the chattie into the well with their soft delicate lit¬ tle arms and then watering some long twists of paper with flapping green ends, which I suppose were intended for palm trees. Then we saw some of their own games. One they call the frog game. Two little girls took hold of each other’s hands, repeating a rhyme; “We have rice in our pot; you have grain (that is, a coarse kind of grain), in yours. Which will you have”? Then they jumped again and again from the ground, bending and throwing their interlaced hands alternately to- one side or the other. Another game was with clapping hands, first clapping each her own hands and then across. Then we saw another little class where all were forming the Tamil letters by laying red seeds on their slates upon the form of the letters which had been drawn by the teacher. In the upper story we found the older children. It is difficult to get enough female teachers as yet, and many men teach the girls’ schools. It looked strange at first to see the men, in white and red turbans and perhaps a long white or orange coat or an enveloping shawl, conduct¬ ing a class. One was giving a lesson on the cotton plant, with plenty of specimens, and he had a small pot containing water, that he might let them drop a rupee and also some cotton into it, to show the relative weight. These elder girls performed the kol-attam, or stick dance. Each child in the circle had two sticks, and in a methodical way she struck her own together in time with those of her neighbors on each side of her. The effect was extremely pretty owing to their graceful actions, and the blue, red, white, lemon, and other colors of the saree and skirts. Meanwhile they sang a song about a garden and red and white lotus flowers. There was much that was interesting in the upper school, but I must keep to the little ones ; so we will leave this school and look in at another in a different part of Madras. It is a missionary school, of which the superintendent is Miss Oxley, of the Church Mission¬ ary Society. A storm had come on and we had to rush into the house. These child¬ ren were fetched to school in a bullock cart ; it goes round to their houses and brings them in sets of ten or twelve. One such batch arrived when we were there, and it was curious to see the pains taken lest the driver or anyone else should see the girls. The cart had to be turned with its end toward the verandah, and then they slipped out and ran in on the inner side of the cart. The driver is screened off. The teacher was a young Mohammedan woman, in a yellow chudder, something like a saree, but not near so long. It is worn by Mohammedans. She taught the class with great spirit. Most of them had red Manchester cotton chudders, perhaps with yellow borders, and red pyjamas (trousers). We went to see a small class sitting in an inner verandah. These tiny ones were on the floor, occupied with bead thread¬ ing, which they greatly enjoy. As I have said, the Indian work with beads is most ingenious ; so this occupation is one which it is very useful to develop educationally. The beads were in a little chattie, or pot, and each child had a slate, so that if the beads were dropped they did not get lost on the matting of the floor. They were questioned in colors and answered very well. After the Health Exhibition in London Mme. Michaelis kindly allowed me to have for India her series of bead threading, and this has been circulated in most of the Madras Presidency schools. Mrs. Brander saw its value, and she has made the greatest use of it as a pattern. It is very rare that Mahommedan girls are allowed to attend school. There is something very dignified even in the tiny children’s manners. They wear their chudders over PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 771 their heads, and when they stand with folded arms, their faces so plump and their eyes so iine, they look like Little Red Riding Hoods. Mrs. Brander inspects mission¬ ary as well as government schools, and she takes every opportunity of organizing an interesting variety of occupations. But now let us go to the presidency training school for mistresses at Madras, which is the source whence the teachers derive their knowledge of Froebel’s system. Miss Carr, who till lately was the superintendent, has sent out in the five years of her stay about one hundred teachers. She had not yet started her new inspecting work when I was at Madras, so I was able to see the training school while her methods were in force. I thought this institution was most carefully conducted and there was a unity about the working which appeared to me remarkably well suited to the aims in view. The normal students usually number about 40, some English or Eurasian and others Hindoos. On account of the variety of languages it is neces¬ sary to have three practicing schools — Tamil, Telugu, and English. The two teach¬ ers I referred to just now, Miss Shunmugum and Miss Bernard, were for a time in England studying at the Teachers’ Training College, then in Bishopsgate. They have proved very useful since their return, both in the practicing school and -for the normal department. The students have passed three examinations in ordinary sub¬ jects before going to the training school, so that while they are there all their time is -occupied in learning the art of teaching. Miss Carr used to look over and criti¬ cise all their sketches of lessons beforehand and she appointed them to one class for a month. In the course of their stay they in turn took all the classes, including those of the little ones. Thus the kindergarten division is an integral part of the whole. There are also model lessons and criticism lessons and lectures to the stu¬ dents on school management and on points relating to teaching. The result of all is that there is much life and spirit in the training school and that the younger chil¬ dren are most happy in their classes, where the methods present a great contrast to the monotonous and uninteresting routine usually pursued. The training school stands in a large compound (that is, surrounding ground, some¬ times a garden). In this case there is only grass and a few trees. You see a group of little carriages and bullock carts, in which the teachers, and students, and children have driven to school. The classes were crowded as to space when I was there, for a large pandal, i. e., temporary room in the compound, had been lately blown down in a gale, but the director of public instruction has secured that a hall with class¬ rooms shall soon be built. The children were in the lower part of the house, the stu¬ dents upstairs. Miss Shunmugum took us first to see the little ones. About 20 small Telugu children were having an object lesson from one of the students, named Suber- mal. She wore a red cotton skirt&nd a greenish bodice, over which was a white saree. In her ears there were several pearls and a green stone was near the top of her ear. Tiny pearls were screwed on to her face here and there. Her black hair was neatly plaited and round her neck was a bead chain with some coins interspersed. No shoes, but silver toe rings. Gold is thought too precious to wear on the feet. The lesson was on the hen. A stuffed hen stood before Subermal, and she called the children up in turns to examine it and to compare it with a duck, for in that school they teach much by comparison. They all seemed very much interested. It was pleasant to see their bright smiles. Indian children are generally very quiet and impassive, but these quite entered into teaching so suited to their nature and capac¬ ities. From the constant habit of preparation, the student teacher did not lose her way. One other lesson, but to elder children, was on the peacock, a very familiar bird in India. Here the teacher had to content herself with a picture and a pea¬ cock’s feather. But I must not take you into the higher school. I will tell, however, of a lesson I heard given by a student on another day when Miss Brander was inspect¬ ing the training school. A class of eight little boys and girls was brought up into the inspection room and the student gave a very good lesson with square and oblong. I have the sketch here, only it is in Tamil. I could not follow it, but the children evidently enjoyed it and Mrs. Brander approved it. At one point they all held out their slates to illustrate the oblong. One tiny boy was bare to the waist. Indeed, his only dress was a white cloth tied round him and falling over his legs, except that he hed a purple cap. It was very amusing to see this little fellow go up eagerly to the blackboard and point to the square and the oblong of colored papers stuck on to it. This was the only inspection lesson given that day to a kindergarten class, but later I saw the little ones do some very simple exercises. It was not easy to dis¬ tinguish the girls from the boys, for the smallest ones are often dressed alike, in gay little vests and trousers. Parents like their girls to be taken for boys, because, as you are aware, it is thought more desirable in India to have sons than daughters. At one time the Hindoo mothers did not like their children to have movement exercises, so this teaching had to be given up. But Miss Carr took care to let the Eurasian children practice in the open verandah, where the Hindoo mothers could look on, and alter awhile they came to her asking, u Why do you not let our children do as these do?” Whereupon these exercises were resumed. Of course in the Indian climate 772 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. a careful choice has to "be made in gymnastics, lest the girls should overdo. The course of training is for one year, hut the students can stay longer if they do not pass well. Sometimes a teacher in some country school is sent up to he trained and she goes hack with new ideas and a different sense of what to aim at. This was the case with a girl ealled Sellammal, from Kumbakonum, for whom we procured a scholar¬ ship (£10) from English funds. She profited extremely hy her stay in Madras, and she delighted in the training school so much that she wrote a poem on it celebrating its advantages and its management. When I was atMadrasshe came with her parents a long night journey from Kiimbakonum to see me. She fully recognizes the value of the kindergarten occupations and is very successful with them. Mrs Brander encourages for the basis of the games the daily occupations which go on in the chil¬ dren's homes, as fetching water from the well, grinding the corn, and so on. I think the Indian children have quite a dramatic instinct and they are fond of joining in simple scenes, arranged by the teachers. Their memories are so remarkably good that the learning what each has to say is quite easy. At one school at Madras, under a native Christian lady, Mrs. Satthiandahan, some children acted a sort of wel¬ come to me. The schoolgirls were placed in the open rooms round the courtyard, in the middle of which was a tree, and there were also shrubs in pots. Several girls pretended to be getting flowers, when another girl appeared finding great fault with them for coming without leave into a garden and plucking flowers. I should say that each girl had a colored paper basket, something like a fly catcher. They de¬ fended themselves and said they did not mean to do wrong. Then came the little guardian’s mother, and she scolded her for having been olf duty and let the other girls enter, but she also found fault with the invaders. After some disputing the whole matter was amicably settled by the girls explaining that an English lady had come to their school and they wished to get flowers for a garland for her. That excuse was considered satisfactory, and when a garlano. was placed on me it was supposed to be the one that they had been meanwhile making. Sometimes they hold a sort of argumentative conversation on the advantages of going to school, and they are very fond of a wedding game of their own called a “ Garbi,” in which the children with a particular step move round in a circle, clapping their hands and bowing to¬ wards the center at each forward step. There are scarcely any teachers except those trained at the training school who understand anything about Froebel; so the kindergarten attempts in the mofussil (the country) schools are often very poor and mechanical. Still there is a recogni¬ tion of the idea that education means something wider than learning to read and write, and certainly many of the results aTe good. I will read to you a sentence or two out of the report of Mrs. Brander, to the director of public instruction (Mr. Grigg), for las t year : “The introduction of children’s occupations, object lessons, and action songs, and the grants offered for them have awakened an interest in the subject of the educa¬ tion of young children. Many managers have bought books on the subject, and o knowledge of the best methods of teaching young children is certainly spreading* Where well-trained teachers are employed the younger classes are now well taught, and managers seem to realize more than they used to do that the best teaching can not be obtained from untrained or poorly trained teachers. Even where the teachers are untrained, and where they conduct occupations mechanically, the children are happier and better employed in weaving paper, threading beads, or looking at pictures of animals than they were in shouting the alphabet for an hour at a time on the old pyal school system.” I may add as to Madras, that Miss Rajaheopaul, of the Free Church Missions, who was also once in England, and who studied at Miss Naubi’s, has translated a select¬ ion of action songs from the book of Mrs. Berry and Madame Michaelis into Tamil. In other parts of India there is not much known or practiced as yet regarding the kindergarten, but a good many inquiries are made about it, because articles in news¬ papers, and educational information from England has stirred up some interest in the subject. The training schools generally have not taken it up. There is one at Ahmedabad, in the Bombay Presidency, where the lady superintendent of the training college is Mrs. McAfee, who was lately in England. She gained here some useful ideas, I think, through Mrs. Holton, which she has found very helpful. But I must not omit mentioning the Irish Mission School, where many years ago two of Frau- lein Heerwart’s students used to teach. Though they have both left (one has mar¬ ried a missionary and the other is also married), yet the beginning that they made has been carried on. I was present at the prize giving in this school and I gathered that the younger children are taught in a bright, rational way. A little pupil of 4 years old was of the Parsee family in which I was staying, and this child, Dhunbai, showed the good effects of attending the kindergarten. She was a fine child, very quiet and dignified, and with much self-possession. She would repeat several in¬ fant school rhymes in Gujerate translations out of a book prepared by the head of a training college at Poona. It was curious to see the grave way in which she would PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 773 recite about the “ Clock in the corner that stands,” pointing to her bands and face quite properly and making tbe pendulum go with even swing. This dear little girl was a great favorite with me. She would come stealthily into my room and wait till I noticed her, perhaps dressed in a pink frock and trousers, with a little cerise- colored sleeveless vest outside. Her sisters attended the higher classes of the school and are very promising girls. The last time I might have seen little Dhunbai Dady- sett was at 1 o’clock in the night, when I was to pass Surat again in the train. Owing to a delay my train did not arrive till 5 in the morning and I found that all the family, with Dhunbai, had been at 1 o’clock to meet me. Little Dhunbai, too, had brought a large nosegay which, after all, had to be left for me with the station master. I should have greatly liked to see that dear child again. Mrs. Sorabji, at Poona, has some useful kindergarten classes in her excellent school in that city. In the Bombay schools there is a wide field for kindergarten teaching, and the managers would, I am sure, be very pleased if some one would introduce it. Now, I have to tell you of the interesting fact that two native Indian ladies in different parts of India have interested themselves in the subject and are likely to be of great help in spreading Froebel’s ideas. The first is Pundita Ramabai, a Mah- ratti widow and a Sanskrit scholar, of whom you have probably heard. She came to England about seven years ago and stayed at Wantage, and afterwards at Chel¬ tenham College. Then she went to America, and she was so much struck with the educational work there that she formed the plan of collecting a large sum of money for establishing a widows’ home in India. After great exertions in lecturing and writing (her book on the High Caste Hindu Woman is most interesting) she met with sufficient success to r'eturn to India and start the home. She is beginning it on a small scale in Bombay, and she ha3 with her an American teacher who, 1 be¬ lieve, understands the kindergarten. Ramabai herself has the greatest belief in the value of such teaching, and she is convinced that it is just what is required for Hindu children in order to counteract the defects in their home training. Rama- bai’s enthusiasm is keen about the undertaking, and I have great hopes that she will be of real service in the kindergarten movement. The other lady is Srimati Harderi, also a widow, living at Lahore. She, too, has been in England, and she used to attend the kindergarten of Madame and Miss Roth. It promises well that these two ladies are both so convinced of the truth of Froe- bel’s principles. Now, let us come to one or two practical points. I think you will have seen how advantageous it would be for India if some good kindergarten teachers could go out and help to carryforward the work already just begun; and, besides the Hindu, Mahommedan, and Parsee children, there are the little English children to be con¬ sidered, for whom it would be delightful if kindergartens were started, especially in the Hills. Those of 6 and 7 are usually sent home; but there are numbers under that age who, owing to the climate and the want of variety in their daily life, be¬ come fretful and selfish, languid and troublesome. Kindergarten teaching would not altogether change this state of things ; but we know that it often does effect wonders on difficult children. When I was at. Calcutta two or three ladies whom I spoke to about it said that they thought the plan might succeed at Darjeeling, and another lady in the N. W. P. spoke hopefully as to Gaini Tal being a suit¬ able station for the experiment ; but, then, such opinions are vague for acting on, for there is the united expense of voyage and outfit and the probability that it would be a long time before the attempt could prove remunerative. I will read you part of a letter that I received lately from Miss Collins, who took the elementary Froebel certificate, as it was then called, in the first year of that examination. Miss Collins has a mother and brother in India, and she went out with the hope of estab¬ lishing a kindergarten at Simla, which is her home for most of the year. She found it a difficult undertaking, because she could not afford to wait. “I am very disheartened and disappointed that I have been quite unable to start my kindergarten home, because I have not been able to save the rent for the ensu¬ ing season ; in fact, I am in debt for last year’s rent, and my hope of being quite independent has rather a gloomy prospect. I have been told that had I been able to get a suitable house and governess and English nurse sent, I should have all the children in Simla, and a good many more, but I find it utterly impracticable this season. I have been thinking of a plan, and that is to get some clever lady with a little money to join me, and we together might start the school on the plan I had arranged, I supplying the connection and influence I have already gained, and she the money to begin with, sharing the income eventually ; but where to get such a lady is the difficulty; such an one is not to be had in India, and I thought you would be the only one whom I know who could bring two such people to correspond as myself and such a lady.” There is no doubt that the parents were pleased with her efforts. Her wish was that she and her mother might set up a kindergarten home for little children at 774 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Simla, where they would he safely left when the rest of the family had to go down to Calcutta, hut for that you see she had not enough funds. Well, all that seems made out is that someone with experience and money might get on well in the Hills and do most useful work. To go back to the Indian children. I think that if a good teacher were to settle in Bombay it would not be long before she would get plenty to do. Supposing she could teach gymnastics for ladies, also, probably numbers of Parse© teachers would take lessons of her, for physical training is much favored just now. Or, better still," if two ladies could go nut, one for the kindergarten and one for gymnastics, they ■would be not unlikely to succeed. Training classes for the teachers would be very important, and there would not be any difficulty, I believe, in utilizing an existing school as a practicing school. And not only at Bombay, but at Calcutta, and per¬ haps at Madras, the scheme might prosper. When there was originally a discussion about medical women for India, a native statesman said he thought 10,000 might be required. We might, perhaps, reduce this by half for kindergarten teachers and expect 5,000 to become occupied in India, or perhaps we had better first limit our¬ selves to two. But I really believe that once satisfactorily started the movement would get on well, and perhaps the Indian Government might be willing to help with grants in aid. Now I come to another practical point, I want to ask your help for Mrs. Brander and the other workers in India in respect to specimens of kindergarten work done by students or by children, and books and pamphlets on this subject. I can assure you now from personal knowledge that all such aid is most warmly appreciated. I have already mentioned how valuable Mrs. MichaeTs bead series has been. The teachers are much encouraged when they find that English people have sympathy in what they do, and they derive suggestions from the work sent out, and it keeps up this standard. Books, too, are of the greatest use. May I hope that you will bear this request in mind, and that you will now and then send a parcel to me which I can inclose in the cases that I frequently forward. Some kindergarten children at Reading once dresssd a doll for the kindergarten at the Central School, Madras, which I have told you of. Whilst they were dressing it they gave it many messages and questions to convey, which were duly inscribed by me on a piece of paper pinned on to the doll’s dress. I have also received Christmas cards from those same little chil¬ dren. I feel that the link of sympathy thus forged is of great value, besides that the gifts and patterns sent are immensely prized by Mrs. Brander and her friends in their often perplexing labors. In conclusion let me add a very few words about the backward state of the women of India. You must not think that because I have referred to many girls’ schools these are at all in proportion to the population. Hardly 2 per cent of girls of the school-going age attend schools ; that is, taking a thousand girls, less than 20 will be at schools. Perhaps there may be 25,000,000 of very young girls in India, and yet the pupils in the girls’ schools only number some thousands. In the higher classes a little instruction is given in the homes, but education for girls is a novelty in these later times, whatever may have been done there in the far past. The girls (as you know), whether they go to school or not, marry very early; they are seldom real companions for their husbands, and they are quite unprepared to train their children well. Of development, as Froebel understood it, such young mothers with their restricted life and their superstitious ignorance have no idea. Child-marriage and caste are two of the greatest evils from which India suffers, and little progress will be possible till educated opinion has weakened these customs. It is the mothers that need to be enlightened and it is they who are the most difficult to reach. Something may be done through teachers who attend at the houses, but it is not every family that will admit them. By dogrees we may hope that girls will be allowed to remain longer at school, and as an inducement to this it is of great use to give scholarships to the highest pupils, and then if such girls could be taught something in regard to the training of little children, they might enter upon their home duties with more knowledge and kindly skill. But all this is at present far off, except as to a very few. It is for us, however, to work wherever the path is open and clear, bearing in mind that we have through wonderful circumstances become intimately bound to India, and that many of the women of India are looking affectionately and confidently for support in their forward efforts and for enlightenment to their English sisters here. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 775 Appendix C. THE KINDERGARTEN IN MADRAS. By Mrs. Brander, Government Inspector of Girls’ Schools, Madras. Efforts have Been made for some years past to introduce kindergarten teaching into the native girls’ schools of the Madras presidency. It may be of interest to note the progress that has been made and the plans which have been found most successful. In a few large and flourishing kindergartens in the presidency, like that at the Government Female Normal School and H. H. the Maharajah of Yizianagrum’s Kin¬ dergarten, the materials used are in part obtained from England, and the teaching, being by trained teachers, is superior to and more complicated than that about to be described. The following remarks apply to the majority of ordinary schools, not to the few kindergartens under European supervision. These latter tend to raise the standard, and where they supply trained kindergarten teachers, as at the nor¬ mal school, are invaluable. In the revised grant-in-aid code, which came into force in 1885, kindergarten occu¬ pations and action songs are introduced as optional subjects, for which grants can be earned. This has stimulated interest and many managers are now introducing these subjects into their schools. It has often been objected to the kindergarten in England that the idea having originated in Germany, the songs, games, occupations, and even the materials used were too German, and it was not until English kindergartens changed this by in¬ venting English games, songs, etc., that the system began to take root in England. The same difficulty has been felt, even more strongly, in India. As regards the games, the difficulty has been partly avoided by introducing native games, such as the kotatham or stick dance, gobi, kunni, and others. These dances and games are very pretty and graceful, and, when played with energy, secure real physical exer¬ cise for the children. They do not, however, exercise the dramatic powers of the children as Froebel’s games do. This has been partly achieved by translating English kindergarten songs into the vernaculars. There is one book of these in Tansil, called Thirty Kindergarten and Action Songs, translated by Miss Rajajapal, which, in the absence of original native action songs for infants, is very useful. Such translations are, however, of course open to the objection that the ideas and forms are foreign. It is to be hoped that, before long, some native poet will produce orig¬ inal native songs of the kind required. With regard to the occupations, native material has been introduced as much as possible. It has the advantage of being familiar to the children and it is cheaper than English material. The teaching of the alphabet is not strictly a kindergarten occupation, but the method by which the vowels are taught to beginners here gives it a right to be classed as such. The children are seated on mats on the floor, with a strip of smooth chunam or their slates in front of them. Before they take their seats the letter to be taught is written with chalk, in large size, on the chunam floor or a slate, oppo¬ site the center of the class, and repeated, in smaller size, on the floor or slate in front of each child. Beside each letter is a pile of tamarind seeds. The teacher calls atten¬ tion to the large letter, traces its form, discusses it with the children, and tells them its name. She then lays the tamarind seeds over the chalk letter, thereby tracing its form again. While doing so she allows the children to count the seeds laid on in twelves (12 is the limit of the arithmetic required of them). The attention of the children is next called to the small-sized letters in front of them, and they are required to lay seeds, from the heaps beside them, on their chalk letters, care being taken that they begin and end at the right points, as if they were writing the letter. The children are encouraged to count the seeds, in twelves, as they lay them on, and to induce them to work quickly, each child is allowed to stand as soon as she has finished. By means of this occupation the children learn, in a pleasant way, the forms of the letters before they can write them. These forms are further impressed on their minds by means of pricking and sewing. Later in the day the children are seated on their mats with a small cushion and a pin in front of each. The cushions are about 2 inches long by an inch wide and are stuffed with bran. They are cov¬ ered with Turkey red cloth, so that the materials for them can be bought in any Indian bazaar. Each child is now supplied with a strip of olei, that is, the dried leaf of the palmyra or toddy palm. The teacher has previously written on each strip the letter traced by seeds that day, and she has made a series of dots along the letter. The children are now shown how to prick out the letter, pricking only where they see a dot and beginning and ending at the right points. 776 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. As a third occupation, ea^A child is supplied with the olei, on which she has previ¬ ously pricked the letter with a thimhle and a needle threaded with weavers' thread. This is the thread used for weaving women’s clothes, and can he bought in almost every village jin India. Its bright colors render it particularly suitable for chil¬ dren’s occupations. The children now backstitch the letter on the olei, putting in the needle at the holes previously pricked. The occupations and general use of native materials hitherto described were invented and introduced by Mrs. Capron, an American lady, who has done a great deal of good for girls’ education in Madura. It is from her schools there that the plans described have been adopted and spread to other schools in the presidency. The same is true of Mrs. Capron’s use of weavers’ bright colored thread for cross- stitch and for samplers. On the same lines but arranged and introduced by others, are the more advanced styles of the occupation of pricking and sewing for standards above the infants. The materials used are the weavers’ thread, coarse bazaar paper, of which two or three thicknesses are pasted together to form a sort of cardboard, and chequered paper. The latter is the only one of the materials which can not be procured in the bazaars. It is now made in the town of Madras, and has to be supplied from there. By means of these materials ideas of form are taught. The lessons and patterns begin with simple lines, first vertical, then horizontal, and then slanting, and proceed to com¬ binations of these lines into angles, and gradually to more complicated forms and patterns. Bead-threading is an occupation which is very popular with Indian children, and a graduated series of patterns, obtained from a bead school in London, is taught in many of the schools at this presidency. It is true that the beads come from Eng¬ land, but they are sold cheaply in all Indian bazaars. Counting and knowledge of color are taught by means of the series mentioned, and the teachers and children are very clever at imitating native jewelry and at covering toy water-pots, cook¬ ing vessels, and other things with beads by a method of threading which seems to be practiced only in India. Paper plaiting and folding are to some extent taught, but not widely, as colored paper can not be bought in small bazaars. Prizes for kindergarten work are given at the exhibition held by the National Indian Associaton at Madras every year. It is very pleasant to see how much the little Indian children enjoy the songs, games, and occupations of the kindergarten. In all schools into which these have been introduced, there is a marked improve¬ ment in the brightness and intelligence of the children in the infant classes. PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 777 TABLES EXHIBITING THE GROWTH OF KINDERGARTENS IN THE UNITED STATES. Table 1. — Statistics of Kindergartens in the United States from 1873 to 1892, inclusive. [From the Reports of the Commissioner of Education.] 1873 1874 1875 Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. ! Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu- pila. 1 o 15 1 1 8 2 6 92 2 6 90 3 11 137 7 15 157 2 10 43 5 8 109 Indian Territory . Indiana . 1 1 25 Iowa . Kansas . Kentucky . 2 3 62 2 3 61 2 4 53 Louisiana . Maine . 2 2 14 4 2 3 18 6 47 29 213 92 2 3 12 3 1 2 5 20 5 1 45 91 204 80 18 Maryland . 1 10 3 12 3 14 151 87 Massachusetts . Michigan . Minnesota . Mississippi . Missouri . . 1 3 42 2 7 94 12 51 496 Montana . . . Nebraska . Nevada . . . . New Hamshire . 1 5 1. 13 20 229 1 13 1 28 14 505 New Jersey . 6 13 296 New Mexico Territory .... New York . 11 23 429 10 27 345 16 33 424 North Carolina . North Dakota . Ohio . 2 2 53 2 3 50 4 6 78 Oklahoma Territory . Oregon . . Pennsylvania. . 2 1 2 1 1 3 30 4 10 88 Rhode Island . 24 South Carolina . South Dakota . . . . Tennessee _ _ Texas . Utah Territory . Vermont . « Virginia . Washington . 1 1 25 West Virginia . . . Wisconsin . 1 3 48 4 17 238 5 17 290 Wyoming . . United States . 42 73 1, 252 55 | 125 1, 636 95 216 2, 809 778 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table 1. — Statistics of Kindergartens in the United States from, 1873 to 1892, inclusive — Continued. 1876 1877 1878 Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. Number of kin- dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. 3 ft S-c °i 3 2 3 35 3 3 32 6 7 96 1 1 8 1 2 22 1 2 22 2 6 87 1 5 80 2 5 55 6 14 163 5 15 186 6 18 208 1 1 7 1 1 17 8 21 207 6 13 141 rj 22 274 1 2 16 1 5 30 1 3 35 1 4 50 1 5 40 1 5 37 Kansas . . . 1 Kentucky . . 4 6 92 3 7 82 4 7 78 Louisiana . . 1 Maine. . . . . 2 2 45 2 2 39 4 4 25 Maryland . . . 3 8 83 4 10 48 3 10 56 Massachusetts . . 9 21 172 12 22 195 18 31 346 Michigan . . . 4 6 90 3 4 90 2 3 54 Minnesota _ ........ _ 2 2 29 3 9 70 2 8 50 Mississippi. . . Missouri . . . 25 141 1,208 20 105 1,145 15 66 1, 129 Montana . . . Nebraska . . Nevada . . . . New Hampshire _ . . 2 4 30 2 4 30 New Jersey . . . 14 31 530 14 24 451 14 32 552 New Mexico Territory . . . . New York . .... North Carolina _ 20 45 656 22 50 632 26 70 855 North Dakota _ .... _ Ohio . 5 9 96 6 9 89 12 19 198 Oklahoma Territory . Oregon . i;-;--;;; Pennsylvania . 13 21 200 12 22 207 22 46 387 Khode Island _ _ South Carolina . . . 1 2 20 1 2 24 1 1 20 South Dakota _ .... _ _ Tennessee . . . _ 2 2 Texas _ _ TTtah Territory _ Y ermont . . . Virginia . . . W ash i u vtou _ West Virginia . . . Wisconsin . . . . . 5 15 273 6 17 291 7 14 305 Wyoming . . . . | United States _ L30 364 4,090 129 336 3, 931 159 376 4,797 PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 779 Table 1. — Statistics of Kindergartens in the United States from 1873 to 1892, inclusive — Continued. 1879 18SO 1881 Alabama . - . Arizona Territory .... Arkansas . .... California . . Colorado . . . . Connecticut . Delaware . District of Columbia . . Jflorida . Georgia . Idaho . . Illinois . . . Indian Territory . Indiana . Iowa - r . Kansas . Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts . Michigan . Minnesota . - . Mississippi . Missouri . . . Montana . . Nebraska - - - Nevada . New Hampshire.. - New Jersey. . New Mexico Territory. New York . North Carolina . . North Dakota . . Ohio . . . . Oklahoma Territory. . . . Oregon . . . . . Pennsylvania . KhodeTsland . South Carolina . South Dakota . . Tennessee . . Texas . . Utah Territory . . Vermont . Virginia . . Washington . . West Virginia . Wisconsin . Wyoming . . 120 76 15 257 20 12 346 71 15 254 20 12 17 16 546 81 30 303 23 336 15 35 23 25 83 338 70 538 "108 627 119 108 28 110 3, 009 2, 640 16 717 1, 348 55 18 12 28 285 19 60 18 214 611 93 168 76 63 104 69 647 150 173 50 15 501 25 448 492 “87 “12 622 64 67 12 58 674 68 40 ’266' 15 452 12 195 452 7, 554 232 524 8, 871 273 24 676 457 14, 107 United States 780 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table 1. — Statistics of Kindergartens in the United States from 1873 to 1892 , inclusive — Continued. 1882 1883 1884 1885 Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach- | ers. Number of pu¬ pils. Number of kin¬ dergartens. N umber of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. 2 2 26 1 2 22 3 2 20 1 1 16 28 49 1, 050 29 49 1,251 34 64 1, 579 2 4 137 6 12 160 6 11 156 7 19 228 2 4 31 1 3 30 2 5 42 loi 22 270 14 26 252 12 21 217 3 5 35 2 5 55 27 701 25 53 921 37 71 1, 715 1 1 24 2 3 52 7 15 165 14 20 218 11 32 622 4 12 199 3 11 128 4 18 202 Kansas . . . 3 5 116 3 7 135 3 5 134 Kentucky . 1 1 20 1 1 20 3 4 27 Louisiana . 2 6 94 ‘ * 2 6 99 2 9 128 Maine . 2 3 58 2 3 48 2 3 51 Maryland . . 6 10 93 7 10 105 7 15 168 Mas s a eh n setts _ 41 53 724 22 46 714 19 38 641 Michigan . . "5 8 193 7 14 294 9 18 427 Minnesota . 7 23 243 9 14 204 7 12 170 Mississippi . 1 Missouri . 65 233 8, 076 64 211 7, 213 62 181 5, 655 Montana . Nebraska . 1 3 57 1 3 57 2 3 40 Nevada . New Hampshire . 1 1 35 New Jersey . 12 29 443 12 27 474 12 25 440 New Mexico Territory _ 1 1 1 1 16 New York . 38 95 1, 600 45 109 1,735 41 92 1, 532 North Carolina . 2 4 60 2 4 60 3 3 38 N orth Dakota . Ohio . 18 36 539 21 49 582 26 53 641 Oklahoma Territory . Oregon . 1 2 21 1 2 21 2 4 60 Pennsylvania . 31 68 845 27 66 771 55 ]12 1,634 Rhode Island . 4 13 135 4 9 110 3 9 122 South Carolina . South Dakota . Tennessee . 1 1 1 Texas . 1 Utah Territory _ _ . 1 1 Yermont 1 1 15 Virginia . 3 7 38 1 2 22 1 2 22 "Washin vtrvn W eRt Virginia "Wisconsin _ _ 17 42 918 24 64 1,286 31 64 1, 885 "Wvominp- Dakota . 3 5 82 United States . 348 814 16, 916 354 831 17, 002 415 905 18, 832 PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 781 Table 1. — Statistics of Kindergartens in the United States from 1873 to 1892, inclusive — Continued. \ 1886 1887 1888 1892 Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. £ ft © ^ ,a 1 & Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. Number of kin¬ dergartens. Number of teach¬ ers. Number of pu¬ pils. 1 3 35 1 3 35 1 3 20 1 2 20 California . 36 70 1,814 56 121 2, 815 66 119 3, 550 89 179 5, 821 Colorado . 2 3 144 1 3 105 1 3 105 28 50 1, 250 Connecticut . 10 18 347 13 30 519 13 32 673 30 80 1, 954 Delaware . 1 2 23 1 2 21 1' 2 21 2 3 33 District of Columbia . 8 15 165 11 22 195 10 32 314 16 30 517 4 6 119 3 51 2 3 31 1 1 8 15 383 Dlinois . 31 105 2, 246 48 157 2, 684 50 144 3, 048 197 271 7,491 1 1 26 1 1 49 Indiana . 9 20 445 12 31 446 13 27 542 35 124 2, 910 Iowa . 4 9 166 8 22 368 8 26 501 33 86 1, 677 Kansas . 4 9 156 2 3 51 2 4 65 16 19 569 "FT mi tricky _ 2 3 27 1 1 1 1 21 60 1, 157 Louisiana . 2 10 160 3 11 192 3 13 227 10 28 525 Maine . 2 3 51 3 5 69 3 5 95 5 7 119 Maryland . 5 16 236 10 19 286 10 29 434 18 39 702 Massachusetts . 41 79 1, 482 46 86 1, 446 44 88 1, 819 101 172 4, 182 Michigan . 14 30 808 16 31 725 6 25 908 46 87 2, 208 Minnesota . . . 5 12 177 10 19 336 9 8 341 32 66 1, 673 Mississippi . Missouri . 66 181 5,236 71 244 6, 081 74 230 6, 678 90 270 7, 003 Montana . 5 6 71 Nebraska . 1 2 40' 1 4 50 1 4 50 17 30 623 Nevada . 1 1 30 1 1 30 New Hampshire . ] 1 35 4 7 91 New Jersey . , 10 22 410 15 28 680 13 23 965 36 50 1, 345 New Mexico Territory. . 1 1 10 1 1 19 New York . 40‘ 91 I 1, 916 60 124 2, 813 55 114 3, 300 170 313 7,750 North Carolina . 2 3 54 1 1 30 1 2 30 5 10 152 North Dakota . Ohio . 27 66 788 33 74 850 30 75 1,170 80 153 2, 758 Oklahoma Territory . . Oregon . . . . 4 8 124 6 13 192 6 14 243 2 4 77 Pennsylvania . 53 94 1, 791 63 108 1,899 51 91 2, 218 95 148 4,118 .Rhode Island . . . 3 11 156 5 15 186 6 16 359 13 37 616 South Carolina . 1 7 412 South Dakota. _ ... Tennessee . 1 1 19 2 2 32 2 5 28 11 21 471 Texas . 1 1 15 4 6 116 4 7 110 8 10 224 Utah Territory . 1 1 90 1 1 50 1 1 50 2 5 80 Vermont . 1 2 14 1 2 17 1 1 13 4 5 56 Virginia _ _ . 4 7 86 Washington . 1 1 10 1 1 10 8 9 183 Wftsl Virginia. . Wisconsin . 22 41 2, 286 31 58 2, 491 31 56 3,295 60 113- 5, 704 Wyoming . . 1 1 10 Dakota . 2 4 52 1 2 28 1 1 16 United States . 417 945 21, 640 544 1, 256 25, 925 521 1, 202 31, 227 1, 311 2, 535 65, 296 782 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table 2. — Summary statistics of kindergartens in 1892. Private kindergi irtens. Public kindergartens. State. Number of kinder¬ gartens. Number of teachers. Number of pupils. Num¬ ber of cities. Number of kinder¬ gartens. Number of teachers. Number of pupils. 1 1 3 20 1 2 20 67 136 30 4, 663 658 5 22 14 43 20 1. 158 592 1, 655 14 4 11 25 299 9 19 55 2 3 33 16 30 517 4 6 119 3 4 68 2 5 11 320 189 251 7, 153 49 7 8 20 338 1 1 29 117 2, 700 462 4 6 7 210 18 33 9 20 53 1, 215 214 10 13 355 4 6 6 18 56 818 2 3 4 339 Louisiana - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - 6 18 260 1 4 1G 265 Maine . 4 6’ 94 1 - 1 1 25 Maryland .............. _ _ 18 39 .702 Massachusetts .......... _ _ 45 79 984 9 56 93 3, 198 1, 412 653 92 Michigan _ _ _ _ _ _ 20 41 796 10 26 46 Minnesota . . 23 49 1, 020 6 9 17 Mississippi ...... _ .... _ 2 2 2 Missouri _ _ ........ _ ...... 7 9 113 2 83 261 6, 890 MontaiRi T _ _ '5 6 71 Nebraska _ _ _ _ .... 13 24 399 3 4 6 224 Nevada _ _ _ !N^ew Hampshire . . 2 5 36 2 2 2 55 912 New Jersey ...... _ _ 18 32 433 6 18 N ew Mexico _ _ .... _ _ N ew York _ _ _ _ _ _ 125 238 5,028 152 18 45 75 2, 722 North Carolina _ _ ..... 5 10 North Dakota . . . Ohio . - _ _ _ 73 144 2,445 7 7 9 313 Oklahoma _ _ _ _ ...... Oregon o 4 77 Pennsylvania ...... _ _ 50 78 1, 269 250 4 45 70 2, 849 Phode Island. . . . . 7 27 3 6 10 366 South Carolina . . South Dakota . . . _ 1 _ Tennessee _ _ ... _ ...... 11 21 471 .. _ 1 Texas . . . . 6 8 157 2 o 1 2 67 Utah? . 2 80 Y ermont . - . . 4 5 56 | . 1 . Virginia . 4 7 86 ! . i ~W ashin gton . . . 8 9 183 L .. . 1 "West Virginia i . | Wisconsin . Wyoming . . . 1 16 .. 31 | 561 j 13 44 82 j 5,143 ! 1 United States . 1 852 1, 602 33,637 j 137 459 933 j 31, 659 £ 1 1 PUBLIC KINDERGARTENS. 783 Number of private Jcinder gar tens whose address was furnished to Bureau hut who failed to respond to its inquiries. Alabama . 3 Arkansas . 2 Arizona . 3 California . 85 Colorardo . . . . . 12 Connecticut . 32 Delaware . 5 District of Columbia . 6 Florida . 4 Georgia . 11 Illinois . 168 Indiana . 30 Indian Territory . 1 Iowa . 33 Kansas . 28 Kentucky . . 28 Louisiana . . . 2 Maine . 5 Maryland . 21 Massachusetts . 98 Michigan . . . 50 Minnesota . .46 Missouri . 2 Montana.... . 6 Nebraska . 15 Nevada . 6 New Hampshire . 4 New Jersey . . . 35 New Mexico . 6 New York . 118 North Carolina . 4 North Dakota . 5 Ohio . 53 Oregon . 7 Pennsylvania . 75 Rhode Island . . 18 South Carolina . 2 South Dakota . 8 Tennessee . . 16 Texas . r. . . 21 Utah . 8 Vermont . .- . 1 Virginia . -. . 3 W ashington . 10 West Virginia . 1 Wisconsin . 47 Wyoming..... . 4 Total . . . . . 1.148 CHAPTEE XX. STATISTICAL SUMMARIES OF CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 1.— CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Table 1. — Summary by States of population and school enrollment and attendance in cities containing over 8,000 inhabitants.1 State. Num¬ ber of school sys¬ tems. Total pop¬ ulation (census of 1890). Enrollment in public day schools. Aggregate number of days’ attend¬ ance of all pupils. Average daily attendance. Enrollment in private and paro¬ chial schools (estimated) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 United States . 442 18, 088, 348 2, 667, 042 364, 687, 603. 5 1,884,473.9 723, 990 North Atlantic Division. . . . 186 8, 849, 545 1, 335, 394 181, 981, 648. 9 914, 244. 9 345, 019 South Atlantic Division .... 87 1, 419, 964 192, 820 27, 756, 177. 4 148, 831 50, 001 South Central Division . 37 1, 147, 093 148, 798 18, 951, 843. 5 106, 044. 2 48, 909 North Central Division . 155 5, 780, 848 854, 615 117, 701, 859. 7 621, 409. 1 250, 668 Western Division . . 27 880, 898 135, 415 18, 296, 074 93, 944. 7 29, 393 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 8 130, 346 20, 770 2, 843, 642 16, 038 4, 410 New Hampshire . 5 103, 058 11, 228 1, 369, 751 7, 888 6, 307 Yermont . 2 22, 829 2, 946 395, 804. 5 2, 185 2, 020 Massachusetts . 41 1, 511, 175 244, 753 35. 816, 607 173, 898. 4 43, 237 Bhode Island . 5 208, 766 28, 519 4, 020, 591 20, 772. 7 7, 217 Connecticut . . - . 13 350, 292 56, 869 7, 676, 341. 2 39, 516. 6 12, 135 New York . 48 3, 590, 116 510, 997 71, 163, 279 353, 016 149 710 New Jersey . 20 780, 912 115, 072 15, 127, 171 76, 387. 7 34, 210 Pennsylvania . . 44 2, 152, 051 344, 240 43, 568, 462. 2 224, 542. 5 85, 773 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 1 61, 431 9, 568 1, 298, 200 6, 491 Maryland . 4 465, 479 56, 937 9, 016, 943 45, 904 District of Columbia. . . . 2 230, 392 38, 386 4, 935, 594 29, 010 8, 500 Virginia . . . 9 221, 965 28, 770 3, 995, 847. 4 21, 446 8,929 West Virginia. . . 3 53, 038 9, 512 1, 290, 826 6, 763 1,325 NortTi Carolina _ 5 62, 544 South Carolina . 3 78, 915 9, 292 1,507,112 7, 921 3, 957 Georgia . 7 199, 169 26, 736 4, 219, 756 22, 392 4, 595 Florida . 3 47, 031 4, 675 506, 058 2, 978 South Central Division : Kentucky . 7 276, 454 39, 746 5, 937, 100 29, 785 13, 837 Tennessee . 5 202, 337 26, 409 3, 491, 546. 5 19, 608. 5 4,580 Alabama _ _ 4 89, 139 9, 213 Mississippi . . . 3 34, 098 6, 214 734, 972 4, 140 1,260 Louisiana . 3 264, 496 25, 881 2, 793, 330 17, 736 17, 669 Texas . . . 11 225, 346 31, 391 3, 482, 893 19, 487. 7 5,694 Arkansas . 4 55, 223 9. 944 1, 099, 496 7, 307 2, 501 Oklahoma . 0 0 0 0 0 0 Indian Territory . 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 In the preparation of this table omissions and deficiencies in the returns of individual cities were supplied from the hest sources available. If no accurate information could be had in any particular case, an estimate based upon the ratios developed in the other cities of the same State was used unless it appeared that the conditions were essentially different in the city for which precise data were lacking. Blanks indicate that the number of cities which reported the item was not sufficient to justify an estimate to supply the deficiency. ED 91 - 50 785 786 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table 1. — Summary by States of population and school enrollment and attendance in cities containing over 8,000 inhabitants — Continued. States. Num¬ ber of school sys¬ tems. Total pop¬ ulation (census of 1890.) Enrollment in public day schools. Aggregate number of days’ attend¬ ance of all pupils. Average daily attendance. Enrollment in private and paro¬ chial schools (estimated). 1 2 3 4 5 © 7 North Central Division : Ohio . 29 1, 159, 342 171, 791 25, 2l5, 352 133, 671. 3 32,316 Indiana . 18 400, 566 64, 268 8, 622, 018. 4 46, 719. 5 19, 861 Illinois . 21 1, 485, 955 208, 489 29, 877, 194 151, 706. 4 81,964 Michigan . 22 54G, 095 87, 280 12, 276, 180 62, 162. 1 28, 555 "Wisconsin . 17 424, 546 63, 693 8, 537, 884 45, 707 26, 974 Minnesota . G 369, 315 48, 551 6, 681, 739 35, 620 13, 800 Iowa . . 13 269. 230 48. 813 6, 183, 890. 5 33, 567 10, 007 Missouri . . 8 690” 695 98, 700 12, 371, 596 68,601 29, 880 North Dakota . 0 0 0 0 0 0 South Dakota . . 1 10, 177 1,500 163, 216. 8 926. 8 140 Nebraska . . . 8 259, 048 29, 223 3, 663, 328 19, 735 3, 735 Kansas . 9 165, 879 32, 307 4,109, 61 22, 993 3, 436 Western Division: Montana . 2 24, 557 4,439 805, 072 2, 771. 6 737 Wyoming . 1 11, 690 1,199 141, 342 800 200 Colorado . . . 7 152, 795 22, 921 0 2, 529, 898 0 14, 093 0 New Mexico . 0 0 0 Arizona . 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ptah . 2 59, 732 9, 044 1, 104, 746 5,923 2, 586 Nevada . 1 8, 511 1,850 295, 269 1,469 265 Idaho . 0 0 0 0 0 0 Washington . . 3 98, 765 12, 893 7,564 1, 627, 110 983, 623 10, 809, 014 8, 487. 3 Oregon . 2 56, 917 5, 284. 8 1,306 California . 9 477, 931 75, 505 55, 116 18, 500 Table.2. — Summary by States of supervising officers, teachers, property, and expendi¬ tures of school systems of cities containing over 8,000 inhabitants.1 If O fcfi Number of teachers. o . ’5J P 8333 Preparing for college. Scientific course. •uux h 12, 270 I1S1I oo t-T |g||83S|| £883 rH © 5, 805 J 1,161 104 250 3,757 533 S3S8388gS? 3M is :S i^S 38^ : '©UK 6, 465 2, 202 179 295 3,338 451 3SS£838ggg ‘n'oS5N^c0S^ §833 Classical course. •uux wi 12,788 mu in' "rjT S338S5B38 §3S“ rH* r-T '91UUI9X W 6, 015 2,310 396 512 2, 604 193 8£38§3§3£ ”888^3888 8888 '©UK « 6, 773 3,291 480 487 2, 303 202 gg£§§|§8| ®SSS§lo85g3 §888 Colored (in¬ cluded). 'UUX H 4, 180 IsliS iO M O 322 129 196 238 128 133 210 104 4 5 107 146 2 8 33 t-H 4 4 7 7 129 • CQ 1,341 414 744 1, 229 377 890 480 627 16 30 337 610 155 • O 00 CO Ttl CO jocS ri§Ss§sr-3S !j* CQ 48 3 6 8 397 • T— 1 j js lO 22 5 12 6 315 • (N 00 • iO S13!1!II3S1S s IS :S3S"| i!s lsllll!lc'"la i“ ' l> ® 05 ' CO : il" 38S333SrsH§ “ i° is* 1113— Si ]\°s$ i— • H 00 • rH Cg js* gggg^SSg i^cog :SS j’-105 265 121 108 54 9 10 73 133 3 18 163 6 22 !.;•?; ia 778 3, 693 1,106 IlssIgllSSS! Isl •»< 62 41 443 196 693 566 4,559 Sal «■ SSSSSSSl^SSS §s2 efarjsVcnV-* NM r-T 09 sis lill§l§lsl§! oo eo solo os cfiocf cCof 19 14 154 102 291 206 1, 812 19 188 46 !«SiS8S58"-*Sa — 11 87 23 i'SH§Slgip— 53 — S^tf g “gSS 4J0 193 314 189 155 106 206 123 3 7 105 137 8 41 WHOOIOHNO nHL- 5 78 21 304 117 208 153 132 76 180 73 3 10 88 104 9 - 2 25 CO rH r-j lO r-j 05 rH 794 s •s 5S 1 3 1 § ■s 2 © •'cs © § f s =5 < m College prepara¬ tory students graduating in 1891.. ■I*WL § Si b 1, 963 662 ■ 621 709 307 •ax^iuo^ & W* Si S131§ •aiuK X) 1=1 1 N sills t-t Preparing for college. Scientific course. •pjjox h 1 c- 3, 308 692 1,571 1, 446 485 *3S3B9iSS “assess . ^ " •axema^ © Tjn & cf llsll h5SqOCCS^co OOW^O^inigO •oiBH 5, 288 gillS SSgSgSgggg “SSsS0^^ Classical course. •injox 13,405 5,561 2,887 2, 506 1, 775 676 |glsgslll s|S|S|||a rH rH •axnuia^ 3,748 960 990 1,036 558 204 74 41 L 84 165 2 50 304 69 171 5 113 0 115 20 194 142 396 5 ■9FK 9, 657 4, 601 1, 897 1,470 1, 217 472 IISIS3l33 SS3|S|||S t-h' Colored (in¬ cluded). qnjox F»l T“i 1 59 889 302 1 186 13 , = o2o.,f.-„ o.ogogg^cs •axnraa^ © T 15 408 154 83 5 NMOCOOOHIOM OOO^OO^gO ■3FM © g 44 481 148 103 8 NOONOOOCrIO Secondary. ’IB10X 0(0 98,400 36, 135 16,937 18,390 21,480 5, 458 I2535S3S3 IllSIsssa ci" rH N in HN»V rH CO rH •axnuiax '1 58 lllis CD l> cT O CO rH r— 1 llsisHSI SES8I8333 rHcf CO* rH* CO A b cf •axnj^ © 50,160 19, 305 9, 232 8, 510 10, 667 2, 446 1, 009 1,225 1, 030 2, 267 320 837 6, 050 2, 106 4, 061 132 922 516 1, 748 0 2, 896 969 1,983 66 Instructors, sec¬ ondary. qnjox 1 ccT 2, 542 1,033 1, 006 1, 243 407 sgsssgggg •axuatax i » 1III1 53 49 54 211 14 66 498 118 235 11 53 17 95 10 116 47 117 18 •oven « 1 » 21111 40 72 42 170 16 61 441 134 268 10 88 38 99 5 146 51 105 7 •sjooqos jo raqran nj; « Sills . 25 25 22 75 5 40 183 51 105 5 31 11 63 2 106 40 94 11 SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 795 SFssr°“ rH 36 68 51 55 17 107 3 4 s|ls§ss*cq,»hile in the North Atlantic it is 1 to 14, in the South Atlantic 1 to 17, in the South Central 1 to 18, in the North Central 1 to 17£, and in the Western Division 1 to 13^. In connection with the general summaries in the foregoing tables, it has been thought best to give certain comparisons between the two classes of public and private schools, by means of diagrams, in addition to the figures, and several of these are made by geographical divisions like the summaries. Diagkam 1. — Comparison of public high schools and private academies, seminaries, etc. — Number and percentage of schools, instructors, students, graduates, etc. Public high schools. Private acade¬ mies, etc. Total. Schools . 2, 773 1, 714 4, 487 Instructors . - ' . 8, 270 6, 231 14, 501 Students . 211, 596 98, 400 309, 996 1 Preparing for college: Classical course . 12, 788 13, 405 26, 193 Scientific course . 12, 270 7,502 19, 772 In graduating class, both courses . 7, 276 4, 362 11, 638 Graduates . 25, 459 7, 108 32, 567 Public schools. Private schools. 64. 25% 35. 75% V- • 57% 43% 1 1 | 68. 25% 31. 75% mw/MW/MMMmyy W/ Wa - i 48. 81% 51. 19% 1 l 1 - - - - - 61. 54% 38. 46% - r.-^=TT==== 62. 52% 37. 48% 78. 2% 21. 8% ^22 Diagram 1 shows in a general way the proportion of public and private secondary schools to each other, and the relative percentage of instructors, students, number preparing for college, in both classical and scientific courses, the number of gradu¬ ates, and the number in the graduating class preparing for college. From this it is seen that the public high schools are 64.25 per cent of the total number, and have 57 per cent of the instructors, 68.25 per cent of the students, and 78.2 per cent of the gradu¬ ates. Of those preparing for college in the classical course the public schools have only 48.81 per cent, or less than the private schools, although the private schools have not quite half as many students in them. In the scientific course the public schools have 61.54 per cent. Of those preparing for college in the graduating class, both courses, 62.52 per cent were in the public schools. One thing is specially noticeable, that the private schools furnish considerably more than their proportion of stu¬ dents preparing for college in the classical course (more than one-half of all), and over 38 per cent of those in the scientific course. While it is true that not all the schools of either class are reported, yet it is believed that the comparisons may be taken as fairly showing the relation of the two classes of schools to each other. The general statistics are more fully, shown in the summary tables of eaeh class, and the details as to each school are given in Part in of the report. The great interest in the question as to whether the secondary schools are doing their full part in preparing students for college suggested the preparation of the SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 797 following diagram, showing the number of students preparing ±or college in both the classical and scientific courses, and the proportion to the total number of stu¬ dents in the schools. Part I gives the ratio for public high schools, and Part n for private academies. Diagram 2. — Part I. — Number of students preparing for college and proportion to whole number of students in the schools. A.— PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS. 798 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Diagram 2. — Part II. — Number of students preparing for college and proportion to whole number of students in the schools. B.— PRIVATE ACADEMIES, SEMINARIES, ETC. It is interesting to note that in the public high schools over 12 per cent of the total number of students are preparing for college and that the numbers are almost evenly divided between the two courses in the country, taken as a whole. In the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, and South Central Divisions the greater number is in the classical course, the South Central Division having the greatest ratio, while in the North Central and Western Divisions the scientific course predominates, espe¬ cially in the last, which has nearly three times as many in the scientific as in the clas¬ sical course. In the private academies it is found that in the country, as a whole, of over 21 per cent preparing for college almost two-thirds of them are in the classical course, and in every division the greater number take this course, the highest ratio, over 17 per cent, being in the South Atlantic Division; the lowest, 8.26 per cent, being in the North Central Division. In the scientific course the greatest proportion is in the North Atlantic Division, 9.15 per cent, and the lowest in the South Atlantic Division, 4.09 jier cent. Of the 20,907 students preparing for college, both courses, in private institutions, 8,869, or about 42.5 per cent, are found in the North Atlantic Division alone, while of the 25,058 students preparing for college in the public high schools, 12,002, or 48 per cent, are in the North Central Division — that is, the North Atlantic States have SECOND AKY SCHOOLS. 799 the largest percentage of preparatory students in the private schools and the North¬ western State the largest percentage in the public high schools. GRADUATES. Another subject of interest is the number and proportion of graduates from sec¬ ondary' schools. The following diagram (3) shows this for both classes of schools and the percentage of each to the other : Diagram 3. — Number of graduates in 1891, with proportion in each class of schools , by geographical divisions. From this it appears that of the 32,567 graduates in 1891, from both the public high schools and private academies, 25,459, or over 78 per cent, came from the public schools, and only about 22 per cent from the private institutions. Of the graduates from the public schools, the North Central Division furnished 12,933, or over one-half, and of those from the private schools the North Atlantic Division had 3,458, or nearly one-half of all from that class of schools. The question of the proportion of stu¬ dents who complete the course of study in secondary schools is so important that statistics as to the number have been collected, and in addition to the tables diagram 4 has been prepared. 800 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Diagram 4. — Proportion of graduates to total number of students in each flass of schools. [A. Public high schools. B. Private academies, seminaries, etc.] United States. North Atlantic Divi¬ sion. South Atlantic Divi¬ sion. South Central Divi¬ sion. North Central Divi¬ sion. Western Division .... Total Total students, graduates. 12%. This diagram shows that in the United States the public high schools graduated 12 per cent, of all the students in attendance during the year, and the private academies 7.22 per cent. In the public schools the Southern Atlantic Division had 13.23 per cent, the highest ratio, while the South Central Division had the lowest, or 9.37 per cent, of graduates. In the private schools, the greatest ratio was in the North Atlantic Division, 9.57 per cent of the total number, while the smallest pro¬ portion is found in the South Central Division, 4.28 per cent. Of course these figures do not always give the exact statement of the relative standards of the schools be¬ cause the conditions and requirements for graduation both as to length of time and amount of study vary greatly in the different portions of the country as well as in the different schools. These statistics, however, may, with other data, aid in find¬ ing the comparative growth of the institutions as to numbers and scholarship, es¬ pecially when the questions of courses of study are taken into consideration. STUDIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. As already stated, the plan of collecting data relating to the principal studies pursued in the schools has been continued and tables of summaries made. Table hi following gives the number of students pursuing the studies named in the pub¬ lic high schools : SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 801 Table III. — Summary of the number of students in each branch of study in public high schools. State or Territory. Latin. Greek. French. 1 Male. ! Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1© United States . 31, 695 55, 311 87, 006 4, 274 2, 210 6, 484 4,113 7, 910 12, 023 North Atlantic Division . 11, 860 17, 158 29, 018 2, 944 1, 540 4, 484 3^631 5, 334 8, 965 South Atlantic Division . 2, 265 4, 050 6, 315 276 64 340 86 803 889 South Central Division . 2, 037 3,083 5, 120 201 19 220 2 195 197 North Central Division . 14, 180 29, 405 43, 585 730 506 1, 236 334 1, 401 1, 735 Western Division . 1, 853 1, 615 2, 968 123 81 204 60 177 237 North Atlantic Division: Maine . . 1, 018 1, 420 2, 438 303 171 474 188 389 577 New Hampshire. . . 517 708 1,225 83 89 172 160 238 398 Vermont . . . . 261 414 675 66 33 99 77 103 180 Massachusetts . . . 3, 188 5, 856 9, 044 1, 046 675 1,721 2, 325 3, 398 5, 723 Khode Island . 387 500 887 108 58 166 124 186 310 Connecticut . 974 1,220 2, 194 228 94 322 131 291 422 New York . 2, 815 3, 724 6, 539 620 338 958 344 526 870 New Jersey . 420 690 1,110 109 47 156 59 111 170 Pennsylvania . 2, 270 2, 626 4, 896 381 35 416 223 92 315 South Atlantic Division : 101 221 322 Maryland . . . 285 312 597 34 22 56 33 44 77 District of Columbia ... 283 571 854 10 10 Virginia . 581 1, 063 1, 644 8 4 12 24 128 152 West Virginia . 29 50 79 North Carolina. _ _ _ _ 155 238 393 5 7 12 South Carolina . 98 217 315 8 8 1 125 126 Georgia . 547 1,147 1,694 167 25 192 6 436 142 Florida . 186 231 417 49 13 62 17 63 80 South Central Division : Kentucky . . 578 861 1, 439 127 4 131 1 8 9 Tennessee . 150 292 442 Alabama _ _ .... _ _ _ _ 180 204 384 44 1 45 1 1 Mississippi . 113 161 274 20 9 29 Louisiana . 256 303 559 186 186 Texas . . . 640 1, 047 1, 687 10 5 15 1 1 Arkansas . 120 216 336 Oklahoma . Indian Territory . . . North Central Division : Ohio . . 3,742 5, 856 9, 598 246 165 411 41 215 256 Indiana . 1,455 2, 375 3, 830 11 7 18 4 4 Illinois . - . 2, 421 9, 858 12, 279 154 102 256 98 501 599 Michigan . 1,046 1,737 2, 783 71 80 151 33 170 203 Wisconsin... . 736 1, 162 1, 898 31 26 57 21 42 63 Minnesota . 1, 181 1, 680 2, 861 92 47 139 101 219 320 Iowa . 1, 107 2, 132 3,239 6 6 12 6 28 34 Missouri . 946 2, 028 2, 974 63 36 99 29 204 233 North Dakota . 50 70 120 South Dakota . 67 89 156 1 4 4 Nebraska . 548 970 1, 518 35 20 55 Kansas . 881 1,448 2, 329 . 21 17 38 5 15 20 Western Division : Montana . . 29 86 115 3 3 1 Wyoming . 14 20 34’ Colorado . 357 442 799 48 20 68 40 98 138 New Mexico . Arizona . 8 20 28 1 . Utah . . . ( Nevada . 15 32 47 j Idaho . . . 8 16 24 1 W ashington . 79 169 248 j Oregon . 53 50 103 1 California . 790 1, 180 1,970 72 1 61 133 1 20 79 99 ED 91 - 51 802 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table III. — Summary of the number of students in each branch of study in public high schools — Continued. State or Territory. German. Algebra. Geometry. Male. Pemale. Total. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. 1 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 United States . . . 18, 590 15, 093 33, 683 43, 285 67, 111 110, 396 22, 715 29, 411 52, 136 North Atlantic Division . 13, 509 5, 197 18, 706 15, 598 18, 458 34, 056 10, 411 10, 07* 20, 489 South Atlantic Division . 375 778 1, 153 2,530 4, 285 6, 815 1, 197 1, 853 3,050 South Central Division . . 329 1,312 1, 641 2, 948 4, 363 7, 311 1,188 2,145 3, 333 North Central Division . 4, 159 7, 291 11, 450 20, 911 36, 997 57, 908 8, 665 13, 489 22, 154 "Western Division . - . 218 515 733 2,198 3, 008 5,206 1,264 1,846 3, 110 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 41 77 118 1,189 1, 388 2, 577 564 549 1, 113 New Hampshire . 2 6 8 439 552 991 274 311 585 Vermont . 19 37 56 338 452 790 156 188 344 Massachusetts . 587 1, 062 1,649 3, 077 4,645 7, 722 4,158 2, 796 6, 954 Rhode Island . 17 24 41 381 410 791 167 220 387 Connecticut . 282 485 767 1, 059 1,299 2, 358 401 463 864 New York . 11. 312 1,895 13, 207 3, 925 3,869 7, 784 2, 053 2,768 4, 821 New Jersey . 338 613 951 940 1, 610 2, 550 347 693 1,040 Pennsylvania . 911 998 1,909 4, 250 4, 229 8,479 2, 291 2,080 4, 371 -’South Atlantic Division : 120 165 285 94 69 163 Maryland . - . 56 37 93 439 564 1, 003 296 357 653 District of Columbia . 142 397 539 187 392 579 148 310 458 Virginia . 125 282 407 617 998 1,615 164 268 432 West Virginia . « . 21 33 54 152 287 439 45 69 114 North Carolina . . .. . 3 4 7 113 182 295 68 84 152 South Carolina . 63 271 334 13 124 137 Georgia . 15 25 40 621 1, 187 2,408 260 240 500 Florida . . 13 13 218 240 458 109 132 241 South Central Division : Kentucky . 217 130 347 647 992 1,639 275 457 732 Tennessee . 5 2 7 288 495 783 101 153 254 Alabama . 13 25 38 238 196 434 63 104 167 Mississippi . - . 148 188 337 41 72 113 Louisiana . . . 208 328 536 53 218 271 Texas . 77 111 188 1, 125 1, 726 2, 851 527 901 1, 428 Arkansas . 17 44 61 294 437 731 128 240 368 Oklahoma . . - . . Indian Territory _ _ _ North Central Division: Ohio . 893 1,448 2, 341 4, 898 7, 082 11, 980 2, 209 3, 376 5, 585 Indiana . 286 538 824 1, 990 2, 693 4, 683 832 849 1, 681 Ulihois . 667 1,635 2, 302 3, 152 4, 689 7, 841 1,414 2, 847 4, 261 Michigan . . 495 750 1,245 1,966 3,021 4, 987 712 1, 116 1, 828 "Wisconsin . 476 656 1, 132 1,430 1, 997 3, 427 612 910 1,522 Minnesota- . . 375 578 953 1,372 2, 024 3,396 591 786 1,377 Iowa . 377 587 964 2,188 9, 037 11, 225 883 1, 170 2, 053 Missouri . 183 430 613 1,571 2, 857 4, 428 495 1, 026 1, 521 North Dakota . . . 4 4 39 49 88 7 22 29 South Dakota . 4 5 9 65 102 167 53 62 115 Nebraska . 160 323 483 926 1,408 2, 334 343 593 936 Kansas . 223 337 560 1, 314 2, 038 3,352 514 732 1, 246 Western Division: Montana . ' 8 24 32 37 84 121 14 27 41 Wyoming . 25 31 56 8 19 27 Colorado . 124 292 416 407 535 942 214 297 511 New Mexico _ _ _ _ _ Arizona . . 33 16 49 11 13 24 Utah . 13 14 27 1 3 4 Nevada. . . . - . ■ 126 235 361 41 91 132 Idaho . . . 43 48 91 13 18 31 Washington . 19 28 47 214 280 494 45 64 109 Oregon . 16 86 102 124 172 296 65 65 130 California . 51 85 136 1, 176 1,593 2, 769 852 1, 249 2, 101 SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 803 Table III. — Summary of the number of students in each branch of study in public high schools — Continued. State or Territory. Physics. Chemistry. General history. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total, Male. | Female. Total. 1 20 21 22 23 24 25 ' 26 27 28 United States . 29, 985 50, 824 8, 981 12, 719 21, 700 25, 627 34, 056 59, 683 North Atlantic Division . 8, 114 9, 634 17, 748 3, 719 4, 650 8, 369 11, 352 10,000 21, 352 South Atlantic Division . 1,313 2, 171 3, 484 569 718 1, 287 1, 486 2, 218 3,704 South Central Division . 1,781 2, 090 3, 871 693 844 1, 537 1,739 2,483 4,222 North Central Division . 8, 675 14, 952 23, 627 3,448 5, 876 9, 324 9, 821 16, 114 25, 935 Western Division . . 956 1,438 2, 394 552 631 1, 183 1,229 2,241 3, 460 North Atlantic Division : Maine.. . . . 602 717 1,319 115 354 469 615 796 1,411 New Hampshire . 286 361 647 116 151 267 264 310 574 Vermont . 160 198 358 85 91 176 169 249 418 Massachusetts . . 1, 851 2, 562 4, 413 1,164 1,688 2, 852 4,205 3, 613 7, 818 Rhode Island . 201 264 465 64 115 179 181 380 561 Connecticut . 356 566 922 188 269 457 466 677 1,143 New York.. . . 1,755 2,229 3, 984 918 1, 096 2, 014 1, 181 1, 258 2,439 New Jersey . 440 803 1, 243 123 256 379 473 912 1, 385- Pennsylvania . . . 2,463 1,934 4, 397 946 627 1, 573 3, 798 2, 105 5, 903 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 97 85 382 72 32 104 17 21 38 Maryland . 291 294 585 5 13 18 186 254 440 District of Columbia . 96 237 333 86 97 183 189 642 831 Virginia . . . . 230 367 597 99 171 270 484 706 1,190 West Virginia . 91 153 244 34 62 96 53 86 139 North Carolina . 121 128 249 25 43 68 145 249 394 South Carolina . 15 187 202 13 93 106 27 196 223 Georgia . 267 605 872 180 450 630 233 512 745 Florida . . . 105 115 220 55 57 112 152 152 304 South Central Division : Kentucky . . . . 364 425 789 105 198 303 309 377 686 Tennessee . .. 95 155 250 45 71 116 200 338 538 Alabama.- . 75 56 131 103 37 140 164 179 343 Mississippi'. . . 67 103 170 20 27 47 51 73 124 Louisiana . 117 189 306 311 140 251 205 262 467 Texas . 618 932 1, 550 196 335 531 678 1, 064 1,742 Arkansas . 145 230 375 13 36 49 132 190 322 Oklahoma . Indian Territory _ _ _ North Central Division: Ohio . 1, 845 3,279 5, 124 767 1,286 2, 053 1,971 3, 004 4.975 Indiana . 868 1, 287 2, 155 333 511 844 933 1, 508 2, 441 Illinois . 1,500 2, 657 4, 157 591 1,227 1, 818- 1, 463 3,141 4,604 Michigan . 717 1,'484 2, 201 367 619 986 1,059 1, 576 2, 635 Wisconsin . . 679 961 1,640 185 237 422 573 817 1, 390 Minnesota . . 533 666 1, 199 244 244 488 374 482 856 Iowa . . 1,069 1,624 2,693 309 536 845 1,161 2, 169 3,330 Missouri . 630 1, 152 1, 782 284 637 921 743 1, 381 2, 124 North Dakota . . . 10 12 22 5 12 17 11 21 32 South Dakota . 53 94 147 15 15 30 52 102 154 Nebraska . 86 740 826 193 336 529 489 480 969 Kansas . 685 996 1, 681 155 216 371 992 1,433 2,425 W estern Division : _ Montana . 20 30 56 7 17 24 25 62 87 W yoming . 6 17 23 6 141 147 9 12 21 Colorado . 184 282 466 71 71 447 682 1, 128 New Mexico . Arizona . . . 7 10 17 4 11 15 Utah . 6 6 1 11 12 Nevada .. . 80 178 258 43 81 124 52 101 153 Idaho . . . 27 26 53 4 3 7 24 23 47 Washington . 79 130 209 117 23 140 81 115 196 Oregon . . . 54 67 121 34 59 93 102 155 257 California . 499 692 1,191 270 407 677 484 1, 070 1, 554 This table shows that in the public schools 87,00(5 studied Latin, and of these 43,585, or one-half, were in the North Central Division, the North Atlantic Division having 29,018 ; of the 6,484 in Greek, the North Atlantic had 4,484, over two-thirds ; of the 12,023 in French, the North Atlantic had 8,965; of the 33,683 in German, over one-half were in the same division; but of the 110,396 in algebra, the North Central had 57,908 and the North Atlantic 34,056. In geometry, physics, chemistry, and 804 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. general history, the largest number is found in the North Central Division, the North Atlantic Division being next in the number of students. In Table iv will be found the same statistics from the private academies, etc., and by comparing them with the former table the wTork done by each can be readily seen. Table IV. — Summary of the number of students in pack branch of study in endowed academies, seminaries , and other private secondary schools, 1890-91. State or Territory. Latin. Greek. French. £ 3 Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. 1 * s 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 to United States . 20, 205 16, 165 36, 370 6,477 1,441 1 7, 918 5,293 10, 774 16, 067 North Atlantic Division . 8,495 6, 500 14, 995 3,681 579 4, 260 3, 421 5, 489 8, 910 South Atlantic Division . 4,332 3,078 7, 410 990 144 1,134 924 1, 749 2, 673 South Central Division . 2, 771 2, 795 5, 566 497 130 627 433 1,342 1, 775 North Central Division . 3,529 3,118 6, 647 947 225 1, 172 358 1,846 2, 204 "Western Division . . . . . 1, 078 674 1,752 362 363 725 157 348 505 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 418 354 772 219 57 276 78 169 247 New Hampshire . . . 716 286 1, 002 420 54 474 258 154 412 Vermont . 412 338 750 159 53 212 72 145 217 Massachusetts . . . 1,429 1,166 1, 595 686 158 844 777 1, 013 1, 790 Rhode Island. . . 131 78 209 600 0 60 90 62 152 Connecticut . 549 394 943 104 18 122 82 219 301 New York . 2, 589 2, 050 4,639 1,027 121 61, 148 1, 342 2, 292 3, 634 New Jersey . 1, 077 417 1, 494 426 39 465 407 466 873 Pennsylvania . 2, 174 1, 417 3, 591 580 79 659 515 969 1,484 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 88 86 174 19 1 20 63 95 158 Maryland . 515 318 833 97 11 108 181 292 473 District of Columbia . 242 33 275 138 0 138 125 210 335 Virginia . . . - . 1,081 597 1,678 183 24 207 279 401 680 "West Virginia . 16 8 24 11 5 16 0 2 2 North Carolina . 864 611 1,475 185 22 207 44 200 244 South Carolina . 522 305 827 61 2 63 189 194 383 Georgia . 973 1, 076 2, 049 287 79 366 43 344 387 Florida . 31 44 75 9 0 9 0 11 11 South Central Division : Kentucky . 377 419 796 81 17 98 24 175 199 Tennessee . 775 698 1,473 168 41 209 43 227 270 Alabama . 462 378 840 73 11 84 46 146 192 Mississippi . 354 405 759 43 6 49 34 70 104 Louisiana . 167 164 331 21 3 24 251 551 802 Texas . 477 613 1, 090 89 .44 133 31 157 188 Arkansas . 145 87 232 21 7 28 1 10 11 Indian Territory . 14 31 45 1 1 2 3 6 9 North Central Division: Ohio . 1, 029 754 1, 783 336 53 389 118 353 471 Indiana . 115 255 370 7 15 22 0 120 120 Illinois . 450 537 987 105 38 143 57 422 479 Michigan . 101 132 233 16 13 29 39 147 186 Wisconsin . 473 100 573 197 3 200 70 38 108 Minnesota . 234 145 379 42 6 48 11 95 106 Iowa . 356 224 580 114 .26 140 8 58 66 Missouri . 489 623 1, 112 66 37 103 37 483 520 North Dakota . 9 18 27 1 0 1 2 18 20 South Dakota . 45 35 80 14 5 19 0 7 7 Nebraska . 72 165 237 13 7 20 0 71 71 Kansas . 156 130 286 36 22 58 16 34 50 Western Division: Montana . . 4 12 16 0 0 0 0 3 3 Wyoming . 0 15 15 0 0 0 0 12 12 Colorado . - 195 116 311 123 3 126 24 31 55 New Mexico . 22 13 35 0 0 0 6 4 10 Utah . 111 79 190 10 1 11 11 23 34 Nevada . 0 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 Idaho . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Washington . 162 97 259 46 2 48 17 73 90 Oregon . 162 117 279 45 9 $4 28 54 82 California . 422 215 637 138 348 486 71 148 219 SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 805 Table IV. — Summary of the number of students in each branch of study in endoiced academies , etc., 1890-91 — Continued. German. Algebra. Geometry. State or Territory. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. 1 ia 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 United States . 7, 655 7, 258 14, 913 24, 343 19, 908 44, 251 11, 249 8, 036 19, 285 [North Atlantic Division . 4,007 3, 595 7, 602 9, 321 6, 200 15, 521 4, 952 2,849 7,801 South Atlantic Division . 888 639 1,527 4, 842 3, 617 8, 459 1,893 1,160 3, 053 South Central Division . . 424 612 1, 036 4, 771 4, 833 9, 604 1, 977 1,912 1, 638 3, 889 North Central Division . 2, 008 1,919 3, 932 4,243 4, 017 8, 260 1,789 3,427 Western Division . 333 483 816 1, 166 1, 241 2, 407 638 477 1, 115 North Atlantic Division: Maine . - . . 6 27 33 462 436 898 217 170 387 New Hampshire . 103 81 184 587 302 889 311 91 402 Vermont . 53 89 142 379 380 759 185 170 355 Massachusetts . 433 582 1,015 1, 272 882 2,154 716 496 1,212 Rhode Island.. . 78 7 85 220 42 262 120 29 149 Connecticut . . . 69 95 164 515 398 913 179 108 287 New York . 1, 724 1, 397 3, 121 2, 728 1, 971 4, 699 1, 622 1, 045 2, 667 ' New Jersey . 565 343 908 1, 057 2, 101 403 1, 460 521 178 699 Pennsylvania . 976 974 1, 950 1, 386 3,487 1,081 562 1,643 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . 37 37 74 72 67 139 29 31 60 Maryland . . . 333 198 531 604 307 911 407 187 594 District of Columbia . . 82 89 171 197 93 290 158 29 187 Virginia . 234 141 375 1, 063 704 1, 767 449 162 611 West V irginia . . 4 3 7 9 18 27 5 3 8 North Carolina . . . 62 50 112 1, 018 668 1, 686 1, 020 229 142 371 South Carolina . . 88 85 173 545 475 151 133 284 Georgia . . 28 34 62 1, 279 1,220 2, 499 445 454 899 [Florida . 20 2 22 • 55 65 120 20 19 39 South Central Division : Kentucky . 87 151 238 624 532 1,156 288 230 518 Tennessee . 60 127 187 1, 205 1,094 597 2, 299 1, 325 352 322 680 Alabama . . . 42 25 67 728 316 324 540 Mississippi . 16 45 61 534 624 1, 158 173 185 358 Louisiana . 36 35 71 304 326 630 137 128 265 Texas . 156 172 328 1, 097 1, 350 2,447 637 747 1, 384 Arkansas . 27 46 73 216 227 443^ 65 62 127 Indian Territory . 0 1 1 63 83 146 3 14 17 North Central Division: Ohio . 512 393 905 1, 270 771 2, 041 494 297 791 Indiana . 1 . 19 89 108 145 169 314 45 116 161 Illinois . 281 378 659 350 523 873 200 260 460 Michigan . 72 62 134 225 251 476 66 131 197 Wisconsin . . . 485 138 623 322 139 461 216 94 310 Minnesota . . . . 59 188 247 167 300 467 72 106 178 Iowa . . . .’ . 197 166 363 467 371 838 242 132 374 Missouri . 280 358 638 998 1, 121 2, 119 325 343 668 North Dakota . 3 14 17 28 45 73 11 8 19 South Dakota . 15 19 34 42 57 99 14 20 34 Nebraska . . . 12 43 55 87 147 234 45 83 128 Kansas. . . 68 81 149 142 123 265 59 48 107 W estern Division : Montana . 1 14 15 19 55 74 0 13 13 Wyoming . . . 0 0 0 0 15 15 0 15 15 Colorado . 26 68 94 91 130 221 45 56 101 New Mexico . 14 11 25 39 23 62 22 11 33 .Utah . 85 49 134 131 152 283 72 60 132 Nevada . 0 0 0 0 25 25 0 12 12 Idaho . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Washington . . . 57 80 137 130 147 277 74 43 117 Oregon . 71 96 167 255 220 . 475 94 47 141 California . , . 79 165 244 501 474 975 331 220 551 806 EDUCATION REPORT, 1390-91. Table IY. — Summary of the number of students in each branch of study in endowed academies , etc., 1890-91 — Continued. Physics. Chemistry. General history. Stato or Territory. 6 * a •3 i aS HP o H © % 3 6 "3 i ft <* H^ O H <0 % 3 © « a © ft c3 ■4P O H 1 20 21 33 23 24 25 36 27 38 10, 347 10,302 20, 649 5, 234 5, 228 10, 462 15, 160 17, 429 32, 589 3, 802 L 785 2, 208 2, 018 534 224 3, 111 6, 913 3,406 4, 986 2,153 838 1, 557 814 3, 710 5, 168 3,412 3, 123 2, 578 879 5, 364 3, 330 3,873 3, 478 1, 384 10, 532 6, 742 6, 996 1, 621 1, 652 2, 778 2, 121 845 1, 293 1,108 456 2, 138 4, 139 1,089 309 2, 197 765 6, 056 2,263 400 533 412 1, 147 320 556 3, 437 1, 172 2, 555 61 883 402 I, 049 73 671 1,205 414 North Atlantic Division : 190 104 85 189 216 184 303 * 107 410 202 85 287 171 362 187 484 33 125 312 102 79 181 214 198 4-22 906 207 317 524 441 706 43 76 15 9 24 242 78 137 1 115 155 292 47 45 92 262 294 1,129 2, 244 519 750 471 1, 221 305 1, 662 1,775 536 359 160 228 77 636 960 780 1, 740 498 389 887 1,324 9 1, 231 52 South Atlantic Division : 26 38 64 7 7 14 Maryland . . . 287 73 182 469 140 95 235 483 400 District of Columbia . 119 192 33 49 82 239 163 “Virginia. _ _ _ _ ... _ ..... 430 288 718 163 125 288 515 534 West Virginia . 3 6 9 0 4 4 3 70 North Carolina . . ....... 357 191 390 28 244 396 329 686 98 129 227 675 595 1,270 940 South Carolina . . . . . 165 356 104 116 220 487 453 Georgia _ _ _ _ .... 452 842 279 270 549 934 950 1,884 180 Florida . . . . . 42 70 14 19 33 67 113 South Central Division : Kentucky _ _ ........... 226 470 157 171 328 473 489 962 Tennessee _ _ _ _ ........... 532 928 92 166 258 495 651 1, 146 1,281 795 Alabama _ ..... _ .......... 280 410 271 551 140 110 250 705 576 Mississippi . . . 382 792 105 133 238 378 417 Louisiana ..... _ _ ... _ ... 176 279 455 81 239 320 307 645 952 Texas _ _ _ _ _ .... _ 607 973 1, 580 198 244 428 672 620 899 1, 519 290 Arkansas _ _ _ _ .^. ... 89 109 23 33 56 122 168 Indian Territory . 6 6 12 3 13 16 23 28 51 North Central Division : Ohio . 544 449 993 473 242 718 496 482 978 Indiana _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 58 237 90 174 75 133 25 46 71 84 187 271 Illinois _ ........ _ _ _ ... 298 150 535 104 205 309 343 791 1, 134 395 Michigan _ ..... _ ..... _ 240 62 128 190 104 291 Wisconsin . . . . 122 296 71 34 105 362 170 532 Minnesota. _ 71 82 164 153 70 38 108 113 132 245 Iowa . . . . 243 407 68 77 145 349 266 615 Missouri . . . . . . 452 535 987 155 258 413 525 828 1, 353 38 North Dakota . 27 23 50 10 13 23 17 21 South Dakota . . . . . 25 17 42 6 3 9 21 23 54 Nebraska . . . . 26 137 163 7 31 38 75 167 242 Kansas . . . 71 69 140 35 33 68 89 110 199 Western Division: Montana . 0 27 27 0 12 12 11 69 80 Wyoming . .-. 0 0 0 0 15 15 0 15 15 Colorado . . 61 18 39 0 47 108 28 54 26 80 g 137 85 222 New Mexico . . . 10 37 g 1 37 34 71 Dtah _ _ _ _ _ ....... 76 8 50 0 18 12 68 218 0 194 412 Nevada, _ _ 12 24 24 Idaho . 34 21 55 34 21 55 34 21 55 W ashin gton . . . 55 74 129 24 58 82 164 216 380 Oregon . . . 77 95 172 33 51 84 85 146 231 California . . _ J 250 352 602 113 236 349 193 580 773 From these figures it is shown that in the private academies, of the 36,370 study¬ ing Latin, 14,995, or over 41 per cent, were in the North Atlantic Division, the South Atlantic being next in number, with 7,410; of the 7,918 in Greek, 4,260 were in the same division, the North Central having 1,172, and the South Atlantic Division 1,134; of the 16,607 in French, 8,910 were in the North Atlantic, and 2,673 in the South Atlantic Division; of the 14,913 in German, 7,602 were in the North Atlantic, and 3,932 in the North Central Division; of the 44,251 in algebra the North Atlantic Division had 15,521, the next three divisions, nearly the same number each, between eight and nine thousand. The other studies are much in the same ratio, showing that the pre- SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 807 dominance of the North Atlantic Division is more regular in the private schools than in the public schools. In order to more clearly exhibit the comparative work of the two classes of schools, public and private, as shown by the proportion of students in each class of schools pursuing the studies already mentioned, the following, Diagram 5, has been pre¬ pared, which gives the percentage for the whole country only. Diagram 5. — Ratio of students pursuing certain studies to the whole number of students in the schools. Latin Greek [A. Public high schools. B. Private academies, seminaries, etc.] 41. 2 % A. Public. A. Public. 37% B. Private. 3% 8% B. Private. 100% French A. Public. |^B. Private. 16.3 % German Algebra Geometry. Phvsics. Chemistry . A. Public. B. Private. A. Public. 15.1 % 52.2 45% B. Private. =— l. Public. 24. 6 % 19.6 ' B. Private. = 24% General history. . . •{ A. Public. B. Private. A. Public. B. Private. A. Public. B. Private. 27% 10. 2 % 10. 6 % 33.1% □ From the above diagram it may be noted that a greater proportionate number study Latin in the public schools than in the private schools by over 4 per cent, and, what may seem surprising, that this number is over 41 per cent of the whole number of students in the public schools and 37 per cent in the private institutions. The study of Greek is much less in proportion in the public schools, and so of French, 808 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. ■which has only one-third the percentage that the private schools have. In German there is little difference, the public school having 1 per cent more. In the public schools over 52 per cent study algebra and 45 per cent in the private schools; in geometry the public schools have 24.6 or 5 per cent more than the private. In phys¬ ics the private schools have 27 per cent, 3 per cent more than the public. Chemistry is about the same in each, a little over 10 per cent. In general history the private schools have 33 per cent, or 5 per cent more than the public schools. As has been stated, figures like these can not be taken as settling the exact percentages of the students in these various branches of study, in one year, but by careful returns from practically the same institutions for a number of years, a fairly reliable table can be made. The tables given for this year are believed to be more correct than those in the last report, which was the first attempt to collect the results in this manner. Another year a comparison of the same studies can be made which will be more sat¬ isfactory as a statistical exhibit. PROPORTION AS TO SEX IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The increasing interest in the question of sex in education and the discussion of this question in regard to the work of preparatory schools, make this subject impor¬ tant, and to give as far as possible the number and proportion of instructors and students as classified by sex, Table V has been prepared. This not only gives the number of students in the schools by sex, but the number and percentage of each sex preparing for college in each of the courses, as well as the ratio of each sex pre¬ paring for college to the whole number of students in the institutions. Table V. — Percentage of male and female instructors ahd students and students preparing for colleges, classical and scientific courses, in secondary schools in the United States, 1890-91. Instructors. White students. Colored students. Students pre¬ paring for col¬ lege classical course. No. Per¬ centage. No. Per¬ centage. No. Per¬ centage. No. Per¬ centage. Public high schools : Male . 3,745 45.28 83, 578 40. 34 1,641 39. 26 6, 773 52. 96 Female . 4, 525 54. 72 123, 840 59. 66 2, 539 60. 74 6, 015 47. 04 Private academies, seminaries, etc. : Male . 3, C41 48. 80 50, 160 50. 98 784 54. 10 9, 657 72. 96 Female . 3,190 51. 20 48, 240 49. 02 665 45.90 3, 748 27. 04 Students preparing for college scientific course. ■Students preparing for college, classical and scientific course. No. Per¬ centage. No. Per¬ centage. Public high schools : Male . . 6, 465 5, 805 5, 288 2, 214 52. 69 47. 31 70. 49 29. 51 3, 404 3, 872 2,925 1,437 46. 78 53. 22 67. 06 32. 94 Female . Private academies, seminaries, etc. : Male . Female . Percentage of male students preparing for college, both clas¬ sical and scientific courses, to whole number of male stu¬ dents. Percentage of female students preparing for college, both clas¬ sical and scientific courses, to whole number of female stu¬ dents. 15. 53 9. 35 29. 31 12. 19 From this table it is seen that nearly 55 per cent of the instructors in public high schools are women, and 51 per cent in the private institutions. Of the white stu¬ dents, almost 60 per cent in public schools are females, while in the private schools the number is about equal. Of the colored students, the females are over 60 per cent in the public schools and not quite 46 per cent in the private. Of the students preparing for college in the classical course, the males in public schools have a small majority, while in the private schools the number is nearly three to one. Of those in the scientific course, the proportion is the same in the public schools, and the percentage of males slightly less in the private schools. The percentage of male students preparing for college in both courses to the whole number of students is SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 809 15.53 per cent, and tlie female preparatory students 9.35 per cent in the public schools; and the males, 29.31 per cent, and females, 12.19 per cent in the private schools. The proportion of the sexes in education is also shown in the number of each pur¬ suing certain studies in these schools. The following tables give the percentages of students by sex in each of the nine studies in the table. Table vi gives that of the public high schools and Table vn that of the private academies, etc. - • ■ .'S Table YI. — Percentage of male and female students pursuing certain studies in public high schools. State or Territory. United States . . North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . North Central Division . Western Division. State or Territory. United States . . North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division, South Central Division.. North Central Division.. Western Division . . Latin. Greek. French. German. Algebra. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. 36. 43 63. 57 65. 92 34.08 34. 21 65. 79 55. 19 44. 81 39. 21 60. 79 40. 88 59. 12 65. 66 34. 34 40. 50 59. 50 72.22 27. 78 45. 81 54. 20 35. 87 64. 13 81. 18 18. 82 9. 67 90. 33 32. 52 67.48 37. 12 62. 88 . 39. 79 60.21 91. 36 8. 64 1. 02 98. 98 20. 05 79. 95 40 32 59. 68 32. 53 67. 47 59. 06 40. 94 19. 25 80. 75 36. 32 63. 68 36. 11 63. 89 45. 59 54.41 60. 29 39. 71 35. 32 74. 68 29.74 70. 26 42.22 57.78 Geometry. Physics. Chemistry. General history. © 56. 42 41. 00 43. 58 50. 81 39. 35 35. 64 39.11 50. 45 49. 19 69. 75 64. 36 60. 89 59. 55 rt 45. 72 37. 69 46. 01 36. 72 39. 93 eS s © 59. 00 54. 28 62. 31 53. 99 63.28 60. 07 ci I* 43. 35 44.44 44. 21 45. 09 46. 90 46. 66 *a £ « 58. 65 55. 56 55. 79 53. 91 63. 10 53. 34 42. 94 57. 06 53. 17 40. 12 41. 19 37. 88 35.42 46. 83 59. 88 58. 81 62. 13 65. 58 Table VII. — Percentage of male and female students pursuing certain studies in private secondary schools , 1890-91. State or Territory. Latin. Greek. French. German. Algebra. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. United States . 55. 54 44. 46 81. 80 18. 20 32, 94 67. 06 51. 33 48. 67 55. 01 44. 99 North Atlantic Division . 56. 65 43. 35 86. 41 13. 59 38. 39 61. 61 52. 71 47. 29 60. 05 39. 95 South Atlantic Division . 58. 46 41. 54 87. 30 12. 70 34. 58 65. 42 58. 15 41.85 57. 24 42. 76 South Central Division . 49. 96 50.04 79. 27 20. 73 24. 50 75. 50 40. 93 59. 07 49. 68 50.32 North Central Division . . . 53. 09 46. 91 80. 80 19. 20 16. 25 83. 75 50.97 49. 03 51. 37 48. 63 W estern Division . 61. 53 38.47 49. 93 50. 07 31. 09 68. 91 40. 81 59. 19 48. 44 51. 56 State or Territory. Geometry. Physics. Chemistry. General history. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. United States . . 58. 33 41. 67 50. 11 49. 89 50. 02 49. 98 46. 52 53.48 North Atlantic Division . 63. 47 36. 53 55. 00 45. 00 58. 00 42. 00 49.06 50.94 South Atlantic Division . 62. 00 38. 00 52.44 47. 56 50. 73 49.27 50. 61 49. 39 South Central Division . 50. 83 49. 17 44.29 55. 71 39. 52 60. 48 44.64 55. 36 North Central Division . 52. 20 47. 80 48. 75 51. 25 49. 56 50.44 42. 57 57. 43 W estern Division . 57. 22 42. 78 41. 31 55.69 40. 39 59. 61 38.84 61. 16 810 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. A mere glance at these two tables shows that in the public schools the females constitute a large majority in Latin, French, algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, and general history, while the males have the larger number only in Greek and German. The relative percentages as to certain studies vary considerably in the different geographical divisions, especially in regard to French and German ; as, for instance, 72 per cent of those studying German in the North Atlantic Division are males, while in the Western Division over 70 per cent are females. In the South Central Division only 1 per cent studying French are males, and in the South Atlan¬ tic not quite 10 per cent. In physics and chemistry the percentages are the most uniform. In the table for private schools it will be found that the percentages are quite different from the public schools. Here the males are in a majority in every study except French and general history. In Latin the males are 55.54 per cent; in Greek, 81.80 per cent; in French, nearly 33 per cent; in German, 51.33 per cent; in algebra, 55 per cent ; in geometry, 58.33 per cent ; in physics and chemistry, 50 per cent ; and in general history, 46.52 per cent. The various geographical divisions show more uniformity, but there is the same difference in localities in regard to French and German, but perhaps not to so great a degree; for instance, in the North Central Division, only 16.25 per cent of those studying French are males. FINANCIAL SUMMARIES, ETC. Perhaps the most difficult thing to procure in the reports from the schools is that_ including a statement of financial matters. In regard to public high schools the difficulty arises largely from the fact that the matters of finance for these schools are included in the general financial statement of the public school system in- each locality and can not therefore be easily separated. On the other hand, the private institutions are somewhat averse to giving statistics which do not seem properly to belong to the public. To avoid this difficulty the d etailed statistics do not give these items in the reports as published. The following tables give the number of volumes in libraries, the value of buildings and grounds, the amount of State and municipal aid, the income from tuition fees, and the amount received from other sources. They are given as being very incomplete and therefore do not need much explanation. Table viii is a summary of financial statistics for public high schools and Table ix the same showing for private academies, seminaries, etc. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 811 Table YIII. — Summary of statistics of public high schools for 1890-91: Finances. State. Volumes in library. Value of grounds, buildings, and furni¬ ture. Amount of State and municipal aid. Income from tuition fees. Amount received from other sources. 1 22 as 34 25 26 United States . 1,068,542 $52, 634, 684 $7, 748, 004 $844, 261 $2, 820, 918 North Atlantic Division . . . 461, 837 18, 528, 259 1, 821, 951 405, 511 824, 327 South Atlantic Division . 28,121 1, 228, 040 276, 390 39, 839 213,250 South Central Division . . . — 30, 332 2, 058, 560 486, 783 ff*,995 49. 841 North Central Division. . — 513, 644 27, 840, 500 4, 660, 120 319, 406 1, 648, 036 Western Division . . 34, 608 2, 979, 325 702, 680 11, 510 85, 464 North Atlantic Division : Maine . . . ... 1,454 409, 250 70, 152 4, 557 11, 696 New Hampshire . .... . 14, 665 1, 755, 500 33, 846 3,834 1,800 Vermont . . . . . — 9, 378 384, 500 53,531 9, 408 27, 647 Massachusetts; . . 66, 518 4, 120, 005 259, 992 17, 131 28, 935 Bhode Island . . . 4,300 115, 196 3, 600 1,444 1,500 Connecticut - - — .. _ _ _ 25, 172 1,375, 102 121, 223 12, 898 27, 569 New York . .. . 262, 725 5, 434, 480 671, 917 328,989 520, 511 New Jersey - - - .. - 15, 039 1, 070, 000 173, 397 4,959 2, 571 Pennsylvania . . . . 61, 496 3, 864, 226 434, 293 22,291 201, 898 South Atlantic Division: Delaware . . . . 1, 028 156, 700 10, 990 715 4, 469 Marvland . 1,531 191, 250 47, 277 2,237 61,567 6, 210 Virginia . . . . 3, 276 255, 200 64, 286 7, 184* 6, 115 West Virginia _ _ .... _ .... _ _ 1 996 33, 940 17, 523 North Carolina . . 5, 543 127, 450 52, 367 2, 959 3, 627- South Carolina . 625 80, 800 15, 395 3,073 5, 460 Georgia.... . . — . 5, 913 239, 500 41, 477 20, 115 126, 942 Morida.-. . . . . 2,000 143,200 27, 075 3, 556 5,070 South Central Division : \ Kentucky . . . . . 11,437 574,705 120, 306 15,540 8, 224 Tennessee _ _ — . .... . 2, 926 152, 300 73, 482 7,725 1, 409 Alabama - - ... - 3, 206 27, 250 15, 228 4,365 1. 847 Mississippi . . ... . 1, 000 80, 200 25, 472 5,961 2, 240 Louisiana _ ............... _ _ _ 1, 170 62, 000 5, 047 7, 232 Texas . . . . . 9,878 1, 052^ 805 21o[ 105 29,569 19, 894 Arkansas . 715 109, 300 37, 143 4, 835 8, 995 Oklahoma . . . . . Indian Territory _ _ _ _ North Central Division: Ohio . . . 86, 867 6, 409, 080 1, 147, 473 89, 725 233, 426 Indiana - - - - - ... - 66, 320 1, 950, 197 338, 296 15, 927 80, 505 Illinois _ _ _ _ 70, 202 3, 639. 790 536, 225 47,029 320, 323 Michigan _ _ _ _ _ 132. 213 3, 057, 689 409, 691 36, 891 129, 824 Wisconsin ....... - - - .7, ........ .... 43,529 2, 177, 284 301, 036 38,226 106, 609 Minnesota . . . 42, 941 1, 998, 942 380, 176 7, 027 84, 413 Iowa . . . . . 42, 522 3, 151, 410 548, 165 27, 390 509, 977 Missouri . . . . . . 32, 679 1, 175, 311 251. 002 8,872 41,713 North Dakota . 606 85, 000 41, 022 661 5, 326 South Dakota . . . 1, 9 26 557, 800 98, 773 855 4, 000 Nebraska . . . 11,988 1, 408, 259 366, 586 8, 886 65, 752 Kan s. is . . . — _ 22, 851 2, 229, 728 241, 675 37,947 66, 168 Western Division : Montana . . . 1, 825 165, 000 48, 345 410 4, 825 Wyoming . . . . . . . 1, 017 148, 500 32, 080 36, 774 Colorado... . . . . . New Mexico . 7, 525 513, 725 98, 690 751 10,500 Arizona . . . . 524 136, 400 33, 400 Utah . 1, 641 164. 400 56, 169 175 4, 818 Nevada. . . . • 1, 331 191, 000 12, 200 336 88 Idaho . . . • 2, 305 356, 000 49, 910 687 2, 800 Washington . 1, 288 225, 000 19, 139 1,908 7, 099 Oregon . . . . 17, 149 1, 079, 300 352, 747 7,243 18, 560 812 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table IX. — Summary of statistics of endowed academies, seminaries, and other private secondary schools, for 1S90-91. LIBRARIES AND VALUE OE GROUNDS, ETC. State or Territory. Number of volumes in library. Value of grounds and buildings. Amount of productive funds. Ajnount of State or mu¬ nicipal aid received within the year. Receipts from tui¬ tion fees. Total income. 1 2 3 4 5 Q 7 United States . 1, 026, 166 $38, 878, 445 $1, 140, 899 $192, 245 $4, 414,655 $3, 894, 660 North Atlantic Division . 463, 170 21, 453, 554 887, 430 28, 576 2, 065, 027 2,034,704 South Atlantic Divison . 101, 139 3, 350, 680 80, 763 46, 247 500, 229 499, 536 South Central Division . 131, 357 3, 357, 525 103, 486 98, 504 552, 541 516, 280 North Central Division . 262, 454 6, 574, 605 57, 231 13, 130 889, 633 610, 338 W estern Division . 68, 046 4, 144, 681 11, 989 5, 788 407, 225 • 233, 802 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 16, 220 340, 000 15, 620 6, 370 25, 634 44, 802 New Hampshire . 21, 921 660,957 71, 796 24, 290 1,150 53, 428 87, 843 Vermont . 17, 550 759. 290 832 70, 889 48, 551 Massachusetts . 73, 755 2, 687, 837 85, 272 1, 490 363, 935 260, 388 Rhode Island . 1,225 165, 600 0 0 27. 000 21. 600 Connecticut . 23, 995 667, 500 19, 981 0 44; 933 49, 184 New York . 190, 678 6, 807, 632 101, 320 17, 534 934, 480 661,648 New Jersey . 29, 170 1, 646, 850 13, 543 1,200 263, 953 214, 678 Pennsylvania . 88, 656 7, 717, 888 555, 628 0 280, 775 646, 010 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 4, 250 142, 500 800 0 22, 413 21, 400 Maryland . 33, 702 804, 000 39, 310 8, 700 91, 294 185, 134 District of Columbia . 4, 450 170, 000 0 0 16, 846 10, 627 Virginia . 15, 549 726, 100 6, 875 1, 240 125, 656 65, 071 West Virginia . 425 7,000 750 0 2, 100 2, 850 North Carolina . 17, 662 464, 600 795 4, 477 103, 504 66, 811 South Carolina . 10, 581 299, 400 2, 075 6, 380 35, 235 40, 398 Georgia . 11, 120 677, 980 29,658 24, 900 97, 657 ' 102, 311 Florida . 3, 400 58, 500 500 550 5, 524 4, 934 South Central Division : Kentucky . ' 22, 805 420, 450 2, 450 3, 369 79, 116 76, 575 Tennessee . . . . 27, 674 759, 450 8, 300 13, 457 132, 481 111, 148 Alabama . 11, 602 434, 450 1, 200 5, 033 66, 180 76, 339 Mississippi . 12, 959 373, 650 8, 586 17, 265 58, 900 77, 842 Louisiana . 27, 425 243, 650 50 1,350 84, 872 40, 148 Texas . 21, 784 747, 425 2, 900 22, 530 97, 168 89, 959 Arkansas . 3, 064 148, 450 80, 000 3,500 21, 069 11, 869 Indian Territory . 4, 044 230, 000 0 32, 000 12, 755 32, 400 North Central Division: Ohio . . 75, 638 816, 350 9, 375 1, 500 181, 850 119, 807 Indiana . 10, 699 206, 500 1,100 9, 030 15, 240 25, 095 Illinois . 62, 240 1, 695, 300 6, 201 0 208, 666 100, 438 Michigan . 8, 376 475, 050 8, 077 0 101, 510 21, 730 Wisconsin . 27, 805 588, 500 4, 617 0 61,073 70, 955 Minnesota . 8, 956 808, 200 6, 152 0 38, 364 95, 502 Iowa . 14, 078 359, 250 11, 590 0 60, 861 31,900 Missouri . 34, 899 823, 505 7, 800 2, 600 167, 282 83,506 North Dakota . 2, 050 57, 000 0 0 350 4,200 South Dakota . 1,800 80, 000 1, 084 0 4, 062 3, 148 Nebraska . 8, 378 315, 300 500 0 17, 709 35, 520 Kansas . 7, 535 349, 650 735 0 32, 666 18, 537 Western Division: Montana . 632 68, 300 0 0 3, 500 0 Wyoming . 700 0 0 0 0 0 Colorado . 14, 050 486, 200 1, 000 0 14, 602 8, 550 New Mexico . 2, 372 63, 000 0 0 17, 200 11,000 Utah . 9, 508 325, 381 840 500 59, 293 31, 994 N evada . 650 50, 000 800 0 7, 000 2, 800 Idaho . 700 10, 000 500 0 1,500 3, 000 Washington . 4, 655 960, 700 6, 850 0 40, 073 40, 353 Oregon . 11,515 409, 600 1, 409 660 30, 669 22, 899 California . 23, 264 1,771,500 690 4, 628 239, 388 113, 206 CHAPTER XXII. HIGHER EDUCATION. Contents: — Universities and Colleges — Colleges for women — Scholarships— University extension — Latin pronunciation in colleges. I.— UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. Number of institutions. — The number of institutions included in the table devoted to the statistics of universities and colleges for the year 1890-91 is 430. This is an increase of 15 over 1889-90. Character of institutions— The institutions included under the above head may be divided into two classes, viz, colleges for males only and coeducational colleges. The fact that some of the older institutions of the country are gradually removing the barriers to the admission of women seems to justify the insertion of the fol¬ lowing summarized statement showing the number of colleges for males only and the number of coeducational colleges in the several States, together with the number of college students in attendance during the year under consideration. The discus¬ sion of the different colleges for women only is given further on. Table 1. — The number of colleges for males and the number of coeducational colleges in the several States. Colleges for males only. Coeducational colleges. States. Num¬ Male col¬ lege stu¬ dents. Num¬ College students. - ber. ber. Male. Female. TTnitcd States _ _ _ 148 19, 558 282 C (1 10) l 18,617 1 9, 250 North Atlantic, Division . . 48 31 9, 416 3, 650 2, 983 3,068 441 25 25 3,645 | 1,057 f (75) South. Atlantic Division . South Central Division . 27 49 l 881 | 387 3,029 1 1,705 f (35) North Central Division . 37 156 Western Division _ . 5 27 £ 10, 126 936 5, 620 481 North Atlantic Division: Ma in a . 1 185 2 253 72 New Hampshire . . . 1 256 0 0 0 "Vermont . . . . 0 0 2 195 44 Massachusetts . 7 2, 388 326 2 127 205 Nhode Island . 1 0 0 0 Connecticut . . 2 967 1 217 20 New York . 18 2, 784 5 1,344 336 New Jersey . . . 5 1,101 1, 409 0 0 0 Pennsylvania . .. . . . 13 13 3,509 380 813 814 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table 1. — The number of colleges for males and the number of coeducational colleges in the several States — Continued. States. Colleges for males only. Coeducational colleges. Num¬ ber. Male col¬ lege stu¬ dents. Num¬ ber. College students. Male. Female. South Atlantic Division : Delaware. .* . 1 81 0 0 0 Maryland . - . . — . . 7 653 3 117 119 1 83 3 111 34 Virginia . . . 7 1, 079 0 0 0 West Virginia . . . 0 0 3 206 57 North Carolina . . 6 656 5 275 88 South Carolina . . . 6 548 3 < 63 15 Georgia . 3 550 4 f l 69 5) 32 Florida . 0 0 4 40 42 South Central Division : Kentucky . 7 635 6 411 198 Tennessee . ... . 8 844 16 1, 061 431 Alabama . 4 691 3 87 109 Mississippi . 1 65 4 244 107 Louisiana . 5 595 5 161 172 Texas . 2 153 10 914 581 Arkansas . 0 •0 5 151 107 North Central Division : Ohio . . 5 376 32 2, 422 1, 231 Indiana . 4 629 11 f (( $ 803 3) 459 Illinois . 6 524 22 1, 428 749 Michigan . . . 1 51 10 1,351 746 Wisconsin . *. . 5 558 4 550 264 Minnesota . 4 225 7 561 339 Iowa . . 3 ' 141 19 1, 144 715 Missouri . 6 396 21 937 674 North Dakota . 0 0 3 22 16 South Dakota . 0 0 6 f (11) 5 77 I Nebraska . 1 33 7 272 | 152 Kansas . 2 135 14 f (1 x 559 8) 230 Western Division : Montana . . . 0 0 1 5 8 Wvoming . 0 0 1 5 8 Colorado . . . 0 0 4 82 50 Utah . 0 0 1 13 4 Nevada . 0 0 1 31 17 Washington . 1 6 3 36 31 Oregon . 0 0 6 227 149 California . 4 435 10 537 214 The above table shows that 282 institutions, or 65.6 per cent of the total number, are coeducational. The average number of students in attendance upon the several coeducational colleges was 99, while at the colleges for males it was 132. An exami¬ nation of the figures by divisions in the above table will show that coeducation has made least progress in the North Atlantic division of the country, while in the North Central and Western divisions the number of institutions to which women are not admitted is comparatively small. The number of coeducational institutions in the eastern section of the country is increasing, as evidenced by the recent action of some of the older New England in¬ stitutions, viz, Tufts College, Mass. ; Brown University, Providence, R. I. ; and Yale University, New Haven, Conn. The trustees of Tufts College voted to open the college in all departments to women on the same terms as to men, beginning with the year 1892-93. The action taken by Yale on the question of admitting women is contained in the report of President Dwight for the year 1891, from which the following is taken : “Near the close of the year a committee of the philosophical faculty, which had been appointed at an earlier date, took into serious consideration certain new arrangements and provisions connected with the courses of study in the graduate department. The report which they made, and which was subsequently recom¬ mended by the faculty and adopted by the corporation, was not presented until after the end of the year 1891. * * * The committee recommended that five fellowships, yielding $400 each, and twenty scholarships, yielding $100 each and covering the expense of tuition, should be established in the graduate department immediately, HIGHER EDUCATION. 815 on the foundation of present university funds. These fellowships they recommended should he opened to graduates of all colleges and universities whose membership in the department should begin not more than five years after their reception of the bachelor’s degree. They also recommended that in the academic year 1891-92, and afterwards, the courses for graduate study, leading to the degree of doctor of phi¬ losophy, should be open to graduates of all colleges and universities without distinc¬ tion of sex. The first of these provisions will prove to be of great advantage to well qualified and gifted students who, after graduation at any of our higher institutions of learning, may desire to prosecute further studies in our university, and to avail themselves of the privileges which it offers. The latter will present to the gradu¬ ates of our leading colleges for young women, as well as to those of similar colleges for young men, the opportunities which an old and large university affords. It is believed that the opening of these opportunities to young women who have previ¬ ously advanced to such a point in their studies in the institutions founded especially for them will prove to be a great advantage to the cause of the higher education. The objections which occur to many minds as bearing against the union of the two sexes in the same institution in the courses of undergraduate study have no existence or force as related to the uniting of the two in the graduate courses. The privilege of coming under the instruction of the best and ablest professors in a large uni¬ versity, of using its libraries, and of enjoying the many facilities for study under the highest advantages which it furnishes, must be a privilege of inestimable value. The university becomes by the offering of this privilege, not a rival or opponent of the colleges for women, but an ally and helper to them. It offers its graduate courses and its degree of doctor of philosphy to their graduates, and thus presents its gifts to these graduates as an addition to the gift which they have already received from their own institutions. It is gratifying to observe the favorable reception which has been given to this new plan and arrangement by the public and the Mends of education everywhere.” The question of rendering the appliances of Brown University available to young women, has received more or less attention from the corporation since 1885. A plan for the admission of women was adopted in 1886, but was never put into execution. In 1888 the corporation deemed it unwise to open its doors to women, but recom¬ mended that the faculty prepare a scheme by which women might be admitted to college examinations and receive certificates of proficiency. In accordance with this recommendation the faculty in February, 1890, prepared the following rules, which were approved by the corporation : “Young women may be admitted to examinations in Brown University on the fol¬ lowing conditions : “First. They shall take the entrance examinations at the same times and places and under the same conditions as young men. “Second. The advanced examinations they shall take at the college. “Third. In order to be admitted to advanced examinations, candidates must have passed all the entrance examinations and all examinations which cover the work of previous terms ; but candidates may present certificates in place of entrance exam¬ inations, subject to the same conditions which apply to young men. “ Fourth. The subjects for women’s examinations, when not identical with those in the courses of instruction given in college, shall in all cases closely correspond to them. “Fifth. For an entire set of entrance examinations or of advanced examinations, each candidate shall pay $10. For any extra examinations the fee shall be at the rate of $20 per set. Reports of proficiency will be given after all examinations. Upon the satisfactory completion of any course of study candidates will receive cer¬ tificates of their attainments.” The above rules were in force during the year 1891-’92, and thirteen young women availed themselves of the opportunities offered. In order to acquire the knowledge necessary to pass the examinations, women’s classes in all freshman studies were formed outside of college and received instruction substantially the same as that received by freshmen in college. As to graduate instruction for women the faculty, during the year 1891-92, recommended “that to women holding bachelors’ degrees, and, by special permission, to other women of liberal education, all the courses of instruction in the university intended for graduate students be opened on the same terms as to men.” 1 At the close of the session of 1892 the trustees of Georgetown College, George¬ town, Ky., determined to admit young ladies to the college tentatively. If coedu¬ cation is found to work favorably the doors will be opened permanently to young ladies. Professors and instructors. — The number of professors and instructors, male and female, employed in the several departments of universities and colleges, is shown in the following summary : 1 Reports of President of Brown University for 1890-’91 and 1891-’92. 816 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table 2. — Summary of statistics concerning professors and instructors in universities and colleges for 1890-91. State or Territory. United States - North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division. . South Central Division... North Central Division. . . Western Division . North Atlantic Division: Maine . New Hampshire . Vermont . Massachusetts . . Rhode Island . Connecticut . . New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division: Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia . Virginia . . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Plorida . South Central Division : Kentucky . . Tennessee . . Alabama . . Mississippi . . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . . North Central Division: Ohio . . Indiana . . Illinois . . Michigan _ .- . . Wisconsin . . Minnesota . . Iowa . Missouri . . North Dakota . South Dakota . . Nebraska . . Kansas... . Western Division: Montana . . Wyoming . . . . Colorado . . Utah . Nevada . . Washington . Oregon... . . California . . d Professors and instructors. n Preparatory Collegiate Professional Total number , OQ og departments. departments. departments. (excluding du¬ plicates). a d £ 73 | <0 7S i © 3 •a | 5 'S § & to X to 8 to 3 to 430 1,562 589 4, 220 499 1, 958 11 7, 350 1, 122 73 235 22 1,286 32 706 2 2,348 63 56 167 56 503 46 164 0 756 100 76 173 123 518 92 209 1 834 219 193 879 338 1,696 272 697 6 2, 919 622 32 108 50 217 57 182 2 493 118 3 0 0 37 0 16 0 52 0 1 0 0 18 0 17 0 48 0 2 0 0 32 0 20 0 50 0 9 31 2 233 3 202 2 543 5 1 0 0 35 0 0 0 35 0 3 0 0 99 0 62 0 193 0 23 113 6 416 7 245 0 814 17 5 5 0 109 0 4 0 114 0 26 86 14 307 22 140 0 499 41 1 0 0 8 0 0 0 8 0 10 40 12 140 15 3 0 153 18 4 29 0 37 0 98 0 163 7 7 20 2 87 0 17 0 114 2 3 7 1 24 1 3 0 32 2 11 26 18 77 6 18 0 108 18 9 22 4 69 5 7 0 85 6 7 9 7 43 6 18 0 74 30 4 14 12 18 13 0 0 19 17 13 29 13 79 12 24 0 122 23 24 72 45 156 31 120 0 306 62 7 4 9 67 3 4 0 75 14 5 7 7 33 5 7 0 41 11 10 31 17 87 19 45 1 160 45 12 24 24 79 16 9 0 104 46 5 6 s 17 6 26 18 37 177 71 303 47 144 3 586 131 15 64 16 167 19 49 0 276 42 28 151 67 252 36 188 1 527 112 11 43 23 149 15 60 1 234 47 9 43 11 120 15 25 0 143 17 11 62 9 119' 13 92 0 228 22 22 75 50 166 34 77 1 298 89 27 116 36 189 43 17 0 278 64 3 10 4 13 3 1 0 18 3 6 37 21 35 12 0 0 42 23 8 40 13 64 14 39 0 122 21 16 61 17 119 21 5 0 167 51 1 3 3 3 3 0 0 10 5 1 6 1 7 1 13 2 4 23 11 30 11 33 0 96 23 1 9 0 g 0 18 2 1 2 2 7 1 0 0 8 2 4 12 8 10 9 1 0 19 13 6 11 5 23 8 49 0 70 16 14 42 20 129 24 99 2 259 55 The above table is self-explanatory and needs bnt a few words in the way of com¬ ment. It will be seen that a considerable proportion of the teaching force is composed of women, but it may be well to state that a large number of them are engaged as instructors in music, art, etc. Especially noticeable is the very small number of women professors in the professional departments. Students. — The number of students enrolled in universities and colleges during the year shows a gratifying increase over the number enrolled in 1889-;90. The princi¬ pal items respecting the attendance and classification of students is given in the fol¬ lowing summary: Table 3. — Summary of statistics concerning students in universities and colleges for 1890-91. HIGHER EDUCATION. 817 Students. •sasanoo puj-ied jo xtqoods. aaqJO 4, 115 1 a I- 1 8 r-T 8 'll j 1-1 • : : hh •oojgop ;g -a £ t-' 1, 521 345 1,464 3, 575 H O 60 63 0 60 755 144 439 3 17 20 •aojSap a 'V s s Sis 1 § OO" CO rH ®" 506 194 109 2, 320 214 1, 101 2, 295 718 1,517 58 783 157 549 123 Total num¬ ber (exclud¬ ing dupli¬ cates) . •oXBuioa i jfa 1 1 Ijg 1 72 0 44 290 0 59. 877 0 1,024 0 227 115 0 63 •OX'BK g 1 1 el2iei 8 S' S3 g? ^ Ills 111 I! S!!!S m" rHOrHlO HHrt Other de- partments. •OXBUIOa ll II l~s l -r g’Hg-.-g 0 0 0 1 0 36 346 0 487 0 52 62 0 idents. ents. dents. nts. •OXUPT eit- S 1 =3=8S3 iH r-T CO 0 108 0 281 0 387 950 56 172 0 95 198 18 lonresi mresid Lonresi ireside III r •OXBUiaa 5. g 3 ^TIT OOOOOOHOO ®oooo® gO § r* rH OO ®e«») 117,074 5,478 1,946 2, 098 7, 012 540 102 98 203 1,120 0 318 2, 354 37 1, 246 0 84 1,057 307 26 Include Include Include Include III 2® 3 •9[UXU0a g !°-r ®®°®OCO£®CO ®®®®® •aiBjxx s 3 I, 124c 319 9! II, 052e 30 °|Ot0Cq. Collegiate depart¬ ments. •oxBuxaa J o cT § S I 13 hjj r-rs'o ,0I«M T— i 8 13,061 | (7 4, 531 6,012 (3 13, 194 1, 377 438 256 195 2, 515 326 1, 184 4,128 1, 101 2, 918 81 770 194 1, 079 206 t dex>artments. •oxrutaa s S3 1 1 1 SI =? OOOOOOIgO® ® ® (N O ® . S-S 0-B •oxur *■ J5 co ^ p: s i §"in rf Cd" h* CO rH" 0 0 0 392 0 0 2, 377 72 1, 336 0 476 301 195 140 tonreside mresidei tonreside nresiden •suoijujtjsut jo jaqumjj s g 8 , g | ‘ 8 | | CO^OrHCOg,®® States and Territories. United States . North Atlantic Division. . . South Atlantic Division . . . South Central Division .... North Central Division. . . . Western Division . . . North Atlantic Division : Maine . Vermont . ‘ . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . South Atlantic Division: Delaware . Maryland . District of Columbia. . . Virginia . West Virginia . a Includes b Includes c Includes d Includes ED 91 - -52 Table 3. — Summary of statistics concerning students in universities and colleges for 1890-91 — Continued. 818 EDUCATION REPORT, 1830-91. Students; •sasjnoo '[uijjud jo jeioads joqjo f> • O ^ O CO C54dC4 C5 • CO xi< Cl. CO 00 CO ' »f2 OJ • CO lO 00 CO* rH T}< CO tji C4 Id • Cl rH O HHC Cl CO • rH 00 ZQ • rH . CO t— 1 CO COH O rH * rH •asjnoo ssauisng 122 29 106 2 124 162 22 25 226 120 12 750 51 713 137 293 234 617 541 v 25 112 86 345 ■osjnoo|Boi3o§Bpag 100 65 102 2 71 395 96 134 215 90 48 522 126 248 189 14 111 201 275 47 137 84 137 1 o tQ .9 O m o w 3 o o hC .9 *3 CQ & •saojSop jsjg Jaqjo m • h< o • • • id • co o m ! I ^ Cl O OCO N « 05 04 ' rH ^ lO • • CO • 00 iO •oojSop -g ‘g 130 98 5 233 516 161 127 300 65 62 474 313 955 119 141 177 599 269 12 18 125 254 •oajSap g *y 678 239 469 23 249 492 223 95 454 227 61 1,583 756 936 341 434 263 650 680 23 69 155 396 8 3^ 1PI •g U &£>« -2 ® p •ojeumg OOO h CO »a C5HC>l>CO rH OO (Nt^NH COlOCl cooo o O rH C5 tD O CO CO (N H lO CO OO C4 C5 tD ia co i> ^ co Oco w't- »h t- o a wd o o a on ia i> o co o >a o oo id coco cocoo:t> oi>w tho cm 00H H N rH ia HD co H lO Id rH CO CO rH rH OOH rH CO rHrHv r-T C4 C^f CO* CO^ C^T CcT CO r-T 04* ®i ® •epjuiog CiOCOO O CO • 04 CO O O0 ia ^ O CO 04 04 rH 00 • rH CO CO C-'HO O .OlHQ 04 o Ol co O CO 00 U0 O • 05 CO ia rH rH O ^ • rH 05 _ 05 04 rH l> CO • 04 ia : p ^ ro ^ j S 4 Q "c3 a o- a ) 3 ■8pK . Pi t> " » 2R . CO rH 04 CO Ol O O 05 .OJHD^OO >^ia ^C5 CO C5 t- ^j,oo »a • wia CO ^co HD O r-» *00 005 rH O 00 OOtH^OO CO * t>04 CO rH CO 04 • Id ia ^ H H 04 ia • rH CO t » ■0[Binag OOOOO ‘OCOOOOCOO CO 00 M iaHL- IM OO « T* rH 04 CO 05 rH to q. K £ ® 2 0^3 S £ *ai«H I 226 61 185 0 361 954 30 47 513 143 50 1,246 309 2, 303 1,248 312 476 697 267 1 74 79 o % -g o5 rH . OX) eS © Pig H © 3 O'd H O •oinurag OOiXS^^’^'lM 00 r-l O (>• !M t-I t~ i-l ^o' OS CO OS lO -f CO ^io'(M 00 H CO-1* OSCOOOt-ODO CO US 1# TlOra H t'H iflfS CO H 1# HriH® H hflM t» ® t-1 CM in rt S' i-i ao •aiBK ID tH rH rH r-l ^C5 O O ia 00050D H OO 04 04 Ol CC CD ia CO 04 'iD ia W'-H co th hh 'Hot^oincoia C5 coiaoooooocooi ido o 050 O O 05 CD CC Id O rH ID H ,C5 HhD W CO CO O rH rH r-T 04 rHrHr-iT-TrHrH >5 ® SH +=> O P "3 g Is si •ajeniag O ia OH ID ^O ua H 00 0-1 ID /^h' 04 H^04 C5 O O 00C5 CO CO O CO O OdDCID H 05 CO ID Ol H O Cl H OO COCO 04 .M Ol COHi H CO H Ol CO tHH'tHOICIId r-i 04 ta hT o o’-1 71 oo •aiBK ia oo ^04 04 ID WH CO C5 CO CO rl05 00 XhH< id CO id ^C5 oo £ico CO C5 O CO 05 04 CO O H 04 CO CO OHfOO CO COO r— CO ta COCO 04 04 CO iOCOCOCOOOl 05 rH OOOCO ia DH OliO C5 rH of t— T oT r-i r-T •suoijnjijsui jo joqumsj HO t- ^ B HI t-OON K) t- ITS CO HOSH M ® 00 O rH rH CX HH COrHlMnrHCHIM rH States and Territories. 1 South Atlantic Division- Continued. North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . Florida . South Central Division : Kentucky . Tennessee . Alabama . Mississippi . Louisiana . Texas . Arkansas . North Central Division : Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . Michigan . Wisconsin . Minnesota . Iowa . . . Missouri . North Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . Kansas . HIGHER EDUCATION. 819 -S3 £ ‘8 § IS 3 ° %%%£ S o o 2 10 o o • a iO 00 rH o 177 8 16 °®S 00 CO 18 15 29 19 322 *■ s **r« I2.S|| | SH'^SS © rH w s - o . 48 "§ 1 © tH o © CO & 8 8 50 4 17 31 149 214 sacg s ssss | ss g ssgs | gJS g «gg I I. is- s|.i ty s£ o phH< ss JJ’SS \4s. « fl § 2 53i£« §333 P3 t3 h3 S 3 3 S 'ooro o 3^3 s|!l .15 ° § a S2ss s$ss P P f3 a 73 O Ty 'o ss&s -2 . . sSgg c w if5 p 3 3 33 Sill ooo o e^o « ^ 820 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. This table shows that the total number of students in attendance upon all the courses of study of the several institutions was 124,684, of which number 29,734, or almost 24 per cent, were women. Of the 47,535 students in the regular college de¬ partments almost 20 per cent were women. The number of students in the graduate departments shows a marked increase over last year’s figures. As will he seen by the footnotes appended to the above table, 930 of the graduate students were non¬ residents ; that is, students pursuing advanced courses of study at their homes or places other than the institutions at which their names are enrolled. The total number of students enrolled in graduate departments was 2,863, of which number but 8.6 per cent were women. Notwithstanding the considerable increase in the number of institutions, it is found that the number of students in the preparatory departments was less than during the preceding year. The University of Kansas reports that no preparatory work will be done by that institution after the close of the year 1890-’91. This goes to show that the academies and high schools are now able and willing to prepare students for the freshman class of the university, thus allowing the entire force of the university to be devoted to college and university work. The number of students in the several degree and other courses is also given in the above table. As will be seen, a large number of students were enrolled in nor¬ mal and business courses. Besides these, there are also courses in music, art, etc., in a large number of the institutions. The following table shows the percentage of college students in the several de¬ gree courses offered by 368 universities and colleges : Table 4. — Per cent of college students in the several degree courses in 1890-91. State or Territory. Number of colleges reporting classification of students. Number of undergraduate college students. Per cent of college students in regular degree courses. Per cer course © © f-i fcfi © © CD H © O United States . 368 41, 215 87.0 58.4 20.8 6.3 7.5 3.0 4.0 North Atlantic Division . 70 13,744 91.1 71.7 12.2 2.0 4.4 4.3 5.4 South Atlantic Division . 50 4,168 89.6 82.5 9.2 1.8 2.7 2.5 1.3 South Central Division . 51 4, 724 78.9 48.3 39.3 4.6 1.7 3.7 2.4 North Central Division . 168 16. 807 86.1 44.5 25.8 11.3 12.3 1.9 4.2 'Western Division . 29 1, 772 79.8 46.8 28.7 8.9 14.1 0.6 0.9 North Atlantic Division : Maine . 3 510 99.2 100.0 0 0 0 0 0 New Hampshire _ - 1 256 100. 0 75.8 24.2 Vermont . 2 239 96.2 47.4 26.1 0 13.5 13.0 0 Massachusetts _ _ 9 2, 720 90. 4 94. 3 2.6 1.1 2.0 Rhode Island . 1 326 82.2 79.9 0 0 20.1 0 0 Connecticut . . . 3 1, 204 96.5 94.7 5.2 0 0 0.1 New York . 23 4, 464 90.7 56.7 18.7 3.1 6.7 4.3 10.5 New .T ersey _ _ . _ 5 1, 101 87.7 74. 3 14.9 8. 0 2.8 Pennsylvania . 23 2, 924 90.0 57.6 16.7 2.4 6.5 10.0 6.8 South Atlantic Division : Delaware . 1 81 100.0 71.6 3.7 0 0 24.7 0 Maryland 10 889 90.0 97. 9 2.1 District nf Clolnmhia. 3 162 96.9 100. 0 Virginia . . . 5 663 88.4 93.7 3.4 0.3 2.6 TVest. Virginia, . _ 3 263 61.6 75.9 15.4 8.7 North Carolina . 11 1,019 93.3 71.3 13.7 2.7 7.5 2.2 2.6 Smith Larnlina, . 7 363 90. 6 72.6 21.9 5.5 Georgia . 6 646 96.6 75.2 15.7 0 1.5 3.8 3.8 Florida . 4 82 52.4 73.5 11.6 32.6 2.3 0 0 South Central Division : Kentucky g 708 76. 6 45. 9 43.0 8.5 2.6 Tennessee _ 16 1, 407 82. 4 42.4 44. 5 4. 8 2.5 5.8 Alabama, . . 5 582 71. 5 53.5 38.6 7.9 Mississippi . 4 273 100.0 34.8 46.5 1.5 0 0 17.2 Louisiana _ _ 9 850 88.7 60.2 39.8 Texas . 7 718 55.0 57.5 16.4 17.0 2.5 5.8 0.8 Arkansas . 2 186 100.0 32.8 33.3 12.4 21.5 HIGHER EDUCATION. 821 Table 4 .—Per cent of college students in the several degree courses in 1890-’91— Cont’d. State or Territory. North Central Division : Ohio . Indiana . Illinois . . Michigan . . . "Wisconsin . Minnesota . . . Iowa . . . Missouri . North Dakota . South Dakota . Nebraska . Kansas . W estern Division : Montana . "Wyoming. . . Colorado . Nevada . "Washington . Oregon . California . Number of colleges reporting classification of students. Number of undergraduate college students. Per cent of college students in regular degree courses. Per cent of students in regular degree courses pursuing courses leading to — A. B. Degree. B. S. Degree. B. L. Degree. Ph. B. Degree. C. E. Degree. Other first degrees. 33 4, 096 83.4 1 46.3 i 13.9 13.3 18.2 1.7 6.6 12 1, 413 91.3 58.6 24.3 3.4 13.3 0.4 25 2, 394 91. 8 42.6 43.5 7.7 6.1 0 0.1 9 1,724 88.9 32.0 26.0 16.8 19.8 2.1 3.3 8 1,232 88.1 40.0 13.0 21.7 4.1 3.2 18.0 9 1,054 70.7 35.3 23.8 24.4 5.9 4.0 6.6 21 1, 973 90.9 36.2 33.4 5.3 17.7 5.0 2.4 21 1,427 79.5 59.9 23.7 4.4 7.7 0.8 3.5 3 38 100.0 60.5 31.6 7.9 5 133 81.2 63.9 16.7 1.8 17.6 7 447 83.0 41.8 33.7 22.3 2.2 15 876 87.0 52.0 33.3 7.7 4.6 2.4 1 13 76.9 70.0 30.0 1 13 100. 0 61.5 38. 5 4 132 79.5 50.5 17.1 15.3 17.1 0 0 1 48 100.0 68.8 31.2 0 0 0 0 3 67 92.5 37.1 46.8 16.1 5 347 80.1 88.9 6.8 3.6 0.7 12 1,152 77.9 33.2 35.9 9.1 19.7 1.0 1.1 RATIO OF COLLEGE STUDENTS TO POPULATION. Tlie ratio of college students to population is an important item of information, and one 'wliicliis frequently called for by correspondents of the Bureau. The ratio of the total number of college students to the total population of the country is easily obtained, but to arrive at the ratio for any one State or section of the country re¬ quires the expenditure of a considerable amount of time, though this is undoubt¬ edly justified by the facts obtained. This office possesses as complete a file of the catalogues of the colleges as it has been possible to obtain, and these have been fully examined for the purposes of this investigation. It has been necessary to examine each catalogue to find the State residences of the students enrolled in the institutions of each State. Satisfactory information respecting the students was obtained from the catalogues of but 361 institutions. This was due to the fact that some institutions do not publish the residence of the students, while others, though giving the residence of the students, do not distinguish between college and other students. Students in the collegiate departments only have been considered, all preparatory and professional students having been excluded. Technological schools are not included. To give the residence of students in each individual institution concerned would require more space than can be given to the subject. Therefore the results of the investigation have been somewhat condensed, the State residences of students at¬ tending the colleges of the several States being given. The first part of the table, pp. 822-826, gives merely the State residences of the stu¬ dents, while the ratio of college students to the population will be found on p. 827. We find that frequently a ratio of college students to population for the several States is obtained by dividing the population of the several States by the number of students attending college in the respective States. In order to show the difference between the results obtained by each method, both have been here employed, and the results obtained embodied in the table. It will be seen, for example, that although there are 1,773 students in the colleges of Connecticut, only 802 students from Connecticut were enrolled in the 361 insti¬ tutions included in Table 5, showing that while the real ratio in this case is 930, the one given to the State by the other method is 421. In the case of Delaware more students of the State attend the colleges of the country than are enrolled in the college of the State. Similar instances will be found throughout the table. <822 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table 5. — Showing residence (or domicile) of students attending college in the several States. NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION. Residence (or domicile) of students. State or Territory in which college is situated. O b0 o !i o CO u Maine. 6 3 * 02 a 4 4 p a p k A 6 CQ P A p •540 98 123 1 23 8 317 n i 1 1 116 15 li 1 1 i North. Atlantic Division . . . South Atlantic Division . . . South Central Division .... North Central Division . . . . 219 161 10 2 56 15 26 " 8 12 32 3 l 1* 1- 6 37 5 li 1 1 X 199. 71 42 1 238 40 6 36 15 10 35 8 33 4 2 2 _ _ _ - 1 North Atlantic Division : Maine . . 6 l 1 li r "NTp.w TTampshirn _ _ 1 3 3 2 Massachusetts _ _ .... 125 6 53 26 1 New York . . 58 3 1 1 1 i 1 Pennsylvania . . 32 1 ■2 9 1 2 South Atlantic Division : Maryland ... _ ... 9 1 1 Virginia _ .... 21 2 6 3 10 1 North Carolina. . . . 8 1 9 Smith Carolina, . 39 19 Georgia . . . 93 9 8 17 3 South Central Division : Kentucky . . 45 4 7 1 13 4 Tennessee . . . 24 37 14 79 15 1 Alabama. _ _ _ _ 36 27 91 15 5 Mississippi _ 12 8 51 6 Louisiana . . i 4 Texas ..... _ _ _ 5 2 9 4 North Central Division : Ohio . 17 4 1 9 8 Illinois . . ........ 9 5 8 2 1 Minnesota . 3 1 Missouri . 6 11 6 21 22 3 Kansas . . 4 "Western Division: California. _ _ 2 2 1 1 III.— SCHOLARSHIPS. A scholarship, as defined by Webster, is a foundation for the support of a student, or maintenance for a scholar. The income from scholarships depends entirely upon the amount of the principal invested for this special purpose, and in a majority of cases covers merely what is known as the tuition fee. In other cases the income is considerably greater, and very often is sufficient to defray all expenses while at col¬ lege. The x>l»n of founding scholarships usually adopted is to bequeath or set aside a certain sum or sums of money, only the income of which is to be paid to the person or persons who become the holders of the scholarships. It is often demanded as a condition for obtaining the scholarships that the appli¬ cants shall be indigent and unable without this assistance to pursue a college course. This condition has been objected to by a number of writers on this subject, promi¬ nent among them being ex-President J. L. Pickard, of the State University of Iowa. This gentleman, at the meeting of the National Educational Association, in July, 1890, read a paper on scholarships, in which he said : “Scholarships have been devised as a means whereby the best talent may be en¬ couraged in pursuit of an education. To the system as practiced there arc some serious objections. u (1) They are in the wrong hands. They are under the control of men who have no opportunity of selecting from the mass the most promising youth, but who must make their selection from those who present themselves as candidates for assistance. This class of candidates may be of the very best material. The chances are, how¬ ever, that very many will be found among them whose only ambition is to secure an easier place than that assigned them by fortune. The same amount of money con¬ trolled by those who know more of the native energy of the young man before he becomes an applicant fo? help, by those who are seeking the material fit for molding, and who will give just enough encouragement to secure on the part of the benefic¬ iary the best effort of which he is capable, will do far more good than the alluring 836 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. baits held out before young men who are watching, not working, for better place. If the men who endow scholarships would select their own beneficiaries there would be a better use of the money given in many instances. “(2) They are designated as helps to indigent students, so that the recipients are at once set over by themselves as a distinct class. To a young man of spirit there is much that is repulsive in such a classification. If by his own efforts he is securing an education he is respected. Many a young man desirous of social standing attempts to conceal the fact that he is supported by trust funds, and, unable to conceal it, he would make it appear that he is not at all dependent upon them, and expends upon luxuries what he receives for his necessities. “ (3) The considerations already adduced lead naturally to this, that scholarships as ordinarily administered do not secure the end sought. They do not bring out the talent which poverty keeps latent. • They do bring forth those who will ever be dependent. Most strenuous efforts have been made in the direction of aid to pro¬ fessional students of one class. No profession shows a larger proportion of imprac¬ tical men. Freed from the cares of life during the period of preparation, they have failed to receive the training which acquaintance with practical affairs gives one who is compelled to meet and conquer difficulties as he earns his own living.” To remedy these defects the same writer suggested: “(1) Let wealthy men who desire to aid worthy students select their own benefi¬ ciaries. “(2.) Let the mark of indigence be taken from the*recipients of scholarships already established by throwing them open to competition. There need be no fear that the most needy will not take the largest share of the benefits, and “(3) Not poverty but pluck will win the coveted aid, and the recipient will not b e a dependent upon the bounty of another, but will receive the wages he has fairly earned.” The number of scholarships and loan funds is constantly increasing. An -attempt has been made to collect statistics on this subject, and the data, though not com¬ plete, are as follows : Amount available for — Total amount. Males. Females. Males or females. Undergraduate scholarships . General funds (undergraduate) . Fellowships . . . . . $196, 748 89, 245 71, 214 23, 660 $17. 510 23, 922 2, 300 $91, 629 28, 385 14, 950 1, 200 $305, 887 141, 552 88. 464 24, 860 Graduate scholarships . — Total . . 380,867 1 43, 732 136, 164 560, 763 The detailed information is given in the following tables. Besides the institutions included in these tables, a large number of the State universities do not charge tuition, especially for students from their own States. If the tuition thus made free was included in the preceding summary, the amounts would be considerably larger than thus appears : Table 1. — Number of scholarships with the annual income from each, available to under¬ graduate males, females, or both sexes, in the colleges and universities of the United States. For males. « S o $300 For females. $300 175 150 200 250 225 For males or females. •5 $40 Name of institution. La Fayette (Ala.) College . University of California, Berkeley, Cal Mills College (Cal.). HIGHER EDUCATION. 837 Tabl^ 1. — Number of scholarships, ivith the annual income from each, etc. — Continued. © | A 7 9 10 11 12 13 11 15 16 17 18 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 39 For males. For females. For males or females. Kamo of institution. © .S a p A © g , © "c3 g §i v u © r© a p A © | . S © .5 C« ® "1 a P o P.±< < © ft © g O ri C ^ 73 g £ o E P ^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 $600 140 1 1 $325 150 1 . 3 60 4 30 35 ioo 10 al77 1 100 5 48 l 200 &:o4 2 800 75 ] 400 1 300 7 125 81 115 13 100 2 75 27 60 23 50 2 35 3 25 John B. Stetson University, Be Land, Ela . 2 180 northwestern University, Evanston, Ill . 1 $53 1 53 Lombard University, Galesburg, Ill . 15 60 Illinois College, Jacksonville, 111 . . . 8 45 2 36 Lake Forest (Ill.) University . ^ Shurtleff College, Upper Alton, Ill . £ 4 1 6 90 60 36 60 1 1 1 li 300 90 -72 30 7 5 13 18 W H fin ton mil noi si Col leer a _ _ 2 50 Moore’s Bill fLndianal Colleve _ _ _ ... 108 ' 30 Earlham College, .Richmond, Ind . 25 65 Coe College, Cedar liapids, Iowa . 6 37 Griswold College, Davenport, Iowa . 1 300 Dos Moines (Iowa) College . . . . S 70 Parsons College, Fairfield, Iowa . ( 44 14 35 38 Iowa College, Grinnell, Iowa . 3 35 26 35 5 35 Lenox College, Hopkinton, Iowa . . . 3 30 Cornell College, Mt. Vernon, Iowa . 10 36 3 36 100 15 Tabor (Iowa) College. . . 7 28 'Western College, Toledo, Iowa . . . 37 25 Highland (Kansas) University.... . . . 1 35 Berea (Kentucky) College . 73 9 Ogden College Bowlin ^ Green T\ y 100 30 Centre College, Danville, Ivy 49 50 50 Georcotown (Kentucky! College _ ... .. 5 . . . Central University, Richmond, Ky _ 82 GO Bethel College, Russellville, Ky 40 Tulane University, Hew Orleans La ... 124 so 3 .100 4 75 Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me . 25 cr.55 3 allO 2 al37 22 a75 Batos Collfiorfij 7\p,vy i sf on : TVTfi _ 1 36 39 36 Colby University, W nterville, Ate _ _ _ _ f 30 60 36 St. John’s College, Annapolis, Md . \ 26 200 £ 40 15 75 Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md . ^ 6 225 11 : 125 . ! b Average income. a Estimated. 838 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table 1 — Number of scholarships, with the annual income from each, etc. — Continued. 8 40 41 43 44 45 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 Name of institution. Eor males. Eor females. Eor males or females. g p {ZJ o 04 .§ § © 3 8 P o Pi <1 ’ Fh © rO B p £ © a o A b! P o Pi P U o p & © § r o .5 <3 cs g P o P£j p^ <1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 C 17 \ 1 $100 150 5 $180 < 26 ) 26 $200 45 f Amherst (Massachusetts) College . ] 3 1 1 2 3 3 40 123 3 140 100 75 70 45 40 60 100 50 I ! . Boston (Massachusetts) University . ^ | 32 1 100 200 51 100 ! 1 Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. . . 2 2 1 3 a 3 b 2 b 2 b 2 c 33 b 4 d 26 27 e33 6 1 60 75 80 90 100 120 125 140 150 160 200 250 300 325 400 i Mount Holyoke Seminary and College, South Had¬ ley, Mass . . . . . . . . ... .... j f 1 || 300 333 335 206 200 70 50 Erencli Protestant College, Springfield, Mass . £ Tufts College, Mass . ^ 1 College of the Holy Cross, Worcester, Mass . 1 1 48 4 3 7 5 4 90 25 100 50 60 50 250 50 Macalester College, St. Paul, Minn . University of Mississipni, University, Miss . University of the State of Missouri, Columbus, Mo. Ozark College, Greenfield. Mo . 2 23 50 10 William Jewell College, Liberty, Mo . 6 40 Park College, Parkville, Mo . 28 75 Washington University, St. Louis, Mo . | . Central Wesleyan College, Warren ton, Mo . . . 6 80 24 { i n 150 90 80 50 80 1 Gates College, Neligh, Nebr . . . Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H . 100 90 12 1 1 70 100 200 225 125 College of New Jersey (Princeton) . . . . i St. Bona venture’s College, Allegany, N. "S’ . j St. Stephen’s College, Annandale, N.Y . | St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y . C 33 i » 45 60 St. John’s College, "Ford ham, N. Y . . 1 /300 150 100 50 280 175 Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y . 1 21 1 3 1 2 ! 1 i 1 a 1 in divinity school. b In divinity school. c 4 in law school. d 4 in medical school. e 1 in medical school. / Estimated. HIGHER EDUCATION. 839 Table 1. — Number of scholar ships, with the annual income from each, etc. — Continued. Name of institution. For males. a . §1 For females. .5 a pi^1 < For males or females. 1 a 68 86 Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y . Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y . . Barnard College, New York City . . . College of St. Francis Xavier, New York City _ Columbia College, New York City . . University of the City of New York, New York City £ Niagara University (New York) . .. $30 90 72. 60 54 50 62 . 100 . <*300 . olOO |. 200 Syracuse (New York) University . . University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C Davidson College, North Carolina . . 75 j Yassar College Poughkeepsie, N. Y . I 76 | University of Eockester (New York) . \ 77 I Union University, Schenectady, N. Y. 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 300 200 150 Eutherford College (North Carolina) Trinity College (North Carolina).... Fargo (North Dakota) College . Buchtel College, Akron, Ohio . Findlay (Ohio) College . 60 240 120 SO 40 Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio . Marietta (Ohio) College... Urbana (Ohio) University. 245 100 93 78 70 45 89 "Wilberforce (Ohio) University . University of "Wooster (Ohio) . Muhlenberg College, Allentown, Pa Bryn Mawr (Pennsylvania) College. Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pa. . . . Thiel College, Greenville, Pa . Haverford College (Pennsylvania) 30 50 96 ! Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pa. 97 j Allegheny College, Meadville, Ps 300 200 220 50 420 400 360 ISO 300 480 50 j Central Pennsylvania College, New Berlin, Pa. 99 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. ... ^ "Washington (Pennsylvania) and Jefferson College 100 150 100 113 75 60 31 96 200 $200 <*40 200 <*50 60 30 70 42 100 70 51 50 30 a 30 a Estimated. 840 Table 1. — Number of scholarships , with the annual income from each , etc. — Continued. Name of institution, For males. 13 3 2 g For females. I* o 3 .5 g 3 § ◄ For males or females. U o o •SS 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 Brown University, Providence, R. I. Presbyterian College of (Clinton) South Carolina. South Carolina College, Columbia, S. C . Erskine College, Due West, S. C . Newberry (South Carolina) College . Itedfield (South Dakota) College . Tanktou (South Dakota) College . $50 200 250 190 75 100 Southwestern Presbyterian University, Clarksville, Tenn . 50 175 70 140 75 a 50 Knoxville (Tennessee) College . . 110 | Maryville (Tennessee) College . 111 Central Tennessee College, Nashville, Tenn. 112 114 115 116 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn. Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn. University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.. Middlebury (Vermont) College . University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. Uampden-Sidney (Virginia) College . . Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va. Richmond (Virginia) College . Roanoke College, Salem, Va. Whitman College, Walla Walla, Wash Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis. . Beloit (Wisconsin) College . 618 13 i 65 1 2 1 1 12 4 12 30 1 University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Marquette College, Milwaukee, Wis . Ripon (Wisconsin) College . 40 100 300 60 45 300 250 120 300 60 300 75 70 GO 35 $50 50 30 90 60 30 60 150 100 50 65 70 300 250 120 50 200 250 35 a Estimated. 6 Biblical department. s a £ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 HIGHER EDUCATION. 841 jle 2. — Annual income from general scholarship funds available to undergraduate males, females, oy both sexes, in the universities and colleges of the United States. Institutions. Income from funds available to — Males. Females. Males or females. University of Denver (Colorado) . Yale University, Yew Haven* Conn . University of Georgia, Athens, Ga . Atlanta (Georgia) University . . German-English College, Galena, Ill . Lake Forest (Illinois) University . Shurtleff College, Upper Alton, Ill . Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Ind . Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa . Oskaloosa (Iowa) College.... . Penn College, Oskaloosa, Iowa . Washburn College, Topeka, Hans . . . Amherst (Massachusetts) College . Boston (Massachusetts) University . Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. . . . Smith College, Northampton, Mass . Tufts College (Massachusetts) . . Wellesley (Massachusetts) College . Williams College, Williamstown, Mass... Carleton College, North held, Minn . University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo - Central College, Fayette, Mo . University of Omaha (Nebraska) . Doane College, Crete, Nebr . _. . St. Stephen’s College, Annandale, N . Y . . . Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y . Elmira (New York) College . Vassar, College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y . Union University, Schenectady, N. Y . Buchtel College, Akron, Ohio . Oberiin (Ohio) College . . Pacific University, Forest Grove, Oregon. Haverford College (Pennsylvania) . Brown University, Providence, It. I . Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn . Hampden-Sidney (Virginia) College . Bichmond (Virginia) College . . . Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis . It ip on (Wisconsin) College.. . Total $9, 350 ad, 000 300 S," 666’ «9, 070 "25,’ 666' 250 *9,666 400 6, OCO a2, 375 a3, 000 7, 000 2, 500 7, 500 1, 500 $9, ICO . 7, 509 1, 500 5, 822 89, 245 23, 922 $1, 320 1, 141 420- 910 7,000 100 a60 1, 100 3, 065 1, 800 1, 600 295 136 1, 71S a2, 580 400 3,000 1,200 540 23, 385 a Estimated. 842 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. Table3. — Number of fellowships and scholarships, with the annual income from each, available to graduate students in the universities and colleges of the United States . 1 Males. Females. Males or females. i © S Institutions. © a £ Annual income from each. U a. a & Average number at lectures. Average number at class. I Average number of weekly papers. Passed examination.