% \_Whole Number 181 REPORT OF TIIE THE YEJ^R 1888-89. m UWGER PROPERTY OF FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY Volume I. CON'T^IIS’IlSrG- Part I. — Chapters I to X — A General and Comparative Exhibit of Education in the United States and Foreign Countries. Part II. — Chapters XI to XXI — Normal Schools, Manual Training, Courses of Study, etc. WASHiiTiroisr / , / government’’ PRINTING OFB'TCE. J THE HHITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION Created as a Dejpartment March 2^ 1867. Made an Office of the Interior Department July 1, 1869. COMMISSIOKEES. Henry Barnard, LL. D., March 14^ 1867, to March 15, 1870. John Eaton, Ph. H., LL. D., • March 16, 1870,. to August 5, 1886. Kathaniel H. E.' Dawson, LI H. D., August 6, 1886, to September 3, 1889. . William T. Harris, LL. D., September 12, 1889, to date. 2 /;/ .«3 j g ^ f^ONTENTS OF VOLUME 1. Vo\.X, _ The Commissioner’s Introduction. Page. ■ General statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Grade of instruction . . . . . , . . . . . . . xvii School property . . . xviii Education in the South . . . . . . . . xviij Comparison of German, French, and Amei’ican schools . . . . . xix Course of study . . . . . xx The educational systems of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii The educational system of England . . . . . . . xxv The educational system of France . . . . . . . . xxxj The schools of German-speaking coimtries . . . . . . . xxxvii The schools of Italy . . . . . . . . . . XLIV The school systems of Sweden and Finland . . . . . . xlvi Education in Spain . . . . . . . . . XLviii Education in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . xlix Education of teachers, manual training, etc . . . . . . . . . l Two chief interests in the present movement . . . . lh The conflict between the college and the common school . liv Part I.— GENERAL AND COMPARATIVE EXHIBIT OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Chapter I.~Generad Statistical Exhibit op Education in the United States. A. — Grand total of pupils . . . . . . . 1 B. — Grand total of expenditures . . . . . 4 Summary of statistics of the common schools . . . 8 Tables and diagrams showing the progress of the common schools of the United States since 1870 . 9 Population . . — . . . . . 10 Enrollment . . < . . 12 Average daily attendance . . . . . 17 Length of school term . 18 Schoolhouses . 20 Value of school property . 21 Teachers... . 23 Expenditures . 25 Chapter II.— A Comparison op the Schools op the United States, Germany, and France, Distinctive features of American and German schools . . . . . . . . 32 Statistics of the schools of Prussia . 34 Other items of interest concerning the people’s schools in Prussia . . . 36 A foreigner’s views of the German schools . . . . . . . . . 38 Statistics of schools in America . . . . . . . 43 Criticism of the American schools . 43 The schools of Prance . . . . • 44 Criticism of the French schools . . . . . . 45 Summary of comparative statistics . . . ^ ^ • 49 Other points of comparison . . • • • . . • 49 Distinctive features of the courses of study in Prussian schools . . . 50 Graphic presentation of the courses of study . . . . . . . 52 III rv CONTENTS. ‘ ^ Page. Remarks explanatory of the charts . . 52 Number of hours per week devoted to the different branches . 57 Causes of rapid advancement in studies . * . 59 Typical courses of study for Prussian high schools . 62 Typical courses of study for Prussian middle schools . 66 Typical course of study for French middle schools . , . 67 Typical course of study for French high schools . 68 An American opinion on the vital differences bet^veen German and American schools . 69 French students in German high schools . . . . 70 An Englishman’s view of the German schools . . 71 Graphic presentation of education in Europe and America . . 75 Chapter m.— Detailed View of the EnucATioNiiL System op England. Introductory statement . 78 Educational system of England . 79 Universities and detached colleges — . . 79 Agencies for science, technical, and art instruction . . . . so Secondary schools — . 81 System of elementary education . 82 Statistics of elementary schools, England and Wales, 1883-89 . 84 Administration and supervision . 85 The teaching force . 88 Subjects of instruction . ' 91 Conduct of studies and discipline . . . . 93 Organization of schools . 97 Various characteristics . 101 The annual grant . 102 Training colleges . 103 Recapitulation of principal points . 106 The societies formed by teachers and officers . 108 Chronological table . 109 Chapter IV.— The Educational System op France. General view of the system . 113 Central administration . 114 Academic and departmental organization . 114 The councils . 115 Tendencies of centralization . 116 Origin of the scholastic institutions of France . _ 117 Statistics . 118 Qualifications and appointment of teachers . . 122 Normal schools . 124 Professors of secondary and superior instruction . 124 Courses of study . 127 Organization and management of schools . 131 Institutions for superior instruction . 140 Private universities . 146 Auxiliary associations . 146 Chapter V.— Bird’s-eye View op the Schools op Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Switzerland. Historical view . 150 Definition and character . 15.2 Finances . ... 154 Supervision . . . . .• . . 155 The teachers . 156 . The schools . 158 Instruction . . 160 Grading and examination of pupils . 102 Supplementaiy institutions . 164 Variety in school organization in Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Switzerland . 165 The schools of Hungary . 167 Secondary schools among German-speaking nations . 169 Courses of study . 172 Summary of statistics . 177 Memorable dates . 178 CONTENTS. V Chapter VI.— The School System of Italy. Pa.ge Introductory statement . 182 School system; general features . 183 Statistics . 184 Finances . . . 185 Supervision . 18G Teachers . 187 Courses of study . 189 School management . 191 School organization . 191 Supplementary institutions . 193 Memorable dates . 194 Chapter VII. — Education in Sweden and Finland. I.— THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OP SWEDEN. Introductory . 197 General features of the school system. .7 . 198 Statistics . 199 Finances . . . 201 Supervision and administration . 202 Teachers . 204 Course of study . 207 School management and methods of discipline . : . 212 School organization . 212 Supplementarj’" institutions . 214 Historical statement. . . . 215 II.— THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND. Introductory . : . . 222 General features of the school system . 222 Statistics . 223 Finances . 224 Supervision and administration . 225 Teachers . ; . 226 Courses of study . 227 School management and methods of discipline . 229 School organization . 229 Supplementary institutions . 230 Historical statement . 232 Chapter VIII.— Education in Spain. Statistics of pupils and teachers . -. . . 236 General view . 236 Detailed view of primary instruction . ..... 238 Expenditures . . 238 Administration and supervision . 239 Teachers . 240 Secondary instruction . 243 Superior instruction . 245 Special schools . 246 Libraries r . 247 Chapter IX. —Education in Brazil. General features of the school system. . . 249 Statistics . 249 Finances . 250 Superwision and administration . . . 251 Teachers . 25 Courses of study . 254 School management and methods of discipline . . . 256 School organization . 257 Supplementary institutions . . 258 Historical statement . 259 Chapter X.— Name register. I.— List of chief State school officers . 263 , 11. — List of city school superintendents . 265 VI CONTENTS, Part II.— NORMAL SCHOOLS, MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS, COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. Chapter XI.— The Inception and Progress op the Normal School Curriculum. Page. Introductory . 275 Difference between normal and other professional schools . -275 The new psychology and old necessities . 276 Public normal class in New York . 278 Curriculum of the first public normal school . . 281 The Normal School of the State of New York . 284 The Normal School of Philadelphia . 285 The Connecticut Normal School . 286 Michigan State Normal School . 287 City normal schools established in the sixth decade . 288 The Pennsylvania system . 289 The normal um’versity of Illinois . ' . 289 The Maryland Normal School . 290 The Wisconsin system . 292 The Rhode Island Normal School . 292 The New Haven plan . 293 The city training school of Indianapolis .' . 293 The New York City Normal College . 294 Curriculum offered by the American Normal School Association in 1870 . 294 The era of discontent . 294 Chairs of pedagogics . 299 Pedagogy and school government in the European training schools for teachers . 299 France . 300 Prussia . 304 Bavaria . 304 Saxony . 306 Hamburg . '. . 307 Austria . 308 Bern . 310 Italy . 311 Belgium . 313 Canada . 316 Chapter XH.— The Teaching Force op New England prom 1866 to 1883. PuiTX)se and conditions of the study . 319 Distribution of the inhabitants of the New England States, their occupations and wealth . 320 Changes in the teaching force . 322 Proportion of women in the teaching corps . . . 325 Salaries . 328 Proportion of inexperienced teachers . 331 Do normal-school graduates teach ? . 335 The non-graduates . 336 Literary attainments of the teaching corps . . . 337 The teacher’s salary in Europe . 342 Chapter XIH.— Propessional Work in the Normal Schools op the United States. The relation of the object of education to the normal-school curriculum . 347 Theoretical and practical professional work in the normal schools of— The Eastern and Middle States (Table 1) . 849 The Western States (Table 2) . . -. . 355 The-Southern States (Table 3) . : . 360 Cities (Table 4) . 363 Theoretical and practical training of teachers in Germany . 366 Chapter XIV.— The “New Plan” op the Trustees op the Peabody Fund in 1878. New plan of the Peabody Fund trustees . 889 COKTENTS. rit Chapter XV.— Courses op Study in City Public Elementary Schools. Page. Introduction . . . 373 Character of elementary training . 374 Reading . 376 Arithmetic . ! . 378 Grammar . 378 Geography and history . - 379 Natural science . 380 Other branches . 383 Number of hours devoted to each branch of study in city schools (Table 1) . 388 Percentage of time occupied by each branch of study (Table 2) . 396 Time allotted in the several grades to— Reading (Table 3) . 397 Spelling (Table 4) . 398 Writing (Table 5) . 399 Drawing (Table 6) . 400 Music (Table 7) . 401 Language lessons and English grammar (Table 8) . . 402 History (Table 9) . 404 j Geography (Table 10) . . 405 Arithmetic (Table 11) . 406 Physical culture (Table 12) . 408 . Morals, civil government, and natural science (Table 13) . 409 '• Chapter XVI.— Manual and Industri.al Training. Introductoiy . 411 Training of the executive faculty . 412 Capacities for useful action . 414 Another definition of manual training . 415 The manual training course should be graded . . . . 416 No distinction possible between pedagogic and manual training branches . 417 Public schools can not be made shops for teaching trades . . 417 A doubt on pecuniary grounds . ' . 417 Proposed school in Boston . 418 : The object of manual training is to form character . 418 Manual training in Indianapolis, Minneapolis, and Milwaukee . 419 Cooking as a public school study . 419 Manual labor in literary institutions — . 420 Manual labor movement of 1830 . . . 420 ' Manual labor in schools for special classes . 422 ( Trade, or handicraft schools . 423 ' Morality and manual labor . . ... 424 Chapter XVII.— Religioxts Instruction in Public Schools. Present interest in the subject . 429 Circular letter to State superintendents, with substance of replies . 431 ' Religious and moral training in the public elementary schools of England and Wales . 438 Chapter XVII (A).— Coeducation op the Sexes. Substance of an address on co-education delivered before the sixth Scandinavian school confer- , ence — Introduction . . . . 464 p. Coeducation as affecting— ? ' The health of the girls . .' . . . . 465 The programmes and methods of study . 468 f s Morality . . . . . . 468 ty- Coeducation in higher institutions . 469 'f: Chapter XVIII.— Compulsory Attendance Laws. Introductory observations . 470 p- Massachusetts . . . 471 Connecticut . 486 New York . 493 y ' . Rhode Island . 601 I?. ... VIII CONTEIs^TS. Kansas . Illinois . Wisconsin . District of Columbia . Vermont . New Hampshire . Michigan . . Washington . Nevada . . . California . . Maine . . . New Jersey . . . Wyoming . Ohio . Dakota . Montana . ' Minnesota . . . » Nebraska . Idaho . . . . New Mexico . Colorado . Oregon . . . Utah . Various observations and opinions . • . Compulsory education in Prussia . Chapter XIX.— State Text-book Laws and Systems. Tabular exhibit of certain features of State text-book laws . . Alabama . . Arkansas . California . . Colorado . . Connecticut. . . . . . Delaware . . . District of Columbia . Georgia . Idaho . Illinois . Indiana . Iowa . . . . Kansas . Kentucky . . Louisiana . , . . . Maine . . . Maryland . ' . . Massachusetts . Michigan . [ . . Minnesota . Mississippi . Missouri . Montana — . . Nebraska . . Nevada . New Hampshire . New Jersey . New York . . . . North Carolina . . . North Dakota . *. . Ohio . Oregon . . Pennsylvania . . Rhode Island . South Carolina . Tennessee . . Page. . S03 . 504 . 507 . 512 . 512 . 513 , 514 . 516 . 516 . 517 . 517 . 518 . 518 - . 518 . 521 . 522 . 522 . 523 . 524 . 524 . 525 . 525 . 526 . 526 . 528 533 536 536 537 540 541 541 542 542 543 543 543 544 546 546 546 548 550 . 551 552 552 555 555 556 556 557 557 _ 558 558 558 560 560 565 565 566 566 567 CO^^-TEl^TTS. IX Page, Texas . . . . . . . . 567 Vermont . . 568 Virginia . r . 568 W asJb.ington . ' . 569 West Virginia . ^ . 569 Wisconsin . 571 Further opinions on the text-book question . 572 Chapter XX.— Powers op City School Boards with regard to School Sites amd Buildings, Provisions of State laws regarding the powers of city school boards . 579 Chapter XXI.— Discussions of Educational Questions, chiefly by School Officials. I.— Civic instniction . 588 II.— Country schools . 596 m. — Education . 592 IV.— Education and crime . 600 V.— Evening schools . 601 VI.— High schools . 601 VII.— Physical training . 603 VIII.— Private and parochial schools . 611 IX.— Public schools . 617 X. — Religious and moral training . 622 XL— Revenue and taxation . 6S4 Xn.— School hygiene . 635 Xin.— Science teaching . 6.36 XIV.— Sex in education . 639 XV.— Supervision . 640 XVI.— Township system . 642 Chapter XXI (A).— The University of the Future. Education one of the interests of life . . 645 The general form such a university will present . 645 The machinery of its education . 646 The matter of its education . 647 Chapter XXI (B).— Fellowships in Colleges and Universities. Fellowships in colleges and universities . 649 Chapter XXI (C). school savings banks, f Advantages of practical lessons of thrift in the schools . 655 Objections answered . 656 Preliminary information for the practical introduction of the system . 657 Steps to be taken previous to introduction . . . 657 Regulations . . 658 The part sa'^dngs banks play in school savings banks . 659 Blank foi'ms . I . . . . 660 Nine systems of teaching economy . * . 664 Statistics of the school savings banks of Europe . 666 Same of the United States . . . . . 667 The Brookline (Mass.) system . GG9 -T 1* CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. Part III.— DETAILED STATISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND IN¬ STITUTIONS, WITH COMMENTS AND DISCUSSIONS. Chapter XXII.— Statistics of State Common School Systems. Page. Preliminary remarks . 671 Population and enrollment (Table 1) . 671 School ages and school population (Table 2) . 674 Average daily attendance (Table 4) . 675 Length of school term, etc. (Table 5) . 678 Private school statistics (Table 6) . 678 Schoolhouses (Table 7) . 680 Seating capacity of schoolhouses (Table 8) . '. . 681 Value of public school property (Table 9) . 682 Teachers (Table 10) . 683 Teachers’ wages (Table 11) . 685 Receipts (Tables 12-14) . 686 Expenditures (Tables 15-18) . 691 Average daily cost of education for each pupil (Table 19) . 697 Permanent school funds and value of taxable property (Table 20) . 698 ’ : ' , Chapter XXin.— Digests OF State School Reports. Alabama . 699 Arizona . 700 Colorado . . . 701 Connecticut . 701 Dakota . 704 District of Columbia . 706 Florida . 708 Idaho . 709 Iowa . . . 711 Kentucky . .• . . 712 Louisiana . . . 713 Maine . 714 Maryland . . 717 Massachusetts . 718 Michigan . 720 Mississippi . . . 723 Missouri . 726 Montana . 729 New Hampshire . . 731 New Jersey . . 732 New Mexico . 734 New York . 735 Ohio . 737 Pennsylvania . 739 Rhode Island . 740 South Carolina . 743 Tennessee . . .' . 745 XI CONTE^S^TS. xn Page. Utah . 746 Vermont . 747 Virginia . 748 Washington . 750 Wisconsin . 752 Chapter XXIV.— Report of the General Agent op Education for Alaska, Letter transmitting the report to the Commissioner of Education . 753 Government day schools . 754 Contract schools . 756 Other schools . 757 Additional rules issued by the Bureau of Education . 758 Additional rules adopted by the Territorial Board of Education . 759 Statistical tables . 759 Recommendations . 7G2 Chapter XXV.— City School Systems. Remarks upon the statistical tables . 765 Summary by States of comparative statistics of enrollment, attendance, etc., in cities . 783 Similar summary of property and expenditures . 787 Detailed statistics of city schools : Population, school enrollment, and attendance . 788 Superintendents, teachers, and school accommodations . 811 Public high schools . 831 Evening schools . 853 Property and receipts . . 860 Expenditures . 886 Comparative statistics of enrollment, attendance, etc . 916 Comparative statistics of property and expenditures . 938 Chapter XXVI.— The Training of Teachers. New normal schools . . . '. . . 953 Training schools and classes in cities (Table 1 ' . 956 Summaries of the statistics of public normal schools (Tables 2-4) . 959 Attendance at public normal schools (Table 5) . 962 Financial statistics of public normal schools (Table 6) . 966 Attendance at private normal schools (Table 7) . 972 Financial statistics of private normal schools (Table 8) . 974 Chapter XXVIL— Secondary Instruction. Summary of students in privatp secondary schools preparing for colleges and scientific schools (Table 1) . 977 Summary of statistics of private secondary schools : Division A.— Schools for boys (Table 2) . 978 Division B.— Schools for girls ("Table 3) . 980 Division C.— Schools for both sexes (Table 4) . 982 Detailed statistics of private secondary schools : Division A.— Schools for boys (Table 5) . 984 Division B.— Schools for girls (Table 6) . 1006 Division C.— Schools for both sexes (Table 7) . 1027 CmvpTER XXVin.— Superior and Professional Instruction. I. — colleges for women. Summary of statistics of colleges for women (Table 1) . 1071 Detailed statistics of same (Table 2) . 1073 II.— colleges and universities. Statistics of foundations comprising groups of related faculties, colleges, or schools (Table 3). .. 1090 Statistics of State universities (Table 4) . "...... . 1092 Summary of statistics of colleges of liberal arts (Table 5) . 1094 Distribution of college students in the several degree course's during the past six years (Table 6). 1098 Statistics of colleges of the Liberal arts (Table 7) . . . 1102 COl^rTENTS. XIII III.— SCHOOLS OP SCIENCE. Page. Schools of science endowed by the national land grant . . 1140 Summary of statistics (Table 8) . 1141 Progress in five years (Table 9) . j . . . 1143 Distribution of students in practical work (Table 10) . 114,o Distribution of students in degree courses (Table 11) . 114G Occupations of graduates (Table 12) . 1148 Detailed statistics (Table 13) . 1150 Summary of statistics of schools of science not endowed by the national land grant (Table 14). . 1154 Detailed statistics of same (Table 15) . . . 1155 rv.— PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION. Summary of statistics of professional schools by geographical sections (Table 16) . 1158 Distribution of theological students according to religious denomination (Table 17) . 1159 Summaiy of statistics of schools of theology (Table 18) . 1160 Detailed statistics of same (Table 19) . • . 1162 Summary of statistics of schools of law (Table 20) . . . 1177 Detailed statistics of same (Table 21) . 1178 Summary of statistics of schools of medicine, of dentistry, and of pharmacy (Table 22) . 1182 Detailed statistics of same (Table 23) . 1186 V.— DEGREES. Summary of all degrees conferred in 1888-89 (Table 24) . 1203 Degrees conferred by colleges and scientific schools (Table 25) . 1209 Degrees conferred by institutions for the higher instruction of women (Table 26) . ■ 1220 Degrees conferred by professional schools (Table 27) . 1221 VI.— COURSES OF STUDY. Courses of study in colleges and universities (Table 28) . . , . 1224 Chapter XXIX.— Manual Training. Introductory remarks . 1362 Instructors and pupils in manual training schools (Table 1) . 1362 Number of pupils in each branch of manual training in cities (Table 2) . 1363 Time devoted in city schools to various branches of manual training by the difierent grades (Tables) . 1365 Cost of manual training (Table 4) . 1367 Chapter XXX.— Commercial and Business Colleges. General remarks . .* . . . . . 1368 Summary of statistics . 1370 Detailed statistics . 1371 Chapter XXXI.— Training Schools for Nurses. Introductory remarks . 1379 Summary of instructors and pupils . 1379 Detailed statistics . 1380 Chapter XXXII.— Education of Special Classes. I.— EDUCATION OF THE DEAF AND BLIND. General remarks on the education of the blind . . . 1382 Meeting of the American instructors of the bhnd . 1382 Some conclusions of the Royal Commission on the Deaf and Blind . 1383 Notes from catalogues of institutions . ,1385 Remarks upon the tables . 1389 Summary of statistics of institutions for the deaf . 1390 Detailed statistics of same . 1392 Summary of statistics of institutions for the blind . 1397 Detailed statistics of same . 1399 XIV CONTEXTS, II.— EDUCATION OF THE FEEBLE-MINDED. Page. General remarks . 1409 The National Conference of Charities and Correction . 1403 Notes from catalogues of institutions . . . 1402 Remarks upon the tables . 1404 Summary of statistics . . . . 1405 Detailed statistics . 1406 III.— EDUCATION OP JUVENILE DELINQUENTS. The cottage system . 1408 Movement of the population . . . 1408 Receipts from public funds . 1408 Summary of statistics . 1408 Detailed statistics . 1410 IV.— EDUCATION OP THE COLORED RACE. Statistics of colored public schools (Tables 1-3) . . . . . 14T3 Remarks upon the tables . . . . 1413 Sources of support . 1414 General condition and progress . . . . 1416 The colored schools of Missouri . 1417 Capacity of the negro for education . . . 1418 Disbursements from the State fund (1883 to 1889) . . . . . . . 1418 Peabody fund— amounts devoted to white and to colored schools (Table 5) . . . . . 1419 Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race (Table 6) . . . 1420 Summary of same (Table 7) . . . . . . 1423 Consolidated statistics of colored schools (Table 8) . 1424 Notes from catalogues of institutions . 1425 Chapter XXXIII.— Statistics op Public Elementary Schools in Foreign Countries. Remarks on the table . . . . 1440 Table . 1442 Chapter XXXIV.— Obituary List. Obituary list of notable educators . 1448 Chapter XXXV.— Index to the Publications op the Bureau of Education. List of titles of publications . 1453 Subject index to publications. . . ’. . 1458 REPORT OF COilMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington^ D, 0., February 1, 1891. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith my first Annual Eeport, for the year ending June 30, 1889. I entered on duty as Commissioner of Education September 12, 1889* The statistics herewith presented for the year 1888-89 have come in since that date. This Office has to wait not only for the close of the scholastic year before it can begin its Keport, but it must await a further period until the State and local school officers scattered over the land have compiled and digested their statistics. Hence it happens that although returns for a given year begin to be received at the Bureau within two months after its close, they are not all in hand until the following spring. In my opinion the first part of the .Eeport should contain such a gen¬ eral summary as may be made from the returns that have been received before December 1 of each year, and should be published as early as the 1st of January following. Then two or three months later should come an appendix containing the full tables revised by the addition of the re¬ turns that have been delayed. In this Eeport I present at first a general survey of the educational field, together with comparative tables showing the trend of progress for a period of years. Hext follow various exhibits showing the position which the United States occupies in comparison with Germany and France in respect to the provision actually made for elementary and higher education. After this there are offered several condensed state¬ ments in which the specialists of the Bureau have attempted to give the outlines of national systems of education. These are offered as first drafts which it is expected to perfecft by further studies and finally re¬ duce to brief statements showing the essential details characteristic of each system. general statistics. The total number of pupils enrolled in the schools of all grades, public and private, in all the States, for the year ending June 30, 1889, is 13,726,574. In this number is not included the attendance on evening schools or schools for art, manual and industrial training, trades, busi¬ ness, or schools for the defective, dependent, and delinquent classes or XV XVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. schools for Indians. These included (in the aggregate 288,280 pupils) would swell the total to over 14,000,000 persons who were receiving education in school for a longer or shorter period during the year. The average number of days during which the common schools were in ses¬ sion was 134J, and the average number of days during which the pupils of these schools actually attended was 87 J. This, at the rate of 5 school days per week, would give 17J weeks for the actual attendance, aver¬ aged by the entire enrollment. The question arises here as to the number of years of attendance at school for each pupil on an average. The number of persons in the United States between the ages of 6 and 20 years, inclusive, is 34 per cent, of the whole population. This would give, for the year 1889 20,700,000 children of school age, of whom, as we have seen, nearly 14,000,000 attended school, or 67 per cent, of all i^ersons of suitable age. If it is reasonable to expect a school attendance of only that portion of the community whose ages range from 6 to 16, inclusive, then (since this portion is 26 per centum of the total population) we may say that the school enrollment was very nearly all to be expected, namely, 90 per cent, of the youth from 6 to 16 years, inclusive. From these data we may infer that on an average the youth of the land receive each 17 weeks of schooling annually for 10 years. Taken in this general aspect, the results do not seem otherwise than encouraging. Certainly the educative effect of 17 weeks^ schooling compared with 40 weeks (the annual term in cities) is much greater than the fraction seventeen-fortieths would indicate. Perhaps in 20 weeks the average school will teach three-fourths as much as it would in 40 weeks. The youth who attends school 3 months a year learns in 10 years much more than he would learn in 30 months of con¬ secutive schooling. But these general averages conceal the bad side of school statistics by mixing it with the good. The length of the school term (see page 18) is much longer in the Northern States than in the Southern, being something over 150 days in the former and less than 100 days in the latter. The average attendance in both sections is about 65 per cent, of the number enrolled, and this reduces the actual amount of school¬ ing received by the total number to about 100 days in the North and 60 days in the South. The sparSfely settled country districts usually have short annual school terms, and this is the chief reason why the South makes so poor a showing in this respect. On the other hand, the South indicates a great and increasing interest in public-school education by the very large per cent, of its population which it enrolls in school. It will be seen (page 1) that the public schools of the South make quite as good a showing as those of the North in this last respect. In this particular, however, the returns obtained from the several States are far from satisfactory. It is the practice over a large portion of the country for the rural districts to have two terms separated by a long vacation, the one called a winter school and the other a summer GRADE OF INSTRUCTION. XVII school. The winter term enrolls older pupils and is usually taught by a master, while the summer term is often taught by a diderent teacher. In the summer term more young pupils are enrolled, but there are many who attend both summer and winter terms, and these are counted twice in the State summaries of school enrollment in those States where efficient devices have not yet been invented to exclude from the returns all duplication. It is my impression that it is the more careful exclusion of duplicates that causes most of the apparent shrinkage in the per centum of enrollment in the public schools of the northern sections. In the hTortli Atlantic division it will be seen (page 13) that the enrollment has diminished from 22 per cent, in 1870 to less than 18 per cent, in 1889. In the South Atlantic division, on the contrary, the per cent, has increased during the same period from 6 to 20. The specialist of the Bureau who prepared the general statistical exhibit* has mentioned four other points to be considered (pages 15, 10) in explaining this real or apparent decline in the school enrollment of the Nlorthern States. I would urge, however, that whether the decline be real or only apparent, the enrollment is still as large as is normal. The increase in the length of school term, pointed out in the compara¬ tive tables, makes it possible for the youth to complete the course of study in fewer years than formerly. Hence, although his aggregate schooling as measured by number of weeks has greatly increased, the number of years of enrollment may have decreased somewhat. It is the increase of city population and the extension of urban systems of edu¬ cation into the villages along the line of the railroad that cause this increase in the length of the school term. GRADE OF INSTRUCTION. Looking at the grade of education we see (page 3) that less than 6 pupils in the hundred are returned as pursuing secondary and higher education, the remaining 94 being engaged upon the elementary course in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, grammar, and United States history. The ratio of pupils in secondary schools {i. e., high schools, academies, and schools preparatory for college) to those in col¬ leges and universities is 5 to 1. One in five hundred of the popula¬ tion is enrolled in schools for higher instruction. If we divide the school population, which has been stated to form 34 per cent, of the total population, roughly into 3 classes, allowing for primary or elementary schools all between the ages of 6 and 13, inclu¬ sive, we shall set apart 20 per centum of the whole ; the population aged from 14 to 17, inclusive, amounts to 8 per centum for secondary education ; 6 per centum remains for the number aged 18 to 20, inclu¬ sive,, for higher education. These percentages applied to the results shown by the statistics for the year 1889 give us the following ratios : Tor the 12,000,000 of school age for elementary instruction there were * Mr. F. E. Upton. ED 89 - n XVIII EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. actually enrolled in public and private schools 12,931,259, or an excess of nearly 1,000,000. For the 4,750,000 of school age for secondary in¬ struction there were actually enrolled only 668,461, or less than one- seventh of the youth of age for that grade of work. Of the 4,000,000 of right age for higher education there were enrolled only 126,854, or less than one-thirtieth of the quota. These data are explained by the fact that the pupils enrolled as studying in the elementary grades of school work include some who have not yet completed their sixth year, and many more who are of ages ranging from 14 to 20 years. Six-sevenths of the population on arriving at the proper age for secondary education never receive it. Thirty out of thirty-one fail to receive higher education upon arriving at the proper age. SCHOOL PROPERTY. In 19 years the value of property owned for public schools has in¬ creased from $130,000,000 to $323,000,000, or more than twice as fast as the population. During the same period the annual expenditures have risen from $63,000,000 to $132,000,000, and the amount for each man, woman, and child has increased from $1.64 to $2.16. The Southern sec¬ tion has more than doubled its amount per capita. The annual cost of education in the public schools is $16.51 for each pupil in attendance. EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. The following exhibit shows at a glance the steady progress of the Southern States in the development of common-school education. There are no statistics accessible that show separate items for the white and colored schools previous to 1876. Since that period the enrollment of white pupils has increased 75 per cent., while the white population has increased little more than 30. The colored enrollment has increased 113 per cent., while the colored population has increased less than 25 per cent. The amount of money expended from public funds has in¬ creased from $11,000,000 to $23,000,000 per annum. Sixteen former slave States and the District of Colmibia. Year. Common-school enroll¬ ment. Colored. Expenditures. White. Colored. Normal schools. Other secondary and higher. Total colored. Both races. 1876 77 . 1, 827, 139 571, 506 3, 785 4, 726 .580,017 $11, 231, 073 1877-78 . 2, 034, 948 675, 150 5,236 7, 795 688, 181 11, 760, 251 1878-79 . 2, 013, 684 685, 942 6, 171 8, 253 700, 366 12, 181, 602 1879-80 . 2, 215, 674 784, 709 7, 408 7, 996 800, 113 12, 475, 044 1880 81 . 2, 234, 877 802, 374 7, 621 8, 372 802, 372 13, 359, 784 1881 82 . 2, 249, 263 802, 982 8, 509 9, 889 821, 380 14, 820, 972 1882 83 . . . 2, 370, no 817, 240 8, 509 9,889 835, 638 14,324, 925 1883-84 . 2, 546, 448 1, 002, 313 10, 771 13, 035 1, 026, 119 17. 053, 467 1884-85 . 2, 676, 911 1, 030, 463 8, 390 15, no 1, 053, 963 17, 227, 373 1885-86 . : . 2, 773, 145 1, 048, 659 6, 207 16, 831 1, 071, 697 18, 439, 891 1886-87 . 2, 975, 773 1, 118, 556 1, 771 11,577 1, 131, 904 20, 821, 999 1887-88 . 3,110, 606 1, 140, 405 5, 439 12, 254 1,158, 098 21, 8)0, 158 1888-89 . 3, 197, 830 1, 213, 092 7, 462 18, 068 1,238, 622 23, 226, 982 Total amount expended in 13 years, $216,644,699, COMPARISON OF SCHOOLS. XIX COMPARISON OF GERMAN, FRENCH, AND AMERICAN SCHOOLS. The legitimate function of the Bureau of Education is the collection and distribution of educational information. Each place should know the fruits of experience in all other places. A national bureau should not merely collect the statistics of education in the several States, but should also study the systems established by the various nations of Europe and Asia. Doubtless each nation has devised some kind of discipline, some course of study which will train the children of 'its schools into habits in harmony with its laws. An investigation of these features in view of the obvious demands of the governmental forms will furnish us with a science of comparative pedagogy. My predecessors in this Bureau have therefore presented from year to year in their Annual Beports a digest of foreign educational informa¬ tion, and have supplemented these by special studies of noteworthy educational changes abroad. The knowledge of other educational systems than our own is the most important of all species of practical knowledge, because it is a knowledge of methods, and this sort of knowledge alone it is that gives directive power. The explanation to ourselves of the differences that exist in our neighbor’s system and a careful study of the special fruits which grow from it will enlighten us as to our own peculiarities, and we shall watch these with care lest they become exaggerated and have results not to be desired. In the second chapter of this Eeport there is offered a comparison of the school systems of Germany and France with our own. The specialist* who has prepared it has accompanied his figures with graphic illustrations so as to impress on the reader the quantitative values of the items of school attendance and course of study. It will be noticed that the enrollment of all the pupils wlio have attended school for any portion of the year is not so large in the other countries as that returned for the United States. The proportion of pupils pursuing higher studies seems, however, to be much larger in Germany and France. It must be borne in mind that these comparative statistics are only approximately correct. There are many obstacles in the way besides inaccurate local records. The technical terms used by one nation do not have precisely the same import as words used by an¬ other nation to translate those terms. We are not yet sure that the item which we call “ enrollment ” corresponds precisely to what the French and Germans express by the words inscrit and eingesclirieben. It seems, too, that they do not find the item of average attendance by averaging the daily count. They take the attendance on two selected days of the year and make the average of these two days stand for the average at¬ tendance for the year. That this method can furnish only approximate results is evident.. Both days selected might prove stormy or unusually * Dr. L. R. Klemm. XX llEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. pleasant ; they Trould scarcely be average days. I note in the reports of the schools of St. Louis (Missouri) for the year 1879 the average attend¬ ance, calculated by averaging the daily reports for the entire year, was 35,860 pupils, while averaging the reports for the days closing the first and last quarter of the year gives 35,925 pupils 5 but an average of the four days that closed the first, second, third, and fourth quarters gives 36,106. The year 1878 shows : Average for entire year . 35, 710 Average for closing days of first and fourth quarters . 34, 500 Average for closing days of first, second, third, and fourth quarters . 35, 394 This illustrates the unreliability of any method of calculating aver¬ age attendance except that of averaging daily reports for the whole year. COURSE OF STUDY. The comparison of the courses of study shows that the French and Germans devote much less time than Americans to the study of orthog¬ raphy. The peculiarities of English spelling render necessary much memorizing. Were this exercise of memory devoted to the subject- matter of science and literature there would be acquired a store of useful erudition which future reflection might assimilate and turn into wisdom. But the spelling-book does not furnish food for reflection, or mental nourishment. Mechanical memorizing is the much-lamented characteristic of our common schools. It is evident that such must re¬ main their characteristic so long as English-speaking children mem¬ orize, like the Chinese, the arbitrary spelling of more than ten thou¬ sand words before they can write the language with readiness. But the Chinese gain one solid advantage. Their civilization, resting as it does on the patriarchal form, needs implicit obedience on the part of each and every person to those higher in rank and consideration by reason of age and official position. The Chinese child in m,emoriziug the shape and structure of the complex sign that represents a word, trains himself at the same time into the habit of conforming to what is prescribed for him. B3" the time he has memorized the ten thousand complex symbols necessary to each scribe he has also memorized the classic writings which enjoin on his mind all the formalities necessary to testify his respect and obedience to his elders and superiors in rank. His mind is filled with adages which impress on him the importance of this obedience. Trained to mechanical habits of conformity and taught to believe in externally prescribed rules as of supreme authority, the Chinese youth is sure to be conservative. The singular feature of this kind of education is that the more the youth receives of it the more fixed he becomes in his conservatism. Western European education generally tends towards emancipation from authority. Ojily in so far as it deals with certain conventional elements which require mechanical memory does it have the opposite tendency of strengthening the habit of obedience to external authority. COUESE OF STUDY IN FRANCE AND GERMANY. XXI Advocates of spelling reform (and these have become numerous and respectable since the Philological Society of Great Britain and of the English-speaking nations has declared a reformed spelling desirable) have perhaps not considered duly the influence of this protracted study of the irregularities of the English orthography in making the edu¬ cated classes of those nations more conservative than other Europeans. ' The Anglo-Saxon invented local self-government, not by a sudden brilliant thought, a glittering generality born on the occasion of a declaration of independence, but rather by the slow growth of centuries of attempted oppression and centuries of stubborn resistance which ended in compromises, wherein both parties agreed to limit their will¬ fulness and adopt a common mete and bound to their desires. A vast net- work of tbrmalities and usages (the ‘‘common law”) has grown up and is respected by all. At the same time it is full of inconsistencies, just because it represents the compromises between opposing wills, and is not in any sense a product of theoreticO;! intelligence dealing with questions of abstract right. The superstitious respect of the Anglo- Saxon peoples for established usages leads them to accept without a murmur the patched-up system of spelling, which conceals more than it reveals the real etymologies of words. But in turn this spelling reacts on the race in such a way as to train all the people who succeed in climbing one of sheer illiteracy, into conservative habits of thought. When we consider what are the beneficial effects of this respect for established forms wo may well hesitate to say that time expended in mechanical memory work has not been more productive of good than evil on the whole. Without a universally diffused respect for established usage, the English colonists would scarcely have proved as law-abiding as they have been. We can see in fact that the illiterate settlers on our border lands and in our Territories are always more prone to lynch law and other deeds of violence than the educated settlers. However this maybe, the problems of education are certainly complex, and it is not possible to settle the question of a course of study or even of a method of instruction without having constant reference to the effect which its reaction has upon the will and upon the formation of habits. We can see that the German-speaking nations lay great stress on the perfection of the central directive power. The ideal of their government is that of an omniscient intelligence, all powerful within the limits of the State and securing the welfare of the indi¬ vidual citizen, without giving him any very wide scope for personal ad¬ ventures or risks. It looks probable that this is the reason why the German gives so much scope to the inner freedom of his youth at school— as though it were to compensate for the external determinism on the part of the State which surrounds the citizen with wmlls of fate 5 walls, indeed, of fate, but of a rational fate, the bonds of reasonable action. Goethe makes Egmont say: “An honest citizen who maintains himself by his industry has always as much freedom as he can make use of.” XXII EEPOET OF THE 'COMMISSIONER OP EDUCATION. This freedom is sufficient for the citizen wbo travels the beaten track, but not for the one who desires to carve out a new career. The Ger¬ man Government does not encourage adventure and its consequent risks — it is too wasteful. There are 95 failures to each 100 adventures in a career not prepared for by a lifelong education. The Anglo-Saxon, on the other hand, has for long centuries en¬ couraged individual enterprise and rewarded its success by monopolies and privileges. The English common people have since the earliest ages been eager for personal liberty and most jealous of encroachments on the part of centralized power. Their respect for established usage seems to contradict this tendency to individualism, but it is really its fulcrum and basis. Without this stress of attention to the limits which are set to the invasion of outside authority the private individual would not have so much impulse to exercise his freedom within those limits. The Chinese principle of family subordination does not leave untouched a sphere of wild freedom within the individual and hence does not incite the kind of reaction which produces personal adventure, original invention, and free thought. When we consider it therefore, we see that there is an equivalent from the course of study to be sought on the will side of the character. This must be estimated as carefully as the intellectual equivalent. There is another large field in which the mechanical memory , gets much training, and that is the study of the grammars and of the classic languages. The mastery of rules and lists of exceptions — of long and numerous paradigms — of whimsical idioms of speech — is a poor train¬ ing of the intellect so far as powers of thought are concerned, but it is a training of the will specially adapted to form habits of circum¬ spection and considerate regard for the rights and privileges of one^s fellow men, and of an equal persistence in respect to one’s own legiti¬ mate prerogatives. We note here the fact that Latin and Greek are the original tongues of the two ancient nationalities that discovered the two essential factors of our civilization— the Greeks exploring the intellect and the artistic faculties, while the Eoman made an inventory, on the side of the will, of the forms which deeds must have in order not to conflict with the social whole. The Eoman, in short, has given to mankind the formulae of the free will. The individual will attacking the will of the social whole contradicts itself, for the substantial will is the will of the social whole. This is the distinction of freedom from license, and its expression is due to the Eoman spirit. The great significance of the Greeks and Eomans in furnishing the two pillars for modern civilizatioh sufficiently justifies the prominence of Latin and Greek in the course of study for youth. But, in order to weigh carefully their educative effect, we must have special regard to the methods by which they are taught — whether by memorizing and applying grammatical rules or by oral usage without grammar. It is not possible to tell, therefore, by a mere inspection of EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. XXIII tbe course of study whether the G erman and French youth are, on an average, two or three years, in advance of the American youth. One must inquire into the methods of study. If the French youth comes to Latin at the age of 10 years, while the American youth begins it at the age of 13, it is quite likely that the American youth employs a different method — perhaps the grammatical method rather than the method which lays stress on a practical use of the language in speaking and writing. The grammatical method is for the most part a training in logical discrimination. It does not go for much in the way of mastery of a language for use, but it is, perforce, a fine discipline for the devel¬ opment of intellectual acuteness and directive power. It is to be hoped that a more discriminating comparison may be made in regard to the methods of education abroad, so that we may know the entire scope of the problem. We must count in without omission all the educative values before we weigh the products of our own schools against those of other nations. But the seeming backwardness of our pupils should give us concern and impel us to this investigation with¬ out delay. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EUROPE. It is the province of the Bureau of Education to present the statistics of education in such a manner as to assist the American people to avail themselves of the experiments in progress at home and abroad. The first step in this work is to separate what is peculiar and inci¬ dental to local needs from what is of universal application and useful to all educational systems. What is not to be imitated must be dis¬ criminated and explained as carefully as its valuable counterpart. For this purpose each system should be studied in its historical proc¬ ess of growth and development. How it came to be and what end it has subserved and why it has been modified are questions that must be answered in order to understand its present status and comprehend the tendencies that are gathering in force to effect further changes. The American student notices with interest that the general political trend in Europe since the discovery and colonization of the New World is in favor of individual freedom. The development of natural science and the application of it to useful inventions continually increase the rate of production of wealth and the facilities of rapid transit of person and property as well as the means of intercommunication. The age is consequently synthetic in its tendencies, uniting each nation to all others, and educating it by the constant spectacle of the doings of all and to a less degree by actual commercial and diplomatic intercourse. Such synthesis of home ideas with foreign ideas is a constant education directed against the exclusiveness of caste within the nation. All peo- lilo see the spectacle of the rapid conquest of nature, the sudden rise of individuals from obscurity into enduring fame, and the perspective of human history which foreshortens the millenniums of man’s achieve- XXIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. ment in such a manner that it seems a constant and rapid develop¬ ment. The lower and lowest strata of society in our civilization are not only stimulated by seeing the material progress of their day, but they are visited by manifold influences from the higher strata of society and specially incited to discontent with their lot. They are offered the right of the ballot, they are compelled to educate their children in free schools, they are proselyted for political and social causes. These processes are going on in all Christian civilization with more or less rapidity, from our own Pacific coast eastward across the Atlantic to the extreme Kussian borderland. Every score of years marks some noteworthy step toward popular freedom. It is this progress which lays emphasis on the development of educational systems. For school education is vitally related to this deeper movement that agitates all our civilization. School education becomes first a necessity for the sake of the military and indastrial success of the nation. Then next the educated intelligence of the individuals demands recognition for itself through the abolition of caste and through representation in the gov¬ ernment. The past twenty years of educational history in Europe are more in¬ teresting and instructive in this respect than all other epochs. The specialists of this Bureau have begun an extensive study of tbe data on hand with a view to a new and clearer presentation of the es¬ sential outlines of the educational systems of Europe. A few of these presentations are offered in this Keport, namely, those for England, France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Sweden, Finland, Spain, and Brazil. Others will follow hereafter until all are given. But meanwhile it is confessed that these first attempts at concise state¬ ments of national education will be found very imperfect. It is expected (and desired) that criticism at home and abroad will be free and minute. It is certain that the division of labor and the consequent concentration of attention on comparatively narrow fields of study will - by and by educate these specialists into experts. If this Bureau were to hold back the publication of these statements until they had become approximately perfect, for fear of the sharp criticism anticipated, it would postpone for selfish reasons the exercise of a healthful influence in stimulating this comparative study of foreign educational experi¬ ments. What is found to be crude and hasty in the statements here published will, no doubt, have the effect of inciting the study and in¬ vestigation of original sources of information, and this Bureau will get aid from a corps of auxiliary students scattered over the world. It is hoped that the statement of what is essential to present the liv¬ ing forces and structure of a national educational system may be very much abridged at each successive revision. The events of the year in the field of education, when presented in thisEeport, should always be accompanied with such a general survey of the national system to which they belong as to make clear to the reader what significance they have. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. XXV Each nation reacts in its own way and manner against the necessity which is forcing governments to establish systems of popular education as a means of national defense. Each stamps upon its system its own ethnical character and, consciousiy or unconsciously, perpetuates its own institutions by its schools. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. The specialist^ who has prepared this statement of the school system of England mentions among its characteristics, first, its combination of public and private agencies in the control and maintenance of schools (page 106). This is a significant hint of the principle which must be kept in view before all in explaining English institutions. There does not seem to be anything universal except compromise — everything is limited by something opposing it; English institutions express in their very form their origin in mutual struggle that has ended in mutual recognition and tolerance. The English statesman can hardly conceive of a theoretically perfect system imposed on the nation by Parliament. The new system must not only be founded on the old but it must admit the old to its fullest validity as a determin¬ ing element. This appears in a variety of forms. There are mentioned three kinds of parishes only partially coincident — the boundaries being different. The 52 counties of England and Wales are divided into 14,946 parishes for poor-law purposes, these being organized into 649 unions; into 13,000 parishes for ecclesiastical purposes, and again into 14,777 parishes for highway supervision. In the same territory there are 163 municipal boards established for the management of schools, and 2,111 boards which comprise single parishes or parish unions. Kearly all of the superior education is voluntary, two-thirds of it given by the ancient foundations at Oxford and Cambridge. There are royal mili¬ tary and naval schools exclusively governmental, and the Government also aids schools of science and art. The secondary schools are like¬ wise vohintary, including the nine famous endowed public schools ’’ (Eaton, Eugby, Harrow, etc.), and nearly a thousand others. There are also “ proprietary and private ’’ schools and “ ladies’ colleges.” In this branch of the subject (secondary education) nothing like a complete survey is possible. The information is lacking. This Bureau of Education collects and publishes each year a list of private second¬ ary schools for the United States. Such a list is needed for England in order td furnish data for the study of this very important part of its education system. Turning to the elementary schools, we find the first traces of governmental interest in education. But the schools estab¬ lished entirely by the Government — what we call in America “ public schools” or “common school s”-~furnish less than 40 per centum of the entire amount of elementary instruction, while “voluntary schools” *Mis8 Annie Tolman Smith. XXVI REPOET OP THE COMMISSIOHEE OP EDUCATIOIV. furnisli more than 60 per centum. These voluntary elementary schools receive aid from the General Government to the amount of nearly one- half of their entire support, and in return for this aid must submit to certain conditions of indirect supervision and regulation of the course of study. The Established Church of England alone provides nearly one-half of the elementary instruction thus aided by the Government, and the other denominations, together with the secular private schools, furnish less than one-sixth. All the schools collect tuition fees (called “ school pence’’) amounting on an average to 26 per centum of the total school support, the fees at the board schools being about two thirds the rates collected at the vol¬ untary schools. There is local taxation to support the board schools, providing nearly 40 per centum of the revenues, the General Government providing a slightly larger sum than the boards. The method of dis¬ tributing* the grant of the General Government causes the voluntary schools to get a larger per centum (nearly one-sixth larger) than the board schools; for the money is so distributed as to directly stimulate the efforts of the teachers and school managers by paying for results, chiefly in the line of scholarship. It would be supposed quite natu¬ rally that the private schools would draw more largely on the well-to-do classes who possess more directive power in the community. The children of these classes would inherit intellect and will power above the standard of mediocrity, and would show this in their annual examina¬ tions for passing the so-called standards.” The board schools aided by the compulsory law would get a larger portion of the children of the lower strata, less precocious in intellect and will power and in many cases not inheriting from parents any predisposition towards literary or mathematical studies. What allowance must be made for profes¬ sional skill on the part of the teacher is not easy to determine, but probabilities are in favor of the teachers of the board schools for the reason that they have a larger proportion of persons professionally trained than the voluntary corps. Nearly 70 per cent, of the masters and 45 per cent, of the mistresses in 1889 had received such profes¬ sional training. In the distribution of the government grant the per capita of average attendance is flrst considered, and a grant of 7 to 9 shillings made for each pupil in the infant schools, and a larger sum (13 shillings 6 pence) for the pupils of advanced grades. Then come special grants designed to stimulate special studies or special features of excellence in discipline and organization. These subjects include needlework for the girls — excellence being rewarded at the rate of a shilling per pupil; drawing for the boys (1 shilling) ; singing (6 pence to 1 shilling) ; cookery for girls (4 shillings) ; laundry work for girls (2 shillings) ; other higher special branches (4 shillings). A special allowance is made for excel¬ lence in discipline and organization of 1 shilling to 1, shilling 6 pence per ljupil. Grants also are made for pupil teachers (£1 to £5) and as- EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. XXVll sistants (£10 to £15) who pass successful examinations for certificates or other professional degrees of progress. Numerous auxiliary institu¬ tions in the form of societies founded for the promotion of one or another good feature in educational work serve to stimulate the teacher or pupil and reenforce the government supervision. Outside of the elementary education, aided by the General Govern¬ ment and enforced by its compulsory laws, the universities have estab¬ lished a system of lectures and home study in a vast number of local centers in England, under the general name of “University Extension.” Perhaps there was a sense of danger from the growth of board schools-— a feeling that a vast stratum of people educated in a system of schools in nowise related to the university education of the country", would be in natural antagonism to the stratum of gentry and nobility educated in the universities. There was good ground for such a fear. A sort of Philistinism is sure to arise in a system of schools which does not in¬ clude within it all grades of higher instruction as well as elementary in¬ struction. This appears first in an attack on the conventional course of study chosen for culture and a “ liberal ” education. The so-called practical” studies are much bepraised at the expense of “orna¬ mental ” studies. Under the former are included studies whose relation to the arts and trades are most obvious; under the latter those branches which minister to general culture. The studies which give one insight into human nature and into the historical growth of the institutions which prevail are really the most practical of all studies, and yet these studies are the first ones attacked by the “Philistines” as ornamental rather than useful. The University Extension movement in 1889 reached numerous local centers in England and Wales and included 380 courses of lectures, with 40,187 persons in its audiences. It is difficult to say who have derived most benefit from this movement. The University graduates have been led by it to study the questions that arise in the minds of the masses of the people, and by this study are obtaining an ability to make valid to all classes of people the results of higher studies in science and literature. They make secure thereby the foundations of higher learning in the minds of the masses and reestablish its authority on an entirely new basis — a basis of recognition and affectionate respect rather than the former one of caste and haughty assumption of superiority. The work of university extension furnishes the desired field for that large and in¬ creasing class of scholars known as post-graduates or “ fellows, ” who need to apply their knowledge, and to conduct original investigations in the form of seminary and laboratory work in connection with researches into existing institutions. They are to come into contact with the people on the one hand, while they on the other hand are themselves still under the control of the university. The highest class of educated minds is brought to the assistance of the lowest. A sort of inventory of the enterprising and aspiring individuals among the uneducated XXVIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. classes will be secured, and they will be brought under the influence of university traditions and modes of reasoning. This will give a solidity of opinion on all practical subjects in the highest degree salutary. It wall correct alike the narrowness of the specialist and the shallowness of the self-educated. This feature of English education is well calcu¬ lated to prove serviceable in all English-speaking countries, and is indeed in process of migration to America now. In this brief mention of the salient points of English education we see at once why the reader who looks for system is apt to find himself completely bewildered. The complexity is so great and the limitations of the government initiative are so numerous that what belongs to the general government in British education seems to be only the exception, while what belongs to private initiative seems to be the rule. This bewilderment happens because our educated people are apt to form in their minds an ideal of government quite in accord with the continental ideal, but not in accord with the conviction and practice of the English-speaking peoples. Our theory is not in accord with our practice; but our practice is in advance of our theory. The old Koman ideal of government prevails with comparatively slight modi¬ fication on the continent, while that ideal has been set aside by the Anglo-Saxon people for a higher ideal, which is roughly described as “ local self-government.’^ The former or Eoman ideal secures the rights of i)rivate property and the ownership of land but insists on the utter and complete subordination of the individual before the law. The private right is as nothing before the right of the public. But with the Anglo-Saxon, the private individual and the locality — every special in¬ terest, in fact — are recognized as having an inexpugnable claim to recog¬ nition on the part of the general government. This recognition does not stop at equality before the law as on the continent, but insists on a share of the power of the government — it must be recognized as wield¬ ing a part of the determining power of the government. The govern¬ ment systematically admits all parties and interests to cooperate with it in fixing the rule of the land. Hence comes the most tender con¬ sideration of private interests and privileges vested in individuals and classes. What has come to be, what has madeitself a place, is assumed to have rights that the government is bound to respect. By a sort of fiction all that has been done by the individual is assumed to be estab¬ lished by the government and to have rights over any proposed inno¬ vation, no matter how reasonable that innovation may be. To state it summarily, one would say that the continental ideal tends to look upon the government as a detached ruling power, complete in itself and responsible only to itself for dictating reasonable laws and ordinances to the people who form a class below. Even in continental republics there is this assumption of the Eoman ideal. But in Great Britaiii and her derived peoples the government is one factor and the individuals and organized interests form another factor in a state of EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. XXIX tension, tlie one against the other in such a manner that the actual net result of the struggle settles the concrete law in force. This representation of all individuals and all organized interests as concrete factors in the administration of the government furnishes a species of education unique in the history of the world for its power to stimulate and develop individual directive power. The constant pull of the government on the individual is a sort of training in personality. It stimulates to self-government — to care of one’s own affairs on an in¬ dependent footing. It stimulates to adventure and to large combina¬ tions, and to jealousy of governmental combination as though this were the prerogative of the individual. In some of its features it seems to be very defective in that it affords no protection to the individual who does not stand up for his rights; and in that it refuses to represent interests that do not claim representation and secure it by actual show of power. That this species of training, whatever its defects may he, does actu¬ ally succeed in producing a greater development of individual directive power will be claimed and admitted by those who favor local self-gov¬ ernment. It is necessary to keep this point in view in studying the school system of England. That which has asserted itself and come to be has rights and must be respected to the full extent to which the remaining portion of the nation can find it possible to permit. Bach individual and each interest has some sphere wherein it is inexx>ugua- ble, wherein its force is equal to the aggregate force of the nation. -If it claims sway over a larger sphere than this minimum it must try its force against the nation, and it will succeed if it can draw to its side a sufficient portion of that opposing whole. Thus this struggle is a training in rationality because it causes each local interest to make its claim as rational as possible and to appear to be the interest of as many as possible of the people. If one defines the great heirloom received from the Roman Empire as the ideal of a perfectly rational government, one that establishes jus¬ tice, we can define the Anglo-Saxon contribution as the ideal of a gov¬ ernment which devotes itself supremely to the nurture and culture of individual directive power by admitting it to a share in determining the law. To the continental political philosophers the English constitution seems to be whimsical. The exceptions and special x^rivileges seem absurd and unaccountable to them. But the constitution was not a theoretic product. It arose through ages of struggle, in which were measured the relative degrees of strength and stubbornness of the quotas of people that are fused into the common stock — the Celt, the Roman, the_ Saxon, the Dane, and the Korman. V^herever the strug¬ gle stopped because neither side could gain any more or be found to yield any more, there a compromise fixed the law of procedure written or unwritten. The British constitution is lull of legal fictions and un¬ written but inviolable conventions of procedure sacred to the Anglo- Saxon as representing the concrete balance of interests which has been XXX REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. reached at the cost of the most precious blood that his island has pro¬ duced. While the continental ideal is the realization of justice for all, the British ideal is that of the participation of all parties and interests in the definition and administration of justice, each party in accordance with the actual proportion which it represents of the aggregate power of the State. Party politics has this deep significance in English-speaking nations: In the Parliament this’ party struggle compromises in the shape of laws and statutes which express as nearly as possible the relative strength of the pressures of the opposing parties. But after a law has been passed it is still on trial, for where local self-government prevails the law must find a public opinion which will sustain it or else it will be a dead letter. For not only the legislative power in England is a con¬ crete synthesis of all powers and interests, but also the executive and judicial powers are a synthesis or combination or unity, each in its own kind, of the forces of individuals and local interests with the general interest. Theoretical or ideal perfection goes for nothing except so far as it can work conviction in the minds of the majority. Even after the law is passed it can not be executed unless public opinion sanctions it. Measured from the old ideal — the Boman ideal that prevails gener¬ ally on the continent and quite generally among educated people in Great Britain and America — the British method seems to have glaring defects at every turn. For instance, it is well known that all that has become established, no matter how imperfect or positively injurious, is a concrete power to hinder the adoption of a new and better system. But, per contra, as soon as the new system is well understood to be better than the old, the necessary majority can be secured for its adop¬ tion. Self-government alone is freedom. To have good laws made for one without one’s voluntary aid is not felt to be a good thing by the Anglo-Saxon. It is better to have bad laws and smart for it until one is educated up to the perception of the remedy for the evil. This discussion may seem doctrinaire and out of place here, but I have been so much impressed with the injustice of strictures made on the English educational system (or lack of system if such a designation is preferred) that it has seemed worth while to call attention to the true point of view from which we may see the motives underlying the national action. Without such insight into the objects and purposes of the national action we have no true basis for any criticism, favorable or unfavorable. What is a nation undertaking to do for and with its people % When we have answered this question we may understand its educational system and see its trend prophetically. It is evident that Great Britain is on the way towards a national public opinion which will make its schools free.* The action of the * Wliile tins Report is going through the press, September, 1891, the schools of Euglaud and Wales are opening with free tuition under the law adopted by Parlia¬ ment in August, 1891. The voluntary schools, parochial and private, are to receive increased government aid if they give free tuition like the board schools. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. XXXI leading nations on the continent has the effect of forcing the matter on the attention of the people, and the constantly increasing favor which the cause of education gets as a natural consequence of general educa» tion of the people in the schools for the past twenty years— the irk¬ someness of the tuition fee, coupled as it is with a compulsory law — will have the effect of moving public opinion round to the point of the adoption of a free educational system. The private school interest will favor it because it is also its own interest to have an increase of the government grant. But the unendowed schools will gradually fall off, leaving the field after years to the endowed schools and the board schools. This at least appears the probable future trend of the English system, judging by the past and by the English mode of action. The thoughtful observer has constant occasion to admire the pru-. dence with which the English nation moves forward in such a manner as to get the full benefit out of all that has been already achieved. It wastes nothing that it finds. But perhaps it deserves criticism for a too great economy— an economy that wastes the raw material of pres¬ ent possibilities of youth under better methods and appliances in order to utilize capital invested in somewhat antiquated appliances. This is not certain, however, and judging the case by the national principle of government above discussed, one is apt to conclude that the method adopted is the best as well as the only one practicable. SCOTLAND, IRELAND, AND THE ENGLISH COLONIES. The statement as above given applies only to England and Wales. The educational system of Scotland is in some respects entitled to rank first as the pioneer system of education for all the people. The statements for Scotland, Ireland, and the English colonies are deferred for the next annual report. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE, France * in many respects stands in sharp contrast to England. Al¬ though France is a republic it has far more centralization than is per¬ mitted in English-speaking countries, even when under a monarchical form of government. France has preserved the traditions of the classic nations, Greece and Rome, more nearly than any other modern State. Artists flock to Paris from ail parts of the world to get the best instruction in painting and sculpture. The fashions of the civilized world are dictated from the French capital. What is to be regarded as good taste in clothing is the product of French invention. For hundreds of years France set¬ tled more serious concerns, namely : the forms of polite manners and the ideals of civilized behavior and government diplomacy. The statement in Cliapter iv is prepared by Miss A. T. Smith, specialist in this Bureau. XXXII REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. The fine arts applied to industry have always been a prolific source of wealth from the time when the jewelry and purple clothing of Babylon furnished the center of attraction for the ancient world. France has so long schooled her workmen in classic models that hereditary descent of aptitudes for tasteful ornament and beautiful finish is to be counted on among the people. Skilled labor, and what is more potent for the production of riches, labor that is guided by artistic taste, pours wealth into France. The size of the nation and its position give to it political power. It touches on its borders the nations of northern, southern, and central Europe. What are the problems of its education ? It must secure this prepara¬ tion for its industries; it must educate a people who shall lead the fashions of civilization; and before all it must preserve its rank of lead¬ ing power among the nations of the continent of Europe. Close allied to fashion and aesthetic ornament is the art of military displays and manoeuvres. The French have held the same preeminence in this field as in the others for long centuries. In a work of art there is exhibited the complete subordination of the parts to the unity of the whole. So, too, in the manoeuvreing of an army the same subordination is displayed. Tens of thousands of independent wills, each one with its own desires, aims, and purposes, are consolidated into one gigantic whole, moved by one will and animated by one purpose. The French love of centraliza¬ tion and military display is quite as much an sesthetic one as a love of power and conquest. It differs from the old Eqman love of arms and do¬ minion in this respect: The Eoman loved unity of will for its own sake and made it his national purpose to reduce all people to the sway of one government, so that Eoman law, the abstract form of civil freedom, should everywhere prevail and universal peace be the result. The French national spirit loves the unity that is manifested in a vast com¬ plex of details, perfectly subordinating them and reflecting itself in them. It loves the reflection of this unity in concrete masses rather than in the abstract form, and this is aesthetic rather than political or legal. It loves art more than equality before the law. French history shows that this hunger for manifestation has always accentuated this distinc¬ tion from the old Eoman, to whom, nevertheless, there still remains so great a resemblance. It is old Eome incorporated with Athens — love of power subordinated to a love of display. This is not to be under¬ stood as a love of vulgar display, but a noble love of art in its best forms — the love of the manifestation of the domination of human rea¬ son over brute matter. The best French aspiration loves to see reflected in all its surroundings the loftiest attributes of the soul — free rationality and its victory over chaos and confusion. Even the French peasant will not show bad taste in decoration, as the more northern Teutonic peasantry will do. There is that sense of moderation and self-control which belonged to the ancient Greeks — a display of rule and modera¬ tion which constitutes the essence of the beautiful. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FKANCE. XXXIII Tbis nnion of the Greek and Eoman principles and the modification of the one through the other constitutes an advance over both on the whole. The fanatical intensity of the Eoman love of the state is miti¬ gated by the Athenian love of the appearance of rationality and the celebration of the human as divine. The vulgar luxury and sensuality of the Eoman is elevated and refined into splendor by art and taste. The sensual is converted into the sesthetic — the former a selfish delight of the body and the latter an unselfish delight of the soul. Eor art dignifies matter by giving to it the semblance of freedom and independ¬ ence — the work of art appears to exist for its own sake and not for the sake of usefulness. But this is the reason why the French have not excelled all other nations in the forms of modern art. Italy has excelled in painters of the Eomantic school, and Germany has excelled in music. England has excelled in poetry, producing more first-class poets alone than all the rest of modern Europe combined. The French have clung close to the classic ideals and have nurtured the classic spirit by their education. They have managed to arrest their national spirit at that stage by means of their skillfully devised education. Great as French art is in the realms named — in painting, music, and poetry — there is always felt even in its farthest departures towards Eomantic art the presence of the classic ideal as a restraining principle. This prevents the French artist from abandoning entirely the conventional standards and moving for¬ ward to a new aesthetic ideal, such as wefindina Eaphael, a Shakespeare, and a Beethoven. But this, too, is the greatness of the French and gives them their world-wide dominion as arbiters of fashion and the conventionalities of taste and refined luxury. The French nation shows all these peculiarities in its schools. It has established within 20 years a wonderful school system, complete in all its parts and the admiration of all who go to inspect it. It exhibits a nation at school, so to speak. All the centralization of the French ideal is there; the unity of the governing power displayed at the capital is reflected in subordinate centers (the 17 districts which are called aoa- demies)^ and again in the minuter subdivisions (the 87 departments) and still again in the 36,121 minutest divisions called communes (corre¬ sponding in part to school districts and in part to townships in the United States). The Eomans governed their conquered territories by prefects or su¬ perintendents (overseers) and secured therein the swa}" of Eoman laws. The French have preserved as the chief executive officer of each de¬ partment the prefect (prSfet) appointed by the central government. But there is added a modern democratic device, a local legislative as¬ sembly for each department elected by the general suffrage. There is a subprefect for each of the 362 arrondissements or subdivisions of the departments, with a local council elected by the cantons (there are 2,865 of these subdivisions of the arrondisseynents)^ and finally there is a mu- ED 89 - III XXXIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. nicipal council for each of the minutest subdivisions, the communes, and a mayor chosen by the government (in the large towns) from this council which is elected by the people. The commune, it is true, varies in size from a dozen people to two millions (Paris), according to the necessity of municipal unity ; there are more than 200 communes with a population of upwards of 10,000 people. Thus we see the unity of the central government everywhere joined to the democratic principle of local election. But the local legislative bodies must not take up ques¬ tions that relate to the general government, i. e., political questions. The central government at Paris alone is charged with this matter. This is a consistent whole easily comprehended and easily supervised and controlled from the center. The school system is erected on it. The seventeen academies,’’^ or educational sections into which France is divided, form each an educational system complete in all its grades. There is an executive officer at the head of each academic^ a sort of edu¬ cational prefect who is assisted by an academic council. This form of organization prevails from the most general governing body down to the minutest subdivision — always an executive assisted by a council. First there is the minister of education assisted by the superior council of public instruction. The councils represent the different orders of instruction and are elected by their co-workers for the most part. The rector of the academie and his council follow next in rank j then the in¬ spectors with their assisting councils in the departments. Then inspec¬ tors of cantons and large communes similarly assisted. The higher education, including what vre call universities, colleges, and professional schools in America, is organized into facultes or edu¬ cational corporations similar to our State universities, except that there is complete control on the part of the central government and very little of the local initiative that exists with us. Our use of the vford faculty applies only to the teaching body — the president, professors, and tutors, who have charge of the instruction and discipline of the college or uni¬ versity. But in France the word faculte is applied to the entire insti¬ tution and a student entering a college is said to be ^Hnscnhed in a faculW^ The French use of this word retains its old meaning from the time of the early universities of Europe. The words and acade¬ mic must not be translated by the English words faculty and academy. The word academy usually signifies with us a private secondary school or high school that furnishes preparation for college, and more rarely it designates a learned society. But in France it is one of the seven¬ teen great subdivisions of the country for educational purposes. The secondary education of France is carried on in lycees and com¬ munal colleges. Perhaps the lycee carries the pupil nearly a year’s work further than our average academy or high school. The word lyceum with us is applied to a course of lectures open to the public at large. The elementary schools of France include three grades of primary EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. XXXV iDstriiction. First, the infant schools for children from 2 to 6 years; secondly, the elementary primary for pupils from 6 to 13 years, and thirdly, a superior i)rimary course designed to fit youths for business and especially to give them skill and taste as workmen. The compulsory age for attendance as fixed in 1882 is 6 to 13 years, and instruction in the primary schools has been gratuitous since 1881. The relative proportions of pupils in the different grades (in 1887-88) showed about 500,000 in the infant schools, over 5,500,000 in the pri¬ mary (only 40,000 of these being in the superior primary), nearly 170,- 000 in the secondary schools, 9,000 in the normal schools, and 18,000 in the universities. About 3 per cent, are in the secondary and supe¬ rior grades; 8 per cent, in the infant schools, and 88 per cent, in the primary. One-half of the university students are in the institution at Paris. The pains taken in French schools to prepare the workmen for skilled labor and especially for the production of works showing tasteful fin¬ ish is one of the most noteworthy features. The superior primary schools lay especial emphasis on this. The industries of the locality are considered in each commune. Drawing and designing are every¬ where taught. There are schools of industrial apprenticeship either detached in separate institutions or as elective courses in the primary schools. There are the great technical schools, the most famous of the world, like the ^cole Folytechnique, and similar schools for mining, arts and trades, arts and manufactures, political science, forestry, naviga¬ tion, etc. The instruction in the arts is specializing in its character, and aims to fit the youth directly for a specific occupation— for some particular branch of a trade, and not, like our manual training schools, to give the pupil a general insight into all kinds of arts in wood and the metals. The pupil may go direct from the school into the shop without further apprenticeship. The French schools do not waste any of the time of the pupil on random experiments at invention or artistic design, but they guide the pupil into the conventional ways of construction and into the settled canons of taste. Perhaps the French graduate will have less originality and fewer resources under new conditions, but he will never produce anything of an ugly shape. He will gain the maxi¬ mum of skill and dexterity in shaping the materials that belong to his X)rovince. The instruction in the French schools employs emulation and rivalry to a greater extent than is approved in Germany and America. Per¬ haps this is a survival of the methods made famous by the Jesuits in their schools. The national characteristic of artistic exposition, and of unity and perspicuity in treating details, leads to a multitude of devices to make the instruction in the primary grades appeal to the senses. At the ‘^World’s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, Hew Orleans, 1884-85,” the French exhibit (under M. B. Buisson) brought XXXVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATIOIf, out this feature very prominentiy. NIo other nation can equal the French in making things speak for themselves. The formation of school museums has been stimulated until a large per cent, of the schools are well provided. The impulse of the French people that leads to centralization also causes a pressure against parochial schools. In the past there has not been that separation of church and State which exists in the United States. We have seen that England has still 60 per cent, of its pupils in parochial schools. France has something like 20 per cent, of its pupils in parochial schools. The struggle towards separation of church and State is more intense in France because the question is compara¬ tively new, as it is in all Catholic nations. In the United States the number of pupils in private schools, both secular and parochial, amounts to ouly 10 per cent, of the whole j in France to 20.8 per cent.; in England to 62 jjer cent. With us the friends of public schools do* not desire the abolition of all private and parochial schools. They furnish a safe-guard against the degeneracy of the public-school man¬ agement. When there are dangerous extremes adopted in the methods of discipline or instruction at once the piendulum swings towards pri¬ vate and parochial schools, until the better mind of the community is warned and a reaction sets in. There is always a tendency in State schools towards too much mechanism, and the private school furnishes a nursery for individuality in methods of instruction besides providing a safety-valve, so to speak, for the discontent of that class of people who love the freedom to depart from the customs followed by the great majority. The present trend of French education is towards further separation of the public from the parochial education, and also towards a sharper discrimination of modern branches of study from the traditional classic course. The questions of the function of Latin and Greek and the place of science in the school course as compared with literature and the humanity studies, and, above all, the secondary and higher education of women, receive great attention and sharp party lines are drawn. One may predict that classical studies will not be abolished, but will be seen for what they are worth in furnishing the youth with that neces¬ sary acquaintance with the two strands of his civilization that were derived from Greece and Eome. But science will be fully recognized and adopted into the curriculum. The education of girls in the elementary schools has already become quite as extensive as the education of boys. But in secondary schools the girls amount to ouly 6 per cent, of the entire number, and the num ber under superior instruction is quite insignificant. In America the girls in secondary schools outnumber the boys. The higher education of the women acts powerfully to reenforce the education of the children in the following generations. It will tend to increase the centrifugal force of the French character. It will make it more independent of SCHOOLS OF GERMAN COUNTRIES. ' ' XXXVII H'. V ' 1 I central authority, but at the same time will render the central authority more stable by forming in each family and in each individual an au- f thority based on reason and in harmony with the central government. . The newspaper age is an age (already arrived in America) in which a I public opinion is formed by the universal contemplation of the same ft common public issues of the day and a general discussion of them, f- Each morning all citizens see a presentation of all noteworthy things I and events, near and far olf, a survey of the entire world, so to speak, s Each person, too, reads and hears the comments of all on the various ' features of the common spectacle, and forms his own opinion in regard . to it. The net result of this daily survey of the world and its discus- « sion is the formation of public opinion, and this governs indirectly but inevitably. The English-speaking nations are almost entirely governed % by this agency. Continental powers, with their effective public school V systems modeled on those of France and Germany, are rapidly coming ;f into the same kind of government wherever the freedom of the press ft is encouraged. Where illiteracy is abolished and the newspaper is read by everybody public opinion gives great stability to the govern- ^‘ inent by preventing sudden and disastrous explosions that follow from i'y government suppression. Eeforms take the place of revolutions. € THE SCHOOLS OF GERMAN-SPEAKING COUNTRIES. ft Although all the nations of Europe are largely of Teutonic stock, yet . there have developed wide departures from the parent stock which has remained at home in Germany. In a certain sense Germany furnishes a |, deep contrast to England in its mental characteristics. The modern Ger- man like the ancient Greek has theoretic tendencies and art tendencies, j}.. while the Englishman like the Eoman has tendencies to will power and || liractical experiment. While it would never do to say that the Germans II lack will or that the English lack intellect, yet to understand their differ- I ence in character it is necessary to say that there is a very different emphasis placed on the two sides of mental power by the two races. The tendency of the German is to think before he acts, while the tendency of the Anglo-Saxon is to act before he thinks. The English way is to learn through doing and to use its will rather than its intellect in the : attainment of knowledge. It takes pride in making an inventory of the facts as it finds them where they actually exist — it prizes real ex- [il perience and original observation, and makes small account of reflec- K- tions and reasonings and a priori truths. Its national form of mental lH activity is empiricism. It knows the world as it is and not as it ought ||To be or might be. But the German, on the other hand, makes up his B mind first and acts afterwards. This at least is his tendency. His H mental habit is to seek out all that is known on a given question and preview it carefully 5 then he proceeds to verify this by comparing it ® with an actual inventory made by himself. He settles the object to be XXXYlll KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEPv OF EDUCATION. attained and tlie proper means to be used, and then at last acts with great effect in accordance with his deliberately formed plans. Of course there are exceptions. This is not a fixed and absolute difference between the two national characters. But it is the distinc¬ tion that we must make and keep in view if we would understand the two trends and explain the methods followed and the results obtained by the two peoples. The German loves system quite as much as the French¬ man, only the latter looks more to the realization of his central unity into the art forms of regularity and symmetry, while the former looks more to dynamic features and wishes to make sure the connections be¬ tween the highest and lowest links of power and authority. While the English people lay great stress on immemorial usages and privileges that have grown up by compromises in the past, the German wishes above all to have a consistent and reasonable system. It is more impor¬ tant to him that the government shall be reasonable than that there shall be individual freedom to act out one’s desires and caprices. From the German idiosyncrasy it is evident why they have invented gunpowder and the art of printing rather than the steam engine and the telegraph 5 why they have labored most efficiently in the lines of comparative science rather than in the inventory of isolated data. They wish to see each branch of knowledge in the light of all others. They have created comparative philology that reveals to us the pro- foundest traits of mind as exhibited in the structure of language. They have created the science of comparative history, giving us an insight into the sum total of the striving of each nation that has flourished on the earth. They have reenforced comparative history by comparative studies in religion, art, jurisprudence, and psychology. Each new com¬ parative study gives a new critical point of view from which to confirm or reject what has before been held. In this way the German scientific industry tends to reach a stable result in the science of nature and also especially in the science of man. But this discovery of the trends of nature and human history brings the intellect into a condition where it decides upon the practical ques¬ tions of the day and leads to action. Having summed up the case in view of all the provinces in any way related to it, the will may now act with the most intense conviction. The present generation has seen a new kind of national power rise into the world history out of Germany. Goethe said in 1792, after the battle of Yalmy, where he saw a French army representing the people and officered by the people defeat the army representing the nobility and officered by them : ‘‘ From this place, and from this day forth, commences a new era in the world’s history.’’ Democracy would from that time be a power to be reckoned with. The new German empire is founded on science and means many things of the utmost importance to future civilization. Comparative science brings together all the kindred provinces and discovers the net result. It attacks problems of the utmost complexity^ none more so SCHOOLS OF GERMAN COUNTRIES. XXXIX tliau that of war with sarrouiidiog nations. It delivers its decisions to the executive power of the nation and preparations are made in view of all the contingencies. An absolutely accurate survey of all strategic points, givirfg with precision every stone fence and every bridge and ford, the whole nation trained to military service, the means of trans¬ portation prepared so that the whole power of the nation may be con¬ centrated without fail in the least possible time on any point of the frontier — these things belong to science. The intellect converts itself into will-power by settling in advance all problems that may arise, so that in the field nothing can occur that will surprise the commander. At every point he will be stronger than his enemy. The practical outcome of the rise of Germany to a new world-power is the necessity of the universal education of the people. Germany, with its principle of the supremacy of conscious intelligence and the re¬ enforcement of the will-power by comparative science, had all along consistently moved towards an efficient system of education. The powers of the individual may be indefinitely increased by education. An educated nation is far more powerful than an uneducated nation of equal population and wealth. Education of all the people in schools renders iiossible great strategic combinations in war, commerce, and industry. It is this iirinciple which distinguishes the modern German people. The Greeks were great in plastic art and literature and philosophy. The German is equally great in music and philosophy. His philosophy is based on psychology where the Greek philosoph y took the form of ontology. The German turns science into philosophy by making it comparative, and thus completing a total survey of an entire province. Feeling this national principle at work in his soul, he finds popular education the most natural of all human interests to him. Studying the comparative aspects of science, he becomes observant of methods. He neglects this fact and that fact to look at the process by which they arrived. Kowhere else is there so much exercise for this quality of obser¬ vation which sees method as in pedagogy. Upon the study of method depends the arrangement of the course of study and the development from one grade of school work into the next. Upon the study of method depends the art of teaching and the discipline and management of the school. Germany has established all grades of instruction, from the kinder¬ garten to the university, and it enforces by a rigidly executed com¬ pulsory law the education of all its children from the age of 6 to 14. In chapters ii and v prepared for this Eeport by a specialist* of the Bureau it is seen how thoroughly this work of providing for school education is accomplished. As early as 1717 the Prussian King issued a royal edict requiring that all parents should send their children to school. * Dr. L. R. Klemm. XL EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. As soon as Frederick tlie Great had finished his long struggles with the neighboring powers for the recognition of his nation, he turned his attention to national housekeeping and gave a great impulse to educa¬ tion. He began the work of secularizing education and'making it a matter of State provision. After the defeat at Jena by IS'apoleon Bonaparte, Prussia began her reconstruction by laying new stress on her schools. Pestalozzfs princiides were very early adopted, and the attention of teachers was directed to the method of arousing the child^s mind through sense perception. The German national character, as has been shown, leans in the direction of knowledge and science rather than in that of adventure and the measurement of personal strength by contest of will-power. The German child is more docile than other children. He inherits a dominant love for knowledge. The German teacher is not hampered by the necessity of expending a large amount of nervous energy on the ‘‘discipline” of his school. It is sufficient if he makes his instruction interesting. The pupils will not be disorderly. They will conspire icitli the teacher rather than exert their will-power to oppose and circumvent him. Whereas the pupils in English-speaking countries have always a primary impulse, not for acquiring knowledge but for measuring the strength of their will-power with the teacher and with each other. The Anglo-Saxon branch of the Teutonic family has preserved in this peculiar form the old heart hunger for recognition which has always characterized the Teutonic stock since the time of Tacitus, who described it as “ securi adversus homines, securi adversus deos^’’^ a race that respected neither men nor gods. For they had a deep feeling that in the substance of their human nature they were divine. Hence they demanded personal recognition as the meed due them from men and gods. This is the rea¬ son why Christianity took such a hold on the Teutonic peoples and why the Franks and the purest Teutonic stocks adopted Trinitarian Chris¬ tianity rather than Arianism which became the religion of the Goths for a while. They found the doctrine of the divine self sacrifice of God for the sake of man an act of recognition which completely satisfied their heart hunger, for it was an infinite personal recognition. The Teutonic stock that remained in Germany finds its highest satis¬ faction in the theoretical contemplation of the world as a whole— the scientific exhibition of reason in nature and history, while the Anglo- Saxon has drifted, not accidentally, in another direction and finds his satisfaction in the personal recognition of his power to mold nature to his will and to organize and govern men, chiefly lower races. It may be said that while the German insists on the right of private judgment, the Anglo-Saxon insists on the right of expressing it freely in public. The docility of the German pupil is therefore not to be regarded as an artificial productof German methods of pedagogic discipline. Those methods fail in American schools to tame the restless, adventure-seek- SCHOOLS OF GERMAIST COUNTRIES. XLI ing youtli who give character to oiir schools. Formerly there prevailed here in the United States a strict discipline that rested on corporal punishment. This has yielded by degrees to punishment founded on a sense of honor — the deprivation of the pupiPs privilege to sit with his fellows, to partake in the common class exercises, or finally the suspen¬ sion from school altogether. The punishments have changed or are in process of changing from corrective punishment, which inflicts pain irrespective of the nature of the fault committed, to retributive pun¬ ishment, which returns the deed upon the j)npil and makes him sufter its consequences. The puiiil by his disorder deprives himself of the privilege of sharing in the work of the school. The change in methods of discipline does not change the nature of the American boy from an adventure- loving to a knowledge-loving boy, however. But he learns to govern hiihself. The German principle leads to a very radical difference in teaching science and other branches. They teach comparative science, compara¬ tive history, etc., it has been said. It may be said, too, that the chief aim of all German instruction is to teach the philosophy of the subject. There shall be nothing fragmentary and detached, but all shall be sys¬ tematically subordinated to the ruling i)riiiciple. The subject treated in view of the whole, becomes a view of the world, or rather we may say there is reflected in each subject as taught by the German professor, the entire view of the world. Thus the German normal school demands of its graduate the ability to construct from his own knowledge and insight each one of the branches that he is called upon to teach. He shall not depend upon the text¬ book for the matter or the form of his instruction. German instruction insists, before all, on comprehension rather than memorizing. The pupil shall be led to see the inner necessity of the subject j to see the unity which makes the whole into a system. Here is a great advantage that German instruction has over that of other nations — it gives to the pupil an instincfc for anticipating the results of experience. Kant showed in his immortal ^^Kritilc^'^ how the struc¬ ture of the mind gives to it certain “ anticipations of perception.^^ So comparative study in all departments of science and history gives antici- liatious of experience. The Agassiz or Cuvier has become so well able to anticipate experience, that even a fish-scale or a bone gives him with practical certainty the rest of the animal. Comparative study leads to nature’s unity, and gives an insight into the necessity that governs the world of experience. No doubt this has its limits and that such a priori anticipation” is often mistaken. But it is practically the kind of knowledge which fur¬ nishes the basis for nearly all our deeds. At all events the German method of instruction owes to this its distinctive characteristic and whatever superiority it may have, and the German pupil has accord¬ ingly a higher gift of anticipating new knowledge than any other pupil. XLII REPORT OP THE COMMISSIONER OP EDUCATION. In this connection is to be noted the fact that German instruction discards rivalry and competition, and also that it makes less use of ex¬ aminations than the instruction of other nations. Competition in studies requires that the standard of comparison be one that all grades of mind can see. It must not be in the least arbitrary. This reduces the standard to one of sense perception and memory. Only mechan¬ ical results may be measured with precision. But as German methods relate to the comprehension of the subject and endeavor to give the pupil a comparative insight into the general principles that create the details, it is obvious that nothing can be done in the way of applying mechanical tests to the pupil’s acquisitions. Hence, too, examinations for promotion can not be used to good advantage. It is only the daily class exercise which reveals to the teacher the inward growth of the pupil’s power of comx3rehension. Examinations are often for the purpose of spurring the pupil to make review of his past work. It must be remembered that the method of comparative study connects all the details in a higher unity and thus gives a new hold of the earlier steps at each stage of advance. The German method of instruction is therefore a perpetual review of the most valuable kind. But there is here a drawback which other nations are ready to point out. The German can not prescribe set tasks for his pupils to perform at home— at least he can not do this so well as the pedagogues of other nations. The text-book system of instruction relies on the pupil’s inde¬ pendent work. He must study his book and learn to master the thoughts stored up in the printed page. But he will quite naturally use his lower faculties of perception and memory rather than the higher ones of insight and critical comparison. Moreover, as already said, it is easier for the teacher to hold the pupil responsible for mechanical work than for comprehension. The advantage in the mechanical method of instruction is that it can demand and secure independent work from the pupil — even from the restless and frivolous pupil who does not love knowledge. If he does not comprehend he can at least cram the forms of knowledge and store them away for a possible future use. Moreover, the mechanical effort gives a species of mental discipline and cultivates the will power. It is, therefore, believed by the educators of other nations that the less gifted pupils of the German school do not profit so much as they would under the mechanical system of instruction. Failing to comprehend the subject as a whole, failing to seize the soul of the comparative method, they remain confused and ineffective, not even retaining use¬ ful details which might have been learned by memorizing. Whether the percentage of German pupils who find the school work profitless is as large as the, percentage of corresponding classes in English schools is a question not determined# SCHOOLS OF GERMAN COUNTRIES. NLIll But without a mechanical basis for classification and promotion it follows that the German can not lay so much stress on the grading of pui)ils as is done in other nations. In this connection it is pointed out that the people’s schools and the citizens’ higher schools do not make their course of study a part or section of the course of study that fits the pupil for the university. The classics are commenced so early in the gymnasia that the pupils who graduate from the citizen’ school find a barrier in the way if they wish to enter the university. They must go back and enter classes of younger pupils in order to make up their Latin and Greek. This neglect to provide an easy transition from all parts of the primary and secondary work to the superior instruction is a serious defect in the German system. In the statistics given (page 1G4) it will be seen that the education of women is in much the same backward condition as in France. While in the primary schools the number of girls is equal to the num¬ ber of boys, in the secondary schools there are four times as many boys as girls, while the universities are exclusively for men. The universities of Prussia report 22,847 students for 28,000,000 people, while the universities of Austria report 18,405 for 23,000,000. Hungary for 17,000,000 people reports 8,106 students in universities and technical schools, while Switzerland reports 3,529 for its 3,000,000 people. It is not stated in any instance what proportion of these students are from other countries. The secondary students are re- XDorted at 356,912 for Prussia; 190,196 (including also the technical and other special schools) for Austria ; 39,918 (same inclusion) for Hungary; 18,206 for Switzerland. There is great difficulty in ascertaining the exact meaning of many items of statistics given in the reports of different couatries. This will be offen observed by the reader of these statements. Our specialists have chosen rather to run the risk of printing paradoxes than by sup¬ pressing important items of statistics to lose the opportunity of exciting the criticism and investigation which is sure to bring out the sifted re¬ sults for a future report. For example, we note that the normal schools of Prussia with a 3-years’ course enroll only 8,507 x>upils, giving an an¬ nual supply of less than 3,000 graduates to fill the vacancies in a corps of 75,000 teachers. If the schools depended wholly on these graduates to supply vacancies, it would imply an average service of 25 years for each teacher. But the increase of the schools alone would require 1,000 new teachers per year. Berlin reports 108 new teachers for a corx)s of 3,000, which would give an average annual service of 28 years ; but if 102 of these are to be deducted for the supply of new schools opened, the term of service would on that datum be much greater, say 500 years for each teacher ! It is noted that while Prussia has 106 normal schools for men, it has only 8 for women. But there are 38 normal schools for Catholic teachers. XLIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. The very large number of pupils per teacher reported (70 to 80) is calculated to excite a suspicion as to its accuracy, even uiakiug allow¬ ance for the fact that the German method of instruction does not require so much or so careful an examination of the individual pupil as the methods of other countries. If the statistics mean that the total num¬ ber enrolled by each teacher in the year is 80 or 90, while the actual average attendance is much less — say two-thirds — the case is less diffi¬ cult to understand. Or, if there are pupil teachers who assist according to the Lancasteriaii plan in vogue in England, the explanation is still better. In the United States the average attendance for each teacher of the elementary schools falls below 40 pupils, and there is much outcry on the part of the friends of good instruction to the effect that there should be fewer rather than more pupils assigned to each teacher. Under the item of sources of revenue it will be noted that Prussia pays 18 per cent, of the expenses of the lower schools, while the local districts pay the balance. It is interesting to note that the income from the permanent school fund provides only 6 per centum of the entire expenses. In the United States the permanent funds furnish only a little more than 7 per cent, of the entire cost of the s chools. THE SCHOOLS OF ITALY.* There are two territories in Europe which have been battle grounds for the other nations — the lowlands north of France and the peninsula of Italy. England and central Europe, jealous of the power of France, could never permit her to extend her boundary to the North Sea, for that would mean the entire control of all the western outlets of Europe But with France confined south of Flanders, England has been able to hold sway over these waters and her maritime greatness is the result. But Belgium has been the fighting ground for English, French, Spanish, and Austrian. So, too, Italy has been the field on which Germany, Spain, and France have contended for the balance of power since Charle¬ magne founded the Holy Eoman Empire. Eome had been at one time the chief center of political power. Charlemagne gave it a new center in northwest Europe. Subsequent centuries saw the attempts of the German Emperors to fix their capital in Italy again. But the Atlantic powers, Spain and France, could not permit such a combination. If Ger¬ many absorbed Italy, there would be no stability for the western powers. Hence the protracted wars to settle the limits of the Empire. During the Crusades, the Italian cities, taking advantage of their position be¬ tween the east and west, gained great wealth and influence, securing by means of it their independence. Italy broke up into small powers jealous of each other and continually at war. The same discord pene¬ trated each city, and there were parties within the walls ready to let in the common enemy in order to triumph over their fellow citizens with Statements in Chapter VI — Italy — prepared by Miss F. G. French. SCHOOLS OF ITALY. XLV whom they had feuds. Daute has given us in his great poem the reflec. tion of this fearful state of political chaos, and in his Be MonarcMa has reasoned out the conditions of peace for the world by forming a single government that swallows up all nations — a rehabilitation of the ideal that ancient Eome sought to achieve in the interest of her theory of civil freedom — all equal before the one law of the world, and the temple of Janus forever closed. Eome has controlled the world, first i^olitically and then ecclesiastic¬ ally. But the development of the Italian people as a people has been arrested by the long ages of foreign complication and the internal schisms incident to this prominent place in history, hto people can de¬ velop its own native aptitudes without freedom from foreign sway. The forward movement of modern civilization is in the direction of real¬ izing rational individualism in the form of local self-government. Thus it implies progress in the education of all strata of the people from the lowest up. It implies the means of intercommunication and access to the spectacle of the movements of the world through newspapers and books. There must be a universal ability to read and the use of that ability. There must be the conquest of nature by labor-saving machin¬ ery and productive industry so that there may be thrift and wealth abundant — progress along these lines of the elevation of the people into a free participation in rational activity. This is the progress that our civilization demands, and it measures it not alone by the strength and wisdom of the leading classes, but by the general diffusion of intel¬ ligence and productive power among the people as a whole. The union of Italy under an Italian king has led to a wonderful progress in this latter aspect. Italy has been famous for higher education for many centuries. But the common people were not provided for and the amount of illiteracy was very great. As late as 1861, on the accession of Victor Emanuel to kingship of all Italy except Venetia and the Papal Territory, out of a total population of 21,777,331 there were 16,999,701 reported as unable to read and write. In 1871 the number of illiterates over 15 years was reported at 69 per cent. This had been reduced 10 years later (1881) to 62 i)er cent,, and in 1889 still further to 48 per cent. In no State of Europe has more strenuous effort been made to provide for education by public schools. The expenditure for 1886 amounted to about $20,000,000, of which the national government furnisbed nearly one- third. Over 10 per cent, of the entire population are enrolled in school. The schools are free, without tuition fees, and a compulsory law insures some 4 years of schooling (sinceT877) to all. This will very rapidly reduce the illiteracy and increase the productivity of the nation. The States of northern Italy, and especially Piedmont, have made by far the most progress in popular education, and it is noteworthy that the freedom and unity of Italy have come from the section where popular education has been most cared for. XLVI EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF EDUCATION. The reports show that the number of students preparing for the work of teaching in the normal schools amounts to 10,542. This fact is very significant, as showing the enlightened policy of the State in improving the corps of teachers. THE SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF SWEDEN AND FINLAND. Sweden and Finland* were one country up to 1809, when Finland was ceded to Eussia. Early in the Protestant movement in Europe Sweden took measures to secure popular education, and in 1640 re¬ quired every city to provide a school. In 1686 the lawf of Charles XI prohibited marriage between parties who could not read. The law of 1842 compels each parish to provide a school. It seems that 15 per cent, of the entire population are enrolled in the schools, there being 707,959 in the elementary, 14,030 in the secondary, and 1,816 in the superior grades, besides a large attendance on the technical schools. In fact Sweden has distinguished herself in later years by her original methods in technical and industrial schools and in bodily training. The Ling system of gymnastics has been imported into America and introduced into the Boston schools, and is exciting wide attention here and in England. The Slojd system of manual training has attracted special students from all parts of the world to the Swedish normal school at Xaas. It originated in the home indus¬ tries practiced during the long winter evenings — feats of skill in the manufacture of woodenware — the jackknife being the principal tool in requisition. The Slojd of the normal school has extended itself so as to include metal work to some extent, and so as to initiate the pupil into the use of tools employed in skilled labor. There is in all grades of the schools much attention given to preparation of boys for useful trades and of girls for housework. There is a compulsory law that applies to children between the ages of 9 and 14 years. The large sum devoted to normal-school instruction-— $92,949, in 1887, and also the corresponding sum for inspection of the elementary schools ($25,460) — shows the earnestness and wisdom with which the government acts in this matter. It would seem that nearly all children of school age are brought under the training of the school. A noteworthy feature of the schools of Sweden and Finland is the “ ambulatory” school. The schoolmaster in the sparsely settled re¬ gions goes from house to house, remaining a few days at each place and collecting in the most convenient one the children of the few fami. lies who live near enough to attend. This sufhces to teach reading and writing and but little more. The schoolmaster, however, can advise and direct home studies if he is intelligent. In 1871 there were 1,164 of these ambulatory schoolmasters, there being 7,118 schools of ** Statements in Chapter VII, prepared by Miss F, G. French, t On p. 216 Charles IX should be Charles XI. SCHOOLS OF SWEDEN. XLVII all kinds in Sweden, outside of Stockholm. In 1883 the number of schools had increased to 9,794, of which 3,346 were ambulatory. The ambulatory teacher for sparsely settled country districts sug¬ gests for other countries certain features worth adopting. There are branches of instruction in the city schools which are made efficient only by skilled special teachers, such as cooking, drawing, etc. These can be taught in country schools by ambulatory ” teachers employed by the State Board of Education — one or two schools being visited each day in a circuit of five or ten schools—after a course of lessons the special teacher may move on to a new circuit. The hygienic inquiries conducted in the Swedish schools are of para¬ mount interest. Axel Key’s report on this subject is the most impor¬ tant contribution yet made to it. One learns with surprise the effect of overstrain of the nervous system in the Latin schools (50 per cent, affected), and especially in the girls’ schools (61 per cent). There is evident a considerable opposition on the part of the people to the old classical course of liberal education. One may note in this connection that Sweden does not stand in such close relation to the other nations of Europe as to feel the pressure for adjusting herself to a foreign human environment of peoples differing in language, religion, fashions, and manners and customs. Such a necessity is met by the studies of a liberal education, which familiarizes the pupil with remote peoples who originated the ideas that underlie his civilization. The Latin and Greek life with which the student becomes familiar in college gives to him the source from whence are derived not only his own spiritual usages, but also those of neighboring nations differing more or less from those prevailing at home. The new awakening in Sweden in the matter of manual training and industries will have the effect of bringing Sweden into commercial re¬ lations with other nations, especially as soon as the Swedish normal schools come to devote a large portion of their time to art studies. They must emulate the French and Belgians in this respect, and take as much pains to form the taste of pupils on classic models as they take to secure skill of hand. Swedish manufactures will begin then to ac¬ quire elegance of finish and design that will make them sought for in the markets of the world. Swedish scholars are noted for their work on the Old Korse Edda and the history of that early race of daring sea-rovers which made so deep an impression on the new civilization growing up in western Europe in the Middle Ages. The educators of other nations find Sweden a very interesting study in the matter of education, because it is a sort of experiment station in hygiene and manual training. The contention between the moderns” and the classic studies is also nearly as active there as in France, XLVIII EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. FINLAND. In Sweden and Finland we have specimens of the most northern peo¬ ples of Europe — of peoples, too, who are somewhat isolated and not in that state of military tension which prevails in central and western Europe. There is evident everywhere a spirit of sturdy independence and a willingness to depart from the traditional methods followed by other people. Uno Cygnmus, the organizer of the new forms of primary instruction in Finland, who instituted the first normal school there, is the originator of the idea of the manual training school. He devised the plan when sent out by the Kussian Government to Alaska to teach the natives, and after his return to Finland he was appointed inspector-general of the people’s schools, and established the admirable combination of literary, scientific, and industrial studies that is found there in the elementary schools. The number enrolled in school exceeds 17 per cent, of the entire pop¬ ulation (counting both the ambulatory and village schools). Yery much stress is laid on the education of teachers, the sum of $75,960 being ap¬ propriated annually to normal schools, and the sum of $11,260 being devoted to providing able inspectors of the elementary schools. Secondary education seems also to be unusually strong — 9,983 iiiipils are enrolled in this class of schools — about one-seventh of the entire school enrollment. Of these it is interesting by way of comparison with France and Germany to see that nearly one-half of the secondary pupils are girls. The number of students enrolled in the universi¬ ties is 1,703, a very unusual proportion. The compulsory law of 1866 relates to children of the ages from 7 to 14 years. It is stated that in a population of 2,225,000 the number of illiterates is less than 5,000. The ambulatory school of Finland seems to be even more efficient than that of Sweden. SPAIN. An attempt was made in this Bureau to sketch an outline of educa¬ tion in Spain.^ But the sources of information proved to be meager and for the most part not recent. After the sketch was in type for chapter viii I sent the proof sheets to distinguished specialists resident in Madrid — Senor Giner de los Eios and Director M. B. Cossio — the former the editor of the Spanish educational journal “Boletin de la lustituciou Libre de Ensehanza,” and the latter at the head of the Ped¬ agogical Museum of Primary Instruction. Sr. M. B. Cossio kindlj^ un¬ dertook a thorough revision of the statement, and in the next Annual M’he sketch was compUeJ by Miss Sox)bie Nassbaum. XLIX SCHOOLS OF SPAIN. Eeport of tMs Bureau I hope to furnish an adequate showing of the educational work done in Si3ain,* In her efforts to establish universal education Spain vies with Italy and has succeeded in eurolling in her schools about the same ratio of children, namely, lOJ i)er centum of the population. The consequence of this movement in behalf of education has been ^ the reduction of illiteracy in recent years. The great comparative outlay for normal-school instruction will be noticed. There were, in 1885, 48 of these for men and 33 for women, with a large number of graduates who obtained certificates. As a con¬ sequence it appears that a great majority of teachers are professionally educated. Added to this there is a system of inspection for every prov¬ ince. The number of persons pursuing secondary and higher instruction appears to be out of proportion to the number in the elementary schools and speaks well for the richer classes. The number of industrial and technical students (19,583) is still more significant as indicating a de¬ termination to advance the nation to the front rank of industrial com¬ petition. EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL.f The United States of Brazil, the largest country in South America, has more square miles than the United States of America, Alaska being * The following errata pointed out by Senor Cossio should be read in connection with chapter viii : Page 236, seventh column, 8,412 teachers should be 8,512. Page 236, foot-note. Infant should be used for preparatory in the classification of primary instruction. Page 237, the pretended census for 1883 (referred to Jin paragraph 2) should be dis¬ credited since no official census has been taken since 1877. Page 237 paragraph 6. The statement with respect to the law of 1868 is a mis¬ take. M. Bnisson refers to a decree of 1868 which authorized any Spaniard to open a school without having obtained an official diploma. Page 238, table. Enrollment in private schools should be — 1880. 1885. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. 150, 522 176, 357 135, 479 155, 270 Page 239, heading “ Grant by the State,” should be Estimates by the Municipalities. Page 240, table. Assistant teachers, number of females should be 1,122. Page 241, paragraph 2. For 121 read 177. Page 241, paragraph 7, line 2. First 20 should be 28; line 8, for 8,896 read 8,986, Page 242, paragraph 3, line 3,, ,Fot 2fe/ i'-ead go3.01 ; line 4, for 1,185 read 1,176; line 18, supported by the StatO^shduld bp i>;^4he AyuhtanAentos. Page 243, paragraph 2. 'Fqr’k344 read 1,144. ’ ' t Chapter ix prepared by ^liss F. G. French. ' ^ Page 24i8, foot-note. No>’.‘ 15, 1838, should be Nov. 15, 1889'. ' " % ED 89 - ^IV / L REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. excluded. The valley of tlie Amazou, over 2,000,000 square miles, is almost all included, within the limits of Brazil. Lying on the equator its capacity for the production of vegetable food is so great that it , would support a population equal to twice the present aggregate of ; mankind. Science and machinery will some day conquer this vast i region for the uses of man, but mere manual labor can never do it. All the South American countries are taking a new interest in the pro- ! gress of other nations, notab^in that of the United States of America and of France and Germany. They show great eagerness to adopt im¬ proved methods of education and whatever devices will elevate the people iato greater directive power in science and industry. Under the : last Emperor, Dom Pedro, the schools of Brazil received much encour¬ agement and the quality of instruction was much improved, although i the total enrollment reached only 2 per cent, of the population. The education of this number, which is a small fraction of the people when compared with most European nations, and indeed, as compared with its own neighbors of the southwest (see comparative table, pages 76, 77), costs Brazil $5,000,000 per annum. It has developed a comparatively excellent system of secondary instruction. The enrollment in secondary and normal schools bears a large ratio to that of elementary instruction. Each of the twenty provinces of Brazil has its own local provincial assembly and takes care of its own educational facilities. There is a good system of superintendence and inspection provided for, especially in the federal district of Eio de Janeiro. The statistics from this na- , tion are quite meager as regards its schools, and the information given ' in the authorities consists in government resolutions and proposed en¬ actments rather than in definite information as to what is being accom¬ plished, and its rate of progress. THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. I would call special attention to chapters xi to xiv* (pages 275-372) as giving a survey of the development and present status of normal schools and a supplementary study on the sociological conditions un¬ der which the teaching force of IS'ew England has been organized in the past 20 years, together with a glance at the new plan of the trustees of the Peabody fund.t Additional matter on the subject of normal schools will also be found in chapter xxvi. * Prepared for this Report by Mr. Wellford Addis. t At the time this Report goes to press (September, 1891') the administration of the [ Slater fund has been placed under the same able management as the Peabody fund so as to secure perfect unity and harmony in expenditures. It would appear to the stu- j| dent of education in the Souther^ StatQ^ that the practical wisdom in the adminis- I tration of the Peabody fund hhd the fruitfol.hfisults that have followed it could not I be surpassed in the history of endowments.' “Ihe SI'at§r fund, too, has been admirably managed. THE LIVE EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS. LI COUESE OF STUDA" IN THE ELEMENTAEY SCHOOLS OF CITIES. Attention is likewise called to the tabular views of the course of study in eighty-two cities of the United States, together with a critical essay* on the different plans that prevail and the grounds urged for them (chapter xv, pages 373-410). MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING, This topic was treated with great fullness in the last Report.! The usual tables of statistics (pages 1362-1367) are given in the present Re¬ port and the specialist has added some supplementary historical illus¬ tration and commentary in chapter xvi. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES AND OF ENGLAND. The data compiled on this important subject in chapter xvii| in¬ clude the replies to a circular sent out from this Bureau asking in re¬ gard to adjustments made between the parochial schools and the public school system. This chapter includes also a detailed summary of the report of the Royal Commission of 1886 as to religious and moral train¬ ing in England and Wales. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAWS AND STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS, Chapters xviii and xix§ contain a mass of information in regard to the two educational subjects exciting most interest recently in our State legislatures. The question of supervision of education in private and parochial schools, the question of furnishing free text-books to all pu¬ pils, and the question of State preparation and publication of such books have been discussed more or less from Maine to California. It is believed that the compilation here given (pages 470-578) will be found sufficiently complete and that it will prove useful in the discus¬ sion which is still going on. THE LIVE EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS, In the State school reports and other documents for the year the chief topics discussed are, (1) Instruction to prepare for citizenship (page 588); (2) Country schools (page 590); (3) Education as related to crime (page 600); (4) Evening schools (page 601); (5) High schools (page 601); (6) Physical training (page 603); (7) Private and parochial schools (page 611); (8) Religious and moral training (page 622); (9) Revenue and taxation (page 634); (10) School hygiene (page 635) ; (11) ^ Prepared by Mr. J. C. Boykin. tin chapter prepared by Mr. Wellford Addis. t Prepared by Miss Annie Tolman Smith. § Prepared by Mr. F. E. Upton, the specialist of the Bureau on State systems. LII KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Science teaching (page 636); (12) Sex in education (page 639); (13) Supervision (page 640); (14) The township system (page 642). There is also much interest growing in the subject of methods of teaching thrift and economy by means of school savings banks (see pages 655-668). COURSES OF STUDY IN COLLEGES. In chapter xxviii are given the statistics of superior and professional instruction. A new item is added (item vi) showing the complete courses of study * for more than one hundred of the colleges of the country in the following subjects : Classics, mathematics and astronomy, English, modern languages, philosophy, chemistry, jibysics, biology, geology and mineralogy, history and political economy, and technics, t THE TWO CHIEF INTERESTS IN THE PRESENT EDUCATIONAL MOVE¬ MENTS. The educational questions which at present excite most attention among the people of the United States relate either to the extension of the free public elementary schools or to the adjustment of the colleges and universities to the preparatory schools. In those States where the public school systems are newest, as in the Southern States and in the States on the western borderland, it is quite natural that the chief educational interest concentrates on the problem of extending the free schools in such a manner as to provide by public taxation for longer school sessions, better teachers, better school build¬ ings, and increased attendance. In the older and richer States of the north Atlantic, including Uew England and the Middle States, there is much thought and discussion going on regarding the future place and function of the small colleges, and regardingtherelation which college work holds to university work. There is even more interest manifested in the proper limits of secondary education. The question relates to the free public high school on the one hand and to the private endowed academies amd classical prepara tory schools that furnish the greater part of students for the colleges. The friends of education everywhere behold the spectacle of the es¬ tablishment of the free common-school system in the Southern States with a feeling of pride. The extension of the system has been so rapid in those States and its rate of increase so uniform that all who believe that local self-government and universal participation in the right to vote must be preceded by universal education in common schools have reason to be satisfied with the jiromise for the future. * Compiled by Mr. Lewis A. Kalbacb. t The chief of the division of statistics, Col. Weston Flint, is preparing a similar table for the next Annual Report ofthis Bureau to show the course of study in second¬ ary schools. THE TWO EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS. LIII In tlie 13 years for whicli separate statistics for the white and black races in the South are accessible (see pagexviii), the white children en¬ rolled in the public schools have increased from 1,827,139 to 3,197,830, or about 75 per cent., while the increase of the total white population has been only 34 per cent. The school attendance has increased more than twice as fast as the population. All this has been done amidst the poverty which followed the most devastating war of modern times. But the education of the colored race has a still better record to show. In 13 years the enrollment has increased from 571,506 to 1,213,- 092, an increase of 113 per cent., while the total colored population has increased only 24 per cent. In other words the school attendance has increased more than four times as fast as the population among the colored people of the Southern States. In this same connection I mention the fact, that the attendance of the colored people on normal schools, high schools, and colleges has increased during the same period of 13 years previous to 1890 from a total of 8,511 to a total of 25,540 — almost exactly three times the former number. We all know that an increase in school facilities and a more general attendance on schools means more careful supervision and improve¬ ments in methods. Teachers will manage in some way to learn by the experiments of their fellow-teachers. There have been during the past 20 years many eminent men who have tilled the positions of State superintendent and of city superintendent in that section of the coun¬ try. Two hundred and sixteen millions of dollars have been paid from the public taxes for the support of the schools, white and colored, during the period of 13 years mentioned. The labors of the superintendents in improving the quality of the teaching forces by institutes, associations, and normal schools have shown good results. The increase of the ap¬ propriations from $11,231,073 in 1877, to $23,225,982 in 1889, has rein¬ forced their labors by attracting a higher order of talent into the work of instruction. The admirably managed endowments of the Peabody Fund and the Slater Fond have been instrumental in improving the character of instruction. The devotion of the western borderlands to the cause of common schools may be inferred from the fact that they expend annually from public funds the sum of $4.11 for each man, woman, and child of the population for their schools— a sum nearly double the average sum ex¬ pended per capita by the rest of the United States. But in those distant regions the cost of living is greater and the salaries must be larger to secure talent and skill in the teacher. The effort in the South now tends in the direction of increasing the length of the annual school term. While the number of different pupils enrolled in school is quite as large a proportion of the popula¬ tion in the South as in the Iilortlq and indeed somewhat larger, yet the LIV EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF EDUCATION. number of days for the average school session is much less. While the North Atlantic schools average 164 days in the year, the South Atlantic average only 100 days. While the North Central schools average 147 days, the South Central average 91 days. But the States of the South expend quite as much in proportion to their wealth in taxable property for schools as do the North Atlantic States {i. e., the New England and Middle States). But the Northwestern States exceed them in the rate of tax. Looking over the whole country we have remarked that in public and private schools 22J per cent, of the population is enrolled — 13,726,574 pupils of all grades for the year 1889. The proportion in private schools varies with the grade of work. In the elementary grades it is 9 per ceut.; in the secondary three times as large, or 27 per cent.; in the superior instruction it is 73 per cent, of the whole. The total amount expended for education in the United States in 1889 was $172,000,000, counting the amount for private institutions at $35,- 000,000. ' , THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE COLLEGE AND THE COMMON SCHOOL. - i In the schools of the United States there prevail two different ideals i of the course of study j the one originating with the directors of higher * education and the other a growth from the common elementary school. ’ These two ideals clash in quite important particulars. The common- | school course of study, as it appears in the elementary school and in j the public high school which gives secondary instructiou, does not shape ! itself so as to fit its pupils for entrance to tlie colleges. At least, if we J admit that as an actual fact many high school pupils do enter college, ^ we must also admit that there is a constant tendency in the public high i school to diverge in its course of study and follow a path that does not j lead to the college. The older colleges of the States, following the traditions brought over J from Europe, built their course of study on mathematics and the classi- ; cal languages, Latin and Greek. They accordingly demanded of the i preparatory schools a preliminary training or preparation along these lines, and neglected all else. ! Human learning at one period did not include much that was not j conceived and expressed in Latin or Greek words. But within the past j 300 years there has arisen a modern tributary stream of human learn- ; ing, and it has some time since begun its demand for recognition in the j course of stud^^ This modern side of human learning includes the natural sciences and modern literature. These two contingents are almost wholly the product of the past 300 years. The demands of the sciences and the demands of the literature of the modern languages to a share in the course of study were met in one way by the college and in another way by the common school. The direc¬ tors of higher education affirmed that Latin, Greek, and mathematics CONFLICT BETWEEN COLLEGE AND COMMON SCHOOL. LV farnislied the truly disciplinary studies lit for the foundation of ail lib¬ eral education. Modern literature and the sciences, on the other hand, they said, were not and could not become culture studies, although they might be useful in the way of accomplishments in practical life. Accordingly the colleges proceeded to recognize the moderns by ad¬ mitting them only into the course of study at the end. During the fourth or senior year of college the student was given a rapid survey of the sciences and of some of the great works of modern literary art. But the college did not encourage the introduction of modern literature and natural science into the preparatory school. Consequently the pupil who left school during his preparatory course, or before the senior year of college, found himself ignorant of these two great and rapidly grow¬ ing provinces of human learning. But the public-school system has taken a different direction. It has been under the supervision and management of less highly educated menj that is to say, of men less thoroughly instructed in the forms of the past, and as a result less conservative. When the moderns appealed for a place in the course of study, some concession was made at once to the demand. A tendency has been established to recognize the moderns throughout the course of study. First, modern literature was admitted in the shape of a graded series of school readers containing many of the gems of English and American literature, and much, too, that was written in mere colloquial English, and much that was trashy in its style and thought. In the geographical text-book there was an attempt at a survey of the world in its relations to man — the world in its mathematical fea¬ tures of size, shape, and motions ; in its physical aspects of interacting forces of light, heat, moisture, and gravitation; and finally in its bio¬ logical aspects of plant life, animal life, and the races of men. This geographical text-book also drew on the social sciences, and in¬ troduced scrai^s of information regarding political economy, the occu¬ pations of men, and also their political institutions, their laws and cus¬ toms, and religion. Geography has therefore developed from the be¬ ginning into a sort of compend of natural science, affording the pupil a survey of the results of the modern sciences, both in the physical and social world. Having yielded to the demands of the moderns in the elementary school in these respects, and in the introduction of a history of the fatherland, it remained next to emphasize this tendency still more in the secondary public school, and to make the high school course of study include more thorough work in English literature, universal his¬ tory, three or four selected sciences like geology, astronomy, physi¬ ology, and chemistry, in addition to the mathematics, and some modern by the side of an ancient language. It might be claimed that the graduate of the high school had a broader education ; Ms education, under good teachers, might even be LVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP EDUCATION. tliorougb, but certainly in his preparation in Latin and Greek the amount was not sufficient to give the high-school pupil a fair chance by the side of the graduate of the special preparatory school. The directors of the common schools have therefore been compelled to establish a double course, a classical and an English course, in the public high school j a procedure so foreign to the spirit of the entire common-school course of study that it has only partially succeeded. This brief statement leads us to the source of the present problems in our education. Twenty-five years ago the requirements for admission to respectable colleges were much lower than at present. It was then possible for the high-school graduate to enter college with a good stand¬ ing. He knew nearly as much Latin and Greek as the average student from the private preparatory school, and he knew far more science and history and modern literature. These moderns gave him a decided ad¬ vantage. But there had been a widespread feeling among college men that the standard for admission ought to be raised until the degree of bachelor of arts should represent more learning and greater maturity of mind and body. The bold action of some of the ablest college presi¬ dents set into more rapid motion the demand for more work in the pre¬ paratory schools, and the consequence has been the general elevation of the standard of admission to college by about one and one-half to two years. The results of this change have become slowly apparent. There has followed a wider separation of the higher education in the United States from its public-school education. The preparatory school has been forced in to fill the place that the college formerly held, and the result is not felt to be salutary. This difficulty has been increased by the rapid multiplication of public high schools, which now number some 4,000. The numerous smaller colleges having given up a year or more of their work to the preparatory schools feel very keenly the loss of students. Inasmuch as the larger colleges have developed into univer¬ sities, there is evident the beginning of a crusade against the small college that will force it to step down into the work of secondary edu¬ cation and renounce the work of higher instruction. This result, in fact, is unavoidable if the present high standard for admission is re¬ tained. But it has been discovered by the leading minds who are directing our higher education that there are very strong reasons against this course. It is possible that there may be a change that will return the college to its old place in the educational system, and this will save all the small colleges for the useful work which they have so long and so faithfully accomplished. This same move would likewise restore the college to a harmonious relation to the public high school. Indeed it would bring about a better adjustment than has ever been before. Eor the elevation of the standard for admission to college has been accompanied to. some extent by requirements of preparation in moderns; some modern literature and French or German, together with CONFLICT BETWEEN COLLEGE AND COMMON SCHOOL. LVII some acquaintance with science, are demanded. Hence a slight approx¬ imation of preparatory courses of study to that of the high school has been elfected. If this tendency is preserved and accentuated in the change of the requirements for admission, there may come about a complete adjustment of the higher education to the common-school education and an inestimable advantage accrue to the people; for it is certainly a calamity to have the youth of the land diverted from the institutions of higher education. Although it is uncertain what decision will be taken by the directors of our higher education, I may mention another phase of the matter which bears in favor of the return of the colleges to the old standard of admission. This is the recent development of a genuine university course above the traditional college course. It is to be remembered that for a long time there have been generous endowments of institutions of learning by rich men. In fact, the peo¬ ple of the United States are very proud of their John§ Hopkinses, Tulanes, Pcabodys, Purdues, Licks, Drexels, Clarks, and Stanfords. Kearly an annual average of $10,000,000 is given as endowments to various forms of higher education. The net result of these endow¬ ments may be summed up as the creation of real university work. The old college did not know how to manage the years of post-grad¬ uate study. The fellowship endowments were paid to brilliant students who had carried off the honors, but who had worked rather for those same honors than for the sake of learning and insight. Left to them¬ selves, without the stimulus of class work, those post-graduate students soon lost their zest, and unless they entered the i)rofessional school gained very little in their subsequent residence at college. A reform of the greatest importance was inaugurated by organizing post-gradu¬ ates into classes for original investigation in the form of laboratory work and of seminaria wherein critical research was taught and learned. At once there sprang up a new and superior order of professors, which has been superseding step by step the type of college pro¬ fessor that formerly prevailed. The new university-trained professor has a very much improved method of instruction, even if his work hap¬ pens to be in lower schools. He carries that higher method — the method of investigation — into practice with his students and their work becomes far more profitable, How it is this discovery on the part of our leading colleges of the true character of university work that has brought about the feeling — or let us say is in process of bringing about the feeling — that it is not necessary to include all higher education in the college. There should be a fourth stage of education, that of the university, quite beyond the education of the college, and its characteristics should be those of spe¬ cialization and original investigation. The work of the college may be improved by an infusion of the higher methods, but its essential character must not be changed. LVIII REPORT OP THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. The elementary school will always have the character of memory work stamped upon it, no matter how much the educational reforms may improve its methods. It is not easy to overvalue the impulse of such men as Pestalozzi and Froebel. But the child^s mind can not seize great syntheses. He bites off, as it were, only small fragments of truth at best. He gets isolated data, and sees only feebly the vast net¬ work of interrelation in the world. This fragmentary, isolated char¬ acter belongs essentially to primary education. But just as surely does secondary education deal with relations and functions and processes. It is the stage of crude generalization. But college education strives to superinduce on the mind the habit of seeing the unity of things. The curriculum of the college is therefore called the philosophical fac¬ ulty, using the word faculty in the French sense of the word/acwZfe. The college rounds up the youth’s view of the world and gives him an idea of the articulation of the various branches of human knowl¬ edge. But the view of this unity is both deep and shallow at the same time. It is shallow because the student has and can have only a hearsay knowledge of the many branches of human learning. It is a deep view because the idea of the organic unity of knowledge is always the deepest idea that can arise in the mind of man. It has been contended by some of our educational leaders in the States that this phase of education, which is founded on the search for unity, is a spurious phase of education, and they would therefore willingly relegate all of the college work to the preparatory school and commence the work of specialization and original investigation at once after the secondary school, or even in the secondary school itself. But these zealots do not duly consider the fact that the only tran¬ sition between the theoretical and the practical, that is to say, between the intellect and the will, takes., place through the act of unifying or summing up one’s knowledge. A rational man is bound to act in view of all the circumstances. The inventory of any field of reality can never be exhausted, but the practical man must act. When he acts he must stop investigating further and sum up the case ; he must declare the evidence to be all in and decide what to do from what he has already learned. This is the transition from the intellect to the will. The college has in the past cultivated exclusively this frame of mind, which looks for the unity of knowledge and gives an ethical point of view to one’s thinking. It will be needed to cultivate the same ethical habit of mind in future, although it will require to be supplemented by the spirit of investigation and verification which the university method brings Avith it. For we must learn both these methods in order to become liberally educated. We must be observant of the trend of things and gain the power of insight into the rational unity underlying all things—this is essential to practical wisdom 5 and on the THE TWO EDUCATION'AL MOVEMENTS. LIX otlier iiiriDd we must learn to make original investigation and carry forward the boundaries of truth into the unknown. lu conclusion I desire to take this opportunity to testify to the valu¬ able services and willing cooperation of the corps of this Bureau, and in particular to recognize the assistance given to me by the chief clerk, Mr. John W. Holcombe, and by the chiefs of division, Colonel Weston Flint, of the Division of Statistics; Mrs. H. F. Hovey, of the Division of Correspondence; Mr. Henderson Presnell, of the Library; Dr. L. K. Klemm and Misses Smith and French of the Division of Foreign Exchange, and by Mr. F. E. Upton as head of the editing corps. I Iiave the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, W. T, Harris, Commissioner, The Hon. John W. Noble, Secretary of the Interior, PA_RT r, CHAPTER 1. GENERAL STATISTICAL EXBIBIT OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEAR 1888-89. A. — Grand Total of Pupils. [See Table 1, 6.] The educational system of the United States enrolled 13,726,574 pupils of all grades^ during the school year 1888-89, or an average of about 224 to each 100 persons of the population. Of these, 12,325,411, or 89.8 per cent., were enrolled in schools and institutions under public management, and 1,401,163, or 10.2 iier cent., in schools and institutions under private management. As regards grade, 12,931,259, or 94.2 per cent., were receiving ele¬ mentary instruction ; 668,461, or 4.9 per cent., secondary instruction, and 126,854, or 0.9 percent., superior instruction. Elementary instruc¬ tion will be understood to include what are commonly known as the ^‘primary” and ‘^grammar” grades, and secondary instruction the “ high school ” grade, of both i)ubiic and private schools. The actual average number of pupils in each grade for each 100 per¬ sons of the population, classified as xiablic and jirivate, also geograjih- ically, is as follows : Nuniber of pupils to each 100 of the popula t ion. Elementary. Secondary. Superior. Total Total Total Total public. Total Grand Pub¬ lic. Pri¬ vate. Pub¬ lic. Pri- vate. Pub¬ lic. Pri¬ vate. elemen¬ tary. second¬ ary. supe¬ rior. pri¬ vate. total of all. The United States. 19. 37 1.84 .79 .30 .06 .15 21.21 1.09 .21 20. 22 2.29 22. 51 North Atlantic Di¬ IG. 66 2. 54 1. 14 .35 .07 .18 19. 20 1. 49 .25 17. 87 3. 07 20. 94 vision. South Atlantic Di¬ 19.01 1.13 .77 .36 .04 .14 20. 14 1. 13 .18 19. 82 1.63 21.45 vision. South Central Di¬ 19. 49 .97 . 65 .31 .03 .13 20.46 .96 .16 20. 17 1.41 21. 58 vision. North Central Di¬ 21.88 2.07 .66 .22 .06 .15 23. 95 .88 .21 22.60 2.44 25. 04 vision. Western Division. . 16. 84 1.29 .25 .52 .08 .13 18.13 .77 .21 17.17 3.94 19. 11 Note. — The classification of States raafie use of in the foregoing table is the same as that adopted for the United States Census, and is as follows : North Atlantic DivUion : Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connec¬ ticut, New York. N<*w Jersey, and Pennsylvania. South Atlantic Division : Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Plorida. South Central Division : Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Ar- kans.-is. North Central Division: Ohio, Indi.ana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South D.akota, Nebra.ska, and Kansas. Westem Division: Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California. '■ Excluding evening schools, art, manual and indn strial training, trades, and busi¬ ness schools, schools for the defective, dependent, and delinquent classes, and Indian schools. These collectively enroll a considerable number of pupils. ED 89 - X 1 2 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Elementary insiruetion, — As regards elementary instructioii, it will be seen from the above that in t\iQ pnblic schools the North Central States have the greatest number of pupils as compared with the total number of people (21.88 per 100), and the North Atlantic States and Territories the least (16.66 per 100). The South Atlantic and South Central States surpass the North At¬ lantic ill the proportion of population enrolled in elementary public schools (19.01 and 19.49 against 16.16) ; but the reverse is the case as regards the proportion of school population enrolled ; it is important to keep in mind this distinction, which is more fully referred to elsewhere. In elementaiy schools the North Atlantic States are far in the lead (2.54 pupils per 100 of population) j the Northern States surpass the Southern generally in this particular, and the Eastern States sur¬ pass the Western of the same latitude. • In other words, private elemen¬ tary schools are most prevalent in the longer settled, the more densely l^opulated, and, it may be said, the more educationally advanced sec¬ tions. Taking the elementary pupils all together, public and private, the Western Division has the fewest in proportion to the total population (18.13 per 100). This does not necessarily imply that there has been less progress in education there, since that division has by far the smallest proj^)ortion of children in its population. That portion of the conntry has been in great part only recently settled, and adults still form an undue proportion of the population. In the North Central States a profusion of children, of material resources, and of educa¬ tional enterprise, are found co-existing, with the result that those States make by far the best showing as regards elementary schools, enrolling 23.95 pupils per 100 of population. Secondary instruction. —In public high schools the North Atlantic States have by far the greatest enrollment (1.14 pupils per 100 of pop¬ ulation) ) the North Central States are credited with .66 per 100 j and the Western States with only .25 per 100 (25 per 10,000), or about one- fifth of what the North Atlantic States have. This may seem surprising, but it is in accordance with the reports to this Office. The last Eeport of the Commissioner of Education (1887- 88), p. 73, gives for that year in the North Atlantic States 6.4 per cent, of the common school enrollment as enrolled in high schools j in the North Central States, 2.9 per cent.; and in the Western States only 1.5 per cent. While the Western Division is in the lowest position as regards public high schools, it is in the highest as regards private secondary schools. This may be ascribed to the numerous schools established in the Terri¬ tories by the different religious denominations. As regards the remain¬ ing States, the Eastern (North and South) stand above the Western (.35 and .36 per 100, against .31 and .22). GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 3 tSuiwrior instruction. — The classification of institutions for superior instruction into public and private is not altogether feasible. In point of fact, some of the institutions classed as public in compiling this sum¬ mary are not public in the sense that the common schools are, though the majority of them make an approach to being so. Taking superior instruction of both classes together, and including normal schools, it may bo seen from the table that, compared with the population, there are more higher-grade students in the North than in the South, and in the East than in the West of the same latitude. The North Atlantic States lead with 25 students per 10,000 of population. The South Central States have the smallest proportion, 16 students per 10,000, or about two-thirds the number of the former group. It may be said that 1 in 5 of the whole population of the United States is under elementary instruction, 1 in 100 under secondary in¬ struction, and 1 in 500 under superior instruction. Eelativ e number of xminls in each grade. — Leaving the absolute values and considering only the relative number of pupils in each grade, it appears that 94 per cent, of all pupils are in the elementary grade, 5 per cent, in the secondary grade, and 1 per cent, in the superior. The details are as follows : Fer cent, each grade is of the whole. Element¬ ary. Second¬ ary. Superior. TTnitftfl Rtn t pia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Per cent. 94.2 Per cent 4.9 Per cent. 0.9 North Atlantic Division . . . . . . 91.7 7. 1 1.2 South Atlnritic Division . . . . . . . . . . . 93. 9 5.3 0.8 South Central Division . . . 94. 8 4.4 0.8 North Central Division . . . . . 95. 7 3. 5 0.8 Western Division . . . . . . . . 91.9 1 4.0 1.1 Public and private schools. — The proportion of instruction furnished at the public expense becomes less, the higher the grade. In the ele¬ mentary grade, 91 per cent, of the pupils are in public schools, and only 9 per cent, in private ; in the secondary grade 72 per cent, are in public schools, and 28 per cent, in private; in the superior grades only 27 per cent, are found in public schools, while 73 per cent, appear in private schools. Leaving out normal schools, the x^roportion of public students in the superior grades would be still less. The following table exhibits the relative number of public and private school pupils in the different grades and geographical sections. As just intimated, the normal school attendance, which is mostly public, affects the percentage of superior instruction considerably, especially in the Nortli Atlantic States. 4 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Proportion of puhtic and private pupils in each grade. Elementary. Secondary. Superior. All grades. Puhlic. Private. Public. Private. Public. Private. Public. Private. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Iper cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. United States . 91.3 8.7 72.1 \ 27.9 26.9 73.1 89.8 10.2 Xorth Atlantic Division .. 8678^ 13.2 76.4 23.6 2R^ 71.1 sTT 14. 7 South Atlantic Division’... 94.4 5.6 68.2 31.8 19.6 80.4 92.4 7. 6 South Central Division _ 9'). 3 4.7 67.9 32.1 20.0 80.0 9.3.5 6.5 North Central Division .... 91.4 8.6 75.2 24.8 28.8 71.2 90.3 9. 7 Western Division . 92.9 7.1 32.5 67. 5 38.2 61.8 89.8 10.3 B. — Grand Total of Expenditures. [See Table 2, page 7.] The total amount expended for educational purposes, public and pri¬ vate, in 1888-89, was $171,739,317, or an average of $2.82 per capita of population. Of this amount, $135,737,600, or $2.23 per capita, were expended upon elementary schools ; $19,258,491, or 32 cents per capita, upon sec¬ ondary schools ; and $16,743,220, or 27 cents per capita, upon superior institutions of learning. The following table gives a detailed classification of the per capita ex¬ penditure. The expenditure for higher grade institutions includes the amount expended for the preparatory or academic departments. It will be observed that there is a much greater contrast between the North and South as regards expenditure than there was in the case of pupils, owing to the expenditure per pupil being much less in the South. Expenditure pei' capita of population. Elementary. SecondarJ^ Superior. Total elementary. Total secondary. Total superior. Total public. Total private. Grand tptal of all. Public. Private. Public. Private. Public. Private. The United States . $2. 00 $0. 23 $0.17 $0. 15 $0. 07 $0. 20 '$2. 23 $0. 32 $0.27 $2. 24 $0.58 $2. 82 North Atlantic Division . 2. 28 .38 .31 ~. 31 .06 '777 2:66 Tor .44 2.65 1. 07 3. 72 South Atlantic Division . .90 .10 .08 .10 .07 . 14 1.00 .18 .21 1.05 .34 1. 39 South Central Division .. .90 . 10 .05 .08 .05 .10 1.00 .13 .15 1. 00 .28 1.28 North Central Division.. 2. 58 .23 .16 .06 .08 .14 2. 81 .22 .22 2. 82 .43 .3. 25 Western Division . 3. 25 .15 .09 .23 .22 .17 3. 40 .32 .39 3. 56 .55 4.11 Table l.—J\q)Us. [Note. -Columns 2 and 4 in this and in the next table comprise the Common School System, the detailed statistics of which are given on pp. 8-9 and in Chapter XXII GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 5 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. O . a '1} s rt _ c O a; •aoiivindod jo 001 loj jaquiuj^ ^ a i |s1 H|-g a 02 a a •aoi'^cindod jo * OOt qof o ^ « to 05 00 CO ^ 00 (M lO c«f i-T (M** irT IXN l> O t^ O C5 rH O O OQ i~t lO t- tH rt O 00“ CO I> CO T-» to O l> 1-1 05 T*< CO r-Tcf r-( r-i (M to »0 C5 O 05 (M O t> O ^ *0 r-< l> Cl ^ O O O V* c T-l C4 to CO'r-T Cl to'' ^ a .2 S g .2*2 .2 ^Sgpg O O^rp^'S :§^'5S^ -<^0^ g -2^ a a 2 Table 2. — Expenditure. GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. ? Universities, colleges, and profes¬ sional schools. Total for univ'er. si- ties, col¬ leges, etc. $13, 560, 998 G, 100, C74 1, 374, 782 1,129,688 3, 993, 510 962, 344 Private. $10, 677, 127 5,816,901 950,736 761, 054 2, 702, 647 445, 789 § o :d 1 Public, c © $2, 883, 871 283, 773 424, 046 368, 034 1, 290, 863 1 516, 555 1 •■P 1 o Colleges for women (private). o o o CO 606, 457 214, 368 262, 941 263. 301 16, 000 a cc u o pH Total ex- I)ended for normal schools. 3D $1, 819, 161 ^ ^ ^ g M O r-i .-i O CO f'- 00* O 1 CO — 1'- 00 o L-- ca tH lO rH 1 1 Private. O c<\ 8,430 13, 669 28, 699 143,015 7, 734 1 Public. $1, 617, 614 724, 668 200, 505 148, 469 445, 693 98, 279 ary schools school” le).& Private secondary schools (academies, seminaries, preparatory scliools, etc.). w $9, 059, 491 — ( 00 O CO 1- C5 CO --tt Tji CO uO Ci CO o" Ci o" o' CO r- LO CO 00 (N GO oc T#l O iO •-T |t“ Public high schools. ^$10, 199, 000 5, 238, 000 670, 000 552, 000 3, 480, 000 259, 000 Eor elementary schools (“primary” and “gram¬ mar” grades). Private schools. & w o o o O : CO 6,480,000 882, 000 1, 030, 000 4, 983, 000 432, 000 Public schools. 1 $121,930,600 38, 874, 602 7, 832, 273 9, 620, 246 56, 559, 151 9, 044, 328 • 1 a t 1 1 1 • 1 • 1 1 § o pi a ; United States . U'orth Atlantic Div South Atlantic Div: South Central Divis North Central Divis Western Division . Grand summary of expenditure. Same per capita of X)opula- tion. 3.72 1 39 1.28 3.25 4. 11 Total amount ex].>euded for all schools. § CO s u 63, 300, 302 12, 058, 291 13, 631, 611 71, 298, 585 11, 450, 528 Summary of expenditure according to man¬ agement of schools. Private. Same per cap¬ ita of lioimla- tiou. ?! s s 1.07 .34 .28 .43 .55 Amount exi)ended. et s § i 18, 179, 259 2, 931,467 2, 942, 262 9, 522, 878 1, 532, 36G Public. Same per cap¬ ita of popula¬ tion. s Ci rt 1-4 Ci CO Amount exj^ended. w $136, 631,085 45, 121,043 9, 126, 824 10, 689, 349 61, 775, 707 9, 918, 162 Summary of expenditure by grades. Superior. Same per cap¬ ita of 1 popula¬ tion. 3D "1 s .44 .21 . 15 .22 .39 Amount expended. $16, 743, 226 fiisi Secondary. Same per cap¬ ita of popula¬ tion. $0. 32 Amount expended. $19,258,491 10, 505, 471 1, 540, 694 1,411,568 4,910,915 889, 843 Elementary. Same per cax)- ita of popula¬ tion. S5 2. 66 1. 00 1.00 2. 81 3. 40 Amount expended. $135, 737, 690 4.5, 354, 602 8, 714, 273 10, 650, 246 61,512,151 9, 476, 328 United States . North Atlantic Division . . . South Atlantic Division . South Central Division . . . North Central Division . Western Division . 2 S a Incjutiingj preparatory or academic departments. This table differs from the preceding one in b Estimated in part. c Mainly agricultural and mechanical colleges and State 8 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Summary of Statistics of the Common Schools.^ The following statement is made up from returns for 1888-89, with the exception of a small fraction, which is derived from 1887-88. The numbers here given are therefore subject to future correction. The percentages, however, will not be appreciably altered. General Statistics. Population of the United States . 60, 971, 114 Number of pupils enrolled in the common schools . . . 12,291,259 Increase . 220, 903 Percentage of increase . 1.83 Enrolled per capita of population . 20. 2 Average daily attendance . 8,004,275 Increase . 100, 068 Percentage of increase.. . 1.27 Ratio to enrollment . 65. 1 Aggregate number of days’ attendance . 1, 076, 613, 716 Average number of days the schools were kept . . . ‘ 134. 5 Increase, in days . . . 0. 9 Average number of days attended by each pupil enrolled . 87. 6 Number of public scboolhouses . 216,330 Value of all public school property . $323, 573, 532 Increase . $23, 965, 822 Percentage of increase . . . 8.00 Value per capita of population . $5.31 Value per capita of average attendance . $40. 42 Number of teachers : Males . ^ . 124,929 Females . . . 227,302 Total . 352,231 Percentage of male teachers . 35. 5 Average monthly wages of teachers : Males . $42.43 Decrease . .04 Females . 34. 27 Increase . .32 FINANCES. Revenue : From permanent funds . - . From State taxes . From local taxes . From other sources . $9, 825, 127 25, 177, 067 88, 328, 385 8, 794, 431 Total $132, 125, 010 ^ The common schools embrace Columns 2 and 4 of the two preceding tables. GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 9 Perceutage of revenue derived iroiu — Per cent. Perinaiient funds . . . . 7.4 State taxes . . . . . . . . . . 19.1 Local taxes . . . . . . . . 66. 8 Other sources. . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 6.7 Expenditure : For sites, buildings, and fnrnituro.. . . . ......... $22,204,100 For libraries and apparatus . . . 987,048 For salaries of teachers and sux^erintendeuts . . 87, 888, 666 For other expenses . . . . . . 21, 049, 786 Total . ....-• . . . . . . 1132,129,600 Increase . . . . - . $8,861,669 Percentage of increase . 7.19 Expenditure per capita of population : For salaries . . . . . . $1. 44 Total expenditure . $2.17 Daily cost of education per pupil : For salaries only . cents.. 8.2 For all pur^ioses . . . do.. 13. 3 Amount of permanent invested funds . . $129, 149, 436 Tables and Diagrams Showing the Progress of the Common Schools. Sources tvhenee the material ivas derived. — The following* tables and diagrams have been prepared to show the growth of the common school system of the United States since 1870. The figures given are based upon data derived from the school reports of the various States and Territories covering the period in question. Those for 1889 are approx¬ imate, as has already beeu observed, and may need a slight future cor¬ rection. The files of some of the State reports are incomplete, especially those of the Southern States; and the reports existing contain often very meager statistical information, reporting perhaps only one or two items in the earlier years, and those probably for only one-half the counties in the State, or less. Many anomalies and inconsistencies occur in these reports. All the available statistical material has been collected, and examined as thoroughly as was practicable. The text of the State reports was examined when it seemed necessary, in the progress of the work, in order to^ obtain any information bearing upon the subject that would be of assistance in making a trustworthy estimate, in case of official statistics being missing or unreliable. The Southern States.— T\io> reports of the Gulf States in particular during the first half of the decade 1870-80 are fragmentary and un¬ reliable. The reports of average daily attendance and of the value of school property are almost entirely wanting; vjhile the reports of the average length of school term, when there are any such, and of 10 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. otlier items, are characterized by strongly marked flactiiations and an. omalies, the effects of which are graphically depicted on Diagram IV (p. 19), in the lines of the two Southern Divisions, during the years 870-74. In fact, all the figures for these two divisions, as given in the following pages, must be considered as more or less unreliable until about the year 1875, at which date the school systems of the Southern States had in general passed through their formative period. Uniformity striven after, — Effort has been made to render the statis¬ tics homogeneous. This is especially requisite in the case of school expenditure. What should be reported as “expenditure’^ is a matter of custom or opinion. In these tables are included only the expendi¬ tures for public day schools up through the grade of high school — that is, schools giving primary and secondary instruction. Expenditures of public moneys for evening schools, normal schools, teachers’ institutes, superior, special, and professional schools, and schools and institutions for the defective, dependent, and delinquent classes have been deducted w^hen possible, though sometimes it has not been possible, on account of detailed reports not having been made. Also the amount expended for the payment of indebtedness has been excluded whenever known j it has been frequently shown that this is not an expenditure for educa¬ tion. POPULATION. Statistics of population. — The population, except for the census years 1870 and 1880, has been estimated. The census of 1890 has been used, in connection with that of 1880, as a basis for computing the population since 1880 ; the State censuses of 1885 and other years have also been utilized. The figures given in the following table will be found suffi- 'ciently reliable ; Table Z.— Population of pie United States Inj years, 1870 to 1889. 1 Tear. Popuhation. Year. Population. 1870 . 38, 558, 371 39, 500, 500 40, 477, 0()0 41,490,442 42, 570,731 43, 700, 554 44, 881, 700 46, 112, 700 47, 397, 151 48, 744, 700 1880 . 50, 155, 783 51, 274, 900 52, 441, 700 53, 654, 100 .54, 919, 358 56, 221, 868 57, 447, 100 58, 712, 678 59, 935, 709 «60, 971,114 1871 . 1881 . : . 1872 . 1882 . 1873 . 1883 . 1874 . 1S84 . 1875 . 1885 . 1876 . 1886 . 1877 . 1887 . 1878 . 1888 . 1879 . 18c9 . a The population is given for same epoch as the enrollment, expenditure, etc; hence that for 1889 will need future correction, as the population of some of the States for 1888 enters into this total. See Chap. XXII. Relative number of school children. — In finding what proportion the school children 6 to 14 are of the total population, a great difference is observed in different sections of the United States. This is an impor¬ tant fact, and needs to be emphasized. The more children there are in any given number of the population, the fewer will be the taxpayers. GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 11- aud the greater will be the burden of providing each child with common school education. The accompanying diagram shows graphically the number of children 6 to 1 4 years of age iri each 100 of the population. IPnit^d States. ^ i ^ ^ ^ i ^ f lO.dr 50 JOO No7'ih Atlantic Division. i_ l i i i i 17.0 Soiitii. Atlantic Division. mmmmmm i i j i i i i i 21.1 South CeritnaJ Division. WMMMMMM 1 1 1 i ! 1 1 1 22.2 JSortit CeJiinal Division . l_ i ! i_ j ^ ^ i 10.5 Western Division. 1 ! 1 i [ r ^ 1 15.8 50 100 I. — Diagram showing the number of school children 6 to 14 j’cars of age in every 100 persons in 1880. The shaded parts represent the children G to 14, the unshaded all other persons. It is seen by this that it is in the Southern section of the Union that children most predominate, in the South Central States over 22 out of every 100 persons being children G to 14 years of age; in the North Central Division the loroportion of such children is less, being 19.5; in the North Atlantic States still less, 17; and in the Western Division, including the Pacific States and Territories, least of all, 15.9. It will be noted that the proportion of children is greatest in those sections where the per capita valuation of property is the smallest; the greater number of children to educate exists where there is the least means for educating them? In individual States the contrast iu the relative number of children is still more striking. Montana has 11.4 children in each 100 persons; Mississippi 22.9. Evidently if Mississippi had the same i)roportion of her population enrolled in the schools as Montana, she would have only one-half the proportion of her school population enrolled. In order to gain a correct idea of school enrollment in these two States, for instance, it is essential that it should be viewed under both these aspects, i c., in its relation (1) to the total population and (2) to the school popu¬ lation. The inequality of burden arising from a small or an excessive number of children is brought more i)rommently into relief by considering the number of the school population of 0 to 14 years to every 100 adults ; i, e., by comparing the number of children to be educated with the num¬ ber of persons there are to provide the means for education for them. 12 EDUCATION REPORT, 188S-89, The result of this comparison is exhibited in Diagram II, showing the number of children each 100 adults are required to educate. The cir- Z/hited States-. II. — Diagram showing the number of school children 6 to 14 years of age to every 100 adults, or per¬ sons over 21, in 1880. The shaded parts measure the number of children 6 to 14. eumstance may be noted that in the South Central States each 100 adults have nearly twice as many children dependent upon them for education as do the same number of adults in the States and Territories of the Western Division, the numbers being 50.7 and 28.3 respectively. In individual States here also the contrast would be still more striking. SCHOOL ENROLLMENT. Table 4. — Numiber of different pupils enrolled in the common schools of the United States by years, from 1870 to 1880. Year. Pupils. Year. Pupils. 1870 . 6, 871, 522 7, 561, 582 7, 815, 306 8, 003,614 8, 444, 251 8, 785, 678 8, 869, 115 8, 965, 006 9, 438, 883 9, 604, 458 1880 . . 9, 867, 505 10, 000, 896 10,211,578 10, 651, 828 10, 982, 364 11, 398, 024 11,664,460 11,884, 944 12, 182, 600 12, 291, 259 1871 . 1881 . 1872 . 1882 . 1873 . 1883 . 1874 . 1884 . 1875 . 1885 . .. 1876 . 1886 . 1877 . 1887 . . . 1878 . 1888 . . . 1870 . 1889 . GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 13 Table 5, — Percentage of the population enrolled in the common schools. Year. The United States. ISTorth Atlantic Division. South 'Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Division. ]870 . 17.8 22.1 6.3 7.5 24.4 13.8 1871 . 19.1 22.0 10.0 11.6 24.8 14.0 1872 . 19.3 21.7 10.6 12.8 24.7 13 9 19. 3 21.4 11.8 13.0 24.3 14.6 1874 . 19.8 21.6 13.8 13. 7 24.5 15. 5 20.1 21.7 14.6 14.2 24.5 10.4 1876 . 19.8 21.6 15.2 12.5 24.2 16.8 1877 . 19.4 21.0 1.5.3 12.9 23.6 16. 7 1878 . 19.9 20. 9 15.8 14.5 23.9 10. 7 19.5 20. 6 15. 1 14.8 23.2 16. 5 1330 . 19. 7 20.2 16. 4 15. 4 23. 2‘ 16.3 1881 . 19.5 19.8 16.7 15.7 22. 7 16.2 19. 5 19.8 16.9 15.7 22.5 16.5 1885 . 19.8 19.6 17.8 17.0 22.6 16.7 1834 . 20.0 19.2 18.6 18. 1 22.5 16. 9 20. 3 19.2 19.0 19.2 22.6 17.0 1886 . 20.3 18.9 19.2 19.4 22. 7 16.8 1887 . . . 20.2 18.7 19.8 19.3 22. 5 16.8 1888 . 20.3 18.4 19.8 20.2 22.5 16.9 1889 . 20.2 17.8 19.8 20.1 22.6 17. 1 Enrollment. — Tables 4 and 5 exhibit various facts relating to the en¬ rollment of pupils in common schools since 1870; the data of the latter table are also graphically represented in Diagram III (p. 14). While the table gives the facts with greater numerical accuracy, the diagram presents more clearly to the eye the status of the different geographical divisions with respect to each other, and the changes that have taken place Irom year to year. The diagram shows what percentage of the total population was en¬ rolled in the common schools. The most noticeable feature jiresented by this diagram is the growth of common schools in the South. Beginning with an enrollment of less than 8 x^er cent, in 1870, the two southern divisions rise almost uninterruptedly in the scale. The South Atlantic passes above the Western Division in 1880, and the South Central above the same in 1883. Their course is still upward in the main, until in 1889, with an enrollment of about 20 per cent., they both stand above the North Atlantic Division, which has 17.8 per cent. Hardly less significant, though not so much a matter of common knowledge, is the decrease of the proportion of the population reported as enrolled in the common schools in the two northern divisions. This movement of decrease has been going on almost continuously since 1870, until in 1889 the North Atlantic Division has fallen below every division except the Western. The final dip downward (from 1888 to 1889) is very noticeable. The detailed table, given in Chap. XXIX, shows that there was an absolute decrease in the enrollment of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island from 1888 to 1889, while the enrollment of New York and New Jersey was almost stationary, the school population at the same time increasing rapidly. 14 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. III.— Diagram showing the percentage of population enrolled in the common schools, as tabulated in Table 5. GENEEAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 15 It may be of use to inquire to what causes this apparent or real fall- iug off is due. It is not possible to make any exact statement in this regard, but the following agencies have undoubtedly operated during the last . two decades to decrease the i>ublic school enrollment as re¬ ported : (a) The more rigid exclusion of duplicate enrollments from school re¬ ports in recent years.^ (b) The rapid extension of the private school system. A continually increasing proportion of pupils attend private schools, with the result of diminishing public school attendance by so much. During the year 1888-89 the estimated private school enrollment of sixteen States in¬ creased at the rate of 7.10 per cent, per annum, while the public school rate of increase for the same States was only 1.44 per cent. (c) The growing tendency to refrain from sending children to school at so early an age as heretofore. The number of pupils under five years of age has decreased in Massachusetts during each of the last ten years. Six years is coming to be considered soon enough to begin the public school education of children by other than kindergarten methods, and in many cities children are not permitted to attend until they have reached that age. On the other hand, in Massachusetts at least, children do not leave school at as early an age as heretofore — a consideration tending to increase the enrollment. The resultant effect would depend on whether the average number of years children remain in schools is increasing or diminishing. (d) The gradual change in the character of the population. With the growth of manufactures the class of ffxctory operatives, largely of for¬ eign extraction, has more and more predominated. There has been an influx of French Canadians and of Irish into New England, all largely Catholics of the humbler classes, and neither element is calculated to in¬ crease the public school attendance. The census of 1890 will probably furnish valuable material for study in this connection. The circumstance that the decline in the proportion of the population ' enrolled in the public schools of the Northern States is coincident in point of time with the introduction of compulsory attendance in the great majority of those States^ is noteworthy. Yet compulsory laws have had very little to do with the matter. Except in Connecticut and in certain municipalities in perhaps half a dozen other States, compul¬ sory laws have been entirely inoperative, and have had no effect on ^E.g.: The Massachusetts School Report for 1888-89 says (p. 56) that previous to 1879 a system of reports was in use under which some of the pupils were counted more than once. “The compulsory education sysiem of the United States is in the main the growth of the two last decades. Previous to 1870 there were compulsory attendance laws only in Massachusetts, Vermont, and the District of Columbia, and these were of a crude character and had never been thoroughly enforced. Laws for suppressing truancy, and restricting the employment of children of school age to labor had, liow- ver, been passed before 1870 in Connecticut and a few other States. IG EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-80 attendance one way or the other, except it may be a temporary one immediately following their first enactment ; in some cases their very existence is unknown to or has been forgotten by most persons. Where they have been enforced, in the most advanced educational communities, they are applicable to only a small percentage of children. Most children either voluntarily attend the public schools, or are edu¬ cated elsewhere, or are legally exempt. In such communities a rigid enforcement of the law would increase the school enrollment by only a a slight ratio, and even of the few brought into school under compul¬ sion a majority will perhaps select private schools as their place of at¬ tendance.^ ‘Mn any given year a larger percentage of children may be kept from school by a contagious disease or an inclement season than the entire percentage affected by the law, and hence its influence, so far as shown by statistics, be wholly lost sight of.”^ In a word, the influence of compulsory laws upon school attendance has been either zero, or else so slight that in the most favorable cases it may be more than neutralized by such agencies as those just referred to. {e) The low proportion of children of school age in the total popula¬ tion must not be overlooked in considering the small school enrollment in the Korth Atlantic States. This was noticed on p. 11. It is possi¬ ble that the census of 1890 will show a still smaller percentage of chil¬ dren of school age. How can the fact be explained that in the enlight¬ ened State of Rhode Island only 15.4 per cent, of the population are enrolled in school in 18S8-89, save through absolute lack of children The average percentage of enrollment for the United States rose from 17.8 per 100 in 1870 to 20.1 per 100 in 1875. It was during this period, in a great measure, that the common school systems of the South were organized. Since 1875 the increase of enrollment in the South has only been suflicient to compensate for the decline in the Uortli, and the re¬ sultant enrollment of pupils in the United States has remained at about 20 per 100, or 1 in 5 of the population. The Uorth Central Division occupies altogether the highest position as regards the proportion of the population enrolled (22.G per 100), while the Western Division was in 1889 the lowest (17.1 per 100). The proportion of the school population enrolled, however, is another matter. Children are most numerous in the South, as has been shown, and a high percentage of the total population enrolled may coexist there with a low percentage of school population (six to fourteen years) enrolled. In point of fact, a diagram giving the percentage of children of school age enrolled, would show the North throughout standing far above the South. iln Maiicbestor, N. H., (1889), of eighty-nine “truants not enrolled found on streets,” twenty-three were sent to city schools and sixty-six to parochial schools, 2 Conn. Sch. Rep., 1889, p. 36. GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 17 AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE. Table G.’^Average number of pupils attending daily the eonimon schools of the United States, hy years, from 1870 to 1880. Tear. Average daily attend¬ ance. Tear. Average daily attend¬ ance. 1870 . 4, 077, 347 4, 545, 317 4, 658, 844 4, 745, 459 5, 050, 840 5, 248, 114 5, 291, 376 5, 426, 59.5 5, 783, 065 5, 876, 077 1880 . 6, 144, 143 6, 145, 932 6, 331,242 6, 652, 392 7, 055, 696 7, 297, 529 7, 526, 351 7, 681, 806 7, 976, 986 8, 004, 275 1871 . . 1881 . 1872 . 1882 . 1873 . 1883..... . 1874 . 1884 . 1875 . . 1885 . . . 1876 . 1886 . 1877 . 1887 . 1 878 . 1888 . 1879 . 1889 . # Table 7. — Average number of pupils daily attending school for every 100 enrolled. Tear. The United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Division. 1870 . 59.3 58.7 59.4 67.7 58.4 65.8 1871 . 60.1 59.3 61.0 69.8 57.9 70.3 1872 . 59.6 58.7 61.0 69. 6 57.2 69.4 1873 . .59.3 57.2 62.2 68.0 57.6 66.1 1874 . . . 59.8 58.5 60.9 66.1 58.6 6.3.5 1875 . 59. 7 58.4 61.4 68. 1 57.7 62.8 1876 . 59.7 59.4 60.0 6.5.3 58.1 62.9 1877 . 60.5 60.0 61.2 63.9 58.9 63.1 1878 . 61.3 62.2 61.2 64.4 59.5 63.3 1879 . 61.8 61.5 62.0 65.3 60.6 65. 5 1880- . 62. 3 62.3 62.5 65.8 60.8 65. 5 1881 . ... 61.5 61.2 60.0 64.7 60.6 65.6 62.0 61.2 60.5 64.9 61.8 64.6 1883 . 62.5 62.3 61.5 64.2 62.0 64.5 1884 . 64.2 63.9 60.8 65.0 65. 1 67.7 1885 . 64.0 64.7 63.2 63.4 64.1 64.6 1886 . 64.5 65. 4 62.6 64.8 64.3 67.0 1887 . 64.6 64.9 62.0 65.3 65.0 66. 1 1888 . 65.5 65.3 63.2 68.6 65.2 64.0 1889 . 65.1 67.2 63.7 68.6 62.8 65.2 Average daily attendance. — The growth of average attendance has more than kept pace with that of enrollment, so that, for a given num¬ ber of pupils enrolled during the year, for each 100 for instance, the aver¬ age number attending daily has progressively increased, considering the United States as a whole. From 59.3 in 1870, the number has risen to 65.1 in 1889, as shown in Table 7. These numbers may also be in¬ terpreted as showing how many days on an average each pupil enrolled attended school out of every 100 days the schools were in session. Tins increase of regularity of attendance has been most marked in the ITorth Atlantic and North Central Divisions ; to such an extent, indeed, that the falling off in the proportion of population enrolled in those di¬ visions has been nearly counterbalanced, and about as large a propor¬ tion of the population attend daily on the average now as in 1870, ED 89 - 3 18 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. LENGXn OF SCHOOL TERM. Table 8. — Average numher of days the common schools were actually Iccpt. Year. The United States. Xortli Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. Xorth Central Division. Western Division, 1870 . Days. 132.2 Days. 148.9 Days. 109.2 Days. 82.5 Days. 129. 9 Days. 119.9 1871 . 132.1 152.0 97.4 91.6 133.9 119.2 1872 . 133.4 151. 9 103.4 97.7 136.1 121.8 1873 . 129.1 154.6 97.4 89.1 129.6 118.3 1874 . 128.8 154.8 95.6 81.1 132.6 119.0 1875 . 130.4 158.7 95.2 81.0 134.6 132.5 1876 . 133.1 158.0 95.6 82.5 • 139. 1 130.3 1877 . 132.1 157.2 91.4 80.3 139.8 130.1 1878 . 132.0 157.6 89. 7 86.7 140.1 129.9 1879 . 130.2 160.1 88.6 81.9 136.4 132.0 1880 . 130.3 159.2 92.4 79.2 139. 8 129.2 1881 . 130.1 158.7 92.4 82.1 148.8 133.8 1882 . 131.2 160.6 97.3 84.0 137.9 136.2 1883 . . . 129.8 161.0 95.9 82.5 137.1 132.6 1884 . 129. 1 156.0 95.6 85.9 138.6 133.8 1885 . 130.7 163. 1 93.4 87.5 139.1 131.8 1886 . 130.4 161.6 93.4 86.9 140. 4 130.8 1887 . 131.3 165.9 95.3 87.5 139.5 131.6 1888 . 132. 1 164.4 95.7 88.3 144.0 130.7 1889 . 134.5 .164.2 100.3 90.6 147.3 139.0 Length of school term. — The lines representing the changes in the length of the school term in Diagram IV are somewhat irregular. On the whole, there has been a decided gain in the two northern divisions since 1870. The sudden decrease in the N orth Atlantic Division in 1881: was due chiefly to a law changing the time of the close of the school year in New York State, and in a lesser degree to an unusually short school term that year in Pennsylvania. The upward movement of the line of the Western Division from 1874 to 1875 is very noticeable ; this upward slope chronicles the improve¬ ment effected by a change in the school law of California, establishing a new rule for apportioning school moneys, by which every school dis-‘ trict, no matter how few the children, received a certain minimum amount — enough to keep their schools open at least six. months. In the South Atlantic Division the length of school term decreased almost continuously from 1870 to 1879. This may be considered as the result of the establishment of ever-increasing numbers of country schools, with shorter terms than the city schools, thus bringing down the general average length of term, without, in fact, the terms of any particular class of schools having been shortened. Here averages are liable to mislead unless their true character and significance are kept well in mind. The increasing length of term in the two northern divisions men¬ tioned above, it may be added, is due in i)art to the increasing proportion of city schools. The whole school system of the United States, in fact, is gradually taking on a more urban character, and from this cause alone the average school term, average wages of teachers, average per capita expenditure, etc., should show a progressive increase, without there being necessarily any actual increase in either city or country GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 19 rv. — Diagram showing the average number of days the public schools have been kept. 20 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. ( schools, the increasing average being solely due to the changing pro- portion each class of schools forms of the total. Hence the necessity arises of a classification of most school statistics for certain purposes into those of city and country schools. Such a classification is also needed to do justice to the agricultural and thinly populated States. The line of the North Atlantic Division, for instance, appears on the diagram far above all the others, on account of the large proportion of city schools in that section. In a comparison of city schools alone, or country schools alone, other sections of the country would prob¬ ably equal it. The line exhibiting the length of school term of the South Central Division is very angular, especially in its earlier stages. Several ele¬ ments enter in to produce this. In 1870 the line represents principally the average school term of only four or five States, in which school sys¬ tems had been established, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Ala¬ bama, and in a less degree Louisiana; then followed the establishment of systems in Mississippi and Texas, beginning with city schools of long terms, by which the average was raised until 1872; then followed a decline, as noted in the South Atlantic Division. These were contributing causes ; still a part of the vagaries of this line must be considered as due to the uncertain and incorrect reports of the average length of the school te^rm of that period which are upon record, as well as to changes in the method of computing it adopted by different superintendents. During the decade just closed the Southern States, like the Northern, show an increase in length of school term. There should be a well- marked progressive increase, as the school systems of the South are gradually taking on a more urban aspect. SCHOOLHOUSES. Table 9. — Number of haildings used as schoolhouscs in the United States, by years, from 1870 to 1889. [This includes buildings rented.] Year, Number . Tear. Number. 1870 . . . 116,312 132, 119 140, 167 145, 863 150, 534 157, 364 ]59, 533 163, 694 i 169,493 171,613 1 1880 . . . 178, 222 183, 452 185,884 193, 147 190,479 205, 315 208, 777 «13,737 216, 399 216, 330 1871 . . 1881 . 1872 . 1882 . 1 878 . - . 1883 . . . 1874 . 1884 . 1877) . 1885 . . . 187G . 1886 . 1877 . 1887 . 1878 . 1888 . . 1879 . 1889 . GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 21 VALUE OF SCHOOL PROPERTY. Table 10. — Valueof common school property in the United States, hy years, from 1870 to 1880. Year. Value. Tear. Value. 1870 . .$130, 38.3, 008 143, 818, 703 159, 406, 374 173, 077, 552 183, 101, 193 192, 013, 666 201, 592, 171 198, 554, 684 203, 258, 661 205, 913, 196 1880 . $209, 571, 718 217, 505,356 223, 424, 448 237, 140, 889 245, 457, 741 263, 668, 536 275, 809, 020 290, 384, 522 301,425,928 323, 573, 532 1871 . 1881 . . . 1872 . 1882 . 1873 . . . 1883 . 1874 . 1884 1875 . 1885 . 1876 . 1886 . 1877 . 1887 . 1878 . 1888 . 1879 . 1889 . . Table 11. — The value of common school property compared with the total population and with the average daily attendance. Value of school property per capita Value of school property per capita of of populatiou. average daily attendance. Tear. The United States. ISTorth Atlan¬ tic DiTi.sion. South Atlan¬ tic Division. § 2 o.'s -a ^ HP r 05 Xorth Central Division. Western Di¬ vision. The United States. Korth Atlan¬ tic Divi.sion. South Atlan¬ tic Division. South Central Divison. hTorth Central Division. Western Di¬ vision, 1870 . . $3. 38 $5. 02 $0. 54 $0.47 $4.50 $4.11 .$31. 97 $38. 73 $14. 53 $9. 20 $31.59 $45. 18 1871 . 3. 64 5. 39 .62 .53 ,4. 88 4. 11 31.64 41.39 10. 09 6. 56 33.97 41.86 1872 . 3. 94 5. 69 .71 .55 5. 42 4.37 34. 21 44.78 11.03 6. 22 38.41 45. 44 1873 . 4. 17 6. 19 .79 .55 5. 64 4. 55 36.47 50. 59 10 81 6.20 40. 24 46. 99 1874 . 4. 30 6.45 .85 .60 5. 74 4. 74 36. 25 51.15 10. 16 6. 61 40. 01 48. 06 1875 . 4. 39 6. 62 .90 .60 5. 83 5. 05 36. 59 52. 28 10.11 6. 14 41.31 49. 17 1876 . 4.49 6.84 .95 .56 5.91 5.40 38. 10 53. 42 10. 42 6. 89 42. 11 51. 15 1877 . 4.31 6.71 .99 .54 5. 52 5. 24 36. 59 52. 47 10. 61 6.61 39. 72 49. 61 1878 . 4. 29 6. 60 1. 02 .54 5. 56 5. 34 35.14 50.70 10.53 5.81 39. 07 50. 45 1879 . 4. 22 6. 51 1.06 .56 5. 44 5.38 35. 04 51.44 11.30 5. 82 38. 69 49. 75 1880 . 4.18 6. 63 1.10 .59 5.21 5. 28 34. 10 52. 75 10. 75 5. 82 36. 88 49.40 1881 . 4. 24 6. 65 1.15 .61 5. 32 5. 39 35. 39 54. 74 11.46 6. 00 38.60 50. 55 1882 . 4. 26 6. 64 1. 20 .60 5. 34 5.47 35. 29 54. 67 11.73 5. 86 38. 48 51.27 1883 . 4.42 6. 70 1.25 .66 5. 67 5.61 35. 65 54. 82 11.40 6.01 40. 33 51. 96 1884 . 4. 47 6. 82 1.29 .70 5. 60 6. 16 34. 79 55.70 11.46 5. 93 38. 19 53.74 1885 . 4. 69 6. 92 1.36 .74 6. 05 6.31 36. 13 55. 84 11.34 6. 04 41.88 57. 34 1886 . 4.80 7. 11 1.38 .84 6. 13 6.40 36.65 57. 53 11. 50 6. 66 42. 06 56. 73 1887 . 4. 96 7. 16 1.43 .93 6.41 6. 43 37.80 59.00 11.64 7. 35 43. 83 57. 95 1888 . 5.03 7. 25 1.51 1.03 6.41 6. 93 ; 37. 79 oO. 29 12.11 7. 43 43.78 64. 08 1889 . 5. 31 7. 37 1. 04 1. 15 6. 84 7.86 40.42 1 61.62 13.04 8.29 48. 36 70.48 Value of school property. —The value of school property per capita of liopulatioii has exhibited a well-defined increase in every section of the Union since 1870. This movement of growth has been in the main con¬ tinuous, except in the interval from 1870 to 1880, during which there was a decided decline in the Northern and Western States, the increase in the value of school property during that time not keeping pace with the increase of population. This falling oft in the per capita value of school property from 1870 to 1880 is attributable in part to the shrinkage of values then going on, which produced only an apparent decline, and in part to an actual dimi¬ nution of activity in the matter of building schoolhouses ; the school re¬ ports of that period indicate that the Northern States were then passing through an era of economy and retrenchment, in which school expen- 22 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-8D. V. — Diagram showing the value of school property per capita of population— being a graphic repre* sentation of the first part of Table 11. GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 23 ditures were brouglit down to the lowest point; at such a time expenses for building are among the first lopped ofi:‘, along with useless or extrava¬ gant expenses of a miscellaneous character. The State superintendent of Illinois in 1878, while calling for economy, holds up to view the fact that a seventy-five dollar schoolhouse had been fitted up with light¬ ning-rods at an expense of sixty-five dollars. The statistics of school property in the South have been very defect¬ ive, but the main features of the situation outlined in Table 11 and Dia¬ gram V are essentially correct. There may be observed in that section (1) a steady gain in school property over the population ; and (2) a loss when compared to the average attendance, until within a few years, during which the value of property per capita of average attendance has undergone a decided rise. The indications are that the South is entering upon a period of schoolhouse building, especially in the cities. TEACHERS. Table 12. — Nimler of different teachers in the United States each year from 1870 to 1889, classifcd hy sex. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. Total. 1870 . 77, 529 90, 293 94, 092 97, 790 103, 465 108, 791 109, 780 114, 312 119, 404 121, 490 122, 986 129, 9^2 134, 929 139, 723 144, 982 149, 074 149, 838 152. 738 157, 743 158, 840 200, 515 220, 225 229, 921 237,513 248, 447 257, 805 259,618 267, 050 277, 147 280, 330 1880 . 122, 795 122, 511 118, 892 116,388 118, 905 121,762 123, 792 127, 093 126, 240 124, 929 163, 798 171,349 180, 187 188, 001 195, 110 204,154 207, 601 212, 367 220, 894 227, 302 286, 593 293, 860 299, 079 304, 389 314, 015 325, 916 331, 393 339, 460 347, 134 352, 231 1871 . . 1872 . 1881 . . 1882 . 1873 1883 . 1874 . . . 1884 . . . 1875 . 1885 . 187G _ . 1886 . 1877 . . 1887 . 1878 . 1888 . . . 1879 . 1889 . Table 13. — Showing the nuniber of mate teachers in every 100 teachers ; i. c., the percent¬ age of teachers icho were men. Year. The United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Division. 1870 . . Per cent. 38.7 Per cent. 26.3 Per cent. 59.5 Per cent. 65.9 Per cent. 42.8 Per cent. 46.4 1871 . ■ 41,1 26.3 63.8 67.5 43.2 45.0 1872 . 41.3 26. 1 63.4 68.3 43.4 43.5 1873 . . . 41.2 26.1 63.3 68.9 42.8 43.0 1874 . . . . 41.6 26. 8 ‘ 62. 9 69.4 42.5 44.5 1875 . . . . . 42.2 26.7 63.3 69.1 42.5 44.1 1876 . 42.2 27.9 63.1 68.0 42.4 45.3 1877 . 42.8 28.2 62.7 67.8 43.0 44.4 1878 . . . 43.1 28.4 62.6 67.7 42.7 43.0 1879 . 43.3 29.1 62.7 67.8 42.7 42.3 1880 . 42.8 28.8 62.5 67.2 41.7 40.3 1881 . 41.7 27.4 61.4 66.9 39.9 37.3 1882 . 39.7 25.7 59.4 65.8 37.6 37.1 1883 . 38.2 23.9 57.3 63.5 35.9 35.9 1884 . 37.9 23.4 56.5 63.2 35.3 34.5 1885 . 37.4 22.5 55.6 62.9 34.8 34.6 1886 . 37.4 22.4 54.5 62.2 35.2 34.2 1887 . . . 37.4 22.5 53.4 63.5 34.8 34.5 1888 . 36.4 21.6 53.1 60.7 34. 0 30.8 1889 . . . 35.5 20.8 52. 3 60.0 32.8 31.2 24 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. TI. — Diagram showing the percentage of male teachers, being a graphic representation of the data given in Table 13. GENEEAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 25 Sex of teachers. — Diagram YI sufficiently explains itself. The part of the diagram below each divisional line may be considered as represent¬ ing the male teachers of such division at any epoch, and the part above, up to the 100 line, the female teachers. The almost continuous dis¬ placement of male teachers since 1879 is apparent. This movement is found continued on into 1889, when, for the first time in any State, the proportion of male teachers falls below 10 per cent, in Massachusetts (8.9 per cent.). EXPENDITURE. Table 14. — Expenditure for common schools in the United States, 1870 to 1889. Year. Paid for sal¬ aries of super- iuteudents and teachers. Total expend¬ itures. Year. Paid for sal¬ aries of super¬ intendents and teachers. Total expend¬ itures. 1870 . . $37, 832, 566 42, 580, 853 40, 035, 681 47, 932, 050 50, 785, 656 54, 722, 250 55, 358, 166 54, 973, 776 50, 155, 133 54, 639, 731 $03, 396, 606 69, 107,612 74, 234, 476 76, 238, 464 80, 054, 286 83, 504, 007 83, 082, 578 79, 439, 826 79, 083, 260 70, 192, 375 1880 . $55, 942, 972 58,012, 463 60, 594, 933 64, 798, 859 68, 384, 275 72, 878, 993 76, 270, 434 78, 639, 964 83, 022, 562 87, 888, 066 $78, 094, 687 83, 642, 964 88, 990, 466 96, 750, 003 103,212, 837 110,328, 375 113, 322, 545 115, 783, 890 124,244,911 132, 129, 600 1871 . 1881 . 1872 . 1882 . 1873 . 1883 . 1874 . 1884 . 1875 . 1885 . 1876 . 1886 . 1877 . 1887 . 1878 . 1888 . 1879 . 1889 . Table 15. — The total school expenditure compared with the total population and ivith the average attendance. Year. Expended for common schools per capita of the i)opul,ation. Expended for common schools per cap¬ ita of average attendance. The United States. North Atlan¬ tic Division. South Atlan¬ tic Division. Southcentral Division. North Central Division. W estern Di¬ vision. The United States. North Atlan¬ tic Division. South Atlan¬ tic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Di¬ vision. 1870 . $1.64 $2. 31 $0. 47 $0. 48 $2. 09 $2. 02 $15. 55 $17. 82 $12. 68 $9. 44 $14. 68 $22. 25 1871 . 1. 75 2.38 .63 . 73 2. 14 2.15 15.20 18. 32 10.27 9.06 14. 87 21. 86 1872 . 1. 83 2.40 .68 .81 2.31 2. 27 15. 93 18. 87 10. 47 9. 08 16. 37 23. 57 1873 . 1. 84 2. 44 .07 .74 2.31 2. 42 16. 07 19. 90 9.25 8. 39 16. 53 25.04 1874 . 1.88 2. 51 . 75 .68 2. 37 2.40 15. 85 19. 90 9. 00 7.65 16. 57 24. 37 1875 . 1.91 2. 55 .80 .73 2. 35 2. 76 16.91 20. 17 8. 08 7.51 10. 69 20. 85 1876 . 1.85 2.45 .79 .55 2. 37 2. 78 15.70 19.15 8. 65 6. 70 16. 91 20. 35 1877 . 1.72 2.29 .72 .51 2. 21 2.61 14. 64 17. 89 7.68 6.25 15. 93 24. 69 1878 . 1.67 2 15 .70 .56 2. 14 2. 73 13. 68 16.55 7.21 5. 98 15. 08 25. 82 1879 . ' 1.56 2,03 .63 .55 2.00 2. 53 12. 07 16. 05 6.76 5. 65 14. 23 23. 39 1880 . 1.56 1.97 .68 . 55 2. 03 2.41 12.71 15. 64 6. 60 5.40 14. 40 22. 59 1881 . . . 1. 63 2.08 .72 . 58 2. 09 2. 54 13. 61 17. 14 7.22 5.71 15. 19 23. 81 1882 . 1.70 2.11 .78 .04 2.19 2. 59 14. 05 17. 35 7. 63 6.26 15. 80 24. 32 1883 . 1.80 2.22 .82 .68 2. 34 2. 74 14. 54 18. 17 7. 46 6. 17 16. 69 25.39 1884 . 1.88 2. 25 .84 .74 2.48 2. 83 14. 63 18. 37 7.44 6. 26 16. 90 24. 68 1885 . 1. 90 2. 38 .88 .82 2.53 2. 90 15. 12 19.19 7. 32 6. 74 17. ^4 26.31 1886 . 1.97 2. 36 .88 .87 2.54 2. 88 15. 06 19. 11 7. 33 6. 93 17.45 25. 52 1887 . 1.97 2. 35 .90 .87 2. 55 2.76 15.07 19. 38 7.33 6. 88 17.45 24. 85 1888 . 2.07 2. 48 .95 .87 2.68 2. 96 15. 58 20. 60 7.61 6. 28 18. 29 27. 38 1889 . 2.16 2. 59 .98 .95 2. 74 3.34 T - » 16.51 21.67 7. 80 6. 93 19. 37 29.99 26 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. VII.— Diagram showing the total amount expended for common schools per capita of population, being a graphic representation of the first part of Table 15. VIII.— Diaiirain sLowine the total amount expended for common schools per capita of average daily attendance, being a graphic representation of the second part of Table 15. GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 27 1870 1871 1672 1S73 1674 1875 1876 1877 1876 1879 1S80 1861 1662 1883 1684. 18&S, 18B6 1S87 28 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Expenditure. — The accompanying tables and diagrams exhibit very fully and clearly the amount of money expended for public schools since 1870, and its relation to the population and to the average at¬ tendance. The periods of increase and decrease of expenditure stand out prominently in the diagrams. The concurrence of these at the same epochs of time in different sections of the country is remarkable, and points to a widespread similarity of circumstances and conditions tend¬ ing to produce liberality or economy in school expenditure simulta¬ neously over a large extent of territory. The parallelism of the lines of expenditure is especially marked in Diagram YlII, giving the ex¬ penditure per capita of average attendance, in which no one of the division lines crosses anotlier. In the ]S"orthern States a period of maximum per capita expenditure occurred about the middle of the last decade; from that time on until about 1880 considerable decrease took place ; after 1880 a rise again, which has been going on to the present time; the maximum which oc¬ curred in 1875 or 1876 has already been exceeded in all the northern and western divisions, with no indications of coming to a standstill. The action is intermittent, but the general resultant is a gain. This marked increase of expenditure per capita of population in the Korthern States is one of the most noticeable facts developed by an examination of the educational statistics of those States for the present decade. The amount expended per pupil is now largely in excess of what it has been before, and the upward movement is still going on. The decline in the comparative expenditure of the Korthern States from 1875 to 1880 may be attributed to a reaction which followed upon the flush” times succeeding the war. A period of profuse expenditure was followed by a period of retrenchment and economy. There was also a shrinkage of values going on, so that the same tax-rate would produce from year to year a smaller revenue. In three years the prop¬ erty valuation of Massachusetts fell off’ nearly $240,000,000. This falling off’ in the per capita expenditure from 1875 to 1880 in the Northern States, however, did not result in any diminution of the amount of schooling given. The schools were maintained as before, but the wages of teachers were lowered, and fewer buildings were con¬ structed. There was where the retrenchment took eff’ect. For instance, in the North Atlantic States the average wages of male teachers de¬ creased from $54.67 in 1874 to $43.28 in 1880; of female teachers, from $34.67 in 1874 to $30.08 in 1880. The eifective falling-off' in wages was not so great as these figures would show, as the purchasing power of money was increasing. The decrease of activity in the building of schoolhouses at this epoch will become apparent from an examination of the diagram of school property, p. 22. The Southern States, equally with the Northern, form a characteristic group in the matter of school expenditure, of which the distinguishing feature is the small amount expended per capita, as compared with GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 29 the North. From 1871 to 1879 there was a net loss in the South in the expenditure per capita of population. This was a formative period, a time of change and of experiment ; school systems were formed and reformed j in some instances systems were copied in extenso from the North, only to be laid aside and replaced by others better adapted to existing local circumstances. Moreover, much of the money nomi¬ nally expended for schools was diverted into other channels, and teach¬ ers were often paid in notes or certificates which they were obliged to dispose of at a ruinous discount. Since 1879 there has been in the South a nearly continuous, but very slow, increase in the expenditure per capita of population, showing that the expenditure is slightly outstripping the population ; it is, how¬ ever, barely keeping pace with the average attendance, as will appear from Diagram IX. Table \Q.— Expenditure for common schools in mills per dollar of assessed valuation, ToLal expenditure for common schools. Year. The United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Division. 3870 . 4.47 4.29 1.68 2. 06 6. 77 4. 91 1880 . 4. 62 3.78 3. 08 3. 58 6. 45 5,03 5. 17 1889 . 5. 57 4. 39 4.31 4. 42 7. 91 Of the preceding there was expended for salaries of superintendents and teachers. 187ft . . . 2. 67 2.46 ]. 06 1. 78 3. 94 .3. 29 3. 76 1880 . 2.21 2.69 2. 42 3.21 4. 20 1889 . - . 3.10 2. 83 3.22 3. 56 5.11 3. 39 Froportion of wealth expended. — The number of mills expended for common schools for each dollar of assessed valuation is given in Table 16 for the years 1870, 1880, and 1889, and the same facts are represented graphically in Diagram IX. The design is to furnish an answer to the questions, What proportion of their wealth were the people of the dif¬ ferent sections expending for x)ublic schools at such and such a date, and Was that proportion increasing or decreasing? If the line slopes downward in the diagram the proportion was decreasing, as is the case with the proportion of the assessed valuation expended in the North At¬ lantic and North Central States from 1870 to 1880; this does not imply, of course, that there was less absolute expenditure or a less per capita expenditure, but a less proportion of actual wealth expended. The rapid develo])ment of education in the South shows itself also on this diagram. Both the southern divisions commence in 1870 at a low point. In 1889 the South Central States are found expending more relatively of their wealth than the North Atlantic States, and the South Atlantic only a trifle less. 30 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. Both of the southern divisions in 1889 are found expending more for salaries relatively to their means than the North Atlantic States, and one of them has also passed ahead of the Western States and Ter¬ ritories. IX. — Diagram showing tho number of mills expended for common schools for each dollar of assessed valuation, as follows: (1) Total expenditure; (2) expenditure for salaries of superintendents and teachers. The results recorded in this table and diagram are somewhat vitiated on account of the different rates of assessment prevalent in the differ¬ ent States. The rate of assessment in two or three of tho North Cen¬ tral States is particularly low, which serves to raise the position of that section somewhat higher than would otherwise be the case, though it does not affect the increase or decrease of the Division itself j the slope GENERAL STATISTICAL EXHIBIT. 31 upward of the North Central States shows that the proportion of their means expended for salaries is increasing nearly as fast as in the South. The assessed valuation for 1870 and for 1880 is taken from the United States Census ; that for 1889 mainly from reports to this Office. Table 17. — Daily cost of education per pupil. Year. Average daily amount expended for each pupil. Of the preceding there was expended for salaries of superintendents and teachers in— The United States. Xorth Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. Uorth Central Division. 1 "Western Divi¬ sion. The United States. North Atlantic Division. South Atlantic Division. South Central Division. North Central Division. Western Divi¬ sion. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents, Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. 1 Cents. 1 Cents. Cents. Cents. 1870 . 11.76 11. 97 11.61 11. 45 11.30 18. 55 7.02 6. 87 7.35 9. 85 6. 55 12.44 1871 . 11. 51 12. 05 10. .54 9.89 11.10 18. 34 7.09 7. 10 7. 38 8. 18 6.59 12. 39 1872 . 11. 94 12. 42 10. 12 9. 30 12. 02 19. 35 7. 41 7. 50 7. 02 7. 85 6. 98 13. 49 1873 . 12. 44 12. 87 9. 49 9.42 12.75 21. 65 7.82 8. 04 6. 79 7. 90 7. 42 14. 59 1874 . 12. 30 12. 85 9.42 9. 30 12. 50 20.49 7. 80 7.91 6.79 7.96 7. 49 14. 88 1875 . 12. 20 12.70 9. 44 9.26 12.40 20. 26 8. 00 7. 97 6.91 8. 24 7. 82 13. 93 1876 . 11.80 12. 12 9. 05 8. 12 12.16 20. 22 7.86 7. 84 6. 52 7.15 7. 86 14. 26 1877 . 11.08 11. 38 8.40 7. 78 11.40 18. 98 7.67 7.64 6.41 6.94 7.63 14. 35 1878 . 10. 36 10. 50 8. 04 6. 90 10.76 19. 87 7. 35 7. 26 6.19 6. 17 7.44 14.38 1870 . 9. 96 10. 03 7. 63 6. 90 10.43 17. 72 7.14 7.04 5. 94 6.12 7.22 13.41 1880 . 9. 75 9. 83 7.15 6.82 10.30 17. 49 6. 98 6.98 5. 02 6. 11 7. 02 13.10 1881 . 10. 46 10. 80 7. 82 6.96 10. 95 17.80 7. 26 7.26 6. 00 6. 22 7. 30 12. 99 1882 . 10.71 10. 80 7. 84 7.44 11.45 17.86 7. 29 7. 23 f>. 95 6.59 7.36 12. 94 1883 . 11.20 11.28 7. 77 7.48 12.17 19.16 7.50 7. 32 5. 91 6.63 7. 76 13. 34 1884 . 11.33 11.78 7. 78 7. 29 12.19 18. 45 7. 51 7. 56 5. 92 6. 35 7. 68 12. 75 1885 . 11.57 11. 77 7. 84 7. 71 12.61 19.97 7.64 7. 37 5. 91 6. 68 8. 04 13. 58 1686 . 11. 55 11.83 7. 85 7. 98 12. 43 19.51 7. 77 7. 63 6.01 6. 88 8. 04 13. 44 1887 . 11.47 11. 68 7. 69 7. 86 12.51 18. 90 7. 79 7. 58 5.90 6.77 8.16 13. 69 1888 . 11.79 12. 53 7. 95 7.11 12. 70 20. 95 7. 88 8. 03 0. 94 6. 12 8. 18 14. 30 1889 . 12. 27 13. 21 7.77 7.64 13. 15 21. 58 8.16 8.51 5.81 6. 15 8. 50 14. 14 CHAPTER II A COMPARISON OF THE SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES, GERMANY, AND FRANCE. Distinctive Features of American and German Schools, with Historic References — Statistics of the Schools of Prussia {Diagram I, II, III) — Other Hems of Interest Concerning the People's Schools in Prussia — A Foreigner's Vieivs of German Schools — Statistics of Sehools in Amei’ica — Criticism of American Schools — Statistics of the Schools in France — Criticism of the French Schools — Summary of Comparative Statistics {Dia¬ grams) — Other Points of Comparison — Distinctive Features of the Courses of Study in Prussia— Graphic Presentation of the Courses of Study— Explanatory Remarks to Charts I-IV — Xumher of Hours per Week Devoted to the Different Branches — Causes of Rapid Advancement in the Studies — Typical Courses of Study for Prussian High Schools, Prussian Middle Schools, French Superior Elementary Schools, and French Lycees or Classical Schools — An American Opinion of the Vital Differences — French Students in German High Schools — An Englishman's Opinion of German Schools. Sources of Informa.tion. — Historical: (1) Das Preussische Schulwesen, Schneider and von Bremen — (2) Das hdhere Schulwesen, Wiese — (3) Recueil des Lois et Actes de V Instruction Puhlique, Paris — (4) Schmid's Encyclopaedie der Erziehung und des Unterrichtswesens — (5) Dittos' Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts — (6) Karl Schmidt's Geschichte der Erziehung — (7) Hahn's Unterrichtswesen in Frankrcich. Statistical: (1) The Statesman's Yearbook — (2) Richter's Jahresbericht of 1887-88 — (3) Das preussische Schulwesen, see above — (4) Annual Report of In¬ spector-General, M. Buisson—{5) Reports of the Bureau of Education for 1885, ’86 and ’87 — (6) AUgemeine Schulzeitung, Leipsic. Miscellaneous Sources: (1) Sonnen- schein's Encyclopedia of Education — (2) Dr. Laishley's Report of the Schools in Europe and America — (3) Stundenpldne der Gymnasien, by Uhlich — (4) Lehr- pldne fiir hdhere Scliulen — (5) Plan d'Ftudes des Lycees— {Q) Lois et Actes de I'ln- struction Publique, (1881, 1886)— (7) Das Unterrichtswesen. des preussischen Staates, by Rdnne — (8) Das deutsche Schulwesen nach seiner historischen Entwicklung ,by Dr. Mascher — (9) ^'•European Schools," by Dr. L. R. Kleinm— {10) A great number of annual catalogues of German schools — (11) The current educational press in Europe and America. I.— DiSTmOTIVE FEATURES OF AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS, WITH HISTORICAL REFERENCES. The German “ people’s school” is a historic growth. Its beginnings date back a thousand years, but not until the time of the Reformation did it assume the shape of a school for the masses; not until then did it draw into the pale of its influence the lower and lowest strata of soci¬ ety. It has at all times felt the influence of political, religious, and 32 GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 33 social commotion and had to accommodate itself to the ruling spirit of the times. A frequently quoted political axiom in Germany is (in literal translation) : He who has the school commands the future.” From being the handmaid of the church, as in Luther's time, the Ger¬ man school — to use a collective title — became a powerful auxiliary of the state at the beginning of the present century, a time of political dis¬ aster, and ever since it has, mirror-like, reflected the different phases of the political life of the nation. While there are many points of similarity between the German and the American school, yet the German school is not a common school. In this respect the primary school” in France, in theory at least, comes much nearer our ideal than the German “ people’s school.” Germany has been for more than a thousand years (with short inter¬ vals) an empire consisting of more or less independent sovereign states. Hence the establishment and management of schools in Germany are, as in' this country, matters of local concern, like all other matters not pertaining to the defense of the nation or its intercourse with foreign powers. The schools are supported partially by the state ; partially by the communities. 12.02 per cent, of the expenses are borne by the state, which thereby derives the right of legislation regarding courses of study, supervision, etc. ; 87 per cent, of the expenses are borne by communities, which secures them the choice of sites, erection of build¬ ings, and election of teachers j endowments and even private enterprise contribute something to this work. The government of the German schools is a most intricate affair, since there is no uniformity except in the people’s schools. There is nowhere in Germany a system of national schools such as was contemplated by the foremost thinkers of the French Ee volution, or is desired and advocated by German reformers of to-day. Though a powerful sentiment is now awake in Germany to make the schools of the empire truly national in character and organization, free of charge, and common to all ; and though many teachers, mindful of the social tendency of the nineteenth century, are supporting the idea of a common school (“ Einheits-Schule”) for Germany, first of course for each separate state, it is a fact that as yet there is a great variety of schools in existence, perhaps a natural outgrowth of the independent mode of thinking of the people. The people’s school (Volks-Schule) in its extent, organization, management, and results, perhaps, is the near¬ est approach to a common school. This, then, must be borne in mind when contemplating the structure of the German school system. The variety of schools ofwhioh it is composed is so great that it puzzles the collector of statistics who has to classify them, about as much as the nomenclature of American x^rivate second¬ ary schools does. That the differentiation in German society must be reflected in its schools is self-evident, if we consider that in a monarchy an aristocracy is an absolute necessity. A king of citizens of equal social rights is an anomaly. A monarch must needs have a pedestal, which is ED 89 - 3 34 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89, found in an ascending scale of society. The American common school is the expression of social democracy, hence it is a contradiction to the mo¬ narchical system. II.— Statistics of the schools of Prussia. Different strata of society in Germany have different schools. For the purpose of comparison they may be classed in three groups. (A) Lovoer schools, or the ])eoplG^s schools so called. They are purely elementary and attended by both sexes. (B) Middle schools : (a) the citizens'’ schools for hoys, (b) the girls’ acad¬ emies. Both are more extended in scope and course than the people’s schools. (0) High schools : (a) the ^^Eealschule,” (b) the ^’•Gymnasium,’’’ (c) the Real- Gymnasium.” These are the schools lyhich prepare for the uni¬ versity and polytechnicum. This classification in three groups, lower, middle, and higher schools, is somewhat arbitrary, but it is convenient and sufficiently minute for practical purposes. Though there is a great variety among the schools in each of these groups, it is particularly puzzling in Group II, middle schools. The subjoined diagrams may illustrate the organization and composite nature of the German school in contradistinction to the simplicity of or¬ ganization of the American school. Since reliable and minute statistics from all states of Germany are not available, those of Prussia, the lead- and largest state, are used as a basis of comparison. It is reasonable to suppose that they are indicative of the essential facts in other parts of the empire. The population of Prussia, according to the census of 1885, was 28,318,470. This number is taken because no satisfactory estimate for 1887 is published, and the school statistics graphically presented in Dia¬ gram II are of the year 1887, the latest available to this Bureau. Ac¬ cording to the information at hand there were — Cliildreu enrolled in the people’s schools . 4, 874, 347 Children enrolled in preparatory elementary classes with a view toward entering middle and high schools . . . 1.. 299, 280 Students attending the middle schools . 203, 310 Students attending the high schools . . . 153, 602 Total number of i^upils enrolled in Prussia . 5, 530, 539 According to these numbers wo see that of the population there were — Per cent. In the people’s schools . 17. 2 In prei)aratory elementary classes . 1. 05 In middle schools . . . 0. 72 In high schools . . . 0. 54 In schools between kindergarten and university . . . . 19. 51 GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 35 (a) Besides the 4,874,347 children between six and fourteen years enrolled in the people’s schools there were 170,439 children (between six and fourteen) who had either not entered school yet for reasons un¬ known (perhaps phyvsical weakness), or had left school before reaching the maximum age. (d) Thirteen thousand five hundred and nineteen did not attend the people’s schools, being either idiotic, blind, deaf, or otherwise crippled. These unfortunates can be found accounted for in reports of institutions for the blind, deaf, and imbecile. (c) Eight thousand eight hundred and twent^'-six children had to be denied admittance for want of room. (d) Three thousand one hundred and forty-five children were not even enrolled, despite the fact that school attendance is compulsory. The total number of children between six and fourteen was 5,369,500. If we deduct from this total the numbers under a, 5, c, d, it leaves a total of 5,163,627 children enrolled in either people’s schools or elemen¬ tary classes of other schools. If we add to the total the number of students in middle and high schools, namely, 203,310 and 153,602, we find the total number of youth actually enrolled in schools between kindergarten and university to be 5,530,539, or 19.51 per cent, of the population. The numbers given are the numbers of pupils enrolled. If the num¬ bers in attendance were known we should see that the percentage of the population is considerably less. The difference between enrolment and attendance is, however, much less than in the United States.^ This is attributable partly to the density of population (Prussia occupies not quite three and one-half times the area of the State of Ohio ; its density of population is 209 to the square mile, while that of Ohio is 82), which facilitates school attendance, and partly to the rigid enforcement of the compulsory attendance law. How many children attended the private schools, marked in the dia¬ gram as preparatory classes, can not be stated in detail ; the ofiicial re¬ ports give the total number (203,310) only. There are also select private schools in Prussia, of which the official reports give no definite information 5 but it is reasonable to suppose that the number of their 1 Privy councilor, Dr. K. Schneider (director of public elementary schools in. Prussia), writes in answer to an inquiry from this Office concerning the number of pupils in daily attendance : “ In reply to your letter of November 20, 1889, I take pleasure in saying, that though daily registers of the pupils in the schools of Prussia are kept, and the roll is read daily, we have never heretofore made statistical summaries concerning daily attendance. Generally, it may be said, the attendance is quite regular (owing to the strict enforcement of the compulsory attendance law) ; I believe I am not saying too much, if I state that of the 4,874,347 children enrolled in the people’s schools on May 20, 1886, as many as 4,400,000 were actually in attendance.” 36 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1888-89. pupils would not increase the foregoing total enough to raise it to 20 per cent, of the population. Despite compulsory attendance in Prussia the number of pupils in the different school systems tapers off somewhat, as is seen on Diagram II. This is owing to natural decrease by death, and to the fact that poorly endowed children fail to be promoted; they reach the fourteenth or thirteenth year of age before having entered the highest grade of school. In rural schools attendance is enforced only between the ages six and thirteen, while in cities the limit is generally the fourteenth year. The falling off in attendance upon the higher classes of sec¬ ondary schools in Germany is owing to a great extent to the methods pursued in these schools. It does not seem the object of the faculty to do the greatest good to the greatest number, but to prepare a selected few for the next higher grades and suffer the remainder to stay and go over the same ground or drop out of school. The statistics of German secondary schools illustrate Darwin’s theory of the survival of the fittest. The number of children in the kindergarten can not be stated owing to the fact that nowhere in Prussia has the kindergarten become an integral part of the school system. It is almost everywhere supported independently of state aid. In the United States it has only at a very few places been organically connected with the common school, hence no adequate uniform reports are available even here. This Bureau has attempted to collect statistics concerning the at¬ tendance in kindergartens in this country, but they proved to be frag¬ mentary. The space which represents the kindergarten in the first two diagrams is mere conjecture and must be regarded as such. III. — Other items of interest concerning the people’s SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. The official school statistics of Prussia, which are very carefully com¬ piled, offer the following additional items of interest : The 4,874,347 pupils enrolled in people’s schools are found in 34,016 schoolhouses with 75,097 class rooms. There were in 1886-87: No. of schools. No. of classes in schools. Schools with one teacher . . . 23. 152 5, 409 5,714 2, 682 5, 150 28, 561 10, 818 14, no . 8, 046 32,426 Half-day schools with one teacher (included in the preceding) . Schools with two teachers . - . . Schools with two teachers having three classes (included in the preceding) . Schools of more than three classes . . . . . . . . . . Within fourteen years from the issue of the decree which organized the schools anew (January, 1872) a notable progress, that is to say, a better grading, has taken place. This progress, though slight, is made GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 37 apparent by the following columns of figures. Among one hundred schools there were: 1871. 1882. 1887. Sciiools with — - One teacher . . . . . . . . . 74. 7 69.8 68. 1 Two teachers . . . . . . . 14.7 16. 4 16. 8 Three or more teachers. ........ . ............. . . . . . 10.6 13.8 15.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 There were 26,289 schools graded in two classes in purely rural dis¬ tricts in 1887 ; there were 1,187 schools of six, and 290 schools of seven and more grades, a total of 1,477 fully graded schools ; these had 16,140 class rooms. The proportion of rural or ungraded schools to city or graded schools is : Per cent. Schools with one teacher . 35.51 Schools with two teachers . 18. 64 Schools in rural districts . 54. 15 City graded schools . 45.85 100. 00 Hence less than one-half of the Prussian children were enrolled in graded schools ; more than one- third in entirely ungraded schools. Dr. Schneider, in discussing these figures, says : It is an undisputed fact, that the ungraded schools, manned as they are, with well trained graduates of normal schools, accomplish very satisfactory results. * ^ * Skill, endurance, professional zeal, and last hut not least, the greater physical strength of their teachers are naturally of beneficial influence. * * It is well to remember, then, that the graded city school is not under all circumstances, and hence should not hrevi manu be considered the better school. An American author who inspected the Prussian “cross-road schools,” remarks : I expected to find in them results such as may be found m the school of an Amer¬ ican backwood settlement, primitive in the extreme. But I was greatly mistaken. What I saw was admirable work and almost incredible results. , In 1887 the Prussian people’s schools had 64,750 teachers (male and female) and 1,303 assistants, the latter preparing for their diplomas. Industrial handicraft for women wms taught by 34,270 female instruc¬ tors, of whom 5,496 had passed their examinations, while most of the others were wives of country school teachers. The number of pensioned teachers was 4,211. That is, for every 20 teachers of graded schools and for every 14 teachers of ungraded schools, there was one pensioner. The salaries paid in 1887 to the teachers of people’s schools amounted to 75,000,000 marks (about $19,000,000), hence the average salary was 1,162 marks (or about $300). To this should be added the rent, for nearly all teachers in Prussia live in schoolhouses or dwellings belong¬ ing to the school ; if not, an average equivalent for rent is paid by the 88 EDUCATION REPORT, i888-8l). community. If tlie rout be counted in as 20 per cent, of tbe income, tlie average salary would be about $3G0. Forty-four million marks (or $11,000,000) were expended in 1886 for the erection and improvement of buildings. Most schoolhouses in cities are of recent origin, as is seen plainly from the following statements: From 1874 till 1882, 5,975 new buildings were erected and 2,710 build¬ ings were enlarged, at a total cost of 117,000,000 marks ($29,250,000). From 1883 till 1886, 3,977 new buildings were erected and 3,975 build¬ ings were enlarged, at a total cost of 101,000,000 marks ($26,000,000). Eighty-seven per cent, of the cost of erection was defrayed by the communities, 13 by the state. The city of Berlin alone spent 1,375,000 marks ($343,750) in eight years for new school buildings, which seems a very moderate sum if compared with the efforts made in this direction in large cities of this country ; but it must be borne in mind that this sum excludes all middle and high schools and only includes people^s schools” (that is, elementary schools). The entire amount spent for the people’s schools in Berlin (1886) was 8J million marks (a little over $2,000,000). Dr. Schneider makes a curious statement which may cause astonish¬ ment in this country, namely, that seventy is considered the ‘‘ normal number of pupils” in graded schools, eighty in ungraded schools. These ‘‘normal” numbers do not indicate the facts as they are, for 46.1 per cent, of the pupils of the kingdom (2,233,373) sat in over¬ crowded class rooms, i. e., rooms which held more than the “ normal” numbers mentioned. The different provinces of the kingdom differ greatly in regard to this iioint. Thus, for instance, 91.85 per cent, of the children of Berlin were seated in classrooms that had no more than the normal number, while other districts ranged as low as 29.13 per cent., 27.83 per cent., and even 15.70 per cent. The cost per capita in Prussian people’s schools is stated for a few places, to wit: District. Cost per child. Oppeln . Bromberg.. Miiuster . . . Poseu . Liegnitz . . . . Merseburg . Erfurt . Stettin . .Arnsberg... Magdeburg, Diisseldorf , Berlin . Marli;. 17. 39=14. 35 18.45= 4.61 18. 91= 4.73 19. 03= 4. 76 22. 09= 5. 62 23. 94= 5. 98 25. 97= 6. 49 27. 89= 6. 97 28. 02= 7. 00 29.15= 7. 29 31.45= 7.86 60. 08=15. 02 lY.— A FOREiaNER’S VIEWS OF THE GERMAN SCHOOLS. In 1886, Dr. B. Laishley, officer of public instruction in Hew Zealand, was sent to Europe to study the school systems there and report his observations. His report was published, and the views it contains GERMAN, AMEIUCANj AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 39 about the German schools are worthy of reproduction since they betray rare penetrarion. Dr. Laishley says, under the head ‘^Eesult of Investigations:” The results of what I have heard, seen, and read^induce me to believe — (1) That the Germans, in pursuance of a policy to become the strongest of all nations, by excelling in civil as in military affairs, have concluded that, in order to secure the most successful results possible from natioTial education, thorough discipline of mind and body is indispensable ; and to facilitate this that there must be at least— (a) consideration for the feelings of (virtually) all in religious matters; (h) local gov¬ ernment, including regulation of religious instruction (subject to the protection of minorities), of direct local taxation, of expenditure, and of administrative details; (c) religion (subject to certain conscience-clause provisions) considered as the basis of instruction, and therefore placed as the primary subject on elementary school pro¬ grammes; (d) compulsory attendance laws; (c) thorough qualification of all teachers for private as well as for public schools; (/) and recognition of the great importance of gymnastic exercises. So that in Germany, as in Switzerland, wo find friction between the State and the citizens in religious matters provided against; religion, universality, thorough¬ ness in detaily thrift, and adaptation to local circumstances provided for by local government, and compulsory-attendance laws; physical strength and vigor pro¬ moted by gymnastic exercises ; and discipline established and maintained and cor¬ rect information imparted, in the most systematic mode possible, by thorougJilg qual¬ ified teachers. The consequence is education — not merely instruction — is carried out under most favorable circumstances, with no thwarting undercurrent of religious or local influences. (2) That preeminent attention is paid to scientiflc knowledge in all the higher institutions, and to the study of philosophy in the universities; and (3) That extreme exactness and minuteness are insisted upon. These three points require a few more comments. Consideration in religious mat¬ ters is granted under peculiar circumstances, viz, (a) as in Switzerland, there are differing nationalities and languages; (6) districts in w^hich the majority are de¬ voted to a particular religion other than that of the greatest number of the nation; and(c) amongst the learned classes — the thinkers, and therefore the rulers of national action — an almost universal spirit of scepticism in matters pertaining to Christianity. We, however. And the learned classes not tyrannically enforcing or insisting upon their own tenets, but exemplifying (^ti rki ! nv i -j i+i r 4]. ?5 i'T "F" S_EC CjSP.AR C'scT irj hi!. - ii WAAM B f i^rj «■/ M tcA ■fr T — Cl M :+ "tF E- — ~ 1 . " ' '! h 1 T- I® B ElT ±Et :E ^_U .. - I _ ■F I 1 ± s i 20s m- TOTALS FOR FRANCE. ; Priinari/ EUmentar]], 5,487,5S9l i p ~v rrh tiecondanj SchoolSy 09.799: Infant Schools, '41.224. nn~ 'TT ■" Patio to population, 14.7%. 1 ipc^.L 1 1 i -Each Utle square D represents SOOQi,upils. 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 rr 1 1 43 TE tEF ! M : 1 .Trtipot j!m 'Pt\riV7s 1 n'M 1 i 1 n ^T * TC-^- :-FT S T - FF GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 41 (3) Elementary education is not gratuitous, as a rule, except for those who cannot afford to pay for it ; and in secondary schools instruction is not, as a rule, given free of charge, except in the case of scholars who are not only too poor to pay, but have distinguished themselves, when gratuitous instruction is generally available. In some schools, however, there are only a certain number of free places ; but to these, in some cases, in consequence of royal and private legacies, free dinners and suppers, or free dinners, are attached. Fees, however, are in all cases low. Generally chip Jren have to buy school books, unless in cases of poverty. (4) Although the gradation of schools is not in all places the same, infant schools are generally the first (although not a compulsory) grade ; and these children gen¬ erally attend from the ages of two to six, but they are by no means always State schools. Indeed, infant schools are not favored in Germany; they tell you “ it is settled by all the medical authorities that children have no business to begin to learn before they are six years old.’’ In the land of Froebel I expected to be impressed with the perfection of the kindergarten schools, and to find them form a part of state education. In both respects, however, I was disappointed. The infant schools I saw did not excel in discipline or intelligence those that I visited in England and elsewhere; and although they, like all others in Germany, are subject to Government inspection, probably their voluntary charaeteu has some bearing upon the absence of special excellence. They are in Germany considered advantageous institutions, although a lady there, the wife of a professor, told me that she regarded them with disfavor because rich people send their infants to them instead of giving the children the sui)erior advantage of home influence and training ; and even were it not so, she considered them as only good to the extent of keeping the children off the street, because she is of opinion that they cause children to dislike both play and work. An experienced school inspector in Germany, although considering the schools in question distinctly desirable, also told me that a danger of such schools was found to be that the children acquire habits of playing in school which they carry into the primary schools. Instruction is not gratuitous, the foe charged being generally about three marks per month. (5) Primary day schools (Volksschulen) are the first compulsory stage of German education ; but many parents have their children educated at the commencement in a preparatory gymnasium (Vorschule), where they remain till about the age of nine, when the secondary school course commences. Class numbers are generally regulated by law. There are no standards, but the time table is a part of the school law and the school regulations of the country. Home lessons are usual. There is nothing special to remark concerning school buildings, except that in the cities they are yery fine. (6) Supplementary (continuation) schools (Fortbildungsschulen), which are vir¬ tually secondary schools held in the evenings and on Sunday mornings, are every¬ where the next stage, and are especially intended for deepening and extending the knowledge of apprentices after leaving school. But these only apply where a child does not attend a secondary school. Attendance at these schools in many States is compulsory, bat not so everywhere. In all cases some preparation for industrial oc¬ cupations, is taught in them. Instruction in supplementary schools is not in all States gratuitous, although where not gratuitous the fees are always low. In Prussia all tuition is charged for in some, and in others French and English alone are charged for as extras. In Saxony, on the other hand, there is no charge made. The half-time system does exist, but to no great extent. (7) Public secondary schools, which are almost always day schools, exist in all the States ; but there is not everywhere the same gradation. Where the organization is complete they, and the higher edueational establishments, mainly consist of : (a) preparatory schools (Vorschulen) for children from about the age of six to nine; (b) modern schools (Realschuleu) preparatory for the upper modern school and the poly¬ technic; (c) upper modern (Ober Kealsohulen), in which there is no Latin taught, 42 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-8d. and wRicli specially prepare for entrance into the polytechnic school to continne scientific education ; (d) polytechnic schools or technical universities ; (e) classical schools (gymnasien) preparatory for any of the faculties of the university, or for the polytechnic school ; (/) universities, of which there are twenty exclusive of the acad¬ emies of Miinster and Braunsberg, which provide the ultimate course of instruction. In all secondary and higher schools in Prussia fees are charged ; hut the main sup¬ port of such schools accrues from the State or municipality. So in Saxony, where the fee is £6 a year. There is no provision at the public expense for the secondary education of girls in some States, but in Berlin, at all events, in the case of a girl who has distinguished herself at a primary school and whose parents are too poor to continue her education, the State pays 48^ marks per annum for her tuition at a pri¬ vate school. Science and art training, but especially science, are everywhere fos¬ tered. Workshops are not yet introduced into the primary schools, but drawing is therein universally and well taught, and there are apprenticeship schools. The regulations to insure thorough qualification of all teachers are strictly enforced. There are no pupil-teachers. In the Royal seminary at Berlin for training-masters, pupils must be at least sixteen years old upon entering, and they are not allowed to teach before they have at least attained the age of nineteen and have passed their examination satisfactorily. The education is not gratuitous, except for those who are too poor to pay, in which case it must also bo shown that the applicants’ testimonials are good. There are XDrobably at this institution 20 free places out of accommodation for 200 pupils. Admission to a normal school can only be obtained after passing an examination, and the term of study there varies from three to six years ; and religious instruction is included in the course. There are some normal schools for the training of mistresses, although they are not so numerous as those for masters, “Because in German countries women are much less used in teaching than men. This is especially the case above the three or four lowest classes. They think that many of the subjects in the classes above are not fit to teach.” And Mr. M. Arnold thinks the result satisfactory. A part of the training in all such schools con¬ sists in practising teaching under the guidance of a preceptor. The main duty of a head teacher in Germany is considered to be that of supervision, and therefore he un¬ dertakes only a limited number of lessons. The salaries are very small, and no part of the pay is dependent upon examination or attendance results. Pensions are granted, but deductions are made from salaries for the pension fund ; and there are also vol¬ untary benefit associations formed by the teachers for provision in case of sickness or death. The school year runs from Easter to Easter, and important examinations, both writ¬ ten and oral, are arranged to take place before Easter and Michaelmas. On the results of exaraiuation depends the promotion of students from one class to a higher. In addition to ordinary inspections, each primary school in every third or fourth year is carefully insiJected by an expert member of the board of education. There are no state scholarships in primary or secondary schools. Scholarshixis are i^rovided only in the universities by Royal or private legacies, aud are not awarded unless to scholars who combine the two conditions of («) being poor, and (6) having distin¬ guished themselves; and even then the scholarships are comparatively very small. In all States private as well as public schools are under state supervision; and where the teacher does not possess the necessary diploma from a “ Wissenschaftliche Priifungs-Commission,” he must hold one from a seminary or normal school. Not only is there as a rule a school library for pupils, but a school library for teachers, as a part of the regular apparatus of a school. Material differences between States. — The material differences between some States in educational matters relate xirincipally to the (a) gradation of schools; (h) conditions relative to providing religious instruction ; (c) jjayment of or freedom from fees ; (d) compulsory attendance at sujxplomentary schools ; and (e) university regulations — as, for instance, at Leipsic and Jena, where students unable to jjay may, by i)etition, obtain leave to attend without fees. GiERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 43 The report of Dr. Laisliley has been quoted thus extensively because it states the conditions of the German schools without bias or prejudice. Y.— Statistics of public schools in America. The population of the United States in 1887 was estimated at 58,71 3,000.^ The common schools, including primary, grammar (or inter¬ mediate), and high schools, bad enrolled in the same year 11,884,914 pupils. This is 20.38 per cent, of the population, or about 1 per cent, more than in Prussia and about 6 per cent, more than in Prance. If we add to this the percentage of students in secondary institutions not belonging to the common schools, such as academies, colleges, etc., namely, 0.35 per cent., the percentage rises to 20.73. While this would seem a very flattering state of affairs, it must be stated that the number 11,884,944 is only one basis of computation, inasmuch as it represents the entire number of pupils enrolled. Another basis of computation is found in the average number of pupils attending. That number is considerably less than the number enrolled, namely, 7,082,000, or 13.09 per cent of the population ; or, with the addition re¬ ferred to, 13.44 per cent. But since the basis of computation which yielded the percentage in Prussia (17.2, and 19.51 per cent, respec¬ tively) is the number enrolled, or ‘‘ inscribed,” as the technical term is in Germany and France, the same number must be used for the United States. YL— Criticism op the American schools. Dr. B, Lalshley gives much prominence in his report to the American schools. He first sets forth the main principles recognized in the United States as relating to education ; then sketches in bold, but es¬ sentially correct, lines the organization of the common school and the efforts in behalf of secondary instruction, indulges in some criticism which seems fair, coming from an outsider, and then concludes his report by saying: In the American system there is much that induces commendation ; especially (a) Large powers of local government, including powers of direct local taxation. (6) Compulsory attendance laws so far as they exist, although they exist only to a lim¬ ited extent, (c) The promotion of technical instruction, including prominence given to drawing, (d) The requirement in certain States respecting the knowledge of the iuliuehce of alcohol on the human body and (e) The provisions, as far as they ex¬ tend, against the improper employment of children. But puhlic education in the United States has not arrived at that condition which justifies its imitation as a complete system. For instance, respecting the States generally, there exists the want of adequate provisions affecting, (a) school accommodation, (&) compulsory education, (o) length 1 We puri)03ely choose the statistics of the year 1837, though those of 1888 are at hand, in order to afford a fair comparison with Prussia and France, the latest availa¬ ble statistics of which are of 1880-87. 44 EDUCATION KEPORTp 1889-89. of school torins, {d) training?, standard of qualification, and appointment of teachers ; (e) religious instruction, (/) physical training, {g) inspection, (h) infant school ar¬ rangements, and (i) injurious employment of children ; involving an unjustifiable amount of illiteracy, incompetent teaching in too many cases, religious friction, and a very general absence of that thoroughness, without which veneer is apt to take the place of substance — causes which, as it seems to* me, must, if unamended, not only retard the progress, but sap the core of any nation. There must, however, be much to learn, even if there be not everythingto imitate, for apart from the large questions which may, with especial advantage, be studied in connection with the States, and in addition to much that may be commended, to arrive at a clear perception of error, must be a distinct gain. Moreover, the immense mass of data on educational subjects not only relating to the States, but to all parts of the world, annually collected and gratuitously distributed by the Bureau of Edu¬ cation is indeed a most valuable contribution and aid to educational progress, and deserves to be extensively and gratefully availed of. YIL— The schools of France. Until recently France has had no system of schools that admitted of a comparison with those of the United States. Since the year 1871, or since the beginning of the new republic, however, France has made great progress in public education. Indeed its efforts in behalf of com¬ mon school education have been so enormous, and their results so as¬ tonishing, that a comparison with the efforts in our own country seems quite proper. The population of France in 1886 was 38,218,903. As will be seen from Diagram III, the primary elementary school there extends its course over only six instead of over eight years as in Prussia and here j but this course is followed by a two or three years’ course in superior elementary schools^ which may be said to be still in their infancy. The elementary schools are preceded by the maternal or infant schools, institutions simi¬ lar to but not identical with the kindergarten in Germany and the United States, only with this vital difference, that they are organically connected with the primary school. Hence, definite statistics concern¬ ing their number of pupils are not lacking as in Germany and America. These infant schools in France had in 1886-87 741,224 pupils, which number represents nearly 2 per cent, of the population. The primary elementary schools, institutions similar to the German people’s schools, contain 5,487,589 pupils in 1886, or 14.45 per cent, of the population. Now, 14.45 per cent, is about 6 per cent, less than in the United States and 2.77 per cent, less than in Prussia. If the fact is considered that the course in the elementary schools is two years (respectively, one year) shorter than in Prussia, the apparent discrep¬ ancy between these two countries vanishes, and it would seem that com- IDulsory attendance works out a corresponding result. Again, if we were to deduct all the pupils over twelve years in this country, the percentage would fall lower than it was stated (20.38 per cent.). The addition of the extremely small number of pupils in France who avail themselves of the advantages offered in the superior elementary GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 45 schools (not quite 40,000), and the number of pupils in the various pub¬ lic secondary schools (not quite 100,000), raise the average per cent, of the population but little, namely : Per cent. Primary elementary schools . . . . 14.45 Superior elementary schools . . . 0. 1 Secondary public schools . . . 0.26 Total . 14.81 Since we have for the United States and for Prussia excluded in our calculations the kindergarten and university, we must do likewise for France. The French elementary schools, primary and superior, are attracting the attention of other nations in no small degree. They are not only endowed lavishly and provided with costly apparatus, such as is found neither in the American common schools nor in German people’s schools, but an experiment is at present being made in connection with them, the progress and results of which are watched closely on both sides of the Atlantic, to wit : The Government has decreed that manual training be introduced as an integral part of the curriculum. In 1887 100 of 174 boys’ elementary schools in Paris had commodious workshops for work in joining, turning, wood carving, and forging. VIII— Criticism of the french schools. Dr. Laishley, whose views have been quoted on German and Ameri¬ can schools, expresses himself quite fully in regard to the French school system. He says — The present state system, as revised by the laws of the 16th of June, 1881, aud 28th of March, 1882, should be a peculiarly interesting study, as being the most absolute one existing of gratuitous, secular, aud compulsory education. And the enactments just mentioned, which entirely changed the main features of primary education in France, were passed by reason of the views prevailing there, that ^‘in France the preliminary condition of all progress was the secularization of education ; ” and that the laws in question “would enable France to resume the march onward «rhich was begun by the revolution of 1789.” The great education question, which has been agitated in France for some years, has been whether the priesthood, or the bulk of the people, shall have the dominating influence over popular education. The people have prevailed ; and accordingly edu¬ cation in all the national educational establishments is exclusively secular. And by the law passed in 1886 “in public schools of every description all instruction is to be given exclusively by laymen.” Whether this will eventually be profitable has yet to be proved ; inasmuch as the legislation is too recent to enable the system to be deemed yet other than as an experiment in France. But meantime the friction is obviously great; and hostile influences bitter aud powerful. The special features connected with this system appear to be — (1) The eager national intention to render it as perfect as possible; (2) In pursuance of that intention, the munificent, indeed, the lavish, expenditure upon education; (3) The absence of any religious feature, but the system purports to bo absolutely neutral in, and not hostile to, religion ; (4) The special attention i)aid to the promo¬ tion of industrial training by means of gratuitous schools, classes, and lectures, and 46 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. especially the grafting of such training upon ordinary primary school education ; (5) The organization of, and provision for, teaching and inspection in infant schools and classes; and (6) The remarkable percentage of attendances at the primary schools. The state, far more absolutely than elsewhere, controls the complete education of the people. * * * Gratuitous and compulsory phases. — Instruction in all primary, including infant schools, is now gratuitous. School necessaries also are provided without charge; and in Paris penny dinners are x^rovided by the municipality, which dinners, in the case of really poor children, are gratuitous. There are no separate free schools for paupers, as in England. Compulsory attendance now ax^idies to all children from the age of six (complete) to that of thirteen (complete).^ If, however, they are receiving instruction at home, or at a private school, or obtain a certificat d’dtudes’’ (which is possible to obtain at eleven), they are exempt. In respect of this certificate, Matthew Arnold says: “The boy who gets a ‘certificat d’^tiides’ has, I think, been better trained and has more to show for his schooling than the boy who has gone through the standards;” whilst the royal commissioners for technical instruction state that the examination “wiP probably not bo considered more difiicnlt than that of the children in our Eng¬ lish schools who pass the fifth standard and have taken up one or more of the special subjects. The only other excuses allowed are : (a) One applicable to half-time scholars, viz, that a school board may, subject to the consent of the departmental council, exempt children employed in trades or agriculture from one of the two daily attendances — so “that children can only be employed as half-timers in trades or agriculture, under the age of thirteen, by the joint consent of the communes and of the department, un¬ less at or above the age of eleven they have obtained the ‘ certificat d’6tudes;’ ” (&) illness of the child ; (c) death of a member of the family ; or (d) hindrances resulting from accidental difficulty of access to the school. And all other excuses will have to be judged by the scholastic commission, a body constituted for the purpose of enforc¬ ing regular school attendance. Owing probably, however, not only to the public desire for education in France, but to the strict supervision exercised by the authorities, and the punishments im- posable in case of irregularity in attendance, the school attendance is excellent, espe¬ cially in cities ; and it is computed “ that 10 per cent, is the maximum absence for any school in Paris, while in a very large number of schools the total average of attend¬ ance exceeds 95 per cent. Children are protected by law against xmemature cmxdoyment, but the law does not seem to be, in some of the departments, officially carried out. Proper books record¬ ing the attendance at both public and private schools have to be kept, and absences reported, and even private head-masters neglecting to do this are liable to be repri¬ manded or suspended. School age. — There is no definition of school age, or any law respecting it, excex)t that relating to compulsory attendance. The “ dcoles materueiles ” admit children from two years of age, and from M. Ferry’s report on the organization of superior primary schools, coupled with the facilities provided by the state for the promotion of adult education, it is evident that it is against the policy of France to impose any limit of age. Infant schools. — The infant class, or the maternal school, is the initial, although not, as applying to any under school age (six), a compulsory stage. Of infant schools or classes, the following points seem worth consideration : (a) The object of and method adox)ted in them, including the adoption in great part of the method of Froebel ; (h) the addition of an infant class to a primary school when a separate school is impracticable ; (c) the limitation of numbers for' each teacher ; and (d) the fact that infant schools are not only taught exclusively by females (who must be, ' iThis is an error; twelve is the maximum in the primary school. — [Ed. GERMAN, A.MERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 47 Lowevcr, of a certain age, and qualified), but also inspected by “departmental lady inspectors,” and “general lady inspectors,” nominated by tbe minister. It sboald, however, be added that tlie appointments of departmental lady inspectors are not yet regularly and generally established, by reason of the expense ; although it is hoped that it will be possible to perfect the organization in a few years. Private in¬ fant schools are subject to supervision similarly to other private schools. Elemeutary primary schools. — The next grade is the primary school proper, where instruction is always understood to be, whatever may bo the number of pupils and classes, divided into three courses of two years each— (a) Elementary, from six to eight years of age; (b) Intermediate, from eight to ten, and superior, from ten to twelve. All additional course of one, two, or three years is provided under certain circumstances; but this course, although annexed to the elementary schools, is ranked in the category of superior primary education. In all the above-mentioned courses industrial work, or, at all events, what may be deemed to be practical preparation for it, is in the programmes both for boys and girls ; and, indeed, in many primary schools, including a considerable number of those in Paris, instruction is given in handicrafts. The ordinary number of pupils in an elementary primary school, at least in Paris, is from 300 to 400; and the average size of the classes ranges from 40 to 50 pupils, and must not exceed 50. In every primary school there is a hall, where there are lavatories and movable tables whereon the children can take at noon their dinner meal, and near to there are culinarj^ arrangements for preparing or warming up the children’s food. Where there is not a special hall for the teaching of gymnastics, the children can march or perform gymnastic exercises in the dining hall, or have recreation there in rainy weather; and in such a case a part of it will be devoted for the deposit of the children’s clothing. The plaj’grounds are, as a rule, small; although they are con¬ sidered indispeueable for a primary school. Both Mr. Matthew Arnold and a prominent member of the London school board consider that the French elementary schools are in advance of the English ; and the commissioners state that the ordinary schools of France (primary and secondary) excel the English ones as a preparation for the technical school. Superior primary schools. — The next step is the superior primary school, an insti¬ tution entirely distinct from the elementary primary school ; and here the course com¬ prises at least two years of studies, and here also manual instruction is pursued ; al¬ though there are also schools established mainly for apprenticeship instruction pur¬ poses, superior primary schools include also higher elementary technical schools. The object of the establishinenc of superior primary schools is found stated in the report of October 29, 1881 ; and their organization in a letter from M. Ferry to the prefect, dated November 6, 1881. There are no optional subjects. Special masters attend to teach music, gymnastics, and sometimes drawing, which is said to be more advanced than in Euglish schools. The ordinary school hours are from 8 a. m. to 4 p. m., one hour and and a half interval at noon, and one hour 4 to 5 p. m. for gymnastics. The income available for expenditure on primary schools is derived mainly from the state and the communes. The state supremely controls, in the case of all primary schools, through the minister of public instruction. Second-ary and higher schools. — (1) Substantial public money aid is given by grants and in scholarships, which latter are provided for colleges, lyceums, and faculties, as well as for superior primary schools, and the aid is eontributed respectively by the state, the departments, and the communes, and is very munificent. (2) Instruction in secondary schools is not gratuitous, but the fees payable by scholars are very much less than in similar establishments in England, owing not only to the grants, but to the low salaries paid to professors and teachers of all grades in France. (3) The ad¬ mission of young children into the lower divisions of both the communal colleges and lyceums for special elementary preparation is worthy of note, and also (4) the fact 48 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. that modern languages and science have been largely substituted in the secondary schools for Latin and Greek. Technical instruction, — No pains are spared, especially to develop the manual genius of the artisan classes. This is done not only by the blending of industrial theory and practice into the primary school course of study, and by evening schools, Sunday, ap¬ prentice, and continuation schools and classes, but by science and art schools for adults and others, and by lectures of all kinds ; all which instruction is gratuitous, except in some cases a nominal fee for admission to lectures. The evening instruc¬ tion is considered the most striking feature of the present condition of educational effort in France. Physical training. — Physical training occupies a prominent position in the school programmes. It is provided that even the infant schools and classes shall be exer¬ cised in gymnastics, graduated to favor the physical development of the child, whilst in reciting in the regulations of primary schools the triple object of education, phys¬ ical education is placed before either of the two other objects, and it is provided that in addition to evolutions and exercises which can accompany the movements of the class, gymnastic exercises are to be had every day, or at least every two days, in the course of the afternoon. In the communal colleges and lyceums the exercises occupy four lessons per week of half an hour’s duration each. Private schools. — Private schools are not under general state control, yet they are subject to state supervision in respect to (a) morality, (&) sanitary arrangements, (o) the keeping a register of and reporting absences, and (d) so that the books used be not such as are contrary to the actual constitution or principles of the govern¬ ment. Teachers. — The “ brevet de capacity ” requirement of the law of June 16, 1881, and the further provisions of the law passed in 1886, render the proper qualification of teachers indispensable. The subject of normal schools therefore has become, not only to the state but to the teacher, an especially important one : and in all the de¬ partments there are excellent state normal schools for the training of masters and in many for mistresses. Examinations are held for admission. Pupils enter at eighteen. The course of study is for three years. A primary school, in which pupils are exer¬ cised, is annexed to each normal school, and near outside is a maternal school. The institutions are boarding schools, although a certain number of half boarders and day scholars are received ; but instruction and board are given gratuitously. There is no religious teaching. There are also two superior normal schools, one at Fontenay-aux-Roses for girls, and one at St. Cloud for boys, for the purpose of training teachers to superintend teaching in normal schools. Applicants for admission must be at least twenty years of age, possess the superior certificate granted to teachers, and succeed in an admission examination which comprehends written and oral proofs of capacity, including the practice of teaching. Both classes of establishments are national institutions, non- ecclesiastical and mainly residential in character. Teachers for primary schools must be exclusively laymen, and are nominated on the proposition of the inspector by the prefect of the department (province). The inspector, however, “ always acts in concert with and takes the opinion of the rural municipality before naming the teacher.” The pupil-teacher system is virtually defunct in France, the former system of monitors which somewhat corresponded to the English pupil-teacher arrangements having become substantially'' a thing of the past. Women are much more fully em¬ ployed as teachers than in Germany and Switzerland. Professors and teachers of all grades are very poorly paid ; and if Victor Hugo’s definition be correct, that the schoolmaster in France is the highest functionary of the state, they certainly do not pay their highest state functionaries adequately. Every teacher has a right to a pension after twenty-five years’ service. It is calcu¬ lated at the rate of one-half of the highest salary earned during the last six years GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 49 of office. Toward the pension fund, deductions are made from salaries. Gratuities are given. Impection. — The inspection is excellent, although there is no special feature, except that of lady inspectors for infant schools. All inspectors, chief, departmental, and primary, are nominated hy the minister, and are recruited * * * from amongst the masters of elementary schools. Each department (province) of the country has a departmental inspector, and as many primary ones as there are divisions or dis¬ tricts. The inspectors’ salaries, compared with those of the teachers, are high. The National Educational Association of France agreed that regular medical inspection should be made in every school to avoid epidemic or contagious diseases and injury to eyesight. Medical inspectors are now employed in large cities. IX. — Summary of comparative statistics. Before entering into the minutiae of the work performed in the schools of Prussia and France, it seems well to review the statistics found on i^revious pages. For every one hundred inhabitants in 1886-87 there were in public schools between kindergarten and university : lu the — Enrolled. In attend¬ ance. Sf.af Afl . _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ 20. 59 19.51 14. 81 13. 44 (0 (0 Prussia. ... _ ..... _ ........................ _ ...... _ .......... _ ... Prance . _ _ ..... _ ............... _ ..... _ _ _ ...... _ ....... For the lower schools alone the percentage is as follows ; UNITED STATES. m m m 2 0. 3^ 7 m mi m m m Primary and Grammar Schools. 20.3Sfo enrolled. PRUSSIA. % 'W' yJ 2 7o m m People’s Schools and Preparatory Classes, n.2‘f<, enrolled. Primary and Superior Elementary Schools, 14.45fc enrolled. X. — Other points of comparison. All the Prussian schools mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs are public, excepting a few in the second group (see Diagram II) ) that is, they are open to the poorer children, provided the means are furnished them, but in that case special talents must entitle them to the opportu¬ nity of associating with ari^toef£lf:7 apll;plutocracy. The public schools as such are obnoxious tipceTtaia’hxclusive cirdles/hence they maintain private schools to whicli/none but their own children are admitted. These exclusive institutions are omitted from the foregoing diagram, ED 8l>— — 50 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1888-89. since the comparison is to be between the American common school and such institutions in Germany as are similar in scope and aims. Tuition in the American common school is free for all children of legal school age. Some States even fix the minimum at four years, while others fix the maximum at sixteen and eighteen years. In Germany, or, to keep within the boundary of comparison, in Prussia, free tuition is granted only to the indigent stratum of society. Though it is the ultimate aim of both the legislative and executive branches of the government to make tuition, at least in the people’s schools, free of charge, as yet it has remained a pious wish. Only in rare cases, in the capital Berlin, for instance, the city government has carried this into effect throughout the city’s school system. It is a well-known fact and everywhere admitted that each class of schools in Germany is eminently successful within the limits of its scope; it must be stated, however, that the several classes are not in organic connection with each other, chiefly owing to the different, and even con¬ flicting, demands made upon them by their patrons and the Govern¬ ment. The courses of study in schools of one and the same class fre¬ quently differ materially. If - a pupil of a Prussian people’s school applies for admission to a middle or high school, he may be set back two, three, and four years, as the case may be, because he lacks knowl¬ edge of foreign or classic languages. This is merely an illustration of the heterogeneous nature of the various classes of schools. Here in America, without national school supervision or legislation, the courses of study of common schools thousands of miles apart are so nearly alike that a pupil of the eighth-year grade of a Philadelphia city school may be safely admitted into the same grade of a San Francisco city school without danger of unduly retarding or promoting him. Or, a x^upil who has gone through the lower schools in a small town of the West . may apply for admission to almost any public high school in the land; he is reasonably sure of finding himself on a level with the re¬ quirements of admission. Though we classify our grades into primary, grammar (or intermediate), and high schools, there is no essential difference between them in treat¬ ment of either object or subject. But in Germany, as will be shown later on, there is not only no uniformity, but even antagonism between the different classes of schools. It is easy to see that while this may be a fruitful source of competition, it is not conducive to harmony, and tends to retard the nationalizing of the schools of Germany. XI.— Distinctive features of the courses of study in Prus¬ sian SCHOOLS. < Before the readerisjm-ade acqu^iate'd^ith the minutiae of the different courses of study Jn graphic presentation, "a- dew statements concerning the charactericsticf^‘6f the three groups of Prussian schools may precede a comparison, with the schools in this country; . ^ " GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 51 (1) The Peoples’s school in Prussia varies but little from that of other German States in aims, though it does in organization. Herb and there slight differences are noticed owing to local predilections and influences. This school has an eight years’ course in cities, a seven years’ course in ru¬ ral districts. Children of both sexes are taught together till they reach the eleventh or twelfth year of age ; then, if local circumstances allow it, they are taught in separate classes. When they are “released” from school they are “ confirmed ” in the Protestant Church, or go to “ first communion” in the Catholic Church. Ho language but the mother tongue is taught (except in the schools of a few border provinces), and this without the aid of a text-book in grammar. From the lowest grade upward careful training in the use of the language without evolving or applying many rules is the object. Arithmetic is not carried on quite so far as is done in this country, and not quite one-half the time spent here is used for arithmetic in Prussia. (For reasons see p. 5G.) History is taught quite early, beginning with “ home stories ; ” Prussian and German history both necessitate more than mere glances at general history. All history in this school is of¬ fered in biographies. Geography is taught within a limited compass, topographical and political as well as mathematical and physical. Nat¬ ural history is taught in form of object lessons. Only in the highest or sometimes in the two highest grades do physics and physiology come in for much attention. Draicing^ singing^ and gymnastics are all taught to a greater extent than is done in the average American school. Ho text-books are used for history, natural history, physics, etc. ] all these studies are oral, but are not regarded as mere ornaments. In the read¬ ers the pupils find much solid reading ; these books contain master¬ pieces of all kinds of prose and poetry, instructive and amusing. Com¬ posing in words and pictures goes on at every step, and is developed to a very astonishing degree. (2) The middle schools, {a) Buerger, or citizens'^ schools, so called, in contradistinction to the people’s schools (for many centuries the citi¬ zens were considered a higher stratum of society than the people, although the word buerger meant originally the denizen of a burg or fortified place), attempt more than the mere elements. Their pupils as a rule come from more cultured families, and speak German with little of the ruling dialect, hence need not spend so much time in learning to use their mother tongue correctly. One or two foreign languages are taught, and the customary scientific branches and mathematics have a wider scope than in the people’s schools. Drawing leans toward indus¬ trial pursuits. Side by side with these boys’ schools are the {h) Hohcre Mddchen-Schulen, or girls’ academics, which in their academic studies go parallel with the citizens’ boys schools, but terminate in a post-grad¬ uate course for the preparation of young teachers. Both these middle schools resemble in their upper grades our common high schools. It may be said that this class of schools offers an education more advanced 52 EDUCATION REPORT,^ 1888-89. than can be given in people’s schools, and less extended than a prepa¬ ration for the university requires. There is more diversity in aims and methods in these middle schools than in (3) The high schools : {a) Bealschule, (b) Gymnasium^ (c) Bealgymna- sium. This array of technical terms is difficult to render in English. A verbal translation would be misleading and a labored circumlocution useless. The Gymnasium is the oldest. It is the classical boys’ school par excellence: the Eealschule (the first one M'as founded one hundred and forty years ago) substitutes modern languages for the classics, and gives much attention to natural sciences, mathematics, and industrial drawing and designing. The Gymnasium prepares for the learned pro¬ fessions, the Eealschule trains engineers, surveyors, artists, civil officers, etc. The Eealgymnasium is a combination of the two kinds of schools. From the accompanying charts the differences existing between these schools may be gleaned better than from verbal explanations. The great army of business men recruits itself from these higher schools and from the middle schools. The boy of the people’s school has a hard time of it in courting success in higher walks of life; still, such cases are not unknown. What gives to the Prussian secondary schools such a remark¬ able impetus is the fact that their graduates and undergraduates are called upon to serve in the army only one year, while all other able-bodied men must serve three years. XIII. — Eemarks explanatory to the accompanying charts. On Chart I it will be seen that the course sketched for the American common school is an average course, such as is found with slight devia¬ tions all over this country. It does not show distinctions made here and there, or preferences in favor of this, that, or the other language, and leaves the limit of time spent in the study of grammar undefined, but shows that much time is consumed in mastering the orthography of the English language. It is scarcely necessary for the reader in this country to see the average course of study minutely delineated. Of course, if a selection were made here and in Europe among the schools we might ])resent a picture which would make a just comparison quite impossible. Statistics is the science of averages, and it is the average school, not the exception, which is here delineated. The courses of the Prussian schools are endeavors, also, to present en bloc the leading features of language instruction. A careful com¬ parison between those of Eealschule and Gymnasium, for instance, will reveal the vital ditference between them. These charts are the result of the comparison of many courses of study in use published in annual reports of German schools and filed in this Bureau; also of the require¬ ments made by the Prussian Government, notably by the decree of May 31, 1882. Chart II shows what prominence history as a study assumes in the GERMAN, AxMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 53 XIII. — Graphic presentation of the courses of study. Year of School. P 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n 12 13 14 Year of Life. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 American Common School. German People's School. Ttt W-dL tg a nd T ''riti rtg. L iter atwr n I r 0 T tTio gVi zpJ y. ipos\ ern imps. m}ve\ ^ath vric. hora Cots ~mo6. Lam CoTU iqnii iIEtc Lanf) Lesa uage ons. Gi amm ar. Jlea ding and ’ Wri ting Liter] aiure^ Ori. JtO i IT a vJl'U nran ntpo ar a sitio CoTto JSx fjuicLl ~er. Lan^ Less mage ons. Co % German 1 1 Hecu JF .g. I R jadi J ng, litei 1 •atici losii ion. Citizen's ^ School. Z ■* — enc h. hCLTl g.Li iSS. h. f" Mea> W. liriq ^itin g Jle< idiri Lxi r . lerat COi \rvpo$iUon. Or tJiol 9'^t t-pj} tmd F "ih etoTj _ _ -i , tin. JJa? tg.L ess. " ( irc^l L. iglit M. veil ■ clt. Eea/ Ivn^ riti7\ and Rea eroA k-A tire, gnpe ?torj situ ZL.-. Lerman ^ “Gymnasium." ^ 0 rt rTt o\ \9 I "I ivi lar. School. Leu yeL essGi IS. I ^Ger. TUOT Chart I, showing how the time commonly devoted to linguistic studies in the American common school and the different classes of German schools is divided. 54 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Year of School. r‘ - 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Year of Life. 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 m 18 17 18 19 2(3 American Gt o^r aph -y- Thi '5. Geo. 1 Common Ena mst lish ory. Gen Mist zrcCl OVJJ. School. \Uni Sta \Sis} fed tes ory. German People’s School. G i ogj ap 7i y- rrg. German t Ge ogr ap7 Phyi and h,Ma Anci 2iemy ent i die. Citizen’s 1 J School. ‘S li -dst , OO ft & . ory German “Real-Scluile.’^ a CIS Ge og-r ap'i \y- Thy ana 3,, My '■Atu xthe '■ient natl Geo ccU fl:-. ns •V a 1 1 1 Hst ory German *§ Ge ogr ap'i ^y- Eh or IdA Tafh( xciei ^mcit vt G iccCL 1 ^ “Gymnasium.’' a. T-ist 1 ory German Co Ca ns Ge ogr ap hg. EJ a lys.y xdA MatJy Ttcit .erru nt ( Mca reogi I “Real- Co ’ 1 .Gymnasium.” 1 1 1 Ixsi OTl 1 1 -.y. 2 r. French G e c y r a p 1 .y. “ Lycees.” n i, s t c r V 0 French Primary Superior Elementary School. i a e 0 9 T a r 7i g JS i 6 t 0 _ • Chart II, shovriug how the time commonly devoted to history and geography in the American common school and the dilferent classes of German schools is divided. GERMAjsr, AMERiCANj AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 55 Year of School. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 70 n 11 13 14 Year of Life. 7 6 9 W 11 12 13 74 75 70 17 18 19 20 American Common School. German People’s School. A r it h 7! e t i c 1 Alg^ 1 Geoi ihra letri 1 • 1 .Ji. rii h 7f t e t i c 1 J? T German ! Citizen’s i 1 School. J ? 05 Vf' A r i t h in e t i c. Get .. Trig eti mom y* Al ^met gel)) Zl. 'a. German ^ “Real-Schule.” ^ A ri t Ji It 5 e t i c . Trigi Sure nom egin 'try. lJ A\ -ry. gebi ^a. Ge mtei German ^ “Gymnasium.”'! 1 A y'ii h 71 5 e i i c, Tri^ 10710, netr ij. A ^y- gehi 'a. Ge miei German ^ Ai A m 77 e i i c. Tri gom ^met, At try. yehi Hea!" ^ OJ Gymnasium.” ..iJ Ge ome ^€1^4 Si true iin^ French ^ B'i A 7 'i t \ ® j _ e b i c. Vrigc r* '■ nom ^try. "Lycfe.” U| Get >Tne\ -ry. a; ns Q>* French Avit hme Uc. Primary Superior Elementary School. A T i t i V m e ti c . J 1 % I 1 Chart III, showing how the time commonly devoted to arithmetic and mathematics in the American common school and the different classes of German schools is divided. 56 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Year of School. J 2 3 4 5 6 i ^ 8 .9 1 w 11 j 72 13 14 Year of Life. 7 1 5 70 77 12 73 14 75 \,e 77 I 18 19 20 American Common School. German People’s School. % 1 German | Citizen’s j School. ^ German ^ “Real-Schule.” 1 ObJ act Les SOTlk PYty{ Bote “ — ■“ Phy 79y Jty 6 sics Che. 'Zoox & nisi ^9‘ Ohj JCt Leet ons. Nat- Hist VJzys WlAHji VJrys ics. Ohj. Less Bot %ny, Zoi ^91 Mim Phy ^nccl ^ioZo ^99- 99- £i \y8i^. 'R Ohj. Less Boti 2 1 tnt/, ooloi Line Wy Fi 79‘ Yysit loyy C P herm kijsi & etri rs f. German Gymnasium.” 'S German S ‘■'Real- *1 Gymnasium.” [ French “Lycees.” French Primary Superior i Elementary School. Ohj. Less. Boti ii my, ; Zoi fine} 1 •''aloe t PJi \ U p- ysio\ oyy. Cl P. iemi rs Ohj. Less Boti 3L m iloyi ysiol oyy. C P kysi & letri cs Ohje Lees ct ons. Bo Z M han^ QolOt iner V alog y- Phy. Pit nolo ysici Che 79- S: miei C9> 1 *■ Olje Less, ct one. N H %tu isto ral P 'T % >» Chart IV, showing how the time commonJy devoted to the natural sciences in the American common school and the diffcront classes of Gorman schools is divided. GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 57 Prussian schools. Chart III shows that in the high schools of Prussia mathematics begins with geometry in the form of arithmetical mensura¬ tion, or, as some hav^e it, geometry in object lessons. The comparison with an average American high school is particularly instructive. In a sub¬ sequent chapter it will be shown why in Europe, with the exception of England, the study of arithmetic is more satisfactory than here. Chart IV is somewhat misleading, because it would seem from it that there is no difference in the time given to the natural sciences in the high schools in Prussia, but in fact the time, that is the number of hours per week, devoted to those studies differs materially in thediflerent schools, as may best be seen from the four time-tables accompanying this, and also from the typical courses of study. (See subsequent chap¬ ters.) A graphic presentation of the time devoted to music, drawing, pen¬ manship, and gymnastics has not been attempted, for reasons too obvi¬ ous to be mentioned j but the following time-tables will shed some light on this subject. XIV.— Number of hours per week devoted to the differext branches. A. — Cilizeri’s school {for hoys) in rrussia. Annual classes. Eelisiou (c.atecliisra, Bible, and cburcb histoi y) . German (literature, grammar, rhetoric, composition) French (literature) . . . English (literature) . . . . . History and geography . . Aritlimotic and mathematics . . . 'Natural history . Physics and chemistry . Penmanship and drawing . Music and gymnastics . VI, V. 1 IV. III. 11. I. Total. 3 2 2 2 2 2 13 4 4 4 3 3 4 22 8 8 8 G 5 5 40 4 4 4 12 3 3 4 4 4 4 22 4 5 5 5 5 5 29 2 3 3 2 3 13 3 5 8 5 5 4 4 2 2 22 4 4 4 4 3 3 22 33 34 34 34 34 34 1 203 B. — Eealschiile {for hoys) in Prussia. Annual classes. VI. V. IV. III. Ila. Ilb. la. Ib. Total. Beligion (catechism, Bible, and church history) _ 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 17 German (literature, grammar, rhetoric, composition) 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 27 Latin (found in very few schools of this kind) . 3 3 3 3 12 French . 8 8 8 6 5 5 5 5 50 English . g 4 4 4 4 21 History and geography . 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 26 Arithmetic and Tiiathematics . 5 6 6 6 5 6 6 6 46 Natural historx’ . 2 2 2 3 2 n Physics and chemistry . 3 4 4 4 15 Penmanship and drawing . 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 22 Music and gymnastics . 4 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 23- 33 33 34 34 34 34 34 34 270 ■Note. — Class VI (Sexta) is the lowest, Ib (Upper Prima) the highest grade. In the Gymnasium, the classes a,ve Sexta, Quinta, Quarta, Tertia (Upper and Lower), Secunda (Upper and Lower), Prima (Upper and Lower). 58 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-80. C. — Gymnasium {for loys) in Prussia. Annual classes. VI. Y. IV. Ilia. Illb Ha. Ilb. la. Ib. Total. Religion (catechism, Bible, and church history) 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 19 German (literature, grammar, rhetoric, com¬ 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 23 position). Latin (literature) . . . 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 73 French (literature) . . . . . . 4 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 21 Greek (literature) . 7 7 7 7 5 5 38 Hebrew (optional study) . 3 3 6 History and geography . 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 27 Arithmetic and mathematics . 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 36 Physiology and natural history . 2 2 3 2 2 11 Phvsics and chemi.stry _ _ _ _ _ 2 2 2 2 g Penmanship and drawing . 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 22 Music and gvmnastics . 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 26 32 1 34 1 34 1 35 1 35 1 35 35 35 1 35 1 1 310 D. — Beal gymnasium (for hoys) in Prussia. Annual classes. VI. V. IV. Ilia. Illb. Ila. lib. la. Ib. Total. Religion (catechism, Bible, and church history) 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 19 German (literature, grammar, rhetoric, com¬ 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 27 position). Latin (literature) . 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 54 French (literature) . 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 34 English . 4 4 3 3 3 3 20 History and geography . 3 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 30 Arithmetic and mathematics . . . 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 44 Phvsiology and natural history . . . 2 2 2 2 3 13 Physics and physical geography . 3 3 3 3 12 Chemistry . 3 3 3 9 Penmanship and drawing . 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 22 Music and gymnastics . 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 26 32 1 34 1 34 1 35 I 35 1 1 35 1 35 I 35 1 35 1 310 Note.— The totals in the right hand column of these diagrams are most instructive, since they illus¬ trate the prominence given to certain branches. E. — Girls' academies in Prussia. Annual classes. 7th. 6th. 5th. 4 th. 3d. 2d. 1st. Total. Religion (catechism Bible and church history) ... 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 14 German, (literature, grammar, rhethoric, compo¬ 9 5 5 5 4 4 4 36 sition). French . . . . 5 5 5 4 4 4 27 English . 4 4 4 4 16 Arithmetic . 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 26 History and geography . 3 2 2 2 4 4 4 21 Natural history and physics . 2 2 2 2 2 10 Penmanship and drawing . 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 18 Music and gymnastics . 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 22 Industrial handiwork . 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 14 26 28 30 30 30 30 30 204 GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 59 F. — Lycees or classical schools for hoys in France. Aunual classes. nth year. 12th year. 13th year. 14th year. 15 th year. IGth year. 17th and 18tb j'ears. Total. T?,(*lio-ion (nnf, nil) . 0) (?) (?) (?) (?) (?) French (literature, grammar, rhetoric, composition) 3 3 3 3 4 4 9 29 Latin (literature) . . . 10 10 6 5 4 4 * 39 Greek (literature) . . . 2 6 5 5 4 * 22 English or German . 2 2 2 2 2 2 * 12 History and geography . 3 3 3 o 3 3 3 - 21 Arithmetic and mathematics . 1 1 1 2 2 8 4 14 Physiology and natural history . 1 1 1 3 6 Physics and chemistry . . . 2 2 2 3 9 Penmanship and drawing . 2 2 2 2 2 o 2 14 Music and gymnastics (not stated) . (?) (?) (’) (?) (?) (?)“ (?) 24 24 24 24 24 24 106 * Philosophy, logic, ethics, metaphysics. Note. — Attention isdirected to the total number of hours devoted in French Lycdes and in Prussian high schools. If the five to six hours devoted to religion, music, and gymnastics in Prussia be added to the table of French Lyc6es the total number of hours spent in school would still be about five hours loss than in Prussia. XV.— Causes of rapid advancement in studies. A cursory review of the foregoing charts and time tables will con¬ vince even the most skeptical, that the advancement made in Prussia in the studies of the curriculum is a good deal faster than in America. Several leading college professors and other noted teachers of this coun¬ try, who have made the European schools a subject of studj^, claim that the average time gained in German schools as compared with Ameri¬ can is about three years. That difference ought to be accounted for, and it is easily done. The causes may be enumerated as being (a) the diffi¬ cult spelling of the English language j [h) the efforts made in learning and applying the tables of our arbitrary measures and weights j (c) the length of the school year ; (d) the want of a profession of teachers in this country, and lack of proper teaching. Thesearenotthe only causes; there are others of minor importance which might give rise to interesting discussions, but the scope of this work forbids entering into them. Spelling. — The orthography of the English language is most difficult to learn. It is very unruly and arbitrary. The want of rules under which words might be grouped makes the acquirement of correct spell¬ ing a case of mere mechanical memory. An hour per day scarcely suf¬ fices to make the average child master of the art of writing correctly without constant reference to the dictionary. Spelling, as a daily study, runs through the entire course, and even the graduates of the high school still need constant drill in orthography tokeep up a certain stand¬ ard of perfection. The amount of time a child spends in learning the orthography of the English language is out of all proportion to that given to other studies, though it is necessary ; and the energy wasted in acquiring something which does not aid the child intellectually is deplorable. If by general consent of Congress, press, and school, the English orthography were simplified to the degree it has been -done in 60 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Germany it would be a saving of an entire year to every school child in this country. From Chart I (see p. 53) it may be seen how compara¬ tively little time is spent in German schools in the study of orthog¬ raphy, and that it reaches a degree of perfection which is never ex¬ pected or even hoped for in English or American schools. The time saved in this study is in Germany devoted to history and literature. Metric system. — Our school children generally spend an entire year in trying to learn and apply tables of measures and weights in arithmetic. The chapter of denominate numbers claims a very large portion of space in our text-books in arithmetic, and its study, like that of orthography, consumes much valuable time that might be profitably employed in nat¬ ural history and elementary natural science. The child in continental European schools (we must except England, which still clings to the arbitrary measures) has no tables to remember, for he learns the divisions of the metric system, together with notation and enumeration of numbers, during thefirsttwo years in school. As soon as he can enumerate and notate between one and one thousand he can measure and weigh accord¬ ing to the metric system. There are only six names of divisions to be re¬ membered : Mlo, hecto., delca, and deci^ centi., milli, and four measures : onetre for distance, are for areas, liter for fluids, and gramme for weights. These ten technical terms are all that are required. If we think of our yard, acre, gallon, bushel, and different pounds, etc., with all their various divisions, and then consider that each of these measures has a different number of divisions, it does not seem improbable that nearly a year’s hard study might be removed b^^ adopting the metric system. As our English orthography is a mechanical cause of retarding the children’s progress, so are our arbitrary measures. That our pupils are not ad¬ vanced in their studies as fast as can be done, and is done in Europe, is in a great measure due to these mechanical causes. The clement of time. — The length of the school year in Prussia (and possibly in France) is almost uniformly lOJ months or about 250 school days (exclusive of holidays and vacations), while in the United States it varies between 60 and 196 days, with an average of 135 days. This obvious difference alone puts the American school at a disadvantage, but this is not all. It is not only that in Germany the number of school days is greater, but that the school day is considerably longer than in the United States. It is a simple example of multiplication, to wit: With us a school day is, at various places and during different sea¬ sons, from 5 to 5J hours long, which amounts to 980 to 1,078 hours a year. The German child, on the other hand, has 4 days of 6 to 6J hours each and 2 days of 4 hours each in every week of the school year. This amounts to from 1,323 to 1,406 hours in a year. Or to take average numbers : In the United States the child is under the influence of school during 1,029 hours a year; the German child is under that influence 1,364 hours, or about one-third more than the American child. In the foregoing comparison it should be borne in mind that the reli- GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 6 1 gious instruction ia German schools commonly consumes from 40 to GO minutes a day. Hence, leaving this out of consideration, the time re¬ maining for the common branches is about the same in Germany as in the United States, though it must be considered that the religious in¬ struction is to a great extent aiding the language work of the school, also the work in history by means of biblical biograpliies. Besides, German teachers claim that it aids the teacher in maintaining dis¬ cipline. All this may have some weight when the element of time is considered. Now this element is not mentioned to show that the schools in this country might be kept open longer, for the time (5 to 5^ hours) is, ac cording to the unanimous verdict of all who have observed minutely, ‘ the maximum of time children can stand continuous mental exertion under the climatic iutiuences of this country. The temperament of German children and the climate in Germany permit longer school ses¬ sions. The fact is stated merely as a fact which may not be without weight, when the excellent results of average German schools are con¬ sidered. Teaching is a profession. — In Prussia the stability of the teacher’s position is a factor which we must consider in our comparison. A person in Prussia, and for that matter everywhere in Germany, must acquire professional training before he is eligible to a position as teacher. This is offered free of charge in every State of Germany. After he has completed his course in the normal school and in the training depart ment he is elected by a community, but must serve a probationary term of two years. Whether during this time he is a success or not, at the close of the second year he is obliged to present himself to the State (or pro¬ vincial) b(uird of examiners, consisting of the faculty of the nearest nor¬ mal school presided over by a privy school councilor, to pass his ‘‘ review examination.” This examination lasts several days, during which the academic and professional studies are gone over, and model lessons are given without previous special preparation. If the teacher proves that during the two years he has made commendable progress in the science and art of teaching, he is granted a diploma for life. Henceforth he is free fi*om all further examinations and can settle down permanently, since his position is not endangered by ‘‘political rotation ” or other causes except his own errors, such as gross neglect of duty, etc. Besides, he receives a pension after a certain number of years of service. The fact that there are no persons teaching in Germany who have not had a three years’ professional preparation in academic studies and in the science of teaching, in x^sychology and the history of education, as well as in the practice of teaching, is perhaps the most important factor of the notable success in German schools, and the rapid advance¬ ment of the pupils. Concerning the professional preparation of teach¬ ers in this country, the state of affairs is so well known that it need not be stated. 62 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. All the causes mentioned above, and others of less influence, com¬ bine in accounting for the excellent results witnessed in German schools. Some of these causes are at work in France also, and will unquestion¬ ably have the same beneficial result eventually. Germany, it may be asserted, has an educational atmosphere. This is noticeable from such facts as these : All schools, lower, middle, and higher, stand in close connection with and inti¬ mate relation to the management of art academies, art museums, zoological and bo¬ tanical gardens, the observ'atory, the libraries, the gymnastic societies, and even the theaters; in fact, with every institution which in some degree may he induential in assisting the work in school. Plants are ordered for the study of botany at the botanical gardens. Certain hours are fixed at the zoological gardens for visits of the classes in zoology ; admission free. Classes in drawing are taken to the art collections and museums, where the teacher of advanced classes gives a lesson monthly. The libraries are open to pupils on pre¬ sentation of a membership ticket issued by the rector of the school. Classes in litera¬ ture go with their teachers to see classic performances in the theater. The schools having small but valuable collections for the study of natural history, frequently ex¬ change specimens with the curator of the museum, or even make loans. Churches have their reserved seats for school children ; gardens and parks are open to them ; play-grounds are provided with flower-beds for children, etc. To every department of the curriculum some institution outside of school offers assistance free of charge. All efforts are made to put public instruction on a rational basis and make educa¬ tion contagious.’^ ^ XVI.— Typical courses op study for Prussian high schools.^ [Note.— These courses are placed in juxtaposition to enable aminute comparison They only give the substance of the matter in the briefest terms possible.] I. For a Gymnasium. (1) Religion. — Biblical history of the Old, and especially the New Testament; Catechism, with Bible verses [and quota¬ tions from tradition], servingas evidence; the movable festivals of the church ; memorizing of favorite selected hymns; acquaintance with important contents of the holy Scriptures, especially the New Testament, of which leading chapters are to be read in the original text ; acquaint¬ ance, also, with the undisputed facts con¬ cerning the origin of the different books of the Bible ; main points of religious eth¬ ics and the creed ; knowledge of the chief epochs of church history and its distin¬ guished representatives [notably the lives of the great saints]. (2) German. — Knowledge of the most important rules of etymology and syntax ; acquaintance with the great epochs of the national literature; reading of classical II. For a Realschule. (1) Religion. — The same as for the stu¬ dents of the Gymnasium, except that the New Testament is not read in Greek, that language not being taught in these schools. Note. — Words printed in brackets [ ] are additions designed to be used with Catholic students. In all else the course is the same as for Protestants, though the students of the two confessions are taught separately. (2) German. — Identically the same course prescribed for the Gymnasium. iSee “European Schools,” D. Appleton & Co., New York. 2 Official decrees of May 31, 1883. GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 63 I. — For a Gymnasium — Continued. works of modern literature, poetry, and prose; memorizing of selected ballads and memory gems; acquaintance witb the forms of poetry and prose ; correct use of written language for the purpose of ex¬ pressing one’s own thoughts, and in com¬ posing essays on subjects lying within the student’s own compass of thought and experience ; si mple rhetorical practice and oral discussion of themes after due prepa¬ ration in writing. (3) Latin. — Facility in the application of etymology and syntax ; acquisition of a vocabulary sufficient for the compre¬ hension of the writings of the classic period (as far as their contents are not specifically technical), and for the pursuit of professional studios, as well as suffi¬ cient for the acquisition of modern lan¬ guages derived from Latin; reading of selected number of noted works of clas¬ sical literature suitable to the degree of proficiency of the students. This reading, going hand iu hand with grammatical analysis, should lead both to comprehen¬ sion of the contents and appreciation of the form. Skill in writing Latin within the limits of expressions learned by read¬ ing. Compositions should be made with some degree of ease and without coarse inaccuracies. (4) Greelc. — Facility in the Attic ety¬ mology and acquaintance with that of the epic dialect ; knowledge of the funda¬ mental rules of syntax; acquisition of a sufficient vocabulary ; reading of the most noted works in classic literature, poetry and prose, so that an abiding im- liression is caused of the value of Greek literature and its influence upon the de¬ velopment of the various modern litera¬ tures. (5) French. — Facility in French etymol¬ ogy and the fundamental rules of syntax; acquirement of a vocabulary which will enable the students to understand French books of not too difficult a style, and abil¬ ity to speak and write French within the certain limits. No coarse inaccuracies should occur iu this. II. — For a Eealschule— Continued. Note. — While this expresses only the end in view, it must be remembered that it is in the individual interpretation and in the methods of reaching this end in which the different schools vary some¬ what. (3) Latin. — Knowledge of etymology and the fundamental rules of syntax ; ac¬ quaintance with important rules of pros¬ ody ; acquisition of a vocabulary suffi¬ cient to understand the reading matter of each grade ; reading of suitable works of classical literature; easy Latin compo¬ sition. Note. — The difference between the Latin course of the two schools is signifi¬ cant. GrecJc is omitted. (4) French. — Facility in French etymol¬ ogy and syntax ; acquaintance with syno¬ nyms; acquisition of a vocabulary suffi¬ cient to understand the works of prose and poetry selected ; reading of a num¬ ber of works suitable to each grade ; ability to use French in essays on easy historical subjects without coarse inaccu¬ racies ; practice iu the oral use of French 64 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888 89, 1. — For a Gymnasium — Coutiuned. Note. — The difference between the French course of the two schools is signi- iicant. (6) Hebrew (an optional study). — In¬ struction in Hebrew is offered in the two highest grades only. Its aim is: Ele¬ ments of etymology ; reading of easy se¬ lections from the Old Testament. English, is omitted. (7) ArithmeHc and mathematics.— FacW- ify in operating with denominate num¬ bers and business rules. Application of arithmetic in every day occurrences of practical life. Arithmetic up to the de¬ velopment of the binomial theorem, and algebra to equations of the second degree (inclusive). Plane and solid geometry, plane trigonometry. In all these branches attention is to be paid not only to knowl¬ edge resting on a firm basis of thorough comprehension, but also at skill in its application. (8) History. — Knowledge of great events in the history of the world which caused epochs ; biographies of leading personages in them, chiefly from the II. — For a EealschuJe — Continued. in connection with reading matter. In the Realgymnasium the reading must have a greater extent and embrace some technical and scientific books relating to the scientific work in this course. In com¬ posing, not only the absence of inaccura¬ cies must be aimed at, but also elegance in style. In the oral use of French like¬ wise, higher demands must be made in Realgymnasium. Hehreiv is omitted. (5) English. — Facility in applying rules of etymology and .syntax ; some of the common exceptions. Anglo-Saxon syn¬ onyms. Acquisition of a vocabulary sufficient to understand the works of prose and poetry selected. Reading of selected authors. Practice in oral use of English in connection with reading. In a higher grade of schools technical *and scientific books are to be read. Composi¬ tions must be without coarse inaccura¬ cies, and elegance in style is to be the aim. Fluency in speaking English. (C) Ariihmetic and mathematics. — Facil¬ ity and skill in operating with denomi¬ nate numbers, aud their application in practical life; business rules. General arithmetic to geometrical progression. Algebra to equations of the third degree (inclusive). Plane geometry, including the principles of synthetic geometry ; solid geometry together with the ele¬ ments of descriptive geometry. Plane trigonometry, the elements of spherical trigonometry as far as necessary to under¬ stand mathematical geography. Ele¬ ments of analytical geometry to conic sections (inclusive). In all these branches attention is to be paid to thorough knowledge and frequent practical appli¬ cation. In higher grade schools the ele¬ ments of analytical geometry of space and differential calculus may be added. (7) History. — Same as for Gynmasium, only that the latter is apt to lay stress on ancient history through the study of Greek, wffiile the “Realschule” treats GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 65 I —For a Gymnasium — Continued. II. — For a Realscliule — Continued. Greelc, Roman, and German history. Knowledge of important dates, and thorough acquaintance with the seats of historical occurrences. ' (9) Geography. — The principles of math¬ ematical geography. Knowledge of impor¬ tant topographical conditions of the earth, and the relations between these conditions i and the present political divisions. More j extended knowledge of central Europe in j both its topographical and political as- j pects. (10) Natural history. — Botany: Knowl¬ edge of the most important families of the natural system and of the classes of the artificial system of Liund. Analysis of plants. — Zoology : Knowledge of the most important orders of the classes of verte¬ brates; also, some representatives of other classes of the animal kingdom. — Mineral¬ ogy : Knowledge of the simplest crystal forms, particularly of important minerals. (11) Physics and chemistry, — Knowledge of important phenomena and laws from the various branclms of physics ; also, the simplest parts of chemistry. The essen- j tials of physical geography. | (12) Drawing. — Practice of the eye in recognizing forms, and practice in meas¬ uring with the eye. Skill in correct imi¬ tation of flat-surfaced ornaments, and of simple solids. i Note. — In Gymnasium, drawing is | obligatory in the lowest grades ; in the | upper ones it is au elective study. In Real- j schule it is obligatory all through the i course. j (13) Gymnastics. — Calisthenics, march¬ ing and gymnastics with apparatus. Ob- I ligatory for all grades. (14) Vocal music. — Songs of four parts. Theory of music. Students of the upper grades are excused from this. ED 89 - 5 modern history more thoroughly through the study of French and English. (8) Geography. — Same as in Gymnasium, with this addition : Review of the chief commercial routes within and between the countries of the foremost nations of the civilized world. (9) Natural history. — Botany: Training in observing and describing plants; knowledge of Liun6’s system and one natural system. Intimate acquaintance with the most important natural families of the homo flora. Knowledge of im¬ portant phenomena from the life of plants. — Zoology : Observation and de¬ scription of animals of different classes. Knowledge of important vertebrates and insects. Thorough knowledge of the an¬ atomy of the human body. — Mineralogy : Knowledge of the crystal forms; also, of the physical qualities and chemical com¬ bination of the best-known minerals. (10) Physics. — Thorough knowledge of Important phenomena and laws of the varioushraachesof physics; mathematical demonstration of the laws of mechanics, optics, and causality in matters pertaining to physical and mathematical geography. (11) Chemistry. — Knowledge of impor¬ tant elements and their inorganic com¬ binations, as well as stoichiometric laws. In higher grade schools, knowledge of im¬ portant matters of organic chemistry should be added. (12) Drawing. — Practice of the eye in recognizing forms, and skill in the use of the hand, as well as the eye in measuring. Skill in drawing flat-surfaced ornaments and sketching simple solids from nature. Practice in imitating simple plastic orna¬ ments and in presenting phenomena of light and shade. Facility in the use of drawing instruments, descriptive geome¬ try (projection). (13) Gymnastics. — Same as in Gymna¬ sium. (14) Vocal Same as in Gymna¬ sium. 66 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. XVII.— Typical courses of study for Prussian middle schools. [Note.— These two schools come nearer the American high, schools than the Prussian high schools, hence the comparison is more interesting.] III. — For Citizens' Schools. (1) Beligion. — Biblical history of the Old and especially the New Testament. Catechism with Bible verses [and quota¬ tion from tradition] serving as evidence. The movable festivals of the church. Memorizing of favorite hymns. Acquaint¬ ance with important contents of the Holy Scriptures, especially the New Testament. Religious ethics and creed. Knowledge of the chief events of church history [no¬ tably the lives of the great saints.] (2) German. — Acquaintance with the most vital rules of etymology and syntax; introduction into German literature of the classic period. Information regard¬ ing the lives of great poets, also about kinds and forms of poetry. Memorizing of selected ballads and memory gems. Practice in correct oral and written lan¬ guage, and easy exercises in composition. (3, 4) French and English.— Qorveci pro¬ nunciation; skill in reading ; practice in etymology and syntax. Acquisition of a vocabulary sufficient for the comprehen¬ sion of the reading matter selected. Some practice in copying French and En¬ glish correctly. Reading of prose, such as historic and descriptive, and easy poetry. Some fluency in speaking the languages. (5) History. — Acquaintance with the essential events of Greek and Roman his¬ tory, but more minutp knowledge of Ger¬ man history from the time of Luther. (6) Geography. — Elements of mathe¬ matical and physical geography. Knowl¬ edge of important topographical condi¬ tions and their relations to the present political divisions. Special attention to be paid to central Europe. (7) Arithmetic and mathematics.— Facil¬ ity and skill in operating with denomi¬ nate numbers, and their application in practical life. General arithmetic to log¬ arithms and progressions. Algebra to easy equations of the first degree. Prin¬ ciples of plane and solid geometry ; ele¬ ments of plane trigonometry. IV. — For Girls’ Academies. (1) Eeligion. — Substantially the same as in the boys’ schools (citizens’). (2) German. — Reading ofselected works of modern literature ; training in the cor¬ rect use of language, oral and written; only essentials of grammar. Memorizing of selected ballads and memory gems. Compositions mostly on matters connected with literature. At times compositions in form of letters. History of literature in outlines. (3) French. — Substantially the same as in the opposite column, only more prac¬ tice in sjieaking and less literature. (4) English. — Substantially the same as in the opposite column, only more at¬ tention is paid to the oral use of the language, hence irregular verbs and rules of syntax to be emphasized. Reading of English classic productions in poetry and prose. History of English literature. (5) History. — Biographical studies from ancient and modern history. The great women in history. (6) Geography. — Knowledge of home widening in concentric circles. Topo¬ graphical, political, and elements of math¬ ematical geography. (7) Arithmetic and mathematics. — Facil¬ ity and skill in operating with denomi¬ nate numbers with constant reference to domestic application. Of the business rules, only percentage, interest, partner¬ ship, etc. The most elementary parts of geometry sufficient for simple mensura¬ tion of planes, GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 67 III. — For Citizens^ /Sc^ooZs— Continued. (8) Natural history. — Botany : Training in observing and describing plants; knowledge of important families of plants and tbeir best known phenomena of life. Zoology : Training in observing and de¬ scribing animals; a few representatives of important orders of vertebrates and in¬ sects. Thorough knowledge of the anat¬ omy of the human body. (9) Physics.— General qualities of bodies learned through experiments; the prin¬ ciples of equilibrium and motion, elec¬ tricity, magnetism, light, heat, also the simplest laws of acoustics and optics. (10) Chemistry. — The commonest chem¬ ical elements and their principal com- l)ounds. References to commercial facts. (11) Drawing,— Vraeiiee of eye and hand, facility in drawing free-hand imitations of flat-surfaced ornaments. Sketching simple solids, furniture, etc., in outlines from nature. Imitation of sirniile plastic ornaments with shading. Practice in the use of instruments. (12) Vocal music. — Three part music. See course for Gymnasium. (13) gymnastics. — See Gymnasium. IV. — For Girls' Academies— -Continued. (8) Natural history. — Similar to that in opposite column. The methods em¬ ployed in girls’ schools are different. Physiology or anatomy of the human body is omitted entirely. (9) Physics. — Similar to that in oppo¬ site column. (10) Chemistry. — Similar to that in op¬ posite column. References to domestic facts. (11) Drawing. — Imitation of flat-sur¬ faced ornaments. Application of draw¬ ing to industrial handicrafts. ( 12) Vocal music. — See opposite column. (13) Gymnastics. — Calisthenics and light axiparatus. XVIII.— TYncAL cour.SE of study for french middle schools. V. — For the superior elementary schools. [Note.— In order to understand the place and organization of these schools, consult Diagram III. As in previous courses, a condensed statement only is made.] (1) Morals. — Principles of morals; rights and duties of citizenship; elementary ideas of political economy. (2) French. — Orthograph5" to a reasonable degree of correctness; etymology and syntax. Expressive reading with explanation of text; frequent exercises in compo¬ sition writing ; leading ideas concerning the history of literature. (3) Penmanship. — Both round and bastard styles. (4) History. — The imincipal personages of antiquity; leading events of French his¬ tory to the present time ; progress of national institutions ;. principal epochs of an¬ cient history. Middle Ages, and modern times ; biographies of great characters. (5) Geography. — Topographical and political geography of the five continents ; special study of the geography of France and its administration and organization ; commercial and economical geography of France ; map drawing. {Q) Foreign languages. — One modern language at least. (7) Arithmetic and mathematics. — First year: Theoretical and practical arithmetic; first elements of geometry. Second year: Arithmetic completed ; elements of alge¬ bra ; plane geometry and its applications. Third year: Algebra to equations of first degree; elements of trigonometry; geometry (plane and solid) completed. (8) Bookkeeping.— Principal ideas of commerce and bookkeeping ; practical appli¬ cation in keeping a set of books ; commercial arithmetic. G8 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1888-89. (9) Natural Msiory— Organs (aud their functions) of man and animals; practical study of the principal groups of animals and plants ; application of hygiene to local industry; the principal facts of geology, and examination of the commonest min¬ erals. (10) P/iysics.— The most important phenomena aud the principal theories of phj^sics; modern discoveries and scientific facts in their applications upon every-day life. (11) C/temfs/ry.— -Exercises in observation and examination of such familiar facts as will introduce the study of chemistry. The most useful metals and metaloids; ‘Mron and its laws;” elementary ideas of organic chemistry. (12) Praw'fij//.— Geometric figures; flat-surfaced ornaments ; elements of shading; drawing of solids; orthographic and perspective projection ; outline sketches; parts of machines and building plans ; sketching from relief and embossed juodels. (13) Vocal music. — Three part music. (14) Gymnastics.— CaWstbanics ; exercises on apparatus, military drill. (15) Manual tvoo'lc. — Exercises in wood and iron ; gardening. XIX.— Typical course of study for french high schools. VI. — For' lyc6es. [Note.— In order to facilitate comparison with the foregoing courses a mere outline is given. A detailed course is found in “Plan d’Etudes des Lyc6es,” official decree of January 22, 18S5.] (1) French. — Grammar finished ; extracts from French classics, poetry and prose; compositions, literary aud scientific ; prosody. (2) XftHf?.— Grammar, prosody ; extracts from Phtedrus, Ovid, Nepos, Virgil, CmsaPs Gallic War, Quintus Curtins, Lucretius, Livy, Cicero, Horace, Pliny, Sallust, Tacitus. Reading, writing, translation. (3) Greek. — Grammar, paradigms and syntax ; extracts from Xenophon, Lucian, Homer, Herodotus, Euripedes, Sophocles, Plato, Plutarch, Aristhophaues, Demos¬ thenes. Reading, waiting, translation. (4) German or English. — Grammar. English texts — First year : Edgeworth’s Tales, Aiken and BarbauhTs Evenings at Home, Primer of English History. Sec¬ ond year : Scott’s Tales of a Grandfather, Franklin’s Autobiography, Primer of Greek History. Third year: De Foe’s Robinson Cru.soe, Irving’s Voyages of Colum¬ bus, History of Rome. Fourth year: Vicar of Wakefield, Tales from Shakespeare, Macaulay’s History of England, Vol. I. Fifth and sixth years : Julius Caesar, The Deserted Village, The Traveller, A Christinas Carol, David Copperfield, Extracts from English historians. German texts similar to the English. (5) Eistory. — First year: Ancient History of the Orient — Egypt, Assyria, Pales¬ tine, Phoenicia, Persia. Second year : Greece. Third year : Rome. Fourth year : Europe, particularly France from 395 to 1270 A. D. Fifth year: Same up to 1610. Sixth year: Same up to 1789. Seventh year : Cotemporary history and philosophy. IGl Geograpliy. — Firstyear: Europe andthe Mediterranean basin, the oceans. Second year: Topography of Africa, Asia, Oceanica, and America; principal states, cities, commercial ports, European possessions. Third year : Topographical and political geography of France aud Algiers. Fourth year : Physical, political, and commercial geography of Europe. Fifth year: The other continents. Sixth year: Physical, po¬ litical, and commercial geography of France and its colonies, also administrative and economical aspects. (7) Arithmetic and mathematics. — Firstyear : Review of fundamental rules; common and decimal fractions; mensuration; elements of mathematical geography. Second year: Rule of three, percentage, simple interest, discount, mensuration of solids ; arith¬ metic completed. Third year : Plane geometry. Fourth year : Algebra through frac¬ tions, plane geometry completed. Fifth year: Algebra through equations of the sec¬ ond degree; solid geometry. Sixth year: Geometry and trigonometry ; cosmography GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 69 or astronomy. Seventli year : Review of entire course in mathematics with practical applications. (8) Natural history, physics, and chemistry. — First year: Zoology (vertehrata and articuiata). Second year : Botany ; grand divisions of vegetable kingdom (phanero- gamia and cryptogamia). Third year: Geology. Fourth year : Physics ; properties of matter ; mechanics. Fifth year : Physics ; electricity, magnetism, acoustics. Sixth year: Chemistry, inorganic and organic. Seventh year: Physics and chemistry, optics, and review of both sciences extended in practical applications. Anatomy and physiology of animals and plants. (9) in seventh year : This course consists of lectures and the reading of one Latin, one Greek, and two French authors. It includes an account of sensibility, intelligence, and volition, of formal and applied logic, of conscience and duty, family and country, of political duty, of labor, capital, and property, of immortality and natural religion. (10) Drawing. — First and second years : Perspective with shadows, drawing from ornaments in relief, from architectural fragments, from the human head. Third year : From architectural fragments, the human body, from prints of bas-reliefs ; some me¬ chanical drawing of architectural designs. Foui th, fifth, and sixth years : Decora¬ tive figures, caryatides, friezes, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns, the human figure, and figures of animals. XX. — An AMERICAN OPINION ON THE VITAL DIFFERENCES BE¬ TWEEN GERMAN AND AMERICAN SCHOOLS. In answer to the question, What is the vital difference between a first-class German school and an American school of the same standing ? the editor of the Popular Educator (Boston) makes these pointed remarks : Generally speaking, we should say that the difference between the two schools is that which one would expect when the temperaments and the governments of the two peoples are compared. The German boy is quiet — dull he sometimes seems to be to the American eye, and he is trained by the laws and customs of his country to strict obedience. The German boy, therefore, knows more of books, has greater ability of mental concentration than the American boy at the same age. The teacliei’, too, because of these traits, is not obliged to be so apt in governing as the American teacher; and so, if not always so brilliant as our best teachers, he is broader and more thorough. But the German teacher dislikes the American boy. And this is evidence, given the boy and the teacher (and the fact that adaptability of the one to the other is essential to successful teaching), that the difference between the Gorman teacher and the American is one of kind rather than quality. The German school differs from the American school more in its curriculum of work than in anything else. Germany has taken care that the schools shall not only be filled by competent teachers, but that these instructors shall be supervised and as¬ sisted by equally competent educators. There are no politics in the German schools. From end to end of the Empire reaches the oversight of the minister of instruction.. Teachers are selected with groat care, are officers of the state, and retired at the proper time on a pension. With us there is no system. Committees come aud go, and so do the officers they elect. The result is, that, while our first-rate schools are, so far as the teachers are concerned, quite as good as those of Germany, nowhere will there be found the same care and thought in adapting the work to be done to the growth of the child, in supplying the school rooms with the necessary apparatus and material for work, and the consequent all-round development of the child. There m.aybe a compensation for our defects in these particulars — defects which we shall have to attribute to our democratic institutions. 70 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. XXL — French students in geriian high schools. The superiority of German public schools over those of other nations has been acknowledged repeatedly, but it has of late been recognized by the French school officials in a manner which is both unique and acceptable. In “European Schools”^ an account is given under the above heading which may be quoted here as circumstantial evidence of the superiority of German schools : It is now nearly twelve years since the French national school authorities resolved upon a direct acknowledgment of that superiority hy sending annually several graduates of French lycdes to attend the last two years of the course in German high schools. No indifferent material is sent, to be sure, hut only boys who have won the first prizes. As it is stated elsewhere (see also page 36 of this report), the German secondary schools are well adapted to talented pupils, while weaker ones are weeded out. These French boys, then, coming as they do like “picked nines,” are not ob¬ jected to by German school authorities. They say there is no reason whatever to refuse them admittance, inasmuch as they conduct themselves properly, and usually are a credit to the schools they attend. These boys are directed to stay a half year or a year at one school and then go to another. They are not allowed to stay two full years in one town, lest they might enter into ties too close to suit the French Government. They are directed to take board and lodging in private families and to live exactly as the pupils of German gymnasiums do. The Government pays all expenses during their stay in Germany. At the close of each year the students are required to send in a report of what they experienced and the manner in which they utilized their time. Of course the fre¬ quent changes of schools and place of habitation are inconvenient, but they enable the young men to see a good deal of the country. The author says further : I had opportunities to learn something of the contents of the report sent home to the minister of instruction, and must confess that they are mostly true to life and tally with my own observations. Most of the young men are very much pleased with the reception they find among the people, the teachers, and the pupils. * * * All, however, are loud in praising the instruction they get in school. They are unanimous in saying that the German high schools are superior to the French lyc6es. Especially in mathematics, they think, the German schools prove superior. The way the students are made to work out problems in geometry, trigo¬ nometry, oral arithmetic, etc., the self-activity to which the pupils are led, and the independence and self-dependence in thinking, are commended. Instruction in the sciences also is thought superior to that in France. Particularly enthusiastic are the reports about gymnastic drill. This is not astonishing if we ^consider that the indulged French youth is not drilled much at home in bodily exercises. An equal share of praise is given to the teaching of music. In referring to this the young Frenchmen speak with animation of the German songs which they consider very melodious. As far as instruction is concerned they have but one opinion ; but they do not like the rigid discipline exercised in German high schools. The slightest deviation from the straight road of virtue is punished severely. They are “not treated as gentle¬ men, ” but “ as boys, ” are obliged to doff their hats when they pass a teacher, and are generally treated as unripe youths. In another particular the German high D. Appleton & Co., New York. GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 7l scliools find condemnation on the part of these French students. They say Germans pay less attention to show — that is, to legitimate show. For instance, they care naught for rhetorical polish, and their recitations are considered good when the essential facts are brought out correctly. The garment of thought is neglected. Their teaching of drawing is also less refined than that in France. With whatever reserve these juvenile opinions may he accepted, they are very interesting and point oat the vital differences between the schools of the two countries mentioned. XXII.— An ENGLISHMAN’S VIEW OF THE GERMAN SCHOOLS. Mr. Samuel Smith, M. P., wrote in March, 1888, to the London Times as follows: “ The salient fact which strikes all observers is the universality of good education in that country. There is no such thing as an unedu¬ cated class ; there are no such things, speaking broadly, as neglected and uncared-for children. All classes of the community are better edu¬ cated than the corresponding ones in our country j and this applies quite as much to primary as to secondary education. Xothing struck me more than tbe general intelligence of the humbler working classes. Waiters, porters, guides, and others have a knowledge of history, geog¬ raphy, and other subjects far beyond that possessed by corresponding classes in England, and the reason is not far to seek. The whole popu¬ lation has long been passed through a thorough and comprehensive system of instruction obligatory by law, and far more extended than is given in our elementary schools. I went through several of these schools and observed the method of teaching, which was simply admi¬ rable. The children are not crammed, but are taught to reason from the earliest stages. The first object of the teacher is to make his pupils comprehend the meaning of everything they learn, and to carry them from stage to stage, so as to keep up an eager interest. “ I saw no signs of weariness or apathy among either teachers or scholars. The teaching was all viva voce, the teacher always standing beside the blackboard and illustrating his subject by object lessons. The instruction was through the eye and hand as well as the ear, and question and answer succeeded so sharply as to keep the whole class on the qui vive. The teachers are, as a body, much better trained than in England, and seem to be enthusiasts in their calling, and the school holds a far higher fjosition in the social economy of the country than it does with us. What I am saying here applies equally to Switzerland as to Germany, and, for educational purposes, Zurich will compare with any part of the German Empire. The main advantage, however, that primary education has in Germany over England lies in the regularity of attendance and the longer period of school life. There is none of the difficulty of getting children to school that exists in England^ the laws are very rigid and permit no frivolous excuses, and, what is even more important, the peojDle entirely acquiesce in the laws, and are inclined 72 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. rather to increase than relax their rigor. It is well known that in Lon¬ don and all our great cities a large iiart of the population seek to avoid school attendance by every means in their power, and consequently the attendance is njost irregular. There is very little of this in Germany j at least I have not found it so. Then, in our country, a great portion of our children are withdrawn altogether from school after passing the fourth or fifth standard, at the age of eleven or twelve, whereas in Germany almost everywhere attendance is compulsory until fourteen for boys, though in some places girls are allowed to leave at thirteen. “This last point is the one I wish to emphasize. The great defect — I might almost call it the fatal defect — of our system is that it stops just at a time when real education should begin. It allows a child to leave school at an age when its learning is soon forgotten and its discipline effaced. It is hardly too much to saj^ that the two years’ additional training the German child receives in the elementary school doublesits chance in life as compared with the English child. “But thrs is not all. The Germans are rapidly developing a system of evening continuation classes, which carry on education for two or three years longer. In Saxony the boys who leave the primary school, if they do not go to the higher schools, must attend for three years longer — say until they are seventeen — continuation classes for at least five hours per week. But teaching is provided for them, and they are encouraged to attend twelve hours per week. So complete is this sys¬ tem that even the waiters at the hotels up to the age of seventeen at¬ tend afternoon classes, and are taught one or two foreign languages. I take Saxony as one of the most advanced States ; but the law is much the same in Wiirttemberg and Baden, and the system is found to work so well that it is in comtemplation to extend it to all the States in the German Empire, and Austria will probably follow suit. This is confi¬ dently expected to happen in the course of 1888. I must state as an undoubted fact that in Germany and Switzerland, and I believe in some other continental countries, the opinion is ripening into a conviction that the education even of the poorest classes should be continued in some form or other to the age of sixteen or seventeen. They find by experience that wherever this is adopted it gives an enormous advan¬ tage to the people in the competition of life, and above all, trains them to habits of industry and mental application. I believe that it is owing to this system of thorough education that Germany has almost extin¬ guished the pauper and semipauper class, which is the bane and dis¬ grace of our country. “ Wherever ! have gone I have inquired how they deal with the rag¬ ged and squalid class of children, and I have been told in every city I visited — Zurich, Stuttgart, Nuremberg, Chemnitz, Dresden, and Ber¬ lin — that such a class practically does not exist. I do not mean that there is not poverty, and plenty of it, in Germany. Wages are much lower than in England, and many have a hard struggle to livej but GERMAN. AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPxiRED. 73 tliere does not seem to exist to any extent that mass of sunken, degraded beings who with us cast their children upon the streets, or throw them on the rates, or leave them to charity. Some half a million children in the United Kingdom are dependent more or less on the alms or the rates of the community, and probably another half-million are miser¬ ably underfed and underclad. Kothing to correspond with this exists in Germany. The poorest people there would be ashamed to treat their children as multitudes do with us. Indeed, I have not seen since I left home a single case of a ragged or begging child. 1 repeat that the great cause of this both in Germany and Switzerland is the far greater care they have taken of the education of the children for at least two or three generations, whereas we have only taken the matter up seriously since 1870, when Mr. Fosters great act was passed. “Let us contrast the general condition of our Loudon children, for instance, at the age of fifteen or sixteen with that of the same class in Berlin, or Dresden, or Chemnitz. With us nine-tenths of the chil¬ dren have long since left school, and a too large proportion of them are receiving no training but the coarse and brutalizing education of the streets. Most of them retain little of what they have learned at school, except the power to read the ‘ penny dreadful,’ which stuffs their minds with everything a child should not know. They are to a very large ex¬ tent adepts in profane and obscene language and are frequenters of the l)ublic house and similar places ; a great many of them are learning no useful trade or calling, but are drifting helplessly into the class of wretched, ill-paid, casual laborers. Very many of them marry before they are twenty and are soon the parents of a numerous progeny, half starved and stunted, both in body and mind. Compare, or rather con-' trast, this with Germany. At fifteen or sixteen a great part of the children are still under excellent instruction. Exceedingly few are to be found roaming about the streets. They are prohibited, at least in some parts of Germany, from entering the public houses (except with their parents) until the age of seventeen, and I am told are everywhere prohibited from smoking until sixteen. In fact there are, both by law and public sentiment, barriers placed against the corruption of the young which do not exist in England. “Ko country has ever suffered more from the abuse of the idea of individual liberty than England has done. Owing to this overstrained idea we did not get compulsory education until long after the advanced nations of the Continent, and still we are far behind them in the care we take of our children. It is intolerable that this state of things should continue longer. Democratic government everywhere insists upon good education, and expects each citizen to fulfill his duties to the state. “Public opinion in our country will certainly insist, and that before long, that we shall not be forever disgraced with the residuum of drunken, demoralized, and utterly incapable population to be found in any modern state. It will insist that some time be spared for the solu- 74 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. tioD of this vital question from the wrangles of party politics and the personal recrimiaations of party leaders. When one sees what a poor country like Germany has done to raise its people in spite of the con¬ scription and three years’ compulsory military service, in spite of fre¬ quent and exhausting wars, from which our island home has been free, one has grave doubts whether our system of party government is not a failure. Certainly we waste on barren conflicts and wordy strife far more time than other nations do in the conduct of their affairs. They direct their energies with business-like precision to supply the exact needs of the people, we fritter away our enormous political energy in fruitless party contests which every year degrade Parliament lower and lower, and make it less and less fit for the practical work of governing the nation. ‘^One thing seems certain — unless we can give more attention to the vital questions which concern the welfare of tbe masses, our country must go down in the scale of nations. IS'o honest observer can doubt that in many respects the Germans are already ahead of us, and they are making far more rapid progress than we are. They are applying technical science to every department of industry in a way that English¬ men have little idea of. Their polytechnics and their practical techni¬ cal schools are far ahead of anything we possess in England, the leaders are far better trained, the workmen are far better educated and far more temperate and thrifty than ours are. Wherever the Germans and English are coming into competition upon equal terms the Germans are beating us. This is not because the Germans have greater natural power. I believe the British race is far the more vigorous naturally. But they are organized, disciplined, and trained far better than we are. They bring science to bear upon every department of the national life, whereas we, up till lately, resented all state interference, and so exag¬ gerated the doctrines of freedom as almost to glory in our abuses. “There is much more I might say if space permitted, but it will not do to trespass further on your indulgence. I will only add in conclu¬ sion that England must wake up, and that immediately, to the neces¬ sity of a far more thorough and practical system of education, else will she lose the great place she has hitherto held in the world’s history.” cii I. EDUCATION IN EUROPE, 1887. RATIO OF ENTIRE POPULATION IN SCHOOL BETWEEN KINDERGARTEN AND UNIVERSITY. GERMANY. GREAT BRITAIN.!') FRANCE. AUSTRIA-HUNG’Y. ITAL atlon, - - . 2,957,527. hildren in School, 515,949 liatio, . 17.5''/,.. PORTUGAL. THE LESSER POWERS. WURTTEMBERG. 1,937,172. 53,942. 2.7/. ENGLAND 4 WALES. 5.600.000. 2.4%. SCOTLAND. SOME SUBDIVISIONS. Population, - - - 3,182,003. Children in School, 653,809. Batio, . 20.7%. 5,420,199. 885,545. 16.3%,. FINLAND. 3,949,393. 615.498. 15.6%. TURKEY PftoPE SOME SUBDIVISIONS. a GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 75 Education in Europe and America. Tabular and graphic presentations of the ratio of the entire population enrolled in the schools. The accompanying presentation is an attempt at a systematic com¬ parison of the eiforts in behalf of public education on the part of the different nations in Europe and America. While it is instructive in a certain sense to hear of the educational efforts of this, that, or the other country, it will not suffice to depend on isolated facts. They have their value only when compared with many or all facts of similar nature. If there is anything within the well-defined field of national activ¬ ity which deserves great attention, i)rofouiid study, and affectionate care, it is public education. A young, vigorous, growing nation like America finds itself impelled to institute a comparison with the re¬ markably active nations of the Old World, to see that it will not fall behind them in what is considered the noblest national activity j partly also to give the educational forces of the nation a fresh impulse in showing what has been done in the past and what ought to be done in future. It is to be hoped that this attempt at comparison by means of graphic presentation will induce the school authorities of other coun¬ tries to take up the question and thus institute a reciprocal action on the part of the different nations of the world. There are various lines of inquiry pointed out by the different stand¬ ards of comparison. A fruitful comparison would needs be in regard to internal as well as external conditions. Among the various subjects of inquiry the following may seem the most external : (1) What is the number of children and the ratio of the population in school ? (2) What is the aggregate cost of maintaining the schools and the sum per cap¬ ita (3) The number of teachers and the number of pupils per cai)ita'? (4) The ratio of professional teachers'? and many other interesting and instructive inquiries. The field of inquiry is so vast, the information so far gathered so scanty and fragmentary, that much searching and extensive correspondence will be necessary to obtain the desired mate¬ rial. Hence it is that this jiresentation begins with one question only, the one which seems to lie nearest, namely: “ What ratio of the population of each nation in Europe and America is under school influence f ’* This seems a simple question, but it is most difficult to answer, because the statistical material collected is defective or fragmentary, and the facts here are oflered not without misgivings of being criticised, but they are what the present state of statistics allows. In the result of our inquiry we have systematically excluded from the count all institutions, such as infant schools” in France and kindergarten” in Germany and the United States, belonging to the prescholastic age. 76 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. We have also excluded all professional schools, such as universities, polytechnic, medical, and pharmaceutical schools, conservatories of music and art schools, in short, all special schools, except normal schools, not because we do not think them special and professional, for they are and needs should be, but because they are not sufficiently designated as special schools in the statistical mater ial at hand. Most normal schools are academic institutious in part, some are academic exclusively, and the limit where academic instruction ends and professional begins is not well defined. Hence the inclusion of normal school students in the sum total of ‘‘ children in school.” This then brings the age, commonly called “ school age,” within the years six and eighteen. These numbers are not in every case and in all nations the same, but where deviations occur they are so stated in explanatory notes following each chart. Many blanks are seen on the accompanying charts, but it needs no lU’ophetic eye to see the trend and bent of the times j it is, in the lan^ guage of Diesterweg : “ Education of the people is liberation of the people.” Table 18. — Number of children enrolled in school in the varions countries of Europe and America, and the proporiion they form of the entire population. EUEOPE. Date of census or es¬ timate. Population. Date of report. Cliildren en¬ rolled in school. Eatio. 1 A iiatT'in.TTnTio'n.ry _ ^ _ _ 1887 40, 318,215 23, 447, 102 16, 901, 023 1887 4, 984, 740 3, 037, 728 1, 947, 012 Iper cent. 12.3 Au stl’ia . . . . . . 1887 1887 12.9 TTiiiiffary . . . 1887 1887 11.5 BpI Hniii _ _ _ ... _ _ _ 1887 5, 974, 743 2, 108, 000 1887 632, 669 241, 935 5, G26, 164 10. 6 Ufinmarlr _ _ _ 188() 1885 11.5 Era.iicf^ _ _ _ _ _ _ 188G 38, 218, 003 46, 855, 70 1 28, 318,470 1886 14.7 (rATmtiny 1885 1886 al8.4 Prussia . . . . . 1885 1887 5. 530, 539 a885, 545 658, 809 19.5 Bavaria . . . . . . . . . 1885 5. 420, 199 16.3 Saxony . . . . 1885 3, 1 8-’, 0G3 1837 20.7 Wiiitomberg . . . 18S5 1,09.6,185 1887 338. 620 5, 874, .S34 4, .553, 751 17. 0 Great BrLtaiu aud Ireland . . . 1886 36, 707, 418 27, 870, 586 3, 949, .303 4, 887, 439 2, 200, 000 30, 260, (JG5 4, 450, s70 2, 024, 000 5, 070, 000 5, 500, 000 91, 8S8, 847 2, 203, 358 1, 937, 172 1886 16.0 Enwlanfl and Wa.le>; _ _ _ 1886 1886 16.3 Scotland . . . 1886 1886 6! 5, 498 705, 585 140, 1.55 15.6 Ireland . . . . . . 1886 188G 14.4 Greece . . . . . 1887 1884 6.4 Italy . . . 1887 1885 3,190,436 10.5 Holland . . . 1887 1886 625, 565 14.0 "Norway _ _ _ _ _ _ 1886 1885 26 J, 837 13.0 Portugal . . j Boiimania _ _ _ 1886 1 887 1885 1883 253, 770 132,953 5.0 2.4 Russia _ _ _ _ _ 1885 1885 2, 978, 328 .38 1, 480 3. 1 Finland . . . . . . 1 885 1886 17.4 Servia . . . . . . 1885 1886 53, 942 1, 843, 183 713, 680 2.7 Sftnin . . . . . . . 1887 17, 358, 40 1 1883 10.6 Sweden . . 1887 4, 731, 901 1886 15.1 Switzerland . 1887 2, 957, 527 a4, 790, 000 3, 154, 375 1886 515, 949 17.5 Turkey . 1882 126, 471 2.6 Bulgaria and Bumelia . 1888 1882 280, 280 £.9 a Estimated. GERMAN, AMERICAN, AND FRENCH SCHOOLS COMPARED. 77 Table 18. — Number of children enrolled in school in the various countries of Europe and America, etc. — Continued. AMERICA. Date of census or es¬ timate. Population. Date of report. Children en¬ rolled in school. Ratio. 1887 3, 894, 995 2, 300, OUO 1888 254, 608 12, 000 Per cent. C. 5 1888 1884 0.5 1887 14, 002, 3.35 1885 435, 997 3. 1 1881+ 15p.ct. L'So 4, 973, 531 1887 977, 155 19,6 niiili . 2, 527, 320 4, 460, 370 1887 108, 274 4.3 1881 + 15 p.ct. 1885 1887 78,307 16, 978 1. 7 213, 785 1, 500, 000 1,004, 651 1, 349, 233 1885 7. 9 1887 1887 50, 000 3.3 Ecutidov- . - .. - • •».••••••••• ••■•>••••••• 1885 ib) 1887 Gufitornivl*! 1888 50, 432 3.7 (Britisli) 1887 277, 038 35, 000 1887 27, 925 1, 658 10.0 5.0 Guiriiisi (French ) . . . 1887 1888 1887 960, 000 (b) 1876 3 loiidnrfts 1887 329, 134 9, 000 2,612 62, 424 20, 913 2 7 (Rri fifth) . . . _ _ _ 1887 35, 000 1887 7.4 10.0 1887 G20, 000 a4l0, 000 11, 000, 000 317, 187 270, 000 3, 400, 000 1. 000, 000 664, 513 610, 000 1887 Martini(]^ue and Guadeloupe. ....... _ _ _ 1887 5. 1 "Mpivion _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...... 1887 1884 517, 200 13, 660 4. 7 N icara "’ua ..................................... 1883+ 15 p.ct. 1888 1886 4. 3 Paragu ay ............. ........ _ .......... 1887 15, 180 5. G "f^Arn ... - .. _ _ ................ 1888 ib) (b) 188.8 Porto Rico . . _ _ ...... _ ............... _ 1887 Salvador _ _ _ ........ ....... _ ....... 1888 21, 101 3. 2 San Uoininfo _ _ ..... _ ......... . . . 1888 1886 6, 000 5, 386 14,713 12, 008, 000 3, 06.5, 272 1. 0 Surinam . T■^inid.^,d .. _ _ _ _ _ _ 1887 1887 .57, 141 203, 423 1887 1886 9.4 7.2 22.4 United States _ _ _ _ ....... _ ...... 1886 58, 000, 000 1886-87 Nor ' h Atlantic States _ ................... 1886 15, 773, 387 8, 6."4, 304 20, 400, 336 1880-87 19.5 19.1 23. 7 South Atlantic States _ ................. 1886 1886-87 1,619, 4.55 4, 829, 767 1, 8.59, .521 4,0 1 , 645 North Central States...... . . . 1886 1886-87 South Central States . . . . 1880 10, 6'.9, 903 2, .381, 679 632, 2.50 1886-.S7 1 7. 5 AVestern States . 1886 1886-87 16. 9 TTrn mi n.y .. _ _ _ _ _ 1880 1885 42, 582 6.7 4. 5 "V^An A7,n(»ln, ._. . . _ _ _ _ _ 18SG 2, 198, 320 1886 99, 466 a Estimated. 6 No reports available. Note. — The numbers for sections of the TJnited Stntes do not include all who are inolnded in the euni total of the United States, hence the apparent discreiiancy. chaptp:r III. DETAILED VIEW OF THE EDUOATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. Topical Outline. — Political DesGrijjtion of England — Educational System Compared with that of the United States— Limitations of the Expression Educational System as Applied to England — Salient Characteristics of Provision for Secondary and Superior — Summary of Educational Statistics. — System of Elementary Education : (I.) Relation of the State to; (II.) Schools, How Estahlished; (HI.) Statistics — (IV.) Administration and Supervision : (1) Central ; (2) Local— (Y.) The Teaching Force : (1) Classification and Qualification and Minimum Staff; (2) Appointments, Salaries, and Pensions, and Composition of Present Force; (3) Training of; (4) Demand vs. Supply of Trained Teachers — (VI.) Subjects of Instruction: (1) Obligatory; (2) Optional; (3) TForlc of Current Tear as Shown by Examinations — (VII.) Conduct of Studies and Discipline : {\) Intellectual Tone of the School ; (2) Moral Quality ; {^) Methods of Instruction ; (4) (5) Corporal Punishment— (Ylll.) Organization of Schools : (1) Local Freedom ; (2) Essential Characteristics of Elementary Schools; (3) Board vs. Voluntary Schools; (4) Infant Classes and Schools; (5) Night Schools; (6) Size and Grading of Ele¬ mentary Day Schools ; (7) School- Buildings and Premises; (8) Variable Character¬ istics {Coeducation, Attendance and Length of Session, Compulsory School Age) ; (9) The Annual Grant, Effects of , Mode of Distribution—{lX..) Training Colleges: (1) How Established ; (2) Governmental Requirements ; (3) Course of Study ; (4) Conduct of; (5) Grant to; (6) Statistics — Recapitulation of Chief Characteristics of the System: Schools for Special Classes; Auxiliary Institutions; Chronological Table. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. Area— Formulation — Civil Divisions.— Britain, constitutional monarchy ; area (England, Scotland, AVales, and Ireland) 121,186 square miles; population (census 1881), 34,884,848. England and Wales, 58,186 square miles ; population (census of 1881), 25,974,439 ; estimated population, 1889, 29,015,613. The civil divisions of England are various and complicated.^ The 40 English and 12 Welsh counties are divided into 14,946 poor law or civil parishes, i. e., districts in each of which a separate poor rate may be levied; but the same ground is covered by about 13,000 ecclesiastical parishes, and again by 14,777 highway parishes; nor is this enumera- tion exhaustive. These divisions have been made at different times and for various purposes, without any regard to previous boundaries. Moreover, the units of a division may be combined; thus for purposes of poor-law administration the civil parishes are formed into 649 unions, 25 of which are single parish unions. It is desirable to have this fact iFor euumeration of divisions, see Government Year Book, p. 65. 78 EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 79 in mind on account of the relation of parishes and unions to school boards. Thus in 1889 there were in England and Wales, besides the London board, 1G2 municipal boards and 2,111 boards including 2,983 parishes. Boards of the last class comprised in some cases a single parish, and in other cases parish unions. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. The conditions under which education is fostered in England are in many respects similar to those characteristic of the United States. In neither country are the different departments of education welded into a system as they are in France, and as are secondary and superior in¬ struction in Germany. The words secondary ” and ^‘superior” are in¬ deed not terms of precision in the English-speaking countries, and in Great Britain are not so generally used as the specific expressions, uni¬ versity, college, and school. The universities and colleges of England, under their acts of incorporation and subsequent acts, have control over their own affairs, being subject to governmeut only in respect to the fulfillment of their charter obligations. From this independence there results a diversity of institutions and an individuality in each, greater even than are noticeable in our own country. In England,' also, as in the United States, technical and in¬ dustrial training are matters of recent interest, deriving their support chiefly from municipal and private sources. Finally, in both countries there is a distinct and very positive recognition of public responsibility with respect to elementary education. In their practical operations, however, the scholastic institutions of England differ widely from those of the United States. Until a very recent period superior education was the privilege of a select class ; secondary education is much less widely diffused than in our own country, indeed is scarcely within the reach of the common peo¬ ple, while in its present stage the elementary system resembles that of our own country in little save the recognition of public responsibility in the matter. In the absence of organic union between the higher grades of institu¬ tions in England, the expression ‘‘ educational system,” as there used, is understood to mean the system of elementary schools. Before entering upon the detailed consideration of the system, taking the word in its limited sense, it is desirable to note the salient characteristics of the provision for secondary and superior education. UNIVERSITIES AND DETACHED COLLEGES. Omitting London University, which is an examining body, there are in England four universities, Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, and Victoria, and about fourteen independent or ‘Gletached” colleges, as the^" are called, to distinguish them from colleges included in the university 80 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. foundations. Eacli of these institutions is a law to itself within its charter limits in respect to studies, discipline, the composition of the teaching force, and internal administration. The universities receive annual grants from the Crown or by vote of Parliament for specific purposes. For example, Oxford has about $5,000 applied to the payment of public professors (Eeport of Oxford University Commission, 1852, p. 127) j but these grants are an insignifi¬ cant item in the total income. The budget for 1888-89 contained, for thefirst time, a small appropria¬ tion ($261,550) to provincial colleges. The main support of all these institutions is derived from the income of their endowments and from tuition fees. According to the report of the universities commission (1872) the total income of Oxford and Cambridge universities, including all their col¬ leges, in 1871, was £751,405 5s. IJd, or about $3,770,000. Of this amount, 81 per cent, was included under the head of external income, that is, income from properties. Professional schools of theology are included in the older universities, and endeavors are made also to attract to them professional students in law and medicine. Cambridge has been particularly active in fur¬ nishing the scientific equipment necessary for a. strong medical course. Professional education is, however, pursued mostly outside of the uni¬ versities. The principal medical schools of the country are found in the cities, being maintained in connection with the great hospitals. London, It need hardly be said, is the chief seat of this work. According to the present system of medical licenses established by the medical act of J858, the universities, and certain medical corporations, in all nine¬ teen bodies, are recognized as the licensing authorities. Every person holding a license, diploma, or degree from one of these licensing author¬ ities, is thereb^^ entitled to have his name entered upon the Medical Eegister which was instituted by the act, and declared to be an exhaust¬ ive list of the medical practitioners known to the English law. The “Inns of Court,” often characterized as a great “ university of law,” exercise a controlling influence over preparation for, and admis¬ sion to the legal profession. AGENCIES FOR SCIENCE, TECHNICAL, AND ART INSTRUCTION. Through the Science and Art Department the Government gives support to scientific, technical, and art training. This work is also pro¬ moted by many institutions founded by individuals, by manufacturing companies, by public subscriptions, and by the great trade guilds. Most prominent in this respect among the guilds is the “ City Livery Companies,” which, in 1879, established “ The City and Guilds of Lon¬ don Institute” for the purpose of fostering technical instruction in the metropolis and in provincial manufacturing towns. London has natu¬ rally been the chief field for the operations of the institute, but several EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 81 other cities, notably Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield, and Bradford, have also become great centers of technical training through the com¬ bined action of this and the various other agencies mentioned. Under- the general head of technical instruction may be included also the Boyal Nfaval College at Greenwich, the Boyal Military Academy at Woolwich, and the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. SECOND AEY SCHOOLS. Secondary education is the province of three classes of schools — en¬ dowed, proprietary, and private. This classification has respect to their social rather than their educational relations. Pupils enter at about 7 years of age, and continue until 14, 16, or 18 years of age. The endowed schools, like the universities, derive their income from property and fees. It has been recently estimated that the yearly income from educational endowments in England, universities and schools included, is about $10,000,000. The endowed schools include the nine great public schools,^ which are attended almost exclusively by the sons of the nobility and the wealthier middle classes. In 1868 the aggregate income of the nine schools was 1325,000. There are also above 800 endowed grammar schools whose aggregate income amounted in 1865 to $1,385,000. The number of en¬ dowed schools of all classes is above 4,000. Although many of tbe endowments were intended by their founders for the benefit of the poor, they have been very generally diverted from that purpose, and the institutions which they maintain, like the pro¬ prietary and private schools, minister to those who can afford to pay for the instruction of their children. Hence the expression middle class,’’ so commonly applied to the schools which carr3Hnstruction beyond the elements. The endowed schools act of 1869 constituted a commission for the reorganization of endowed schools chiefiy with a view to extend¬ ing their benefits. The proprietary schools are the property of individuals, companies, or corporations; private schools are the property of the masters or mis¬ tresses who conduct them. The list of agencies for secondary instruc¬ tion includes also “ ladies’ colleges,” most of which, like the semina¬ ries for jmung women in our own country, combine, in some measure, secondary and superior courses. hTo recent reliable statistics of these several classes of secondary schools have been collected. ' Eton, Winchester, Westminster, St. Paul’s School, Merchant Taylor’s School, Charter House, Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury. ED 89 - 6 82 EDUCATION REPORT, ] 888-89. The followiDg table presents the latest general statistics attainable for all classes of schools ! Table 19. — Summary of educational statistics. Sources of infor¬ mation. Institutions. Date of 1 report. Kegistered pupils. Teaching force. Income. Expenditure. Statesman’s Tear Look, 1890. Universities : Oxford (24 colleges) . Cambridge (19 col¬ leges). Durham (3 col¬ leges). b Victoria, c 1889 1889 1889 1889 3, 100 2, 971 207 d2, 524 83 ? 1735 13 188 ct$3, 770, 000 8, 802 e6,264 321 457 /417 Detached colleges (11) . . University colleges for women (4). Independent profes¬ sional schools. Military and naval schools. Under department of science and art : Scientific schools and classes aided by department. Kormal School of Science and Koyal School of Mines. Kational Art Train- iug School, (South Kensing¬ ton), Secondary schools . ( 1887 ') ( 1S9 \ 1889 College calendars.. Official report, 1890 . 1389 1889 1889 fpftlSl, 313 1 188,969 297 615 j$2, 107, 085 7i:36, 527,655 Official report, 1889-90. ("Elementary day 1 schools. ■( Night schools... . 1889 1889 1889 4, 781, 903 44, 616 3, 277 96, 073 1 Training colleges for t elementary teachers. Keformatory and in¬ dustrial schools. 362 850, 179 aln 1871 (meZeKeport of Commission). b Statistics for one college only, viz, Durham. c Includes Owens College, Manchester, University College, Liverpool, and TorksMre College, Leeds. (Z Includes 768 evening students and 60 vromen. e Includes 819 evening pupils and 168 medical students. There are in addition 1,580 evening students not included. /Includes 15 professors of medical colleges. pNot additional to students in elementary and secondary schools ; enumeration for entire Kingdom. ft Science. iArt. j For all the purposes of the department, including administration appropriations to museums, etc. 7c Parliamentary grant, $16,414,725. SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. ^ Relation of the state to. — Elementary education was carefully organ¬ ized by the education act of 1870. By this act the Government assumed the responsibility of securing adequate accommodation in public elementary schools for all children of school age in England and Wales, an interest which had hitherto been left to private initiative. The terri- 1 The sources of information that have been consulted for the preparation of this statement are the education acts, 1870, 1873, 1876, annual reports of the education department, reports of city boards, report of the royal commission appointed in 1884 to investigate the operations of the system, and educational journals which make weekly records of its movement. EDUCATIOJfAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 83 tory was divided into school board districts, provision made for the election of boards and the rates {i. e., local taxes) made contributory to the work. In case of the failure of the rate-payers of a district to take action the Government stepped in and ordered the election of boards. Government grants for education which dated from 1833 were greatly increased and their application extended. Through the operations of this act in six years school attendance was doubled. The system is under the fostering care of the state, which provides the greater portion of the funds for its maintenance directly from the public treasury in the form of an annual parliamentary grant, and exer^ cises a large measure of control over its operations. The policy of the Government, however, in the management of this great interest, is that of stimulating and aiding local effort. This is done not only by requiring the rate-payers of school districts to take the initiative in providing school accommodation, but further, by the ex¬ tension of Government aid to schools established by denominational or i)rivate effort, provided that their managers fulfill specified condi¬ tions. In all cases the Government grant is proportioned to the amount of local funds raised. Schools, how estaUished. — The system includes two distinct classes of schools, viz, board and voluntary ; the former established by the school boards elected by the rate-payers ; the latter chiefly church schools, but including also a small number of private undenominational schools. The voluntary schools at the present time make provision for about two-thirds of the school-going children. These schools bear witness to the zeal of religious bodies in respect to education. In England, as in other countries, they began the work of instructing the young. Their ideal was developed from the Christian consciousness of the church 5 it had chief reference to the moral nature and immortal destiny of people, and led naturally to the employment of formal religious instruction as the chief means of human enlightenment. The board schools are the outcome of the political consciousness of the nation, which developed rapidly from the time of the passage of the reform act of 1832. Although the two ideals have much in com¬ mon, they have come to conflict at many points j at this moment it is apparent that the later ideal is to prevail over the earlier. The record of the progress of this dual system since 1870, the date of its organization, is interesting and suggestive. In that year 8,281 voluntary schools came into relation with the department. They had accommodations for 1,878,584 pupils, and an average attendance of 1,152,389 j the former number being a little over 8 per cent, of the pop- lation at that date. The following statistics bring into comparative view the two classes of schools at the date of the latest report. The present enrollment is slightly above 16 per cent, of the present estimated x^opulation. The average attendance shows an increase of 220 per cent, over that of 1870. 84 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. STATISTICS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, ENGLAND AND WALES, 188S-S0. Table 20. — Attendance. Classification of schools. Number of schools. Accommo¬ dations. Kegistered pupils, i. e., enroll¬ ment. Percent¬ age of total enroll¬ ment. Average attendance. Number. Percent¬ age of enroll¬ ment. Voluntary schools: Chui'ch of England . . 11,885 556 928 1, 374 2, 627, 218 214, 281 335, 648 413, 424 2,171,496 176, 492 2.53, 071 333, 750 4-5.41 3. 69 .5. 29 7 1, 679, 490 . 132, 964 189, 902 257, 114 77. 34 75. 33 75. 03 77. 03 W esloya.n . . . . Homan Catholic . British undenominational and other schools. Total voluntary . . . 14, 743 4, 655 3, 590, 571 1, 877, 537 2, 934, 809 1, 847, 094 61.39 38. 61 2, 259, 470 1,437,055 76.98 77.80 Board schools . Grand total . 19, 398 5, 468, 108 4, 781, 903 3, 696, 525 77. 09 Under the codes, i. e., annual regulations of the Educational Depart¬ ment, preceding that of 1890 the larger proportion of the grant allowed each school depended upon the number of pupils passing the Govern¬ ment examination. Hence, the number xiresent on the day of the in¬ spector's visit was an important item in the statistics. In 1889 this number was 4,307,979, i. e., boys, 2,2:18,341 j girls, 2,079,638. Of the registered pupils 31.34 per cent, were under 7 years of age ; 64.43 per cent, between 7 and 14, and 4.23 per cent, above 14 years of age. Finances. — The funds for the support of board schools are derived chiefly from local rates, fees, and the government grant j those for the support of voluntary schools from endowments, contributions, school fees, and the grant. The amount and proportion from each source in 1888-89 were as follows : Table 21. — Total income for suvport of schools and pro;portion from each coniriluting source, 1886-89. Classification of schools. Total income for support. Percentage from- Rate per scholar in aver¬ age at¬ tend¬ ance. Endow¬ ment. School board rates. Volnn- tar_y contri¬ butions. School pence. Govern ment grant. Other soujces. Schools connected with Na¬ $15, 380, 735 4. 71 18. 92 28. 97 46. 24 1. 14 $9. 00 tional Society or Church of Englanil. "Wesleyan schools . . . 1, 222, 870 0. 27 7.02 43.68 47. 51 1.49 9.24 Roman Catholic Schools . 1, 605, 2.S5 0. 76 _ 21.01 27. 93 49. 84 0. 44 8.2L British undenominational and 1, 517, GOO 4 10 16. 51 33. 81 44. 40 1. 09 9. 42 other schools. Total . . - _ _ 19, 726. 49U 4. 08 18, 08 30. 34 46. 37 1. 14 - School-board schools . 15, 949, 080 1.09 38. 53 0.03 20. 20 39.45 1. 58 10.84 Grand total . 35, 666, 570 2. 35 16. 75 10.23 25. 96 43. 36 1.31 EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 85 Table 22. — Current expenditures, 1888-89. Classification of schools. Total. Percentage for— Rate per scholar in average attend¬ ance. Rate per capita of estimated popula¬ tion (1889). Salaries. Books and appa¬ ratus. Miscel¬ laneous. Scliools connected with National So- (iiet^ or Chinch of England. W csleyan schools . Eotnan Catholic schools. . Erilish, undenominational, and other schools. Total _ _ _ _ _ $15, 265, 015 1, 215, 570 1,616, 3S0 2, 509, 005 79. 35 80 70.23 78 5. 5 6. 24 6. 44 5. 94 15.15 13. 76 23. 32 16. 16 $8. 83 9.00 8. 27 9. 37 20, 605, 980 15, 921,665 78. 26 78.35 5. 09 5. 37 10. 03 School-board schools . . . Grand total . 10.26 10. 83 36, 527, 615 78. 30 •5.55 16.13 $1. 20 Ratio of school rates to ratable values. — From a careful estimate, it appears that the amoant raised from the rates for the support of board schools bears to the ratable values the following proportions: England. Wales. London . . . . . . . . ....... _ Per cent. 3.42 Per cent. Boron *’'hs . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 58 2. 79 Parishes . . 2. 79 3. 25 Total average rates . - . . . . . 3. 08 3. 08 Extraordinary expenditures. — lu addition to the current expenditure, large sums are annually required for buildings and other permanent improvements. The education act authorizes boards to secure loans for these pur¬ poses, the repajunent being spread over such numbers of years, not ex¬ ceeding fifty, as may be sanctioned by the Education Department. In 1889, loans for works of permanent character received by 2,246 boards amounted to a little more than $5,000,000. The total amount advanced for this purpose from 1870 to 1889 inclu¬ sive, is estimated at $105,163,365. The annual expenditure under this head naturally diminishes as the school provision becomes more and more complete. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION. Central administration. — The system of elementary education is ad¬ ministered in accordance with the education act of 1870, the subse¬ quent modifying acts of 1873, 1874, and 1870, and the latest annual code. It is in charge of the Education Department, generally termed the Committee of Council on Education, composed of lords of the privy council. 86 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-8&. The nominal head of the department is the lord president of the privy council j the active head is a member of the privy council who is called the vice president of the committee on education j be represents the de¬ partment in the House of Commons. The department prepares the annual code for the regulation of the schools, which is submitted to Parliament for approval. Local school authorities are subject to the regulations issued by the department, and all contentions respecting school matters may be referred to it. The department also distributes the Parliamentary grant and makes an annual report upon the con¬ dition of the schools. Inspectors appointed by the sovereign, upon the recommendation of the department, visit the schools each year, examine the pupils, and investigate the general condition of the schools. Their report deter¬ mines the amount of grant which each school may claim. Chief in¬ spectors are also appointed for general superintendence over assigned sections of the country. There are twelve of these superior officials, two of whom are assigned to the charge of training colleges. The inspectorate is an interesting feature of the system, and its operations deserve careful consideration. The incumbents of the office are generally university men, not expe¬ rienced in the details of elementary school work. The list includes sev¬ eral names of distinction, notably Matthew Arnold and J. G. Fitch. The service which these men have rendered is of great and permanent value and well illustrates the advantage to be derived from bringing into such a work minds having what has been happily called ‘intel¬ lectual detachment.’^ It is very generally asserted, however, that such appointments are exceedingly rare, and do not compensate for the disadvantages result¬ ing from the ill-directed efforts of the large body of inspectors who lack the practical understandiug of their duties that previous experi¬ ence in humbler relations with the schools might supply. The questions here suggested are constantly discussed, and it is probable that in the future at least a fair proportion of teachers may look for promotion to the more lucrative and more distinguished service. Local management, — In pursuance of the policy of fostering local effort, large liberty is left to local school authorities in respect to all matters not directly affecting the interests of the Government or of the general public. For the purposes of the education acts England and Wales are divided into “ school districts.*^ These are the metropolis, every bor¬ ough, two only excepted, and each parish. School boards may be formed in these districts upon the application of the rate-payers or by order of the department. A school board must be formed in a district whenever there is not adequate provision for the children of school age {i. e., 5 to 13) in schools recognized by the dei)artment as efficient. educational system of ENGLAND. 87 The rate-paj^ers elect the boards to serve for three years. They are empowered to make by-laws relating to religious teaching, compul¬ sory attendance, etc., and to borrow money for the providing and enlarging of schoolhouses, subject in each case, however, to the ap¬ proval of the department. Without reference to the department they may levy rates and call for funds from the rates to cover deficiencies in income. By-laws relating to religious teaching and attendance must not vio¬ late the clauses in the act which xirotect religious liberty and prohibit sectariah teachings in hoard schools.^ At the latest date of report the total number of boards (England and Wales) was 2,274. Of these, 162 were in boroughs, whose populations ranged from 750 upwards, by far the larger proportion, i. e. 85 per cent., comi>rising each above 5,000 inhabitants. The remaining boards were in parishes. Above 75 per cent, of these parishes had less than 2,000 inhabitants. The election of boards had been compulsory in 36 of the boroughs and in 1,045 of the parishes. The powers, save only that relating to the raising of money, may be delegated to a board of managers of not less than three persons. This privilege is exercised to some extent by the school boards of London and Liverpool with apparently good results. The Birmingham board, which has always been one of the most progressive in England, has no managers, but em^doys a corps of paid inspectors, and in addition seeks in various ways to promote the interest of i}arentsin the schools and to establish bonds of union between parents and teachers. If a school district be not within the jurisdiction of a board, a school attendance committee may be appointed in a borough by the town coun¬ cil ; in a parish by the guardians. They must report infractions of the law with respect to school attendance or the employment of chil¬ dren. Such committees have been appointed in 125 municipal boroughs and in 649 other districts. The population of England and Wales under school boards in 1889 wms 16,481,753, and under school attendance committees 9,492,686, or a total equivalent to 89 J i)er cent of the entire population. Voluntary schools are not under the school boards, but are controlled by their own committees. Local authorities of all classes are termed in general “ managers.” They are responsible for the conduct of their schools, for their maintenance in efficiency, and for the provision of all needful furniture, books, and apparatus, and in particular of— {a) Suitable registers. {h) A portfolio to contain official letters, (c) A diary or log book. {d) A cash book. {e) The code and revised instructions for its application for each year. 1 See p. 97. 88 EDUCATION REPOET, 18S8-89. THE TEACHING FORCE. Classification and qualifications. — The teaching force for elementary instruction comprises pupil- teachers, assistant teachers, provisionally certificated teachers, certificated teachers, and evening-schoolteachers. A pupil-teacher is a boy or girl engaged by the managers of a public elementary day school on condition of teaching during school hours under the superintendence of the principal teacher and receiving suit¬ able instruction. The managers are bound to see that the pupil-teacher is iiroperly instructed during the engagement, and the department, if satisfied that this duty is neglected, may decline to recognize any pupil-teachers as members of the staff of a school under the same managers. Candidates, in order to be engaged as pupil-teachers, whether at the end of a year of probation or without probation, must be presented to the inspector for approval at his annual visit, must produce certificates as to health, character, and attainments, and must pass an examina¬ tion in the work of the two highest years of the elementary school. They must be not less than fourteen years of age at the beginning of their engagement. The engagement may be for four, for three, or for two years. Pupil teachers who have passed certain specified examinations may be recognized as assistant teachers, or if specially recommended by the inspector on the ground of their practical skill, may be recognized as pro¬ visionally certificated teachers in charge of small schools. Ko certifi¬ cate {i. e.j diploma) is issued to provisionally certificated teachers, nor can they serve in this capacity after the completion of the twenty-fifth year of their age. To be recognized as an assistant teacher one must have passed the Queen^s scholarship examination, which admits to a training college, or some one of the examinations recognized by the department. These include, among others, the university higher local examinations, and the College of Preceptor’s examination for the teacher’s diploma.^ Teachers, in order to obtain certificates, must be at least twenty years of age ; must pass two examinations at an interval of one year or more, and must have given satisfactory proofs of their professional abil¬ ity in actual service for two years as provisionally certificated, or for one year as assistants, before they can be admitted to the first examination. There is but one class of certificates, but a distinction is made as regards the rights to superintend pupil-teachers. A certificate may at any time be recalled or suspended, but not until the department have informed the teacher of the charges against him and given him an opportunity of explanation. In estimating what is the minimum school staff required, the depart¬ ment consider the principal certificated teacher to be sufficient for an ^ That is the diploma awarded by the College of Preceptors, a private body. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 89 average attendance of seventy if trained, and of sixty if untrained, each assistant teacher for an average attendance of fifty, each pupil- teacher for an average attendance of thirty, each candidate for a pupil-teacher- ship on probation for an average attendance of twenty. The teachers of day schools must belong to the laity, a restriction which does not hold in respect to evening classes. Ap;p ointments^ salaries, pensions. — Teachers are appointed and their salaries adjusted b^^ school boards, or in the case of voluntary schools, by the managers thereof. There is no uniform scale of salaries. The average salary of certificated masters is now £119 12s. ($590), as against £94 Is. ($470) in 1870. The average salary of a certificated school-mis¬ tress is £75 9s. ($378), which is about the same as in 1870. The following table shows the several grades of salaries, and the number of certificated teachers in receipt of each. Table C3. — Teachers' salaries. CERTIFICATED MASTERS. Principal. Additional. Xo. Percent¬ age. No. Percent- age. In receipt of salaries of— Under $250 . . . . 73 977 2, 031 4, 947 1, 903 829 395 332 0.60 8.08 21. 79 40. 92 15. 74 6. 86 3. 27 2. 74 174 1, 917 1, 405 1, 679 178 5 . i’ 3. 25 3.5. 77 20. 22 31. 33 3. 32 0. 09 . 6." 02 $250 and less than $375 . . . . . $375 and less Diau $500 . $500 and less tha n $750 . . . $750 and less tlian $1,000 . $1,000 and less Ilian $1,250 . $1,250 ami less than $1,500 . • $1,500 and over . . . . Total . 12, 090 3, 359 CERTIFICATED MISTRESSES, In receipt of salaries— Under .$200 . 261 532 685 7, 380 3,974 2, 359 670 389 1. Gl 3.27 4.21 45. 42 24. 46 14. 52 4. 12 2. 39 939 1, 237 909 3, 424 2,013 1,363 4 9. 50 12.51 9.19 34. 62 20.36 13.78 0. 04 $200 and leas than $225 . . . . . . . $225 and less than $250 . . . $250 and less than $375 . . . . $375 and less than $500 . $500 and le.ss than $750 . . . . $750 and less than $1,000 . $1,000 and over . Total . 16, 250 9, 889 In addition to their other emoluments, 5,906 out of 17,449 masters and 4,673 out of 26,139 mistresses are provided with residences free of rent. The sum of $31,629 is voted annually for jiensions, donations, or spe¬ cial gratuities to teachers in Great Britain engaged prior to May 9, 1862. The rules governing the distribution are embodied in the code. 90 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888'89. Present force. — The active teaching staff for the latest year of report (1889) was composed as follows: Certificated teachers : Male . 18,250 Female . 27,184 Assistant teachers : Male . 5,100 Female . 15,142 Pupil-teachers . . 30,397 Total . . 96,073 The great and increasing proportion of female teachers is a matter noted in each successive report. In I8695 out of every 100 teachers of each class, 48 certificated teachers, 60 assistant teachers, and 57 pupil- teachers were women ; in 1889 these proportions were 60, 75, and 74 respectively. Training of teachers. — The expression trained teachers ” is applied to those who have passed through a training college under Government inspection. Demand vs. supply of trained teachers. — In 1889 these colleges^ were attended by 3,294 students, which is very nearly the entire number for which they afford accommodation. This attendance would furnish a yearly supply of 1,500 teachers hav¬ ing two years’ training, a supply which would be amply sufficient to fill up the waste in a staff of 25,000 teachers or a little more than half the number of certificated teachers actually engaged in the schools. One of the most important problems at present under consideration is the means of increasing the provision for training teachers. In discussing this subject in their report for 1889-90 the committee of council say ; The extent to which the training colleges have contributed to the present supply of efficient teachers in England and Wales is shown by the fact that of 18,250 masters employed in schools reported on in 1888-89, 11,559, or 63.34 per cent, had been trained for two years, and 909, or 4.98 per cent., for less than two years; while 5,782, or 31.68 per cent., were untrained. In like manner, of 27,184 school¬ mistresses, 11,502, or 41.31 per cent., had been trained for two years ; 893, or 3.28 per cent., for less than two years ; and 14,789, or 54.41 per cent., were untrained. Of the teachers, however, who, from whatever cause, have not attended a training college, a considerable proportion can not, except in a technical sense of the word, be classed as untrained, having, under the superintendence of some of the best teachers, passed through the pupil-teacher’s course and served as assistants in large schools before passing the examination for a certificate and undertaking independent charges. Under present conditions, a considerable number of teachers who have not passed through the training college will always be required for service in the small schools of the country, since the trained masters can not be secured for schools that offer less than $500 a year for head lA detailed view of training colleges is given on a subsequent page. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 91 or assistant masters, and. even the salaries commanded by women after two years of training, are beyond the means of the majority of small schools. SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION. The obligatory subjects of elementary instruction in day schools are reading, writing, and arithmetic, with needlework for girls and drawing for boys in schools for older scholars. These subjects are arranged in seven grades, called standards. Pupils must pass an examination in each standard before passing to the next, and as the examinations are annual it follows that a standard is equivalent to a year. Additional subjects may be included in the programme, to be taken either by classes or by individuals. Pupils may be drawn from one or more standards, i. ^., grades, for instruction in the class subjects, exam¬ inations in the same being conducted by classes and not by individuals. The subjects comprised in this category are singing, recitation (i. e.j of literary selections), English, geography, elementary science, drawing for boys in infant schools and classes, needlework for girls (optional as a class subject). The following subjects may be taken by individuals who have passed the fourth standard, intended to be reached by pupils at 10 years of age: Algebra, Euclid and mensuration, mechanics, chemistry, physics, animal physiology, botany, principles of agriculture, Latin, French, domestic economy (for girls), Welsh (for scholars in schools in Wales), German, bookkeeping; shorthand, according to some system recog¬ nized by the department ; cookery and laundry work may be taken by girls. Any subject, other than those mentioned above, may, if sanctioned by the department, be taken as a specific subject, provided that a grad¬ uated scheme for teaching it be submitted to and approved by the in¬ spector. Instruction may be giv^en in other secular subjects, and in religious subjects, but no grant is made in respect to any such instruction; as a ‘ rule little is ^tempted beyond the official programme. Actual state of the sehools as regards subjects of instruction. — An in¬ teresting view of the actual scholastic work of the schools is presented in the report of the annual examinatvons for 1888-89, The number of schools comprised in the report is 19,?;10, i. e.j 99 per cent, of the entire number, and enrolling 99 per cent, of the pupils, or practically the whole school attendance. About 30 per cent, of these pupils were in infant schools. Of the 70 per cent, in the schools for older pupils, 2,580,720 were presented for examination. From the report it appears that whereas as many as 1,410,625 being over 10 years of age, ought to have been presented in Standards lY-YII, only 962,565 were so pre¬ sented, while 448,051 (or 31.76 per cent.) were presented in standards 92 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. suited for cliildren of seven, eight, and nine years of age. These figures, however, show marked improvement over the condition of former years. Thus, in 1883-84, of the children over 10 years of age, 42.77 per cent, were presented in standards below the 4th 5 while in 1878-79 the proportion above 10 years of age in the lower standards was 59 per cent. In other words, there has been during the decade a gain of 65 per cent, in the proportion of children over 10 years of age in standards appropriate to them. The grant for class subjects was claimed by 89.91 per cent, of tlie schools for older scholars, having an average attendance of 2,511.057, and was allowed for 86.82 iier cent, of the schools on the basis of an average attendance of 2,465,486, that is, 94per cent, of all older scholars. English, i. e., grammar and grammatical analysis, was the first class subject in all cases. In 70.98 per cent, of the schools, grants were claimed for two class subjects. In the majority, i. e., 76.50 per cent., geography was the second class subject. Optional needlework (girls), history, and ele¬ mentary science made up the remaining number. In their report the committee of council say : The wider range of class subjects allowed by the code under the head of “ element¬ ary science ’’ does not appear to be taken advantage of to any great extent at present. The returns show but 36 schools which have taken subjects under this head. The 10 per cent, of schools in which no class subject was taken were evidently small schools. They comprised only 4 per cent, of the aver¬ age attendance of scholars, while the average ‘‘number for payment” in each of them was 47, as against 127 in the schools which secured payment for class subjects and 66 in the schools which failed. As to specific subjects, it appears that 14.83 per cent, of the scholars eligible for examination in these subjects were so examined. The London school board district furnished a large proportion, viz, 39 per cent, of this number; board schools of that district surpassing the voluntary schools in this respect in the proportion of 7 to 3. The results of the examinations in specific subjects were as follows : Number examined . 72,781 Examined in one subject only . 54, 429 Passed . 42, 772 Examined in two subjects . . . . . 18, 3.52 Passed . . . 11,149 The subjects giving the highest number of passes were algebra, 30 per cent. ; domestic economy, 24 per cent. ; animal physiology, 18 per cent. French followed at a distance, having 7 percent. The examination developed the fact that cookery had been taught iu 1,.355 departments ; 57,539 girls gaining the grant for this branch. Military drill, which (as distinguished from the ordinary school drill practiced in every good school) was first recognized by the code of 1871, is systematically taught to the boys attending 1,414 day schools. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 93 Drawing, which has just been made an obligatory subject for boys,- is not a new feature of the programme. In 1885 it was pursued in 4,637 elementary schools, and over half a million children passed examin¬ ation in the elementary stages. Owing to changes in the status of the subject, it declined for a while, but the lost ground has apparently been recovered, as in 1889 the number of children examined in this branch was very nearly 850,000. In Leeds, where drawing has been especially developed, the school board employ an art inspector, at a salary of £350 ($1,750). The scheme of elementary study considered as a whole is an inter¬ esting illustration of the contiicting views of the scope and purposes of elementary education under which it has been framed. The narrow range of obligatory subjects accords with the opinion of a large class of English statesmen, who hold that in the interests of economy and public content the education of the people should be confined to the rudiments of knowledge. The class subjects are a concession to those more liberal-minded men who realize that the rudiments are in themselves lifeless, while in the larger opportunities which the scheme offers to individuals there is a hint of the relation that elementary instruction should bear to com¬ plete education. As it now stands, the scheme is not coordinated to or in unison with any other part of the educational provision of the country. Its deficiencies in this respect are radical, as is shown when¬ ever the endeavor is made to bring the elementary schools into direct relations with higher institutions. Notwithstanding these inherent difficulties, however, many indi¬ vidual pupils in the elementary schools have been successfully pre¬ pared for secondary schools, and have eventually gained distinction as university students. These higher provisions are made available to a limited number of elementary school pupils by scholarships created for the purpose and secured b^" competitive examination. The London board possesses fourteen such scholarships, ranging in value from $125 to $175. Additional scholarships are also annually placed at the disposal of this board. One of the practical results of the passage of students from the elementary schools to the higher institutions of learn¬ ing is an increased recognition of th(‘, need of better adjustments be¬ tween the courses of study of different classes of schools. CONDUCT OF STUDIES AND DISCIPLINE. Intellectual tone of the schools, — The prevailing methods of instruction in elementary schools affect individual minds and characters even more than do the subjects of instruction. These methods depend upon the pnffessional qualification of the teacher and the demands which he is constrained to meet. In the English system, the one overshadowing influence is the inspector’s annual examination, since upon the report of this official depends the amount of grant that a school may claim. The 94 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. ' sclieme of study already presented is a significant indication of the Government requirement, which guides the work of both teacher and examiner. This is first and foremost, a definite, although very mea¬ ger, attainment in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Experience has proved that children can be brought to the required proficiency in these subjects by drill of a mechanical kind, which imma¬ ture and inferior teachers can use as effectively as the able and ex¬ perienced. Pupil-teachers, however promising they may appear, lack both maturity and experience, and the tendency to grinding routine, inseparable from the peculiar system of examinations, is increased by the large proportion of this class of teachers, who constitute 30 per cent, of the entire force. The low limit of attainment hitherto required for exemption from school attendance, viz : the fourth standard, which may be reached at 10 years of age, and actually is reached at that age by two-thirds of the children, has tended also to keep the work of the schools within narrow lines. Under these circumstances, ];)rofessional skill and phil¬ osophical insight, which are not wanting to the teaching fraternity of England, count for little. Teachers, school board officials, and others have been urgent in their endeavors to secure some relief from these depressing conditions, and while as yet they have failed in effecting radical changes they have met with some measure of success. The code of 1890 provides some relief from these depressing condi¬ tions ; it allows the teacher greater freedom in the classification of pu¬ pils than heretofore, greatly reduces the amount of individual examina¬ tion, and gives larger credit for excellence in the general conditions of the schools, and raises the age of exemption from 10 to 12 years. These concessions have revived the efforts of those who advocate more natural methods of instruction and a larger range of obligatory subjects. Moral quality, — While the average intellectual standard of the Eng¬ lish elementary schools (if both urban and rural schools be included) is not high, the moral quality is j)Ositive and pervasive. This is a very natural consequence of the part which the Church has taken in the establishment and maintenance of the schools. It is further attributable to the influence of the training colleges, through which the majority of the head teachers have passed, which colleges being denominational schools are deeply penetrated with the religious spirit. The attitude of the Government accords with this spirit. A portion of the parliamentary grant is allowed upon the inspector’s re¬ port as to the organization. and discipline of a school. In recommend¬ ing this grant the inspector is instructed to have— Special regard to the moral training and conduct of children, to the neatness and order of the school premises and furniture, and to the proper classification of the scholars, both for teaching and examination. * * * To meet the requirements re¬ specting discipline the managers and teachers will he expected to satisfy the inspector that all reasonable care is taken in the ordinary management of the school to bring up the children in habits of punctuality, of good manners and language, of EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 95 cleanliness and neatness, and also to impress ux30u tlie children the importance of cheerful obedience to duty, of consideration and respect for others, and of honor and truthfulness in word and act. The inspector should also satisfy himself that the teacher has not unduly pressed those who are dull or delicate in preparation for ex¬ amination at any time of the year. Methods of instruction, — Instruction by repetition is a method much in vogue in English schools. One pupil repeats after the teacher and a second pupil after the first, until by dint of reiteration the matter is mastered. Concert repetition is also a common exercise. In the teaching of arithmetic more attention seems to be given to drill in processes than to the analysis of principles and relations. Object lessons are employed in infant schools and in those for older pupils, but more generally take the form of talks by the teacher than of instruction based upon per¬ ception and observation. Among many excellent features of the system we may note that in¬ fant schools have been the subject of special care and thought, and many of them approach very near the ideal formulated by Mr. Fitch. ^‘The English ideal of an infant school,” says Mr. Fitch, “as one in which elementary instruction in reading, writing, and counting is inter¬ spersed with simple lessons on the phenomena of nature and of common life, and with interesting and varied manual employment, has not pre¬ vailed in America. I confess I greatly prefer it. It seems to me to put what are commonly called kindergarten methods and discipline into their proper place, rather as organic parts of a good and rounded sys¬ tem of juvenile acquisition of knowledge than as constituting even in the earliest years a separate organization, having aims and principles different from those which should prevail during the rest of the school life.” 1 These infant schools are most numerous in crowded city districts, and with their games, songs, and free converse bring light and joy to multi¬ tudes of children belonging to the poorest classes. Sewing and cookery as developed in the largo cities and in certain districts, especially of Yorkshire, greatly increase the influence of the schools over the home life of the poor. Clay modeling has been introduced to some extent in infant schools, and is attempted occasionally in schools for older scholars in con¬ nection with drawing. Manual training experiments have been started in a few cities, and in June, 1890, the Science and Art Department announced that grants would be made toward the maintenance of man¬ ual classes in connection with the teaching of drawing in the element¬ ary schools. By recitation in English schools is meant the verbatim repetition of assigned selections from the writings of the best authors, an exercise * Vide: Notes on American Scbools and Training Colleges. 96 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. upon whicli much stress is laid in the higher standards. Another very valuable language exercise which is much used, although not included in the obligatory course, is the analysis of words, and the grouping to¬ gether of those having a common root. What is known as the peripatetic plan of instruction has been suc¬ cessfully employed for science classes in Birmingham, Sheffield, Man¬ chester, Huddersfield, and other manufacturing towns, and also in Lon¬ don. By this plan a special teacher, accompanied oftentimes with an assistant and equipped with a portable laboratory, goes from school to school to conduct classes. Physical training, as we have already seen, is not entirely ignored. The Swedish system of gymnastics has been introduced extensively into the London schools for girls. Swimming classes for boys have also been formed in some schools of the metropolis and of other cities. Lessons in thrift and economy are enforced by the maintenance of savings banks, or by use of the post-office savings system. In 1889 the number of schools reporting penny banks was 2,509, which is very nearly three times the number reported in 1881. From an exhaustive inquiry made in the board schools of London in 1887, it appeared that very few banks had been established in the schools, but the post-office system was popular. The way in which this system was operated in the schools is thus described in the report of the investigation : The working of the system is in tliis wise : On a Monday morning a teacher takes the moneys saved by each scholar, from a penny np to a shilling, and enters each amount in a cash book opposite the scholar’s name. As several amounts are thus entered they are transferred to a ledger, whence the total savings of each scholar can be seen. Having done this the teacher sends the total sum received on the Monday to the nearest post-office and obtains a deposit receipt in an ordinary savings-bank book, which serves as a pass book. Again, that which is known as the stamp plan is used in a few schools, the teacher supplying stamps to the scholars for the purpose of being affixed to a form which is also supplied to each scholar. When a dozen stamps have been thus affixed the form is sent to the post-office and an account is opened. In that case no cash book or ledger is kept at the school.^ With respect to text-books the local managers have entire freedom, and the text- book trade flourishes in England. The books are not, however, comparable either in respect to contents or to typographical finish with those used in the United States or upon the Continent. Efforts are also made to supply schools with general reading matter; in 1888-89 school libraries were reported from 4,311 schools, or about one-fifth of the whole number. Discipline.— discipline of the schools is as various as we find it in our own country. Corporal punishment is very generally employed, but is guarded in many ways. The London board, for instance, prohibits any but head teachers from inflicting it, and orders a detailed record of each case to be made. *Soo report with fuller details in “School Board Chronicle” of December 24, 1887. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 97 Parents are quite sensitive in this matter, and it is not uncommon to hear of teachers being summoned before magistrates to answer charges of assault. ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS. The organization of elementary schools is regulated to some extent by the provisions of the education acts and code, but beyond this, is left entirely to local managers. Essential characteristics of elementary schools. — An elementary school is defined by the education act “ to be a school in which elementary education is the principal part of the education given,” and does not in¬ clude any school or department in which the ordinary payments in re¬ spect to the instruction, from each scholar, exceed ninepence a week. In reality the weekly fee is seldom as high as ninepence. In 1889-90 52.67 per cent, of the pu])ils in England and Wales paid less than Sd. a week; 38.03 per cent, paid between 3d. and Gd.^ and 3.75 per cent, paid 6d. and over; 4.95 per cent, v/ere free scholars. In order to be classed as a ‘‘ public elementary school,” a school must be bound by the conscience clause” of the act, which reads as follows: It shall not be required, as a condition of any child being admitted into or contin¬ uing in the school, that he shall attend or abstain from attending any Sunday school or any place of religious worship, or that he shall attend any religious observance or any instruction in religious subjects in the school or elsewhere, from which observ¬ ance or instruction he may be withdrawn by his parent, or that he shall if withdrawn by his parent, attend the school on any day exclusively set apart for religious ob¬ servance by the religious body to which his parent belongs. The time or times during which any religious observance is practiced or instruction in religious subjects is given at any meeting of the school shall be either at the begin¬ ning or at the end, or at the beginning and the end of such meetings, and shall be in¬ serted in a time-table to be approved by the Education Department, and to be kept permanently and conspicuously affixed in every school room, and any scholar may be withdrawn by his parent from such observance or instruction without forfeiting any of the other beuelits of the school. The school shall be open at all times to the inspection of any of Her Majesty’s in¬ spectors, so, however, that it shall be no part of the duties of such inspector to inquire into any instruction in religious subjects given at such school, or to examine any scholar therein in religious knowledge, or in any religious subject or book. The school shall be conducted in accordance with the conditions required to be ful¬ filled by an elementary school in order to obtain an annual parliamentary grant. This section is equally binding upon board and voluntary schools; it will be noticed that it does not exclude sectarian teaching, but simply provides for the withdrawal of children from such instruction if the parents so desire. Additional dame respootiny religious instruction binding upon hoard schools. — The board schools are bound by an additional clause which forbids the teaching of any religious catechism, or religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination. Special requirements. — The time-table must be approved for the school by the inspector on behalf of the department, and in a school ED 89 — -7 98 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. provided by a scliool board the consent of the department must have been given to the weekly fee prescribed by the board. The school must not be established where there is already adequate j)rovision in approved schools, nor conducted for private profit. The principal teacher must be certificated, and the school must have met at least 400 times during the year. In England, as elsewhere, under other systems, individual schools present varied degrees of development, and varied modes of opera¬ tion within the limits imposed. The board schools, as a rule, have better teachers than the voluntary schools, are better organized, and yield better results. This is to be expected, as boards control the greater proportion of the schools in the cities and thickly settled communities where it is easiest to excite and maintain a professional spirit. Moreover the boards being elective bodies, the rateqiayers have a lively sense of their responsibilities and privileges in respect to the schools, and thus a popular sentiment is awakened which is stimulating alike to teachers and to pupils. There are, however, many superior voluntary schools, as there are indifferent board schools. The Jew’s Free School, of London, is a notable example of a school established by the benevolent for the benefit of the poorest class, thoroughly organized, employing a corps of superior teachers, and holding high rank in all scholarly conditions and results. Special requirements for infant classes and schools. — Infant classes are for pupils below seven years of age, but such a class is not recognized if the average attendance be less than twenty. The class must be taught by a teacher over eighteen years of age, approved by the inspector, if the average attendance be above thirty, and by a certificated teacher if the average attendance be above fift3^ The highest grant can not be claimed unless the class is taught in a room, of its own, constructed and furnished for the work. The number of schools thus equipped steadily increases. In 1889 the number of scholars in the registers of infant schools and classes was 1,604,089, and of these 884,834 were instructed in separate schools under certificated teachers of their own. Wight schools. — In order to secure a grant, a night school must have at least forty-five sessions during the year. Ho scholar can be presented for examination in any standard lower than the third, and no scholar can be presented who has not attended the school for eight weeks and been present at least twenty-four times since the previous examination. In 1889 the number of scholars in average attendance upon night schools was 37,118. Size and grading of elementary day schools. — The size and groupingof schools depend upon various circumstances, of which the xjrincipal is location, as rural or urban. There are no general statistics bearing upon this point beyond the statement that 19,398 schools comprise 29,336 departments in which separate head teachers are employed. The division of the obligatory curriculum into seven standards forms EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 99 a basis for grading and for grouping pupils in separate rooms, where the school building permits. The provision for a wide range of specific subjects open to pupils who have passed the elementary examination in any standard above the fourth, forms an initial stage in the establishment of what would be called in the United States high-school grades or high schools. The evolution of these high grades has reached an interesting stage in many places, more especially in the provincial manufacturing centers. In Bradford it has taken the form of special schools, four in number, .which are intended as models, including the entire course of study al¬ lowed by the scheme. In Sheffield, Huddersfield, and Birmingham the movement is toward what we should call high schools. The rapid in¬ crease of the higher grade departments and schools in the chief cities has excited much discussion in Parliament and among the people. It is contended in many quarters that such provision is not authorized by the education acts, the same arguments being advanced that have been used against public high schools in the United States. It is interesting to note, also, that the obligation to train pupil-teachers has led many city boards to establish w'hat are called central classes for this purpose. Here the pupil-teachers assemble for instruction. School buildings and premises. — As regards the school buildings and premises, the department must in every case be satisfied — That the school premises are healthy, are properly constructed, lighted, warmed, drained, and ventilated, are supplied with, suitable offices, contain sufficient accommo¬ dation for the scholars attending the school, and are properly provided with furniture, hooks, maps, and other apparatus of elementary instruction. The employment of pupil-teachers in the schools existing prior to the passage of the education act gave rise to a peculiar style of school room, which is still in use. It is long and wide and provided with parallel rows of benches and desks, facing the teacher’s desk. It is sometimes so planned that ad¬ ditional benches and desks can be placed at the sides facing toward the others. Floor space is left at the sides of the room, where classes are drawn up in semicircles for lessons under the pupil teachers, the head teacher overlooking all from his position.^ The simultaneous recitations of different classes make to American ears a perfect Babel of confusion. The Wesleyan school rooms, built before 1870, are modeled on the plan advocated by Mr. Stow. The principal feature is a gallery wherein a collective lesson may be given to a large number of children. These galleries accommodate infant classes and are also used for religious lessons and exercises. The Wesleyans, however, very early recognized the need of class rooms. These open from the main room and, like that, are provided with galleries. Board school architecture shows the influence of German and Amer- 1 For deUiled description of the earlier school buildings see School Architecture, by E. K. Kolison. 100 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. ican models, nearly all the buildings recently constructed consisting of separate class rooms, with a hall for general assembly. The size of the buildings depends necessarily upon the location. In London from 500 to 1,500 children are provided for in a single edifice.^ All new school premises and enlargements must conform to a schedule published by the department. This schedule prescribes the general plan of buildings, tbe proportions of school rooms, the minimum size of class rooms (18 feet by 15), the surface space per scholar — 10 square feet in rooms not providing accommodation for more than 60 children, the height, i. e., 12 feet from door level to ceiling for an area of 360 super¬ ficial square feet, 13 feet for a superficial area of 360 to 600 square feet, and 14 feet for an area above 600 square feet. The schedule also indi¬ cates the preferred modes of lighting, ventilating, warming, and fur¬ nishing, and gives explicit directions respecting sanitary arrangements. A playground is required for every school, and in the case of a mixed school separate playgrounds for the boys and the girls. Half-timers. — Arrangements are made by which children who must work may attend school as half-timers. A separate register must be kept for these, the attendance of a half-timer for two consecutive hours being counted as an attendance and a half. Holidays. — The usual • holidays for board schools are two weeks at Christmas ; at Easter from Good Friday to the Saturday in the next week, both days inclusive j at Whitsuntide one week, and in summer three weeks, to commence on the first Monday in August. School age. — There is no express definition of school age in England by statute, but as a rule the following attendances are not recognized for grants: {a) Attendance of a child under 3 years of age; (5) of any scholar who has })assed in the three elementary subjects in the seventh standard, unless the inspector has previously permitted such scholars to be reexamined in that standard ] (c) of any scholar in an evening school under fourteen or over twenty-one, but children under fourteen who are by the department deemed to be exempt from the legal obliga¬ tion to attend school are recognized as scholars in an evening school. Compulsory attendance. — The period of compulsory attendance at school is nominally from five to thirteen years of age, but attendance may not be enforced against any child of ten years or upwards, who has obtained a certificate of proficiency, or of previous due attendance at a ‘‘certified efficient school,’^ or who is employed and attending school in accordance with the factory acts ; further, the local authorities may, under certain conditions, temporarily exempt a child over eight years of age, “ for the necessary operations of husbandry and the ingathering of crops,” for a period not exceeding six weeks in a year. The execu¬ tion of the compulsory clauses of the education acts is left entirely to local managers. So far the measures employed have failed of the de- ' For interest iu<]j deseription of typical board schools, see series of articles in the “ Schoolmaster'’ for 1890. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND, 101 sired effect. In Loudon the evils of irregular attendance have become alarming ; for two years a committee of the school board have had the subject under consideration to devise measures of reform. The ap¬ pointment of a special magistrate to hear school-board cases is specially urged by them. The Liverpool board emxffoys one set of visitors to look after absentees exclusively. The fixed limits of compulsory attendance have in reality but little significance, on the one hand because of the general institution of infant schools which receive special grants, and on the other because of the proviso exempting children of ten years of age who have passed in the fourth standard. As already stated, it is expected that pupils shall reach the standard at ten years of age. Two-thirds of the pupils fulfill this expectation. The statistics show that a little more than one- third of this number are seen no more at school, while of the remaining two- thirds about one in eight reaches the seventh or highest standard. The code for 1890 fixes twelve years and the sixth standard for exemp¬ tions. VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS. Coeducation. — The extent to which coeducation is practiced in the English schools may be seen from the fact that of 22,414 departments for older pupils, 4,194 were for boys, 3,822 for girls, and 14,398 were mixed. Daily sessions and attendance. — The length of a school day and the hours of opening and closing are not uniform. The maximum session is apparently three hours. In London the forenoon session is front 9 to 12, and the afternoon from 2 to 4:30. In making up the daily register no attendance for less than an hour and a half in each session can be counted for a child in an infant class or less than two hours for an older pupil. THE ANNUAL GRANT. The most peculiar feature of the elementary system, as well as the most important condition affecting the course and conduct of studies, and the organization of the schools, is the mode of distributing the annual grant. This feature has, however, been much modified by the Code of 1890, as a consequence of the representation made before the Commission on the Operations of the Education Acts. These modi¬ fications reduce the amount of the grant conditional upon the results of individual examination and allow much greater freedom to the teacher in respect to the classification of pupils. They recognize, also, the peculiar needs of small rural schools, allowing extra grants to these of $50, $100, or $125, according to the population and apart from other considerations. Under the new code the grant for day schools is applied as follows : PRESENT BASIS OF DISTRIBUTION. 1. Infant schools. — (a) A fixed grant of 9s. or 7s. (according to the equipment of the school) per capita of average attendance. 102 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. (b) A variable grant of 2s., 4s., or 6s. per capita of average attend¬ ance, according to the inspector’s report of the general condition of the school. (c) A grant for needlework of is. per capita, estimated upon the aver¬ age attendance of girls only, unless the boys share in the instruction. {d) If the boys, instead of needlework, are satisfactorily taught draw¬ ing, a grant of Is. may be made, based upon their average attendance. (e) A grant for singing of Is. or 6^?. per capita of average attendance. 2. /Schools for older scholars.— {a) Principal grant of 12s. 6(Z., or 14s. per capita of average attendance according to the inspector’s report as to the accuracy and general intelligence of the scholars in the elemen¬ tary subjects. (h) A grant for discipline and organization of Is. or Is. Qd. per capita of average attendance. (c) A grant for needlework of Is. per capita of the average attendance of girls. {d) A grant for singing of Is. or M. per capita of average attendance. (e) A grant on examination in class subjects of Is. or of 2s. per capita of average attendance, for each subject taken. (/) A grant on the inspector’s report of the examination of individual scholars in specific subjects amounting to 4s. for each scholar passing in any subject. (g) A grant for cookery amounting to 4s. for each girl passing the ex¬ amination under specified conditions. (h) A grant of 2s. on account of each girl passing the examination in laundry-work under specified conditions. 3. Special grants to day schools. — [a) Grants for pupil-teachers: A grant of £1, £3, or £3 for each pupil-teacher required to make up the minimum staff, who passes the inspector’s examination. Grant of £4 or £5 for each pupil-teacher who, during the last year of the engage merit, successfully passes the examination for admission to a training college. (6) Grants for assistant teachers: A grant of £10 or £15 for each assistant teacher who, under specified conditions, passes successfully the examination for a certificate. (c) Grants for rural schools in sparsely-settled regions of £10 or £15, according to population. 4. Evening schools. — (a) A fixed grant of 45. or 6s. jrer capita. (b) A grant on the examination of individual scholars in any class or specific subjects of 2s. for each scholar passing in any one subject. (c) A grant of 2s. for each giil presented in Standard iv, or any higher standard, who has received instruction in cookery. The total annual grant, exclusive of any special grant to rural schools, may not exceed the greater of the two following sums: [a) A sum equal to 17s. Gd for each unit of average attendance. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 103 (h) The total income of the school from all sources whatever other than the grant. Reduction of grant. — The annual grant, exclusive of the fixed grants may he reduced at the rate of not more than 10s. per annum for every unit of annual average attendance above the number for which the school staff is sufficient. Grant summary. — Omitting special grants for teachers and to rural schools, this arrangement allows to infant schools a fixed minimum grant of, 9s. and a possible maximum grant of 17s. per capita of aver¬ age attendance; to schools for older scholars^ o, fixed minimum grant of 13s. 6d., and a possible maximum grant of 17s. per capita of aver¬ age attendance, omitting grants for cookery and laundry work, and of 4s. for each pass in a specific subject. The average grant claimed by schools for older scholars for 1889-90 amounted to 18s. i^d. per capita of average attendance. TRAINING COLLEGES. Provision for the training of teachers antedates the education act by nearly fifty years, having been one of the special objects of the societies that were devoted to the work of educating the people. Training col¬ leges, as they were called, received government aid in 1843; the act of 1870 merely extended their resources and defined more exactly the conditions entitling them to Government support. The training colleges for teachers recognized by the department are of two classes, residential and day. Eesidential training colleges are boarding schools, but they may receive day students. A practice school is a required adjunct. These schools are voluntary, and, with a single exception, belong to some religious denomination or to some one of the religious societies devoted to educational work. The housing, equipment, staffing, etc., are left entirely to the mana¬ gers, but there must always be a resident physician. The following are the specific provisions as to the establishment of training colleges and the conditions of admission to them set forth in the code for 1890 : A day trainiug college must be attached to some university or college of university rank. The authorities of a day trainiug college must be a local committee who will be held responsible for the discipline and moral supervision of the students, and for their regular attendance at professional or other lectures. No grant is made to a training college unless the department are satisfied with the premises, management, staff, curriculum, and general arrangements, and recognize it as a training college. The recognized students in a training college are called Queen’s scholars. The authorities of a training college may propose to the department for admission as Queen’s scholar — (a) Any candidate who has obtained a place in the first or second class at the Queen’s scholarship examination; 104 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. (h) Without examination, any person who has passed the first year’s examination for a certificate and who wishes to enter the college for a year’s training in the course prescribed for students of the second year. Before candidates are admitted — (a) The medical officer of the college must certify that the state of their health is satisfactory and that they are free from serious bodily defect or deformity; and {h) They must sign a declaration that they intend hona fide to adopt and follow the profession of teacher in a public elementary school or training college or in the army or navy or (within Great Britain) in poor law schools, certified industrial or day industrial schools, or certified reformatories. In other respects the authorities of each college settle their own terms of admission. The period of training is ordinarily two years. An additional year’s training may, in any case; be allowed on the application of the authorities of the college and with the consent of the department. Students who are Queen’s scholars and are qualified to attend the examinations for certificates, are required to attend both that in first year’s and that in second year’s papers, unless prevented by illness or other cause approved by the department. Course of study in training colleges, — The course of study in traiuing colleges has hitherto been determined by the subjects included in the syllabus of the Government examinations for teachers’ certificates. These subjects are reading, recitation, penmanship, school management, English grammar, composition and rhetoric, geography, English his¬ tory, arithmetic, algebra and mensuration, geometry, political economy for men, domestic economy and sewing for women, vocal music, and drawing. Candidates may also be examined in one or two of the follow¬ ing languages: Latin, Greek, French, German ; and in branches of science prescribed in the syllabus of the science and art department. One of the most important features of the syllabus is that pertaining to the study of English literature. It requires some masterpiece to be studied throughout the term and that not less than 300 lines shall be committed to memory. The examination syllabus for men differs some¬ what from that for women. The mathematics for the former include algebra and geometry in addition to arithmetic, which is the limit for women. Men may be examined in two languages, women in but one. History is less extended in the syllabus for men, and the political economy required for men is much more elementary than the domestic economy assigned to women. The existing status of the curriculum here described has just been modified as a consequence of the establishment of day training colleges attached to university colleges. The managers of day colleges are free to draw up a curriculum of their own, provided that it is sanctioned by the department and includes some three or four obligatory subjects. If their students pass examinations for degrees, these will be excepted in lieu of the certificate examinations, the department merely requiring that the worked papers shall be submitted to it. This arrangement seemed to discriminate unjustly between the students of the day and those of the residential colleges, since it permitted the former to be ex¬ amined on questions drawn up by their own instructors, while those for the latter w^ere set by the department. The authorities of the resideu- EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 105 tial colleges were naturally dissatisfied and their representations have brought about a change. Under the new provisions, students in training colleges who pass any university examination approved by the department will be excused from farther examination in the same subjects or portions of subjects. So far, then, as the provisions go, students of the training colleges may be certificated chiefly on the results of university examinations. There are some difficulties in the way of making this privilege practi¬ cally available, but it is a very important departure in respect to the training of teachers, opening belore them not only a wider range of knowledge, but promising the stimulus of broader and freer views of those subjects. In addition to the annual examination of persons intending to become teachers by the inspector of the education department, there is also an annual examination by officers of the science and art department, upon the results of which all Government payments for instruction in science are made. Conduct of the training colleges, — The regimen of the training colleges is generally very strict, and life within them lacks the individual free¬ dom which, under judicious leadership, promotes the development of character. There is also noticeable in these colleges the absence of cer¬ tain stimulating influences that develop naturally among students, drawn from various social strata and looking forward to diverse careers. A.mong the conditions which tend to narrow the social life of the training colleges must be counted their denominational affiliations. Theoretically, tliey are nonsectarian, but as a matter of fact the stu¬ dents of a college are drawn in the main from the denomination it rep¬ resents. The establishment of day training colleges in touch with the univer¬ sities is a measure of far-reaching moment promising, as we have indi¬ cated, higher and broader intellectual culture and greater freedom in life and thought. Grant to training colleges. — There are placed to the credit of each col¬ lege grants of £100 for every master and £70 for every mistress, who, having been trained as a Queen’s scholar during two years, completes the prescribed period of probation and receives a certificate as a teacher in a public elementary school, or in a training college, or is reported by the proper department in each case to have completed a like period of good service as an elementary teacher in the army or navy, or (within Great Britain) in poor law schools, certified industrial or day industrial schools, or certified reformatories. A grant of £20 is made for every master and every mistress who at¬ tends as a day Qneen’s scholar and fulfills the remaining conditions here specified. Teachers who have been trained for one year only may ob¬ tain certificates after probation, or may be reported by the proper de- El)UCATiON report, 1888-89. 106 l^artment, upon the same terms as others j and grants of half the amounts mentioned above may be placed to the credit of the colleges in which they were trained under special conditions. The annual grant to eacli residential college is paid out of the sums standing to its credit at the beginning of the year. The annual grant to a residential college must not exceed (a) 75 per cent, of the expenditure of the college for the year, approved by the department and certified in such manner as the department may require ; (h) £50 for each male, and £35 lor each female Queen’s scholar in residence, and £10 for each day Queen’s scholar en¬ rolled, for continuous training throughout the year for which it is being paid. In day training colleges a grant will be made annually through the local committee of £25 to each male, and of £20 to each female Queen’s scholar, and a grant of £10 to the committee in respect of each Queen’s scholar enrolled for continuous training throughout the year. Financial view of residential training colleges. — The original cost of the buildings belonging to the residential training colleges is Sl,9S7,- 350. Of this amount 30 per cent, was granted by the Government. The total expenditure for these colleges in 1889 w^as $850,179, of which the Government furnished G9 per cent., the fees of students 13.44 per cent. ) the balance was derived from firoperty and subscriptions. The average annual cost per student in the colleges for men is £59 17^, or $300. Of this 37 per cent, is applied to instruction, 49 per cent, to board, and the balance to permanent establishment charges. The aver¬ age annual cost per student in the colleges for women is £48 lOs, or $240.50, the distribution being 51 per cent, for instruction, 37 per cent, for board, and the balance for permanent establishment charges. Attendance and staff. — The residential colleges are 43 in number, i. e., 17 for men, 25 for women, and 1 for both men and women. Thirty-six of these schools were established before the passage of the education act. They have accommodation for 3,353 students, and in February, 1890, had an attendance of 3,294, of whom all but 9 were Queen’s scholars. The teachers’ force comprised 302 persons. RECAPITULATION OE PRINCIPAL POINTS. The principal characteristics of the system of elementary education here briefly outlined are seen to be : The union of public and private agencies in the control and maintenance of schools j a limited obliga¬ tory curriculum, rigidly enforced and tested j a comparatively wide range of optional subjects; government aid and supervision, exercised exclusively in respect to secular instruction, whether given in board or voluntary schools; denominational schools strengthened by their re¬ lation to the government; teachers dependent upon local authorities for appointment and salary, but their qualifications prescribed, and their work tested by government; the employment of pupil-teachers, and the peculiar mode of distributing the government grant generally known as “ payment upon results.” EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 107 From the American standpoint, th(v system would appear to involve many conflicting and irreconcilable elements. Experience has indeed proved this to be the case. The friction resulting from the conflict between these opposing elements became so disturbing that a royal commission was appointed in 188G to investigate the operations of the system, and report upon the same as a preliminary step toward remedial measures. The final report of the commissioners was submitted in 1888. The code issued by the department in 1890 is in certain respects the out¬ come of their recommendation. This code provides, as we have seen, for a diminution in the pressure of examinations, allows greater free¬ dom to teachers in respect to the classification of their pupils, gives a fixed character to the greater portion of the grant, and marks the beginning of an important movement affecting the training and profes¬ sional prospects of teachers. Meanwhile the demand for a radical change in the system, looking to the establishment of a uniform system of board schools, has gathered such strength that a parliamentary act giving effect to this proposition is confidently anticipated even by its opponents. Schools for special classes. — The Government as yet has made no iiro- vision for the education of the deaf-mute or the blind, beyond author¬ izing the guardians of the poor in parishes and unions to pay for the education of such children in certified schools, if their parents are unable to do so ; similar authority is given to the guardians in respect to feeble¬ minded children. The blind and the deaf-mute are received in board schools, special classes being generally provided for them. Many private institutions have also been established for these classes, and a bill is now before Parliament looking to general educational provision in their behalf. By an act of 1863, “industrial schools” were established for the detention, training, and reformation of vicious or unmanageable chil¬ dren. The education act of 1870 authorized school boards to send truant and refractory children to these schools under specified conditions. School boards were also authorized to establish and maintain indus¬ trial schools for the same purposes. By the act of 1876, school boards were permitted to establish “ day industrial schools,” in which industrial training, elementary education, and one or more meals a day, but not lodging, are provided for the chil¬ dren. According to a report published in April, 1889, fourteen such day schools had been established in England, of which all but one were under school boards. Many boards have also established truant schools, where children may be brought under different training and discipline from those of the ordinary schools. Auxiliary institutions. — The list of societies and associations whose work is in some way related to the elementary school work is well 108 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. nigb inexhaustible. In addition to the religions societies that maintain elementary schools, the following societies promote the interests of ele¬ mentary education in various ways: The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, founded in 1698, seeks by examinations, prizes, etc., to excite interest in scriptural study. The Eecreative Evening Schools Association, w^hich, as its name indi¬ cates, endeavors to introduce stimulating and popular exercises, such as stereoscopic exhibitions, illustrated lectures, games, etc., into evening schools. The Art for Schools Association, whose purpose it is to soften and ele¬ vate the young by the influence of pictures and other objects of beauty in the school rooms. The Society for the Promotion of Physical Education is doing great service; the Physical Elementary Schools Bill introduced into Parlia¬ ment during the session of 1890 is largely due to its efforts. The Band of Hope Union, which sends temperance lecturers supplied with illustrative apparatus into the schools. The Yorkshire Ladies Council of Education works in various ways for the promotion of popular education. It has been specially active in developing instruction in cookery and domestic economy. The London Schools’ Dinners Association endeavors to provide one meal a day for the poorest class of school children. Its expenses in severe seasons run up to §500 a week. The National Association for the Promotion of Teachers of Technical and Secondary Education exercises an important influence upon legis¬ lation affecting elementary schools. The London Young Women’s Christian Association interests itself in maintaining evening classes for girls. The Teachers’ University Association promotes relations between elementary teachers and universities. THE SOCIETIES FORMED BY TEACHERS AND OFFICERS. The National Union of Elementary Teachers is one of the largest societies of the kind in the world ; it numbers about 16,000 members, is well officered, and thoroughly organized ; it maintains an orphanage for the children of deceased members, a fund for the legal assistance of teachers who are unjustly dismissed or subjects of suits in court; a teachers’ benevolent fund, and a teachers’ provident society. The Union advocates Parliamentary representation of elementary teachers and the establishment of a superannuation fund. The organ of the Union is the Schoolmaster, an “educational news¬ paper, review, and school board record.” The English Teacher, a monthly publication, is also issued. The annual meetings of the Union are largely attended and ably man¬ aged. Valuable papers are presented on topics previously assigned ; the discussions are full, spirited, and suggestive. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. 109 The school board clerks are also organized into an association which holds annual meetings for the discussion of school management and educational progress and demands. An immense amount of practical experience is here brought to bear upon the consideration of these sub¬ jects, and the reports of the conferences are exceedingly valuable for the light they throw upon the problems of school administration and many related problems. The university movements for promoting popular education are not without direct effect upon the elementary schools ; many of their pu¬ pils have won distinction at the university local examinations. Summer schools for elementary teachers have been held both at Ox¬ ford and Cambridge, and above all, the University Settlement, Toynbee Hall, East London, has sent a vivifying influence into the elementary school work of that swarming hive of humanity. Toynbee Hall residents have carried a joyous and animating spirit into the night schools 5 they have relieved the tedious drudgery of the pupil teachers’ cram, and developed an esprit de corps among those overworked youths by the formation of boating, cricket clubs, and the like. On the other hand, the residents have found in the machinery of the public schools a ready instrumentality for the promotion of their work of love and helpfulness among poor and outcast children. The principal steps in the development of the system of elementary education of England and Wales, are indicated in the following table: CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. England and Wales. Date. Event. 1808 . Formation of the British and Foreign School Society for the pur¬ pose of extending education among the people. Formation of the National Society for the establishment of schools in wliich the principles of the church of England should be in¬ cluded as an integral part of the course of instruction. Report of committee of the House of Commons on the State of ed¬ ucation, Lord Brougham, chairman. Passage of the reform act, which extended the franchise especially in towns, and thereby deepened the conviction of the dangers of ignorance. First Government appropriation in aid of popular education (8100,000) restricted to building purposes. Lord Brougham introduces the subject of national education into the House of Lords. Grant in aid of education increased to $150,000. Committee of council appointed “ to superintend the application of any sums voted by the Parliament for the purpose of promoting public ed¬ ucation.” Grant increased audits application extended to buildings for train¬ ing colleges and for teachers’ residences. Training colleges erected. 1811 . 1816 . 1832 . 1833 . 1835 . 1839 . 1843 . 1839-1847 . 1846 . Portion of the grant applied for the first time directly to the main¬ tenance of elementary schools, viz, teachers’ salaries. Provision also made for pensions. Denominational system virtually adopted. 110 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. Chronological Table — England and Wales — Continued. Date. Event. 184? . 1847 . 1851 . 1851 . 1853 . 1854 . . 1856 . 1856 . 1857 . 1858, Feb. 11.... 1858, June 30 . .. 1861, March - 1862 . 1864 . . 1867 . 1870 . 1873 . 1874 . 1875 . 1876 . 1876. 1876. 1879. 1880. 1882. The Committee of Council introduce “management clauses” for insertion in the trust deeds of Church of England schools — object to secure for lay subscribers a due share in the management of the schools. Eoman Catholic Church admitted for the first time into cooperation with the committee of council. Catholic Poor School Committee established to represent the Roman Catholics of Great Britain. Minute limiting the annual amount of the grant for pensions to £6 500 ($32,500). Wesleyan Training College, Westminster, opened. Capitation grant first allowed, i. e., grant to school fund based upon average attendance. Hammersmith Roman Catholic Training College. Liverpool Training College. Office of vice president of committee of the privy council on educa¬ tion created- Thus was created an office filled by a minister re- sj)onsible to the House of Commons for the expenditure of the grant. Conference in Loudon to consider the imperfect attendance of chil¬ dren at school, presided over by the Prince Consort exercises a great influence. Sir John Parkington, M. P,, moved the appointment of a commission to inquire into the state of popular education. Commission appointed, known as the Duke of Newcastle’s commis¬ sion. Report of commission submitted. Revised code adopted, generally known as Mr. Lowe’s code; intro¬ duced the x>riiiciple of payment upon results. Pensions discon¬ tinued. Conscience clause protecting the religious convictions of parents X)roj)osed to the national society by the committee of council. Passage of Lord Derby’s reform act extending the franchise gives a new impulse to the movement for popular education. Passage of the education act — generally known as Mr. Foster’s bill, he being at that time vice president of the council. The annual code becomes an addition to the education law. Amending act amongst other provisions made obligatory the at¬ tendance at school of children whose parents were in receipt of outdoor relief and required the board guardians to pay their fees. Efibrt to make mfitric system a part of the arithmetic course aban¬ doned {vide code). Class, i. e., optional, subjects introduced (vide code). Extra grants allowed for rural schools in thinly jiopulated districts. Lord Sandon’s act makes it obligatory upon parents to cause their children to receive “efficient elementary instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic,” upon fear of penalty. Limits of com¬ pulsory age, five to fourteen years. As a means of enforcing the obligation of school attendance, the act places restrictions on the employment of children and provides for securing the school at¬ tendance of neglected or vagrant children and for the establish¬ ment of “day industrial schools.” Code specifies the conditions of good organization and discipline which state-aided schools must fulfill. Revival of provision for x)ensions. Provision prohibiting grant to unnecessary schools repealed in re¬ spect to districts not under a school board. Mr. Mundella’s act establishing direct compulsion by the school authority in contradistinction to the optional comx)ulsion of Mr. Forster’s act and the indirect compulsion of Lord ISaudon’s act. Code makes average attendance the basis for assessing the grant ; the rate of |)ayment per unit of average attendance determined by the percentage which the actual number of passes is of the whole number which could possibly be obtained by all scholars liable to examination. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND. Ill Hh'onological TahJe — England aad TT a7es~Continuecl. Date. Event. 1882 . Seventh standard added. Merit grant introduced, i. e., grant based upon inspector's report as to general conduct and tone of the school. 1884 . 1884 . Teachers made responsible for the classification of pupils. Appointment of a Koyal commission to investigate the ojrerations of the elementary education acts. 1886-1888 . 1890 . Eeport of the Royal commission in successive volumes. New code modifying the system of elementary education in im¬ portant particul.ars. Establishment of day training colleges attached to university col¬ leges. CHAPTER IV. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FEANOE.* General view of the system — Administration : central, academic, and departmental — The councils — Tendencies of centralization — Origin of scholastic institutions — Statistical summary 1887-88: enrollment and attendance, finances — Teachers of public primary schools: qualifications, appointments, discipline, salaries, provision for training, pen¬ sions — Professors of secondary and superior instruction : classification, salaries — Courses of study: primary, secondary, superior — Organization and management of schools : classes of primary schools, distribution of teachers and pupils among the different grades, secular vs. church schools, buildings and grounds, internal conduct, text-books, etc. — The lycSes : boarding vs. scholastic departments, the day^s routine — Communal colleges— Secondary schools for girls— Statistical summary of secondary institutions — Institutions for superior instruction : faculth of the State, extension of f unctions and resources under the Eepublic, organizing measures, classes of students, fees, degrees, statistical summary — Special schools — Private faculUs — Auxiliary asso¬ ciations — Educational activity of Paris. Area, 204,092 square miles. Population (actual) May 29, 1886, 37,930,759 ; domi¬ ciled, or legal, 38,218,903. Civil divisions. — For purposes of civil government France is divided into eighty-sis departments, each having its local legislative assembly which is formed by election. The departments are subdivided into arrondissements, and these into cantons. The smallest civil divisions comprised within the cantons are communes. The chief executive officer of a department is the pr^fet. He is the intermediary between the central power and officials of all orders within the limits of his depart¬ ment. The arrondissements are simply administrative divisions. A canton is a district entitled to one representative in the departmental council. A commune is a district having an elective local council presided over by a mayor appointed by the government. Paris forms an exception, having a special form of local govern¬ ment. In 1886, the total number of communes was 36,121. They were classified by population as follows : Inhabitants. Communes. From 12 to 400 . 13,562 From 401 to 500 . 3,619 From 501 to 1,000 . 10,362 From 1,001 to 5,000... . 8,016 From 5,001 to 10,000 . 328 From 10,001 to 20,000 . 134 Above 20, 000 . 100 ^ The sources from which the information contained in this article is chiefly derived are the laws determining the operations of the system, reports of the special com¬ mission on statistics of primary instruction, reports of the ministers of public in¬ struction on secondary and suiierior instruction, and official journals. 112 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 113 GENERAL VIEW OF THE SYSTEM, It would be difficult to convey an idea of the present educational sys¬ tem of France without reference to the Imperial University established by Napoleon in 1808. From this organization the system derives much of its external form and many of its constituent parts. Napoleon gave to the university the monopoly of education. It was the state teach¬ ing.” This monopoly was gradually relinquished after the fall of the Emperor, and since the passage of the educational law of March 15, 1850, the word university has not been employed as the legal designation of the organized system of public education. In common language, however, the system is still often called the university.”^ The agencies for public education and the official machinery by which their operations are regulated form at present a great department of public affairs under the control of a cabinet officer, the minister of public instruction and fine arts,^ an office created August 26, 1824. The department comprises an administrative section, three scholastic sec¬ tions, i. e.y primary, secondary, and suiierior, and a section of fine arts. The last has the oversight of public art schools, museums, public build¬ ings, etc. The minister of public instruction also shares with other ministers authority over a number of special schools of art or technol¬ ogy. For example, over the Polytechnic School {Ecole polytechniqtie), with the minister of war ; the Superior School of Alines [Ecole super ieure des mmes), with the minister of public works, and the famous School of Arts and Manufactures [Ecole centrale des arts et manufactures)^ with the minister of commerce, of industry, and of colonies. The jurisdiction of the minister is not confined to institutions main¬ tained by the state, but extends in a measure to private schools and to the special schools maintained by municipalities, trade guilds, etc. These last form a very interesting feature of the educational provision of the countr^^. Paris is especially liberal in this respect, maintaining a great number of commercial and industrial art and science schools, where after the labors of the day artisans pursue the study of special subjects relating to their vocation. Among X)rovincial cities, Lyons, Toulouse, and Limoges are particularly rich in such provision.^ There are also municipal schools for higher departments of knowledge, the most imx>ortant of which is the Free School of Political Science [J^cole lihre des sciences politiques), maintained at Paris since 1872. To the department of the minister of t)iit)lic instruction and fine * See in this connection circular addressed by Jules Ferry to superior council, Siatistique de Venseir/nement superieur, 1878-88, p. 114. ^The incumbent of the office at the present time (February, 1889) is L^on Bour¬ geois ; the minister whose name was signed to the latest official reports, viz, for 1886-87 and 1887-88, was A. Fallihres. ^For very full accounts of this ]>rovisioa see reports of English Royal Commission on Technical Instruction, especially Volanm I. ED 89 - 8 114 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. arts belong also the great astronomic and meteorologic bureaus main¬ tained by the State. The minister controls the operations of the system through a series of officials belonging either to the central administration or to local ad¬ ministrative districts. A. CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION. The central administration includes the cabinet of the minister, a general director and assistant bureaus, whose duties relate to the sec¬ retaryships and accounts of the service 5 a general director for each of the three scholastic divisions, for the section of fine arts, and for the oversight of public buildings. General inspectors are also appointed to supervise the operations of the system throughout the country. The inspection of primary instruction is confided to six of these officials. Three other general inspectors are charged, one with the su- liervision of the internal conduct of normal schools, and national pro¬ fessional, i. e., technical and trade schools j a second, with the supervision of manual training in normal schools ; and the third, with the super¬ vision of gymnastics and military drill in the various classes of primary schools. The inspection of instruction in music, vocal and instrumental, of living languages, and of design in the normal schools and in the superior primary schools is confided to special inspectors. There are also four general inspectresses of infant schools. These officials are the direct representatives of the minister, conduct¬ ing their investigations in the portion of the country assigned to them according to his express direction, and reporting to him. The office of general inspector dates from the formation of the Imperial Uni¬ versity, 1808. The service was extended to primary instruction in 1846, events having proved the weakness of a system wanting this provision.^ B. ACADEMIC AND DEPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION. 1. For purposes of educational administration, France is divided into sixteen districts (or including Algiers, seventeen), termed academies. Each academie comprises all the schools, colleges, and facultes i. e., groups of university ” professors for superior instruction, within its bounds. It is in fact a scholastic organization, in which there is a graded series of teaching bodies or institutions. At the head is the rec¬ tor, who has control of the three orders of instruction, but particularly of secondary and superior instruction. He is assisted by an academic council. The rectors superintend the higher and secondary schools, ^For full account of the origin and development of the central administration see Statistique cle Venseignement, 1876, and same, 1887-1888. Also Le eonseil superieur de VinstrucUon publique, monograph by M. R. Jalliffier {Monograplms pedagogiqnes. Tome I). THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FEANCE. 115' oversee the private schools, and control the primary schools. They con¬ voke \MfaptiUes in their respective districts to devise courses of study, which are transmitted to the minister with the views of the rectors. (In the aeademie of Paris the nominal rector is the minister himself, who is represented by a vice-rector.) 2. The eighty-six departments of France form subordinate districts for educational administration within the academies. In the chief city of each department resides an academic inspector, inspecteur Wacademie, who is charged under the orders of the rector with the supervision of secondary instruction, and who shares with the prefect of the department the direction of primary instruction. The academic inspector and the prefect are assisted by a departmental council. At Paris, at Marseilles, and at Lille an academic inspector is exclu¬ sively charged with the service of primary instruction under the title of director of primary instruction of the department. At the majority of the chief towns of each departmental division and the chief places in many cantons, there are resident primary inspectors charged under the orders of the academic inspector with the direction and the control of primary instruction. The division into academies was made by Napoleon, who purposed forming as many of these districts as there were lower courts, “ courts of appeal.” The articulation of departments and minor divisions and the graded series of officials are also derived from the Imperial Uni¬ versity. THE COUNCILS. The councils helonging to the central administration. — The minister is assisted by an advisory council {comiie consultatif) formed by his own appointment from the company of general inspectors, honorary or acting, and from the highest officials pertaining to the three scholastic orders. This committee gives advice upon matters submitted by the minister. Traces of it appear to be found as early as 1804. Its formal constitution dates from a decree issued March 25, 1873, by Jules Simon, at that time minister of public instruction. It was organized in its present form by decree of May 11, 1880. The Superior Council of Public Instruction is the great deliberative head of the educational organization. It is composed of sixty members, three-fourths of whom are chosen by their peers from the three orders of instruction, the remaining number being appointed by the Presi¬ dent of the Republic upon the advice of the minister. The term of serv¬ ice is four years, with opportunity for reelection. The council is emi¬ nently a representative body, even women who are inspectresses of infant schools or directresses of normal schools being eligible to mem¬ bership. Nine of the members appointed by the President and six elected mem¬ bers constitute a permanent section, which meets every week j the en- 116 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. tire council holds two annual sessions, one in July, the other in De¬ cember. The permanent section deliberates upon matters which are to be sub¬ mitted to the general council, and offers its advice upon the same. These matters relate to programmes and regulations for all classes of schools, the creation of university courses or facultes, of lycees^ and of normal schools, the multiplication of chairs, text-books, and, in short, to all questions pertaining to studies, administration, discipline, and standards, which may be submitted by the minister. These questions are eventually deliberated in the general council, which prescribes the course of instruction in ail public schools and determines the conditions under which private schools may be opened. The council is also a final court of appeal from judgments rendered by the academic or departmental councils in certain cases of discipline or contention. The minister presides over the deliberations of the council. This body resembles the council of the Imperial University. It is a survival, preserved under various forms since the fall of Napoleon. Its spirit has, however, been completely changed by its transformation into an elective body. Created as an instrument of arbitrary power, the council has become a safeguard against it. Academic and departmental councils. — In each academic there is a council presided over by the rector and composed of members chosen for the most part by their peers, and representing the two higher or¬ ders of instruction, to whose interests the deliberations of the council are confined. Finally, in each department there is a council of primary instruction composed of members of the superior council and primary school direct¬ ors, under the presidency of the prefect, which deliberates, advises, and renders judgment in certain matters pertaining to primary schools.^ The administrative and supervisory service of the system, it is seen, emanates from the State, there being no independent local responsi¬ bility and supervision such as we are familiar with in this country. The councils are indeed representative bodies, but not representative of the people; while the election of teachers and professors by their peers to serve in these assemblies is a great advance over Napoleon’s policy of arbitrary appointments, it is widely removed from the policy of local initiative and local control which is more or less active in the school systems of all Anglo ^Saxon peoples. TENDENCIES OF CENTRALIZATION. The tendency of this centralized system is toward uniformity in the constitution and operations of establishments belonging to the same scholastic department. This uniformity is absolute in respect to those 1 For full accounts of the service of administration as related to primary instruction, its origin, and historical development, see LHvspection a ses differ ents degree, by Bert¬ rand and Boniface {MonograpMes pedagoQigues, Tome I). THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 117 parts of tbe service of which the State assumes the entire control, as the maintenance of the teaching force, the composition of courses ot* study, etc. With resi)ect to other features, although the regulations are the same for all similar institutions, their application is constantly modified by local conditions and by ineradicable tendencies which mani¬ fest themselves particularly in the development of institutions pf the highest order. For this reason it is only the operations of the primary department of the system that can be fairly exhibited in a view which is necessarily limited to general provisions. ORIGIN OF THE SCHOLASTIC INSTITUTIONS OF FRANCE. Two distinct systems of institutions, distinct as regards their origin, scholastic attributes, and present relations to the state, are comprised within the department of public instruction : (1) Primary schools, which belong to the modern era and which are largely the work of the present Republic, bearing no resemblance to and being in no sense a develop¬ ment from the parochial schools existing before the revolution of 1789 ; and (2) secondary and superior institutions, whose history can be traced to the Middle Ages. In 1833 a law, known as Guizot’s lavv, imposed upon the communes the obligation of establishing iiriinary schools. The general execution of this law was hindered by the lack of schoolhouses, the apathy of the people, and the absence of effective supervision. Some progress, how¬ ever, was made until the work was interrupted by the revolution of 1848. Between that time and the establishment of the iiresent government (1870) efforts were made to revive the policy, but with few practical results. Before undertaking to enforce the law in this respect the pres¬ ent Republic made the necessary provision for schoolhouses. A law of June 1, 1878, created a fund of $23,000,000 for this purpose, and the work of building began in earnest. This, with an effective supervision, has proved sufficient to secure the enforcement of the law obliging com¬ munes to establish schools. In 1886-87, 35,980 communes had per¬ formed this duty, 67 had only private schools, and 87 were without schools. By the law of June 16, 1881, instruction in public primary schools was made gratuitous, and by another law of the same date pri¬ mary teachers were required to be provided with state diplomas [bre¬ vets de capacite). This did away with the letters of authorization from ecclesiastics, and began in earnest the effort to make the schools thoroughly national in spirit and in purpose. A law of March 28, 1882, made attendance upon public primary schools compulsory for all chil¬ dren not otherwise instructed and confined the instruction to secular branches. The organization was completed by the law of October 30, 1886, which prescribed minutely all the details of the service of inspec¬ tion, of teaching, attendance, etc. The most important provision of this law, so far as immediate effects are concerned, was that n^qiiiring teachers to belong to the laity. Five years were allowed for the full 118 Education repoet, 18S8-89. acoomplishmeTit of tliis purpose in schools for boys, no limit being specified as to schools for girls. The principles involved in this system, i e., compulsion, gratuitous and secular instruction, and a teaching service owing sole allegiance to the state, must be tested by its operations, which are considered in de¬ tail in the following pages: Public secondary schools are of two kinds — classical schools (lycees) established by the state, and communal schools {colleges commimaiix) established by the communes assisted by the State. These schools have replaced the old ecclesiastical and university col¬ leges existing before the revolution of 1789. They preserve now very nearly the organization given to them by Napoleon. The state maintains for superior instruction facultes comprising groups of professional men for the service of liberal and professional education. These groups have replaced the ancient universities. The general operations of this complex system for 1887-88 are indi¬ cated by the following statistics : Table I. — Slaiistical summary of the educational system of France, 1887-88. Classes of institutions. Primary schools (public and private) : Infant schools {Fcoles maternelles) (ages 2 to 6). Elementary primary schools (ages 6 to 13). Superior i) r i m ary schools (ages 12 to — ). Primary school3(pub- lio and private). Secondary schools : Public (ages 8 to 20) ... . Private (ages 8 to 20) . . . Normal schools : Primary (ages 16 to 10). Secondary (ages 18 to 24) For service of special secondary U''oys). For service of special secondary (girls). Superior (ages 18 to 21 ; 24 to 27). University courses : Public . . Private . . . Cost of academic adminis¬ tration. Enrollment, Male. ! Female. 368, 670 2, 762, 541 27. 144 3, 158, 355 87, 979 70, 259 5,443 173 130 17, 630 262 372, 554 2, 725, 383 11,297 3, 109, 234 10, 403 3, 544 Teachers. Male. 63, 152 Female 8, 853 73, 663 (al 47, 362) 9, C05 8, 173 cl, 095 27 968 c889 c30 Total re¬ ceipts. Expenditures. Salaries. Total. $32, 700, 007 10, 408, 443 $20, 800, 641 l5$32,700,C07 10, 228, 995 1,880, 095 54, 483 32, 914 34, 574 55, 930 1, 880, 095 61, 222 54, 335 104, 115 d2, 927, 840 c400, 241 a Includes 1,585 directors and assistants of superior primary schools tabulated with elementary pri¬ mary teachers, and 1,694 special teachers not so tabulated. b Does not include private primary schools, c Includes administrative and household officials, d Includes /acttltcs and s])ecial schools. c Eighty-eight percent, borne by state; balance by departments. ENROLLMENT AND ATTENDANCE. The uumber of pupils enrolled in the primary schools, as shown in the foregoing table, is equivalent to 16 per cent, of the total population. Of the total enrollment 75 per cent, were between the obligatory ages, THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 119 L e., six to thirteen. They represented 98 per cent, of the population between those ages. These figures are, however, misleading, since the enrollment includes all names found upon the school registers, not ex^ eluding duplicates. For the purpose of estimating more exactly, the ratio of the attend¬ ance of pupils in the public primary schools to the enrollment in those schools a special enumeration was made of all the pupils present De¬ cember 4, 1886, the season of largest attendance upon the schools, and the 4th of June, 1887, the season when attendance falls to the minimum. The number present at the former date was 3,508,409, being 91 i)er cent, of the number borne on the registers for that month, and 79 per cent, of the total enrollment for the year. The number present at the later enumeration (June 4, 1887), was 3,216,739, or 88 per cent, of the number borne on the registers for the month of Jyine, and 72 per cent, of the annual enrollment.^ Comparison with 1881-82. — From a comparison of the statistics of 1881-82 with those of 1886-87, it appears that the population of school age in France (six to thirteen) increased during the five years by 3.1 per cent., while the number of children between those ages enrolled in the schools increased by 6.5 per cent. During the same time, the enrolment of children under 6 years of age increased by 2.1 per cent., while the enrolment of children above 13 years of age diminished by 4.7 per cent. The number of boys in secondary instruction averages one for every 239 inhabitants, or if we include the students of primary and sec¬ ondary normal schools for men, 1 for every 231 inhabitants. In the absence of statistics respecting private secondary establishments for girls, comparison here is not possible. The attendance upon university courses and the superior normal school averages 1 student for every 2,104 inhabitants. FINANCES. INCOME. The income of the state system is derived from state and local appro¬ priations, tuition fees, the property of institutions, gifts, and legacies. Local appropriations are communal or departmental. The state appropriates annually a sufQcieut sum to meet the current expenditures of the system j the amounts derived for that purpose from the departments and the communes, and the receipts from fees either for tuition or board, are placed to the credit of the state. The tax levied upon the communes for the current expenditure of primary education was fixed by the law of July 14, 1889, at 8.12 per ^Foreign critics of French primary schools express surprise at the high percent¬ ages of attendance, especially in Paris ; see in this connection a report by Sir B. Samnelson, M. P., published as a Parliamentary paper. 120 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. cent, of tlie revenue from the four direct taxes levied by the state for general purposes. EXPENDITURES. Primary schools. — The expenditures for primary schools are divided into three classes, obligatory, optional, and divers. The obligatory ex¬ penditures are current and extraordinary. The latter are for the pur¬ chase of sites and the construction of buildings. The following table shows the amount of the current expenditures in 1886-87, with the pro¬ portional part borne by each contributing source. Table II. — Current expenditures for public primary schools, 1886-87. Sources. Ordinary. Divers. Grand total. Proportion from each source. ^ _____ Per capita o f population. Obliga¬ tory. Optional. Total. Pro¬ portion from each source. Per capita ofpopu- lation. Communes . Departments . . . State . Totals.... $6, 133, 613 2, 558, 885 15, 984, 812 $1, 875, 079 717 67, 098 ■i=8, 008, 692 2, 557, 602 16, 051, 910 Perce.nl 30. 08 9. 58 60.34 Cents. i$6, 103. 525 1 931,522 1 896, 851 $14,112, 217 3, 519, 124 16,918,761 Percent 40.6 10.5 48. 9 Cents. 24,675,310 1,942,894 26, 618, 204 1 i 70 7, 961, 8S8 ' 34, 580, 102 1 90 The obligatory expenditure, column 2 of the above table, includes the costs of administration and of the primary normal schools; omit¬ ting these, the aniount would be $22,306,280, which was furnished as follows : Per cent. Communes . - . . 27 Departments . . . 5 State . . . 68 The marked diminution in the proportional part borne by the depart¬ ments is due to the fact that by far the largest share of the expense for normal schools falls upon them. The largest item in this expenditure wms teachers’ salaries, which amounted to 93 per cent, of the total obligatory expenditure and to 60 per cent, of the grand total. Divers expenditures, column 7, include the costs of adult courses, funds for aiding teachers, scholarships for worthy pupils, library funds, etc. Comparisons with 1881-82. — As compared with 1881-82 the statistics show an increase of 16 per cent, in the ordinary obligatory expenditures on account of the public primary schools, and of 30 per cent, in the grand total of expenditure. Comparisons based upon the total expenditures at the two dates are misleading, as prior to 1885 no account was kept of the funds contributed by the communes for divers expenses. Omitting this element alto¬ gether, the part borne by each contributing source at the two dates, THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 121 will be seen from the following table. The significant fact brought out by this comparison is the relative increase of local eftbrt. Year. i Com- muues. Depart¬ ments. state. 1S82 . . . Per cent. 21 30 Per cent. 13 10 Per cent. G6 60 1887 . Extraordinary expenditures. — The current expenditure does not repre¬ sent the whole effort put forth by the state for the maintenance of pri¬ mary education. The extraordinary expenditures which pertain to the construction and repair of schoolhouses and the supply of school material have yet to be considered. The law imposes upon the communes the duty of providing and main¬ taining suitable school buildings and premises. Communes having no funds available for the purpose must secure a loan from the state. Under the law of June 20, 1885, this advance takes the form of an an¬ nual sum equal to one-fourth of the principal and interest of the sum borrowed by the comioune. The advances are repayable in 30 years at the least, and in 40 years at the most. The entire expenditure for the construction of school-houses from 1878 to December 31, 1887, was $101,824,185. Of this sum 86.G3 per cent, was paid prior to 1885 ; 13.37 per cent, from 1885 to 1887, inclu¬ sive. The sum was derived as follows ; Per cent. Communes . 58. 47 Departments . 2. 53 tate . 39. 00 Secondary schools. — The material in hand does not permit a detailed view of the expenditures for secondary schools. The total receipts for the public secondary schools, i. e., for boys and girls, amounted in 1887 to $10,406,443, of which about 36 per cent, was derived from public funds. The sources of income for the different classes of institutions differ so widely, that a general summary of finances is misleading. The following analysis shows the composition and distribution of the annual income of every class of secondary schools: Sources of income. Lye6es (boys). Commu¬ nal col¬ leges. Secondary establish¬ ments for girls. State appropriations . . - . . Per cent. 23. 0 Per cent. 17.0 0.5 24.0 Per cent. 36.5 1.5 21.0 Departmental . . . 0.3 Communal or municipal . . . Scholarships . . . 9.5 63. 0 Pai’euts or guardians . . . . . . . 51.0 41.0 Kents, interest, etc . 4.2 Annual subscriptions . . . 4.5 \ 122 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. Superior instruction. — The income of facultes and superior schools amounted in 1887-88 to nearly $3,000,000, derived as follows: Per ceDt, From state appropriations . 96 Municipalities . 4 Covered by fees . • . . 33 It should also be observed that since 1877 above $23,000,000 have been expended in buildings and equipments, of which the state bore 56 per cent., and the cities which are the seats of the facultes the balance. The entire public expenditure for education in 1887 was about $40,000,000, of which 86 per cent, was for primary instruction. QUALIFICATIONS, APPOINTMENTS, AND DISCIPLINE OF TEACHERS OF PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The teaching service of primary instruction is regulated in the main by the laws of October 30, 1886, and of Jul}^ 19, 1889. The qualifications for the service, as determined by the former law, are as follows : Nationality and age. — Teachers must be French citizens ; if men, must be at least eighteen years of age, and if women, at least seventeen. A director of a school must be at least twenty-one years of age. No one under twenty-five years of age can be a director of a superior primary -school or of a school which has a boarding department, luirectors and directresses of normal schools must be at least thirty years of age. Attainments., character, etc.— In accordance with the law of June 16, 1881, teachers must be provided with state diplomas {brevets de capacite). There are two grades of diplomas for teachers of elementary primary schools (brevet elementaire and brevet supSrieur). Candidates are exam¬ ined by boards {commissions d^cxamen) which are composed of members appointed by the academic rectors. No one can be examined for the higher diploma who has not secured the lower. There are also diplo-' mas {brevets de capacite) for teachers of superior primary schools, nor¬ mal schools, and for teachers of special branches in these. No one who has been condemned in the courts fox crime or immorality is eligible to the service. By the law of October 30, 1886, all administrative functions and all commercial and industrial pursuits are forbidden to public school teach¬ ers, and they must be drawn exclusively from the laity. Time was allowed for carrying out this last provision, and also for eliminating teachers not provided with diplomas. The situation with respect to these requirements in the public schools in 1881-82, and again in 1886-87, was as follows : 1881-82. 1886-87. Percentage of teachers having diplomas ; Lay . .. . 98.1 99,7 Belonging to religious orders . . 46 73.4 Percentage of lav teachers in total of teachers . . . 77 88 tHE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OlT FRANCE. 123 Appointment and discipline of primary teachers. — Teachers of primary schools are fall {titulaires)^ or probationers {stagiaires), the latter form* ing about 20 per cent, of the effective force. The titulaires are ap¬ pointed by the prefects. Great dissatisfaction has been manifested with this provision ; and as a consequence the power of the prefects was modified by the law of October 30, 1886, which required them to select teachers from lists of candidates prepared by the departmental councils; the stagiaircs receive their appointments from the academic inspector. The penalties to which teachers are subject are reprimand, censure, reduction in position, suspension, removal, and absolute dismissal from the service. These penalties are inflicted by the academic inspector or by the prefect, the teacher having the right of appeal to the minister or to the supreme council. Salaries.— The law of July 19, 1889, regulating the salaries of teachers abrogates the law passed just forty years previous. Under the present law the state becomes responsible for all salaries, and the rates of com- l)ensation have been somewhat increased. Principal teachers are di¬ vided into three groups, viz, elementary, superior primary, and normal; each group is divided into five classes, with annual salaries fixed as follows : Primar; y schools. Superior primary teachers. Xormal schools. Men. Women. Men. Women. Fifth class . . . $200 $100 210 $360 $700 800 $600 700 FouT'th class . . . 210 400 Third class . 300 280 400 900 800 Second class . . . . . . . 300 300 500 1,000 1, 100 900 First class . 400 320 560 1, 000 An additional sum of $10 is allowed principals in charge of a school of three or four classes, and of $80 for a school of more than four classes. Promotion from one grade of salary to the next may be made with¬ out a change of place ; it depends upon the length and efficiency of service and can only take place when there is a vacancy. Moreover, teachers of the fifth and fourth classes can not be promoted to a supe¬ rior class until after five years’ service in the inferior position; no teacher is eligible to the second or first class who is not provided with the highest certificate [brevet supSrieur) and who has not served at least three years in the class preceding. It is, however, expressly provided that so far as length of service affects promotion, teachers having served ten years may be placed in the fifth class ; fifteen years, in the fourth class ; twenty years, in the third ; and twenty-five years, in the second. Assistant teachers in primary schools are paid $160. Assistant teachers in superior primary schools, from $220 to $420. In addition to his salary, every teacher must be provided with a resi- 124 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. dence or with a money equivalent for the same. The law imposes this provision upon the communes, and fixes the rates of indemnity for residences for teachers in charge of a school having more than two classes, or haring a class of the superior primary grade, as follows: In localities wliere the population is from — > 1,000 to 3,000 . ^20 3,001 to 9,000 . 40 9,001 to 12,000 . GO 12,001 to 18,000 . 80 18,001 to 35,000 . 100 35,001 to 60,000 . 120 60,001 to 100,000 . 140 100,001 and above . 160 In the city of Paris . 400 The indemnity for residences allowed all other regular teachers is one-half the above sums, and for probationers one-fourth. Communes of less than 1,000 inhabitants, which are the chief places of their respective cantons, pay the same indemnity as those of 1,000. Pensions^ -The law of June 9, 1853, extending the civil pension list to include teachers, still remains in force; teachers who are pledged to give ten years’ service in the public schools are relieved from mili¬ tary service in time of peace. PROVISION FOR TRAINING-. Provision for the training of teachers is a prominent feature of the French system of education. For the service of primary instruction the state maintains two supe¬ rior normal schools, one at St. Cloud, designed to prepare professors for the primary normal schools for men, and a corresponding school for women at Fontenay-aux-Roses; also the normal school Pape-Carpantier at Versailles for the training of directresses of infant schools. Moreover every department is obliged by law to maintain at least two normal schools, one for the training of masters and the other for mistresses of primary schools. With a single exception, every depart¬ ment has established one or more normal schools for masters; the total number in 1887-88 being 90, with an enrollment of 5,443 pupils, and 1,709 graduates at the close of the year. The normal schools for mis¬ tresses number 81, with 3,544 students in 1887-88 and 1,118 graduates. PROFESSORS OF SECONDARY AND SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. Qaalificafdons and appointment. — The professors of secondary and of superior instruction belong alike to the professional corps of the uni- versitS, differing from each other for the time being by virtue of the rank which they have achieved. Their classification and designation illustrate the precision of the official grading and at the same time Suggest successive steps in the THE EDUCATIONAL ISYSTEM OF FEANCE. 125 historic development of the service. Two titles, professor and agrege^ are common to secondary and superior institutions. Agreges, as the word indicates, have been added to the professional body as originally instituted, for reasons that will appear hereafter. While bearing the same titles, professors and agreges of secondary instruction do not rank as high in the universite as the corresponding members of the facultes either in respect to salaries or to scholastic recognition. Professors of the lycees are full {i. e., titulaires) or divisional, the latter being in charge of a division of a class. A professor must have a university degree; for the lycees^ at least the bachelor’s degree. A professor in Si faculte must have the doctor’s degree of that order. The title agrege does not, like a degree, indicate the completion of a course of study, but the mastery of a particular branch; thus there are agreges in philosophy, history, mathematics, lit¬ erature, chemistry, anatomy, and physiology. Candidates for the agregation must have the doctor’s degree, and must pass a competitive examination, the nature of which is determined by the class of agregation to which they aspire. The agreges rank im¬ mediately after the full professors; they may assist in examinations conducted by the professors and may replace them in their absence. No person is eligible to this position unless he is twenty-five years of age. The minister can authorize the agreges^ on recommendation of the dean of a faculte, supported by the rector of the academie, to open comple¬ mentary courses; that is, private courses, additional to the regular courses in the locality of the faculU to which they belong. The agreges are the only class of assistants included in thoi facultes of law and of medicine. The facultes of science and of letters include also assistants termed charges de cours» and instructors who are called maitres de conferences. The last named class of assistants was instituted by a decree of 1877. They are intended to supplement the lessons of the prolessors by instruction of a far more detailed and personal character, conducted by means of questions and explanations after the manner of recitations in American colleges. These instructors are appointed by the minister for one year, but their appointments can be indefinitely renewed. In addition to pro¬ fessors and agreges the teaching force of the lycees includes assistants assigned to special duties and tutors called maitres repetiteurs. Professors of lycees are appointed by the Minister of Public Instruc¬ tion. Maitres repetiteurs of the lycees and certain professors in the communal secondary schools are appointed by the minister upon the recommendation of academic rectors. Full professors of the facultes are appointed by the President of the Pepublic upon the proposition of the minister of public instruction, who makes his choice from two lists, one presented by the council of the faculte in which the vacancy occurs, and the other by the perma¬ nent section of the superior council. 126 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Salaries — secondary instruction.— -l\i respect to the salaries of profes¬ sors and officers of the lycees, special provisions have been made for Paris and Lyons. In the former, the principals {proviseurs) receive $1,800; in the latter, and thronghont the departments, with these ex¬ ceptions, the salaries are as follows : 1 1 L.yc6e of | Lyons. Lvc6e of depart¬ ments. First class . . . j Second eJass . . . . . . . i $1, C40 1, 540 $1, 500 1, 400 Third class . . . . . 1,440 1, 340 1,300 1,200 Fourth class . . . In the lycee of Versailles, and in the department of the Seine, the censeurs, i. e., officers charged with the general conduct of studies and discipline, receive a salary of $1,G00. In the remaining lycees their salaries are as follows : 1 Lyc6e of Lyons. Lyc6e of depart¬ ments. First class . . f4f>r,nn fl elass _ _ _ _ _ _ _ $1,250 1,100 980 $1, 120 1, 000 "^Phird class .. _ . _ _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ ’ 880 Fourth class . . . 800 760 The salaries of chaplains are also greater at Versailles and in the department of the Seine than elsewhere; in the two former they range from $700 to $900 for head chaplains, and from $520 to $680 for sub¬ ordinate chaplains. In the remaining lycees they range from $400 to $520. The fixed salaries of stewards range from $800 to $1,600. The salaries of the members of the teaching corps are as follows : First class. Second class. j Third class. Fourth class. Fifth class. Sixth class. Full professors . ^ i $1, Oi)-l, 500 $960-1, 400 $888-1, 300 $800-1, 200 $720-1, 100 $640-1, 000 Assistants in charge of clas¬ sical courses who have re¬ ceived thedejrree of licen¬ tiate or the certificate of aptitude in living Ian- 9G0-1, 500 880-9C0 800-880 720-800 640-720 560-640 . . . Assistants in charge of spe¬ cial secondary courses who have certificate of apti- tiiflft _ _ _ _ 800-880 720-800 640-720 560-600 Assistants in charge of studies, but not provided with the degree of licen¬ tiate nor with the certifi¬ cate of aptitude . . . . 720-780 660-720 j 600-660 540-600 480-540 420-480 Salaries of professors of superior instruction. — The full professors of the Paris facultes are divided into two classes, the first receiving a salary of $3,000 and the second $2,400. In the faculte of protestant theology the professors of the first class receive a salary of $1,600, and tiiose of the second $1,300, THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 127 ; In the superior school of pharmacy the professors of the first class receive $2,200, and those of the second class $1,800. The professors of facuUes of the departments receive annual salaries as follows : First class. Second class. Third class. Fourth class. Protestant tL.eo]o<^v _ ...... _ ..... _ ............... _ _ _ $1, 300 2, 200 2, 200 2, 200 2, 200 1, 700 $1, 100 2, 000 2,000 2, 000 2, 000 ], 500 $900 1, 600 1, 600 1, 600 1,600 1,300 $1,200 1,200 1,200 1, 200 Medicine _ _ ........ _ _ _ _ ....... _ _ _ ..... _ ....... Sciences .................. _ .... _ ....... _ ............ _ Letters . . . . . . .... _ _ _ ...... _ _ Superior scliool of pharmacy . . . . . The deans receive extra compensation, amounting to $GOO in Paris, and $200 elsewhere. COURSES OP STUDY. Primary schools — The course of study for primary schools prescribed by the law of March 28, 1882, comprises the following branches : Moral and civic instruction, reading, writing, the elements of arithmetic and the metric system, history and geography, especially of France ; object lessons, and the first notions of science, elements of design, of singing, manual work (needlework in the schools for girls), gymnastic exercises, and in the schools for boys military drill. In the superior primary schools these branches of instruction are re¬ viewed and more fully develoi)ed. The course is extended to include algebra and geometry j natural science and physics, and their applica¬ tions to agriculture, to industrial arts and to hygiene; political economy, French language and literature, general .history, industrial and com¬ mercial geography, iron and wT)od w'ork for boys, and cutting and fit¬ ting for girls. One foreign language is also included. Additional courses pertaining to local industries may be authorized by the min¬ ister upon the demand of local committees supported by the academic inspector and approved by the departmental council. Normal schools. — In the primary (i e., departmental) normal schools, the studies of the primary course are reviewed with reference to meth¬ ods of instruction, and at the same time developed to include the full scope and scholastic bearing of those subjects. Pedagogy and school administration are treated both theoretically and practically. In the division of the day, eight hours are allowed for sleep and about five for eating, recreation, toilet, etc. Of the hours reserved for scholastic duties five at least are to be devoted to the preparation of studies, ex¬ ercises, and to practical work. The hours of instruction in each week do not exceed twenty-five in the schools for men and twenty-two in the schools for women. Of this time, in both normal schools for men and for women, five hours a week are given to literary instruction the first year, three hours the second, and two the third year. The rest of the time is devoted to the instruction in science and in design. Instruction in the following subjects is given outside the regular class hours: in the normal schools for men, agricultural and manual work, military and gymnastic exercises, vocal and instrumental music ; in tfie 128 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. normal schools for women, needle-work, housework and gardening, gym¬ nastics, and vocal and instrumental music. The course of study in these schools covers three years. An entrance examination is required, to which no one is admitted who has not obtained the lowest grade teacher’s certificate (brevet elementaire). Upon the completion of the course, students must present themselves for the examination for the higher grade certificate (brevet superieur). Secondary courses.''^ — Courses of secondary study are of three general classes. The full classical course leading to the degree of bachelor of letters or bachelor of science, received its present form from the de¬ crees of March 24, 1865, and January 22, 1885. The other two are the course of special secondary instruction created by the law of July 21, 1865, which leads to the diploma of bachelor of special secondary instruction, and the course of secondary instruction for girls, as consti¬ tuted by the law of December 21, 1880, and subsequent modifications of the same.^ 1 This statement gives the composition of secondary courses up to August 8, 1890. On that day, a decree issued hy the President of the Republic established a single bachelor’s degree in place of the degrees of Bachelor of Letters, Bachelor of Sciences, and limited degree of Bachelor of Sciences. As the courses of thelycdes are intended to prepare students for the examinations leading to this degree, this change will nat¬ urally cause some modification in the plan of studies. 2 The prescribed studies for the two last classes of the classical course will suffice for comparison with typical courses in the United States. The following conspectus gives in an abridged form the official programme for the classes of rhetoric and phi¬ losophy, and for the special mathematical course which may be substituted for these classes or entered the year preceding the stage of rhetoric. CLASS OF RHETOEIC. (AGE SIXTEEN TEARS.) ^ French. — Four hours a week. Eleven authors of XVJI, XVIII, and XIX centuries. Fifteen lessons on the history of French literature from the time of Louis XIII. Latin. — Four hours a week. Portions of Terence, Lucretius, Virgil, Horace, Cicero, Livy, and Tacitus. Greelc. — Four hours a week. Portions of Flomer, Sophocles, Aristophanes, Plato, and Demosthenes. German or English.— Two hours a week. Authors in English — Shakspeare, Wash¬ ington Irving, Byron, Tennyson, Dickens, and George Eliot. History. — Two hours a week. History of Europe, and particularly of France, from 1610 to 1789. Geography. — One hour a week. Physical, political, administrative, and economic geography of France and its colonies. Geometry and Cosmography. — Two hours a week. Solid geometry finished — through the sphere. The celestial sphere. Earth, sun, time, moon, eclipses, planets, stars, universal gravitation, tides. Chemstry. — Two hours a week first half year. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlo¬ rine, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, and their most important combinations. General notions of the metals, oxides, and salts. Principal organic compounds. No¬ menclature and notation. Draiving. — The human head from nature. Landscape from prints and nature. CLASS OF PHILOBOPHT. (AGE SEVENTEEN YEARS.) Psychology , Logic, Ethics, and Metaphysics. — Nine hours a week, of which eight hours are for the general course hud two French authors, and one hour for one Latin TJIE EDUCxVTIONAL SYSTEM OF FINANCE. 129 The full classical course covers seven years, following an elementary course of three years, in which the studies are substantially those of the primary schools, with the addition of Latin and the exclusion of manual training. The special secondary course, which is intended for students who con¬ template a commercial or industrial career, covers six years. This course affords also the means of coordination between primary and secondary instruction, pupils from the elementary primary schools being admitted - - - - - - « and one Greek author. The two French authors are chosen each year from a list containing works of Descartes, Malebranche, Pascal, Leibnitz, Condillac, and Cou¬ sin. The course includes an account of sensibility, intelligence, and volition, of formal and applied logic, of conscience and duty, of family and country, of political duties, of labor, capital, and property, of immortality and natural religion. History. — Two hours a* week. Contemporary history, 1789 to 1875. Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry. — Four hours a week. Review of the whole course in those subjects. Physics. — Two hours a week. Optics. Applications of physics: Steam-engines, magneto-electric machines, electro-plating, telephone. Physiology, Animal and Vegetable. — Two hours a week. Nutrition, organs of sense, voice, apparatus for movement, nerves. Vegetable nutrition and reproduction. Drawing.'— Tvro hours a week. Same as in the preceding year. SPECIAL MATHEMATICAL COURSE. PREPARATOllY CLASS OF MATHEMATICS. (AGE, FIFTEEN OR SIXTEEN.) Mathematics— Ten hours a week. Arithmetic through proportion. Algebra through equations of the second degree. Geometry : Plane and solid. Cosmography: Same as class of rhetoric. Natural History. — One hour a week. Zoology ; Man, vertebrates, articulates, mol- lusks. Botany: Analysis and classification of plants, divisions of the vegetable king¬ dom by typical specimens. Geology: The principal rocks, changes of the earth’s crust, geologic periods. Physiology: Animal and vegetable, as in the class of phi¬ losophy. Language. — Seven hours. Review of previous work in French, Latin, German, or English. History and Geography . — Four hours. Review of work of class of rhetcric and pre¬ ceding class. Drawing and Design. — Four hours. Gymnastics. — Two hours. Religion. — Optional. CLASS OF ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS. (AGES SIXTEEN OR SEVENTEEN YEARS.) Mathematics. — Ten hours a week. Arithmetic ; review of previous work with more varied applications. Algebra: equations of the second degree, properties of trino¬ mials of the second degree, maxima and minima, theory and applications of loga¬ rithms. Solid geometry. Conic sections and the helix. Descriptive geometry. Plane trigonometry. Cosmography : review of course of class of rhetoric, with ex¬ tension. Science. — Six hours a week. Mechanics, physics, chemistry. Languages. — Seven hours aAveek, viz: French, three; Latin, two; English or Ger¬ man, two. French: Grammar and composition. Authors; Bossuet, Voltaire, Boi- leau. La Fontaine, classical plays. Latin: Cesar’s Gallic War ; Cicero, three orations ; Virgil, Eclogues, and three books of the iEueid ; Horace’s Satires. German : Selections, prose and verse ; Lessing’s Laocoon ; Schiller, two dramas; Thirty Years’ War; Goethe, ED 89-^ — -9 130 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. to it if they are prepared in everything but the living languages. Their deficiency in this respect is made up in special classes. The course of secondary instruction for girls covers five years. Stu¬ dents who complete three years of the course and pass the required ex¬ amination receive a partial diploma, and those who go through the whole course are candidates for the full diploma. The composition of these several courses and the distribution of the entire time among the different subjects are as follows : Full classical course — Seven years (ages 11 io 18). Per cent. Per cent. of time of time Studies. allotted Studies. allotted (entire (entire course). course). Classics . . . . . 38. 0 1 Alathematies . 8.44 French _ _ _ _ _ _ 11.4 Sei price . . . . . 6. 16 Modern languages . . 8. 08 Hrawin ^ _ _ _ 9. 00 History, including geographj'^ . 13.0 Psychology, logic, ethics, and meta-. 5. 83 phyics. Students who desire, may substitute for the last two or three years of the classical course the special mathematical course, which leads to the degree of Bachelor of Science. In these classes, 36 per cent, of the time is given to mathematics, and 16 per cent, to the sciences. Courses of sjjecial secondary instruction— seven years (ages 12 to 18). Studies. French. . Foreign languages . History, including geography Mathematics . Physics . . Natural history . . Chemistry . . Per cent, of time allotted (entire course). Studies. 1 .! 15.72 1 18.23 10. 06 16. 90 6.28 3.77 6.03 1 Affirnls -- _ _ _ _ - Law, notions of common, commercial, and industrial . . . Political pconomy _ _ _ Pbilosopliy _ _ _ _ Writing and drawing . Lookkeepiug . . Per cent, of time allotted (entire course). .69 1.25 .69 2.51 17.61 1. 25 Ipliig^nie; Hermann et Dorotlide. English: Macaulay, essays; Sheridan, The School for Scandal; Sheakespeare, three plays; Milton, Paradise Lost, two hooks. History and Geograjjhy.— Three hours a week. Same as course of classes of rhetoric and philosophy. Drawing and Design. — Four hours a week. Gymnastics. — Two hours a week. Eeligion. — Optional. Following the class of elementary mathematics is the class of special mathematics. The course for this class, which is too elaborate to be reproduced here, is determined by the admission requirements of the Polytechnic School and the Superior Normal School. With the exception of a brief review of the previous work in literature, with extension of the course in English or German, the time is entirely devoted to mathe¬ matics, mechanics, physics, and chemistry. Students who complete the first two years of the special course of mathematics arS candidates for the diploma of bachelor of science ; but if they have this end in view they must add to the subjects specified the assigned work in philosophy. This in¬ cludes elements of logic and ethics, and occupies one hour a week. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 131 Course of secondary insiruction for girls. Studies. Per cent, of time allotted (entire course.) Studies. Percent, of time allotted (entire course.) 23. 75 "NT ep.f) 1 e worlf _ _ 11.99 TTiflt.r»T*Y pi'fl or An (Trophy . . . 12. 20 llftsicrn and drawing'.. . . . 11. 44 ^niAnnA 7Tio,t,hp.TnO,fiir,ci . . . _ 18. 39 Vocal music . . . 5.36 ^npAlCTTI lpT>O*Tl0,gA,tl _ _ _ _ . 11. 49 G-ymnastics . . . 5. 74 Courses of superior instruction. — The composition of the courses of superior instruction is determined by the purposes to which they are directed ; they are either general, that is for liberal culture ) or special, that is designed to prepare students for law, medicine, engineering, professorships, etc. Side by side with the traditional university studies, these courses show large and constantly increasing development in pure and applied science, in philosophy, and in political and social science. This increase has been i)romoted by the creation of complementary courses and con¬ ferences^ to which reference has already been made. The former, as the word indicates, provide for subjects not included in the titulary chairs. Thus, as M. Liard explains, in a faculte where there is only one chair of philosophy, a course of the history of philosophy would be comple¬ mentary.” They afford opportunity for students to extend their re¬ searches in particular lines under the guidance of si^ecialists, while the conferences serve to reiterate and enforce the subject-matter of the regular courses. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS. Glassification and description of primary schools. — The department of I)rimary instruction, as organized by the law of October 30, 1886, com¬ prises infant schools and classes, elementary primary schools, superior primary schools, and schools of manual apprenticeship. The line of separation between these dilferent classes of schools and the division among them of the prescribed subjects of primary instruction are de¬ termined by special regulations elaborated in the suiierior council of public instruction. All of these schools are free and secular, and the teachers must in all cases be appointed from the laity. The law with respect to compulsory attendance applies only to the elementary pri¬ mary schools. 1. Infant schools {ecoles maternelles) and infant classes : In the infant schools, children of both sexes from two to six years of age receive together physical, moral, and intellectual training adapted to their tender years. These schools are wholly in the charge of women ; the teaching force includes a directress, and an assistant if the number of children is more than fifty. The teachers are always aided by a sewing woman. 132 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. In every commune where a i)nblic maternal school exists, one or more committees of women are formed to keep watch over its sanitary and hygienic conditions, the general appearance of the establishment, and the disposition of funds or gifts, legacies, etc., received for the benefit of the children. The mayor presides over these committees. Communes are not obliged bylaw to found and maintain maternal schools, and it is only in communes having above 2,000 inhabitants, of which at least 1,200 are concentrated in one locality, that these schools are included in the number of public primary schools entitled to support by the commune and to State subventions. These schools are better adapted to cities than to rural districts. A little more than 10 percent, of the communes report at least one infant school. Infant classes are under similar regulations ; they are but annexes either to primary elementary or to infant schools, between which they form an intermediate degree. The usual age of attendance is four to seven years. 2. The elementary primary schools are for the instruction of children from six to thirteen years of age, that is, the obligatory school period. In communes having neither infant schools nor infant classes, the age for admission to the elementary primary schools is lowered to five years ; it is raised to seven where there is an infant class. Children above thir¬ teen years of age can not be admitted to the elementary primaries with¬ out special permission. The elementary primary schools may be for boys only, in which case the instruction is given by men ; for girls only or mixed as to sex, in both of which cases the instruction is given by women. The master of a boys’ school may be assisted by his wife, sister, or mother ; under certain circumstances the departmental council may au¬ thorize a man to take charge of a mixed school, provided it has a mis¬ tress of sewing and cutting. Every commune must be provided with at least one public primary school. The departmental council, however, with the consent of the minister may authorize two or more communes to unite for the main¬ tenance of a school. When a commune or a number of united com¬ munes have 501) inhabitants or more, they must provide a special school for girls, or in its place a mixed school, if the departmental council is agreed. The distribution of pupils among separate and mixed schools in 1887 was as follows : Clas.s. Total enrollment. Per cent, enrolled. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Separate schools . . . . J 2, 789, 685 2, 736, 680 ( 85. 85 \ U. 15 87.57 12. 43 Mixed schools . . . . . . . According to the law of March 20, 1883, a commune is bound to pro¬ vide a school not only in each chief town, but also in all villages or cen- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 133 ters of population remote from towns or separated from each other by three kilometres and containing at least twenty children of school age. Of the 36,121 communes only 80, or 0.2 per cent., were without primary schools in 1886-87. 3. Superior primary instruction is given either in superior primary schools or in complementary courses.” The establishment takes the latter name if it is annexed to an elementary primary school, and the former if it has a distinct location and is under a separate direction. The complementary courses comprise one or two years. The superior primary schools may comprise two or more years, and must be provided with as many rooms as there are classes. They are called full-course schools {Scales de plein exercice) when they comprise at least three years’ study. As regards the character of the studies pursued, these schools belong to one of two classes, according as they have or have not provision for industrial or technical training. Schools of the former class admit i^upils Avho are provided with the certificate of primary studies. The latter are called professional schools. Xo pupils under 12 years of age are admitted to these, and applicants not provided with the certificate of primary studies must pass an entrance examination. In these schools, the greater part of the time is devoted to manual work and to scientific and technological instruc¬ tion with their commercial and industrial applications. They are un¬ der the double authority of the minister of public instruction and the minister of commerce. Instruction is gratuitous in the superior primary schools ; bursaries, or scholarships, are maintained iii them by the State, by the departments, and by the communes respectively, 4. The schools of manual apprenticeship are designed to develop in young people who are destined for mapual pursuits the necessary skill and technical knowledge. They differ from the professional schools described in the foregoing paragraph in this respect, that the technical training is directed to special industries forming a veritable apprenticeship, whereas in the former, the training is directed to the development of a taste for manual work, accuracy of the eye, manual dexterity, and practical ideas of divers orders, forming altogether a suitable preparation for apprenticeship to some particular art. The schools of manual apprenticeship are also under the double authority of the minister of public instruction and the minister of com¬ merce. The schools of these several classes may be either public or private. The following table shows the distribution of teachers and pupils in the different grades of schools, both public and private, in 1886-87. 134 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Table III. — Primary instruction, 1886-87. ENEOLLMEKT AND TEACHEES. Enrollment. No. of teachers. Averatre number of pupils enrolled to one teacher. Public. Private. Public. Private. Public. Private. Total. Infant schools, etc.: Male . . . 264, 801 254, 023 103, 869 Pp.Tnalpi _ _ _ 118, 531 Tntfll . . . 518, 824 222, 400 (,8,8^3) 83 Elementary : ■Ntfllft . 2, 439, 667 1,974,176 322, 874 751, 207 54, 822 42, 4C9 8. 330 31,' 194 Ee.ma.lo . . Tnfal . 4, 413, 843 1, 074, 081 97, 291 39, 524 45 27 40 Superior, etc. : Male . . . 22, 755 7, 970 4,389 3, 327 1 tab .58.51 < Eemale. . . 5 {b 1, 694) ) Total . 30, 725 7,716 (145, 668) frrnnd total _ _ _ (6, 267, 589) (147, 362) a Directors and assistants of superior primary schools tabulated with elementary primary teachers. b Special teachers not included in the tabulation for elementary primary. i Per cent. Per cent, Eatio of total enrollment to total population . 16 Eatio of enrollment (6 to 13) to total enrollment . 75 Eatio of enrollment (6 to 13) to population (6 to 13) . 98 The superior primary schools specified in the foregoing table do not include either the technical {i. e., professional) or manual training schools,^ but simply those superior primary schools which are under the sole charge of the min ister of public instruction. Manual training, ifc should be obser ved, however, is a feature of these schools also. In 1887 they numbere d, including complementary courses, 559, of which 419 were for boys, and 140 for girls. Of the total number, 539 were public schools. These enrolled 80 per cent, of the 38,441 pupils registered in this class of schools. A large proportion of the students who pass through these schools enter at once upon some business career j many continue their studies in the government technical schools. The destinations of 10,730 young men who passed out of these schools in 1887 were found to be as follows : Per cent. Entered higher schools . 16. 6 Entered government service . 5. 4 Entered commercial pursuits . 21. 3 Entered agricultural pursuits . 12. 5 Entered industrial pursuits . 23. 0 Entered army . 2. 4 Entered divers clerical pursuits . 6. 3 Entered the teaching profession . 1.5 Unknown . 11.0 Total . 100.0 ^ Three national professional schools have been established, at Voiron, at Vierzon, and at Armenti^res, respectively. Manual training schools have not as yet assumed a distinct character. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OE FEANCE. 135 Secular vs. church schools. — The classification of the schools as secu¬ lar and church or denominational is important, since the relative num¬ bers serve as an index of the support which the government policy commands. The movement in this respect from 1881-82 to 1886-87 is shown by the following statistics ; Xiirnber of acliools, 1886-87. Increase. Decrease. Public. Private. Public. Private. Public. Private. Rflp.nln.r _ _ _ _ 57, 611 9, 097 3, 936 9, 565 11.3 12.1 CliiirfOi _ _ _ _ _ _ 17.2 19.2 Total . 66, 708 13, 501 5. 87 6. 82 It will be observed that the ratio of increase in private schools has been a little greater than in public schools, and that this increase in private schools has been wholly in those classed as religious. Nearly seven-tenths of this increase is made up of schools for girls. It is interesting to note, also, that the majority of schools having only one or two classes are secular. Schools having from three to seven classes are about evenly divided between the secular and religious, while the majority of the schools having more than seven classes are religious. The precise classification in this respect is as- follows : Number of classes. Number of schools. Percentage of total. Secular. lleligious. Secular. Eeligious. Schools of— One class ... . . . - . 47, 001 7, 515 76.4 40.3 Two classes . 9, 074 5,885 14.7 31.5 Three classes . 2, 657 2,367 4.3 12.7 Four classes . 1,216 1,194 2.0 6.4 Five classes . 618 657 1.0 3.5 Six classes . 449 434 0. 7 2.3 Seven classes . 234 261 0.4 1.4 Eight classes and more . 298 349 0.5 1.9 Total . . . 61, 547 18, 662 100 100 The increase of graded schools is indicated by the fact that whereas, in 1881-82, there were 138 class rooms to every 100 public schools, in 1886-87 the proportion stood 144 to 100. Of the schools with a single teacher, 485 had more than 80 children each, and in the schools with two or more teachers, 273 class rooms had more than 80 children each. Buildings and grounds. — -The state imposes upon the commune the obligation of providing suitable housing for primary schools. The size and seating capacity of the schoolhouse depend upon the population of the locality, but the following requirements are of universal appli¬ cation. The site must be healthful, well drained, accessible, and of ample extent. The regulations call for from 8 to 10 square metres per scholar. While this basis is not always adopted, the surface dimen- 136 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. sions of the smallest sites are rarely less than 500 square metres. The schoolhonse must have a general hall large enough for assembling all the pupils, and class rooms according to requirements. The passage halls must be commodious, and suitable toilet rooms must be provided.^ The ideal of the regulations is not realized in all the communes, but the work of building and improvement steadily prog resses. Naturally, in France as in our own country, it is in the cities that the finest speck mens of school architecture are to be found. The statistics of 1886-87 show a total of 60,518 schoolhouses, of which 47,147 beloaged to com¬ munes, the remainder being rented or loaned. The matter of lighting has received much attention and is still the subject of investigation and of experiment. Two systems of lighting are at present employed ; the unilateral and the bilateral, the choice being determined by the size of rooms. For class rooms the minimum surface space is 1.25 metres per scholar, and the volume at lease 3 metres per scholar. As a rule, these dimensions are exceeded. Various modes of seating have been tried, but preference is given to that of double desks arranged in rows with aisles between. The class room generally seats forty-eight or fifty, and has a platform facing the pupils’ desks. There is also space for a library, cabinets, etc. Besides the schoolhouse proper, the grounds include a covered court which may be used as a gymnasium or for workshops, an oi)en space for recreation, a garden, the teacher’s house, when this is supplied, and suitable outbuildings. School sessions. — The school year begins in October and lasts eleven months for primary schools. Beside the vacation of a month, the schools are closed on certain days, festivals of the church and of the nation and the day immediately following each. The recognized holi¬ days are New Year’s, the last three days of Passion Week, and the na¬ tional fete days. The law also allows local ofiicers to grant two months’ extra vacation under special conditions, as for exanjple necessity of farm work. The schools are in session five days in the week, Thursday being a holiday. The school day is six hours, divided generally into two equal sessions with an intermission between. As a rule, each class attends the entire day, but where it is desirable, arrangements for half time attendance are allowed. Conduct of studies and discipline. — The organization of the schools being determined, as we have seen, and a vigorous supervision main¬ tained by the state, comparatively little freedom would seem to be left to teachers. This, however, is not exactly the case. Believed of all responsibility with respect to extraneous matters, they are able to con¬ centrate their energies upon the work of instruction and dtecipliue. 1 This brief epitome of requirements is drawn from an elaborate article by Marcel Lambert, government architect; see, Eemieil des monograiihies pe'dagogiques puhlUcs a Voccasion de Vexposition universelle de 1889. Tome VI. _ THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OP FRANCE. 137 The qualificatioDS required for admission to the work are sufficient to secure a body of efficient teacliers, a large proportion of whom have been specially trained for the service. They evince great enthusiasm and professional skill, and but little tendency to mechanical methods, the women especially being full of ingenuity. Instruction by observation, called in France ^netJiode intuitive^ has large dev^elopment, and the teachers are aided in its use by the admira¬ ble collection of material with which nearly every school is supplied. The formation of school museums {musses scolaires) has been pro¬ moted chiefly by the efforts of M. F. Buissou, director of primary instruc¬ tion. His enthusiasm has proved contagious, and by the combined efforts of teachers, pupils, and parents, and the assistance of local funds, nearly 14,000 museums have been formed. Excellent discipline is maintained in the schools, the pupils being as a rule very tractable. Corporal punishment is strictly proliibited 5 reprimands and suspensions are ordinary penalties, and final expulsion the extreme resort. Each scholar at the time of his entrance into a school receives a blank book, which he is expected to keep as long as he remains in school.^ In this book he performs the first exercise of each mouth in each class of studies, a task to be done in school without help from others. The series of exercises show the course of instruction and the prog¬ ress of the scholar from year to year. This book is kept in the school and is known as the monthly record. At the beginning of the school year a time table is prepared by the teacher of each school, and after approval by the primary inspector, is put up in the class rooms. Pupils are promoted annually. The certificate of primary studies is conferred upon those who complete the course and pass the required examination, to which, however, no one under eleven years of age is admitted. Attendance upon this examination is not obligatory. The reports show, however, a steady increase in the number of candidates. In 1887 the number of certificates awarded was 144,040, as agaiust 91,153 in 1882. Text-hooks and material. — Every year the teachers of each department meet together under the direction of the primary inspector to i)repare a list of desirable text-books. These lists are revised by a special com¬ mission presided over by the academic inspector; the final list for each department is submitted to the approval of the academic rector. The multiplication of text-books has been a natural consequence of the development of the state system, and the number of books in the market sliows a wholesome competition between rival publishers. The official list of approved text-books, made up to July, 1888, con¬ tains a total of 1,531 works. While many of these are poor, the list in- ^See article Iby Felix Martel, iu Monograpliies pedagoglques, Tome I. 138 EDUCATION REPOET, 1S88-SQ. eludes books wliicli are models of simple lucid composition and logical arrangement, and stamped with the genius of some of the most distin¬ guished French authors.’ French publishers have given great attention to maps and models of every kind, and the schools are abundantly supplied with such appa¬ ratus. School libraries both for pupils and for teachers are very freely provided. Primary normal schools. — The departmental normal schools are board¬ ing schools, to which, however, day scholars are admitted. The buildings and material are provided by the departments. All the schools have practice schools of primary grade annexed, and nearly all have a second school or class for the training of directresses of in¬ fant {L €., maternal) schools. The course of study is arranged for three years. The normal schools are in session ten and a half months annually. . Secondary schools. — The representative establishments for secondary instruction are the lycees or state schools. They have boarding departments, the household and scholastic affairs being kept entirely distinct. Both are regulated down to the minutest detail by imovisions from the central authority. The head of the lycSe is the principal or proviseur, who is simply an administrative officer. The most important functionary of the lycee next to the proviseur is the censor of studies {censeiir des etudes)., who regulates the discipline and studies. The head of the household is the steward {econome), and there must always be a resident chaplain. All of these officials are ai^pointed by the minister of public instruction, and are directly responsible to the academic rector. The professors, who reside outside of the establishment, confine themselves entirely to the work of instruction. The students are under the immediate surveillance of tutors (maUres repetiteurs), to each of whom is assigned a group of about thirty, for whose studies and con¬ duct he is respouvsible. The students are boarders {internes) or day students (externes). The former are said to belong to the internat, the latter to the externat. The boarders may be either pensionnaires, full boarders, or demi-pensionnaires, who take one meal daily in the school. > The average number of students in a lycee is five hundred 5 the aver¬ age staff comprises thirty-eight officers and professors. The course of studj", which has been already described, covers ten years and is arranged in three divisions, elementary, grammar, and superior. The two lower divisions consist of three classes each, the highest division of four classes. The lowest class is called the preparatory j the next seven are named from the ordinal numbers, eight to second inclusive. These are fol¬ lowed by the class of rhetoric and the class of philosophy. ^Sce ou tliis subject La Jibrairie scolaire, by Paul Delalain, MonograjiMes pidago- giques, Tome III. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 139 Pupils generally enter the lycees at 8 years of age and are expected to spend a year in each class, thus completing the full course at 18, and the special secondary course at 16 or 17. The discipline of the lycee is extremely rigid and mechanical. The routine is not exactly the same in all, but the following is a fair rep¬ resentation of a day^s program.^ The pupils rise at 5:30 and retire at 8:30. The fifteen waking hours are divided as follows : Exercises. Toilet . . Ilecitations. Study ...... Kecreatlon . Four meals. Time assigned, {| jlO :00 to 10:00 00 to 4:00 50 to 7:15 15 to 12:00 00 to 2:00 00 to 8:00 :30 to 8:00 ;00 to 10:15 30 to 1:00 15 to 5:00 Total time. JSrs. Min. 20 The communal colleges may be full or partial course secondary schools. The communes take the initiative in their establish merit, and their boarding departments are controlled either by the municipalities or by private proprietors. Their scholastic regime is similar to that of the lycees. The law of December 21, 1880, creating lycees and communal colleges for girls completed the general provision for secondary instruction. The administration and studies of these institutions are managed with special reference to the aptitudes, needs, and probable careers of young women. Pupils enter at twelve years of age. The course is divided into two periods of three and of two years respectively, thus allowing five years for the full period. A sixth year may be added for students who desire to prepare for admission to superior institutions or for special vocations. Attendance at all classes of the secondary schools is stimulated by public scholarships (bourses) and peculiar enthusiasm is excited by means of annual public competitive exercises, which have all the attract¬ ive features of great festivities. A normal school, designed to prepare a teaching force for the service of special secondary instruction, was opened at Gluny in 1866, and in 1881 a normal school for the preparation of women to serve as profes¬ sors in the lycees and colleges for women was established at Sevres. 1 In many particulars of orgauizatlon and conduct tlie lycees follow the model of the Jesuit colleges. See in this connection Educational Reformers, hy Robert Her¬ bert Quick, Chapter IV. For an' interesting study of the organization of lycees see Quclque mots sur Vin- strucilon imlliq^iie en France, by Michel Br6al, chapter entitled “De Vinfernat also Education et instruction ; enseigneinent secondaire, iiar Oct. Gr6ard, Tomes I, II 140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89, There are also secondary normal schools established at the lycees of the chief towns of each academy, where the assistant teachers are gathered together for special instruction in the courses and to facilitate their promotion to iirofessorships. The following tabulation shows the status of the lycees and communal colleges for 1887, the latest year included in the official report of the minister of public instruction : Table IV. — Establishments for secondary instruction, I StJMMAEY OF STATISTICS FOU 1887. Lyc6e8 (boys) . Conjmnnal colleges (boys) . Privsile establish- nieiits (boys) . Lyc6es (girls) . Conirauual colleges (girls) . Secondary courses (girls) . 100 240 s' a .'102 ( h3\9 20 23 69 Pupils. Board- (inter- ues). 25, 700 13, 932 Day (ext er¬ nes). 28, no 22, 154 («20, 174) (650. 085) (3, 330) (2, 078) I (4, 395) Per cent, of board - Per cent. 3.= i.:;s- scholar ships. scholar¬ ships. (13) (12) I (16) I Per cent, in prini.ary classes. Lyc6es (boys) . Communal colleges (boys) . Private establishments (boys) Lvcbes (girls) . Communal celleges (girls) . Secondary courses (girls) . Number of ofdcers and teach¬ ers. Total receipts. Total Expendi¬ tures. 3, 741 .$6, 721, 810 $0,6.55, .531 4, 432 3, 071, 890 2, 974, 896 . i 479 1 424 957 S 612, 734 598, 568 1 Expendi¬ tures X)er capita for board¬ ing pupils. $137.76 lOi. 28 a 128.83 b L58. 59 Expendi¬ tures per capita for day pupils. .$26.17 15. 67 a 29, 94 633. 82 a Secular. 6 Church. INSTITUTIONS FOR SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. The institutions for superior instruction belonging to the State are facultes, and professional and special schools. The facultes comprise groups of professional men assigned to each academic district for the service of liberal and professional education. These groups are of five orders : Protestant theology, law, medicine, letters, and sciences. Paris alone has all five of the faculles. Mont¬ pellier, Nancy, Lyons, and Lille have all save Protestant theology. In two academic districts the different facultes are not located in the same city. The facultes retain in many respects the characteristics impressed upon them by Napoleon, who constituted them professional bodies within the University, to maintain lectures, and to examine for and confer degrees. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 141 The present Government has greatly extended the teaching fnnctions of i\\Q facultes, and has taken the first steps toward giving them the attributes and powers of corporate bodies. The necessity of providing for practical courses of instruction was felt in respect to t\iQfacultGS of medicine at an early period in their his¬ tory, and led in 1854 to the creation of professional schools, which are found in several of the academic districts. These schools are of two classes — preparatory and full course {ecoles de plein exercice). Similar schools have also been provided for sciences and letters. These schools with the coTifcrences and complementary courses supply the essential conditions of effective instruction. The development in this respect is shown by the fact that since 1877, conferences to the number of 129 and complementary courses to the number of 200 have been created, and 201 new professorships established. Meanwhile, students have been allured by the special inducement of scholarships (i. e., bourses)^ of which five hundred have been provided. The extension of the teaching functions has been further stimulated by the vast increase of material equipments, buildings, laboratories, etc. The results of these efforts are shown, says the minister in his official report, by the fact that of the 17,630 students upon the register of the faculte's in 1887-88, 3,693 were veritable students in the faculte's of letters and of science 5 whereas in 1875, if any were entered for those courses, they did not really pursue their studies in the facultes, but merely registered themselves,” an essential prerequisite to the rights of the degree examinations. The separate have always had an official organization. The head of each group is the dean {doyen). An assistant is appointed, who may act for the dean if necessary, and a secretary for the service of the body. Until a very recent date, however, the diff'erent/hmt^^ei of a dis¬ trict {academie) were separate from each other, and after 1875 were want¬ ing in all the attributes of autonomy. Civil personality was secured to them by a decree of July 25, 1885, which empowered them to receive, hold, and administer property ; a right conferred upon them in 1801^ but suspended in 1875. A decree of December 28, 1885, carried the work of organization still further. This decree constituted in each academic district a council general of all the facultes of the district for the consideration of matters of common interest. The president of this council is the academic rector ; the remaining members are the deans of the facultes^ the directors of superior schools of pharmacy in districts where such schools have been formed, the director of a full course or of a preparatory school of pharmacy or of medicine, two delegates from each faculte elected for three years by the assembly of the facultes from the full professors, and a delegate from each full course or preparatory school elected in the same manner. The deans and directors of schools are charged, under the authority of the rectors, with the execution of the decisions of the council. Any decision of the council contrary to laws and rules is referred imraedi- 142 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. ately by the rector to the minister of public instruction j pending his decision it is imperative. By the same decree there was constituted also in ^dbdhfacuUe a council and an assembly. The former, which is composed of full professors, deliberates upon the financial affairs of the facultS ; the latter, composed of all full professors and assistants hav¬ ing a doctor’s degree, deliberates upon scholastic matters. Through the councils the faeultes manage their own budgets, make up the lists from which their deans are selected, and give effective exjiression to their opinions on all matters relating to the creation of chairs, the develop¬ ment of programmes, and the discipline of students.^ The general courses of the facultes and schools are as a rule public and are open to both sexes. Certain courses are, however, reserved for students properly so called. These only are admitted to the conferences^ where they are questioned upon the matter of the lesson, and to labora¬ tory and other practical exercises. The attendants upon the courses of the professors are therefore of two classes, hearers and students. All. aspirants for degrees belong to the latter course. The baccalaureate of letters or of science, being an essential prerequisite for all other degrees, marks the end of secondary and the beginning of superior instruction. To become a student in a faculte, it is necessary to inscribe one’s name upon the register, pay certain fees, and sustain certain examinations. The inscription is renewed quarterly, the total number of renewals de¬ pending upon the length of the course. A fee is paid at each renewal. The several fees which students must pay are inscription fees [droits d’m- scriptiony, fees for the use of libraries {droits de bibliotheques) ; laboratory fees {droits de travaux pratiques), which are charged only in the fa¬ cultes and schools of medicine and pharmacy ; examination fees {droits d’examen). The amount of the several fees, library and inscription {i, e., tuition) fees excepted, varies in different courses. The former is 10 francs ($2) i)er annum; the latter 30 francs per trimester. Three degrees, viz, bachelor, Ucencie, and doctor, are conferred in every facultc save that of medicine. These degrees form an ascending series, which must be obtained in regular order. The facultS of medi¬ cine confers only the doctor’s degree, but candidates for this must not only be provided with the degree of bachelor of letters but also with that of bachelor of science. The facultes of law confer also a diploma {certificatde capacite),Vshie\idioe^ not require previous classical study and admits one to practice as an attorney {avoue). The present number of facultes, including 3 in Algiers, is 59 ; of su¬ perior schools of pharmacy, 3 ; of schools of medicine and pharmacy, full course, 3 ; of preparatory schools of medicine and pharmacy, 14 ; of preparatory schools of science and letters, 3. A detailed view of the operations of these institutions in 1887-88 is shown in Table Y. 1 See with respect to the development of the French and their transforma¬ tion into corporate autonomic institutions, UniversitSa et facultes, by Louis Liard, Chapters IX-XIl. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FEANCE, 143 Table V. — Statistics of French faculte's, 18S7-88. Letters. Sciences. Protestant theology. Law. Academic dis¬ tricts. Locations of facultes. OT 02 s 6"^ No. of pro¬ fessors. No. of stu¬ dents. No. of pro¬ fessors. No. of stu¬ dents. No. of pro¬ fessors. No. of stu¬ dents. p oi Paris . j 1, 171 43 449 38 30 10 2, 300 37 Aix . 1 50 15 181 19 Marseilles _ ..... 49 13 Bessn^on _ _ Besan^on ...... _ 41 9 44 8 Bordeaux. . . . Boi'deaux ...... _ 136 21 81 14 268 20 Caen . . . ^ Caen . . 157 10 62 17 191 19 Kouen . . . Chamh6ry . Chatnb6ry . 610 mprnimitp _ Clermont _ _ _ _ 20 10 35 9 Dijon - _ .... _ T)i jnn _ 34 10 36 9 107 18 Grenohle _ _ ... Grenoble _ _ _ 86 11 57 10 127 18 Lille . \ Lille . 156 20 139 12 113 25 A miens _ T.ynTi . . Lyon _ _ _ _ 91 27 46 19 281 19 Montpellier Montpellier ....... 73 14 67 12 256 19 Nancy . . . Nancy . 83 21 59 16 137 18 Poitiers . 11 35 10 143 18 Poitiers . ^ Limoges . 'I'onrs _ _ _ Pennes ............ 68 cl2 49 c 9 215 21 'RAiinftfl . s Angers . . . 1 Nantes . Toulouse . ^ 'i'niilnnse _ _ 97 17 101 15 727 22 Montauban . 72 8 4 1 (Tiers _ _ _ Algiers . d38 d 16 d 26 dio 101 23 h Three years’ course ; letters aud science. c Also 11 at school preparatory to science and letters, Nantes. d Three years’ course. Superior Medicine and pharmacy. Academic dis¬ tricts. Locations of facultes. Medicine. schools of pharmacy. Mixed /«- culles. Complete course. Prepara¬ tory schools. No. of stu¬ dents. No. of pro¬ fessors. No. of stu¬ dents. No. of pro¬ fessors. No. of stu¬ dents. 6 C 03 - ® C ((-1 ■ d No. of pro¬ fessors. No. of stu¬ dents. No. of pro¬ fessors. Paris . ^ Paris . . 4, 158 66 977 ! Rheims . 55 18 Aix . 1 Besan^on . Aix . Mn.r.ssr^illes 153 26 Besan^ou . 45 18 Bordeaux. ....... Bordeaux . 544 46 Caen . | Caen . . 51 18 Rouen . . 69 19 Chambdry . . Chamb6ry . Cl ermont _ _ _ _ Clermont . 41 18 Dijon . . . Dijon . 59 16 Grenoble . Grenoble . . 48 18 Lille! . [ Lille . 299 35 Amiens . . . . 98 18 Ly^on . Lyon . 544 49 Montpellier.. Montpellier . 401 41 93 11 Na.ncy _ Nancy . 127 37 48 10 Poitiers . . . 41 16 Poitiers . ^ Limoges . . . 69 16 Tours . 46 15 Rennes . 94 18 Kennes . < Angers . 75 15 Nantes . 158 26 Toulouse . ^ Algiers . . Toulouse . . 306 25 Montauban . Algiers . 58 20 144 EDUCATION REPORT, 18SS-89. Table V. — Staiistics of French facultes, 1878-88— Contmued. TOTALS FOU ACADEMIC DISTEICTS. Academic districts. No. of stu¬ dents. No. of pro¬ fessors. No. of volumes in library. Income oi facultes (1888) a. Current expendi¬ ture (1887). Paris . 9, 140 227 207, 096 $685, 316 $663, 843 Aix . 433 “73 31, 756 95, .546 90, 604 Besangon . 130 34 14, 300 43, 797 33, 7.54 Bordeaux . 1,029 101 60, 905 142, 064 ' 144,206 Caen . 531 83 33, 510 101,841 71, 411 fPinniliAry _ _ _ _ _ _ 510 2. 600 1, 290 Clermont . 98 37 18, 343 45, 492 35, 259 Dijon . 236 53 31, 216 69, 884 58, 519 Grenoble . 318 57 19, 700 65, 035 54,011 Lille . 810 110 44, 666 138, 357 128, 277 Lyon . 962 114 5G, 847 175,610 185, 537 Montpellier . 800 97 82, 185 156, no 154, 177 Nancy . 454 102 38, 618 158, 255 150, 930 Poitiers . 391 86 28. 210 82, 290 53, 112 Bennes . 659 101 19, 945 114, 345 61, 484 Tonlouse . . . 1, 303 87 61,2.36 121,014 92,110 Algiers . 223 65 46, 428 98, 623 87, 435 aThe sources of income are state and local appropriation and small permanent fund. J) Three years’ course ; letters and science. Table VI. — Degrees cotf erred hy French facnlUs, 1887-88. Bachelor. Licentiate. Doctor. Certificate of capacity. Protestant tneology . . . . . 31 3 Law . . . . 1,384 3, 625 3, 838 1, 332 360 123 226 Science . . . . . . 42 Letters . . . . 249 21 Totals _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8, 878 1, 944 186 226 Doctor. Officer of health. Certificate of midwifery. First class. Second class. ATedieine __ _ 645 80 298 290 It will be seen by an examination of the table that the Paris comprised more than half the whole number of students, i. e., 9,140. All the facultes are represented in that group ; and the fame of the lecturers, the annual concourse of students from all parts of France eager to re¬ ceive their diplomas from the minister, the presence of many foreign students, the traditions of the past, and the stimulating influence of the capital have maintained among the Paris professors a sense of solid¬ arity. This group is still called the ‘‘ University of Paris.” The special schools which belong to the department of the minister of public instruction have been created at difierent times and by special acts. They are as follows : TJie College of France, located at Paris. The resources of this cele¬ brated institution have been greatly increased and its courses multiplied during the time of the republic. Its teaching personnel comprises above 40 professors, men eminent in letters or science, who deliver lectures on almost every branch of human knowledge. Courses of prac- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FEANCE, 145 tical stu(l3^ are also maintaioed for students of philology" and of certain brandies of science. The Museum of N'atural History^ a great scientific school, attached to the Jardin des Plantes. The buildings and material equipment for the work of this institution ha^ve been vastly increased since 1870, and it offers now to its numerous students, ‘do the savants of France and of foreign countries,” unsurpassed laboratory facilities for instruction and research in every department of organic and inorganic matter. The magnificent collections of the “museum” are under the care of officials termed professeitrs administrateurs whose duties are “ to in¬ crease the collections, to undertake personal investigations, and to give a certain number of lessons in order to make their discoveries known.” The Praetical School of High Studies {P cole pratique des hautes etudes) is an institution founded at Paris by M. Dumy in 1868 for the pur¬ pose of “maintaining side by side with theoretic instruction the prac¬ tical exercises necessary to give the former its full effect.” It was originally divided into four sections, viz, mathematics, phj^sics and chemistry, natural history and physiology, histor}^ and philology. A section of religion was added in 1885. The laboratories belonging to the faculties and to the various scien¬ tific establishments are assigned for the use of the students of the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes at the discretion of the minister. The sec¬ tion of history and philology is an independent institution, located near the Sorbonne. The Superior Normal School {J^cole normale superietcre), situated at Paris, is designed to qualify professors lor the two higher orders of in¬ struction, i. c., secondary and superior. It is directly under the charge of the minister, who nominates the director and professors. Admission is secured by competitive examination, which is open only to Frencli- men or naturalized foreigners. Candidates who are admitted pledge themselves to engage for ten years in the service of public instruction. The methods of instruction in this school are eminently practical. The students do not simply listen to lectures and take notes; they are questioned and they ask questions upon the subjects of study; they discuss the corrections made in the exercises and compositions; they are also required to give lessons upon assigned subjects. The library and equipment for practical work have been greatly ex¬ tended in recent years, and the salaries of the professors increased. The school draws to itself the elite of the French students, and its fame and influence are continually increased by the brilliant achieve¬ ments of its graduates. The '•‘‘Ecole des chartesf at Paris, is designed to train paleographists forservice as librarians and keepers of records. The funds of the school were increased threefold in the first decade of the republic. The French School at Athens affords special students the opportunity ED 89 - 10 146 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1888-89. of residence in Greece for the purpose of extended archaeological re¬ search. The number of such students is limited to 6. They must be at least thirty years of ago and possessed of the degree of doctor of let¬ ters, or its equivalent. They are appointed by the minister upon the results of competitive examination. The French School of Archccology at Eome is an outcome of the school at Athens. By its provision the members of the former may reside three months in Italy for the purpose of studying its monuments and pursuing their researches in its libraries before proceeding to Athens. The School of Living Oriental Languages^ situated at Paris, is intended to give students a practical knowledge of eastern languages, and for the publication of learned treatises. In addition to the facultes and the special schools several astro¬ nomic and meteorologic bureaus maintained by the state and under general direction of the minister of public instruction are included in the department of superior instruction, as are also the special normal schools, designed to prepare teachers for particular grades of instruction. PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES (FACULT^IS LIBRES). The conflict between church and State with respect to the control of education, which has not ceased since the Eevolution of 1789, has pro¬ foundly affected the higher institutions. At one moment a tolerant policy is adopted to be followed the next by repressive measures. The latest action of the Government with respect to private universities is the law of March 18, 1880, depriving them of representation in the degree examinations and awards. While this act does not diminish their liberty in respect to instruction, it tends to lessen their dignity and influence. The State facultes of Catholic theology having been deprived of public appropriations in 1885 this subject is now confined to private in Paris, Lille, and Toulouse. The remaining private facultSs and their attendance in 1887-88 were as follows: Designation and students — 1887-88. Location. La’w'. Medicine. and Pharmacy. Science and Letters. A TipfP.TS ............................................ _ ............ _ 123 21 Lille . 120 151 23 XiyOTlfl _ _ _ _ _ . _ .... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 50 12 IVIarseillo.s ...... _ _ ....... _ ........................ _ ........... 68 124 Toulouse . - . 19 AUXILIARY ASSOCIATIONS. The general government, which takes the initiative in all measures affecting the organization of public instruction, also establishes many special agencies for the promotion of the work. Prominent among these is the Mus6e Pddagogique, created at Paris in 1879. This institution is under the charge of one of the g’eneral THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 147 inspectors of primary instruction, and of a council nominated by the minister of public instruction. It includes a museum and a library for the collection of all material which may aid the work or the researches of persons engaged in primarj^ instruction. Its collections comprise school furniture, scientific apparatus, illustrative material, etc., his¬ torical and statistical documents, text-books, pedagogical works, and educational journals. It seeks by timely publications to make known the best methods of instruction, and the best models for the construc¬ tion of school-houses, plans for class rooms, etc. The Mus6e Pt^dagogique has become also a center of preparation for aspirants for the various examinations which admit to the higher grades of the teaching service. Eegular conferences are held in its halls which give these aspirants the benefit of lectures and lessons conducted by specialists. The museum is open to the general public every Thursday and Sun¬ day from 10 to 5 o’clock. For persons having cards of admission the library and museum are open every day excepting Monday from 10 till 5 and the library from 8 to 10 in the evening. The library includes a circulating division which is free to all persons engaged in teaching. The request for the privilege of taking books is addressed to the minister. Foreigners properly accredited can share in the privilege. Special schools are maintained by the state for the instruction of re¬ cruits in the marine service. The demand for elementary instruction for this class has diminished under the decision of the minister of marine in 1883, prohibiting the enlistment of illiterates. The existing provision comprises elementary schools, training ships, and a normal course for the instructors. The care of the state extends to illiterate criminals, for whom instruc¬ tion is provided in the penitentiaries. Many agencies auxiliary to the work of education receive their im¬ pulse from the general government, but depend for their development upon the action of localities. To this category belong the local funds {causes des ecoles) for the aid of indigent pupils, the purchase of prizes, etc., required by the law of March 28, 1882. In 1887 such funds were reported from 50. per cent, of the communes. The Paris fund amounted to $234,521. School savings hanhs {causes Wepargne scolaires), — The government has shown great sympathy with the efforts made by teachers to estab¬ lish school savings banks. The number of these banks increases each year, and in 1887 reached a total of 22,383, with 478,173 depositors and deposits amounting to $2,534,662. Adnlt classes. — Classes for the instruction of adults form an important part of the provision for popular education. In 1886-87 such classes were maintained in 7,443 communes, or 20 per cent, of the whole number. They were attended by 184,612 pupils, of whom 156,590 were men and 2,802 women. As compared with 148 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1888-89. 1881-82 tlie total shows a decrease of 411,710, or very nearly 70 per cent., a cban^^e which is undoubtedly due to the increase of primary schools and the operations of the obligatory law. Since 1882 the adult classes have been distinguished as elementary and complementary; the former being for illiterate adults, the latter for the continuation of studies. The elementary classes comprise only 30 per cent, of the adult pupils. These statistics do not include the auditors attracted to public lectures, of which no estimate can be given. Local school attendance committee. — The law of March 28, 1882, pro¬ vided for the formation of local commissions {commissions scolaires) to keep watch over the matter of school attendance and report violations of the law. The law of October 30, 1886, re-enforced the provision, but the com¬ missions have so far practically failed. Teachers'^ conferences. — Conferences of teachers are held in all the de¬ partments, and serve, like the teachers’ institutes of our own country, to foster professional zeal. In addition to the local conferences there is an annual conference of teachers, held geuerally under the ausihces of the minister of public instruction. The subjects for discussion are announced beforehand, and the papers presented and the deliberations generally are characterized by breadth of thought, lucid and logical treatment, and finished style. Mutual aid soeieties^ established by the voluntary actfon of the teach¬ ers, exist in seventy-eight departments of France. In 1886 an association was founded at Paris, under the patronage of the minister of public instruction, for the care of the orphans of elementary teachers. This association, known as the ‘‘OEuvre de I’Orphelinat de I’Enseignement Primaire,” receives gifts and appropriations from the state and departments, the communes, and private individuals. It does not maintain an orphanage, but provides for the care of orphans in their native places." Many private societies exist for the maintenance of scholastic insti¬ tutions, the improvement of methods of instruction, and the increase of public interest in the general progress of education. Some of these an¬ tedate the present Pepublic, others are of recent origin. The Polytechnic Association was founded in 1830 by the graduates of the Polytechnic School, for the purpose of conducting preparatory courses of industrial and technical traitiing. The courses are generally open to both sexes; a small number are limited to women. Such are courses for training in the cutting and fitting of garments, decorative painting, the making of artificial flowers, and commercial courses for young girls. The number of courses maintained in Paris is very large, and the work extends to the suburbs of the city. ^For very full information as to benevolent or mutual aid associations maintained jn connection with primary scliools in France see Moriographies jyCdayorjiqnes, Tome y. 149 THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FKANCE. The most interesting and important of recently formed societies is the Alnmui Association of Paris students [Association generate des et'udiants desfacultes et holes superieures de Paris). The society is under The protection of the general council of the P-aiis facultes, and is presided over by the rector, to whom its property is remitted in case of its dissolution. It forms a means of union between the professors and the students, and between the students of the differ¬ ent A fund is accumulating for the ultimate x>LD'chase of a building for the permanent home of the society ; its temporary quarters are conven¬ ient and commodious. The library of the society, which is open from 8 o’clock in the morning until midnight, comprises 2,000 volumes and 200 current journals. Here gratuitous lessons are given in law, science, languages, etc. Keceptions to distinguished foreigners, dramatic en¬ tertainments, etc., promote social and intellectual comradeship. A fund is also maintained for the assistance of students 5 medical attendance is furnished without charge, and arrangements are made with many merchants for reduction of prices to members of the society. The honorary members number about 400; they pay an annual fee, and have all the privileges of the society, but no voice in its adminis¬ tration. The active members number about 3,500 ; they pay an annual fee of 18 francs ($3.50). Besides the income from fees and gifts, the society has an annual subvention of $400 from the city of Paris. The Society for the Promotion of Physical Culture [Le comite pour la propagation des exerciees pliysiqiies dans Veducation)., founded at Paris in 1888 under the presidency of Jules Simon, promises to work important changes in the general system of education for young men. That the state attempts no monopoly of education is abundantly proven by the multiplication of private societies, and the decided in- tiuence which they exercise over educational methods and ideals. It is a siguiiicant fact’ that while the policy of the Eepublic opposes both directly and indirectly the scholastic work of the church, it has had the effect of stimulating all other forms of private and local activity. Paris, especially, is in a ferment of educational effort. Here the public system in all its grades reaches the highest perfection ; here all kinds of auxiliary agencies have their most vigorous development. It would be impossible to suggest even in this place the resources which the capital devotes to the diffusion of knowledge or the various modes in which these are applied. So far as regards public elementary schools, the city draws nothing from the state, meeting the entire expenditure from its own budget. For current expenditure alone, the municipal appropriations in 1888 were $3,970,702. The increase in this respect since 1877 has been enormous, amounting in 1888 to 150 per cent, of the whole appropriation at the beginning of the decade. CHAPTER V. BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA- HUNGARY, AND SWITZERLAND. Introduction — Historical view of the schools of Prussia — Definition and character — Finances — Siq^ervision ; local supervision ; duties of inspectors — The teachers; prepa¬ ration; examination; appointment — The schools; compulsory attendance; school- houses — Instruction; course of study ; methods of teaching — Grading and examination of pupils ; discipline — Supplementary institutions ; special schools — Variety in school organization in the different countries — The schools of Hungary — Secondary schools in German-speaJcing nations — Couxses of study, illustrated hy four charts — Languages, history and geography, mathematics, natural sciences — Graphic presentation of sta¬ tistics of Prussia, Austria-Hungary, and Switzerland — Summary of statisUcs of ^ Prussia, Austria-Hungary, and Switzerland. INTRODUCTION. The German Empire as such has no public-school system. All public educational institutions in Germany are founded and maintained by the separate states and free cities that constitute the emi)ire, or they are the result of private or corporate efforts. Hence, to know the German schools accurately would necessitate the study of the school systems of each kingdom, duchy, principality, and free city in Germany. But since Prussia, the largest state in the empire, plays a leading role among the many states, and its school system is the type of those of other states } furthermore, since in Prussia we have to look for the beginnings of that marvelous result of modern civilization, “ The public school called into existence, partly supported, and wholly directed by the state,” — it would seem as though a statement of what is found in Prussia supidemented by occasional reference to other countries would suffice. I.— Historical View. During the sixteenth century the necessity of instructing children in religion gave rise to what is now known in Germany as the “People’s Schools.” There had been schools, of course, ever since Charlemagne’s “schola palatiua,” but not until the time of the great church reforma¬ tion (A. D. 1517) were efforts made in behalf of teaching the masses, not until then were the lower and lowest strata of society drawn into the pale of iulluence of such schools, though it was done on Sundays only. Naturally the lower schools were servants of the church which 150 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 151 had called them into life. In 1529 LiitheUs catechism appeared, and it became the first text-book. In 1540 a Saxon ecclesiastical decree estab- blished day schools. This was imitated in ail the German Protestant states. In the cities the schools had a more fertile soil, since the cities had all through the Middle Ages been the centers of culture, the asy¬ lums, so to speak, of poetry and art, education and religion, commerce and industry. Many ancient ‘‘writing schools” had been preserved there. These became nuclei of new schools, called “citizens’ schools.” Wittenberg even established a “girls’ school” in 1533, the first girls’ school known in the history of education. Johann Bugenhagen, in Braunschweig, the intimate friend of Martin Luther, was especially active in behalf of schools, by publishing regulations for “German schools,” embracing country schools, city schools, Latin schools, and “girls’ schools ’’(German schools, in contradistinction to classical schools, in which Latin was the medium of instruction). These schools were even at that early day supported {a) hy the communities^ and (5) hy tuition fees. Bugenhagen’s instructions were also copied in the free cities — Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. Wherever the Eeformation found a foothold schools sprang up, and if it had not been for the terrible Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) the schools in Germany would have developed into a healthy system quite early j but that most destructive war ever known in history checked the growth of the German school system, as it paralyzed all the political and social life of the nation. It is not necessary to follow the development of the German school system through all its various stages; suffice it to say, that it remained the handmaid of the church until the time of Frederick the Great of Prussia, about 1760. With far-sighted policy he endeavored to make the school what it subsequently became, the i)owerful auxiliary of the state, at all times, alike during political disaster and prosperity. Ever since that time the Prussian “ people’s school,” and with it that of Sax¬ ony, Wlirtemberg, Bavaria, etc., has remained under state government, and, mirror-like, it has reflected the different phases of political life of the German nation. Since Frederick. could not raise the means for support of the schools, owing to his wars for the possession of Silesia, he was not very successful in his attempts at school reform, but it will remain one of his chief merits that he saw the necessity of a consistent system of public instruction assisted by state aid, and called into existence by the state when the communities failed in this regard. During the reign of his successor, Frederick William II, a mistake was made by limiting the matter of instruction to a minimum, and paying almost exclusive attention to religious instruction. But in 1799 the govern¬ ment at Berlin infused new life into the public (or people’s) schools, and established the principle “ that instruction in religion in these schools should confine itself to the general truths of religion, and the morals underlying all church parties; in other words, it should be Christian, but nonsectariau.” This iwinciple is still adhered to. 152 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. In tbe cities a reformatory movement in the management of the schools occurred toward the close of the eighteenth century. The citi¬ zens^ and classical schools were supplemented by Bealscliulen (schools which paid more attention to the demands of modern life than did the classical schools). In many small towns the Latin schools w^ere con¬ verted into citizens’ schools, so that the latter came to be regarded as standing between the elementary and the classical schools; analo¬ gous, to our {a) primary^ (b) intermediate^ and (c) high schools, it was considered that (a) elementary^ (h) citizens^ and (c) classical schools were and ought to be distinct establishments of one system. If this idea had been carried out systematically it would have resulted in the establish¬ ment of a system such as our common-school system. But the social distinctions among the people caused a diflerentiation, and to-day the three grades of schools — people’s, middle, and classical schools — are not in organic connection with one another. During the reign of Frederick William III (1840) the schools grad¬ ually improved. Impulses from without, notably the teaching of Pes- talozzi, moved authorities and teachers to bestow more attention upon methods, courses of study, and especially upon the training of teachers. This early attempt at building up a jirofession for teachers has had won¬ derful results. Prussia and other German states in this particular are far ahead of other nations, having acted with far-sighted policy, and by acknowledging the now well-understood maxim that “ the teacher is the school,” the teaching profession in Germany has become a pride of the nation. The time of general readjustment of Prussian affairs after the Napo¬ leonic wars was also the time of rejuvenation of the Prussian schools. Gradually the system was improved ; the ideas of Pestalozzi permeated it, until it became the model for other nations. But while other nations, notably the French and English, have left educational efforts to the ten¬ der mercies of private enterprise, Prussia has consistently worked out a system of state schools since the time of Frederick the Great, and beuce is a hundred years ahead of other nations in results and experience. From 1854 till 1872 the schools in Prussia were handicapped greatly by nar¬ row regulations and short-sighted policy, but after the Franco-Prussian war new life was infused into all governmental efforts by appealing to the liberal element of the nation. The general regulations of Minis¬ ter Falk, issued in October, 1872, are still in force, only slightly modi¬ fied by his successors. During the last twenty years the people’s schools have suffered in consequence of the immoderate demands made by the state for the maintenance of its vast standing army. II.— Definition and Character. The people’s schools comprise those educational institutions which are devoted to the elementary instruction of the youth of the nation, and arc intended to impart the knowledge and skill necessary to rational SCHOOLS OF GEEMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 153 beings” {vernilnfttge Wesen). The time within which this instiuction is offered is between the sixth and fourteenth years of age; confirma¬ tion in church defines iiie termination of the school course. Chil¬ dren of parents who refuse to join a church are permitted to leave the school when they have completed the prescribed course and passed the regular annual examination. The people’s school may be purely elementary, as in the country, or of a higher grade, as it irequently is in the cities, where the upper grades partake of the nature of a school which, goes beyond the mere rudiments. Aside from the people’s schools there are others that receive pupils at as early an age as the ])eople’s schools, but present the matter of instruction in a more scien¬ tific, that is to say, in a less elementary and popular way, with the de¬ sign of their pupils remaining in school longer than the fourteenth year of age, namely, till the seventeenth or nineteenth year; such are the so- called gymnasia and realschulen, higher citizens’ schools, industrial schools, technical schools, and young ladies’ academies. None of these schools are considered people’s schools. The latter form the nearest ap¬ proach to common schools (in the American acceptation of the word) ever attempted in Germany. Thexnthlic schools provided for in the constitution. — In order to under¬ stand how deep rooted public education is in Prussia we will quote from the Constitution of Prussia. Article 20. Science and the teaching of science are free. Article 21. For the education of the young public schools shall be established and maintained. Parents and guardians must not leave their children or wards without that instruction which is prescribed for the public schools. Article 22. To give instruction and to establish schools is allowed to every one who can prove to the state authorities moral, scientific, and technical capability. Article 23. All public and i)rivate educational institutions are under the supervi¬ sion of the state authorities. Teachers of public schools have the rights and tkities of officers of the state. (In this clause the state reserves for itself the right of prop¬ erly preparing the teachers, and assumes the duty of i)eusioniug them.) Article 24. Religious instruction is left to the respective religious societies. (This passage was amended subsequently.) The external management of schools is left to the civil communities, while the State employs the teachers and provides for the nec¬ essary number and training of teachers. Article 25. The means for establishing, maintaining, and extending the public- school system are furnished by the communities, and only in cases of inability does the state furnish the means. (This has subsequently been amended. The state now bears 18 per cent, of the cost of maintaining the public elementary schools, and about 34 per cent, of that of the secondary schools.) Rights acquired by private grants in behalf of education shall be inviolate. The state guarantees public-school teachers a fixed income. Instruction in the public schools is free of charge. (This was not carried out until October 1, 1883 ; see chapter “ Finances.”) Article 2G. A special school law regulates all educational affairs in the state. Article 112. And till the law mentioned in article 26 is passed, the former legal status, so far as it does not conflict with the constitution, shall remain in force. It is significant that at present, 40 years after the adoption of the constitution, this general school law has not yet been passed. Laws 154 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. which partially cover the ground have been adopted, but substantially the public schools are still governed by the “ Minister of Educational, Ecclesiastical, and Medical Affairs.” III.— Finances. Like all of the States of the former Northwest Territory in this coun¬ try, Prussia has an irreducible school fund, the origin of which is found in the sequestration of church property, sales of laud, bequests, fines, and sundry other sources. It would lead too far to specify all the sources. Suffice it to say this fund is inadequate for the maintenance of the schools. According to the last official' report of the Prussian Government, the interest of thi« fund defrayed but a small percentage, namely, 7,323,641 marks ($1,830,910), in a total of 116,615,648 marks ($29,153,912). By means of state taxes the state’s portion (including the interest of this fund) of the cost of maintaining the public schools amounted to over 18 per cent., while the proportion borne by the com¬ munities amounted to a little less than 82 per cent. The current expenses for maintaining the schools in 1886-87, that is, the salaries, etc., amounted to 75,245,144 marks ($18,811,286), or 64J per cent, of the sum total, 116,615,648 marks ($29,153,912) • 41,370,504 marks ($10,342,626) were spent for buildings and improvements, or 35J per cent.^ Most of the communities in Prussia still require tuition fees, but since October 1, 1888, the state assumes a portion of the means raised for¬ merly by tuition fees. It pays annually $100 for each principal, $50 for each regular teacher, $37.50 for each female teacher, and $25 for tem¬ porary assistants. The law was passed for the purpose of enabling the communities to abolish tuition fees j but since the sums paid by the state are too small, most of the cities continue collecting the fees, for Avhich a proviso in the law gives authority. Berlin, Frankfort, and more than a dozen other cities in Prussia have abolished fees altogether, and now raise their share of the expenses by direct taxation and sundry minor sources, chiefly by fines. All the liberal parties advocate the abolishment of fees, but the great demands upon the pockets of the citi- ’ zens caused by recent and very extensive improvements make it impos¬ sible to carry out this design. We are, in this country, under the impression that the state in Prussia governs the schools exclusively. This is a mistake, for in the financial management and establishment of new schools and improve¬ ment of their exterior condition the cities in Prussia are very much more independent than are the cities in America of their respective State legislatures. / ^ Though a mark is quoted at 23.8 cents, it is commonly considered in rough cal¬ culation as equal to a quarter of a dollar. Hence by dividing the above sums by four we arrive at an apx)roximate estimate. SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 155 lY.— Supervision. The elementary schools of Prussia, the so-called ‘‘ people’s schools,” have less supervision than our American city schools, because the teachers all have professional training. Still there is a general super¬ vision exercised by the state. The provincial governments, the^ representatives of the Minister of Education, supervise the systems of schools in their provinces indirectly, by examining the teachers at their graduation from the normal schools. These school councilors, as they are called, make occasional visits to schools, here and there, but generally are considered the courts of appeal in school matters. Local supervision is exercised by the mayors and clergymen. In cities where a school commission exists that commission either super¬ vises the schools through its members or employs professional school inspectors. Their duties are to all intents and purposes similar to those of our city-school superintendents. Clergymen have been greatly dis¬ credited as school inspectors during the liberal era in Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, and other states; while in Wiirtemberg a law requires the school inspector to be a clergyman. Many of the inspectors in Prussia and other states are heads of normal schools, high schools, etc. Prussia is divided into twelve provinces — Eastern and Western Prus¬ sia (on the Baltic), Pomerania^ Posen, Brandenburg, Silesia, Saxony, Sclilesicig -Holstein, Hanover, Westphalia, Rhenish Prussia, and Hesse- Nassau. Each province is subdivided into three or four governmental districts. These are divided into Icreise (circuits, counties), and the latter into communities or townships. Large cities, such as Berlin, Cologne, Frankfort, and others, are kreise by themselves, analogous to Kew York City and County, Chicago and Cook County. The commu¬ nities vary considerably in size and number of inhabitants, but a school is provided for every 500 inhabitants. Kreis (county) supervisors are found frequently, but the system of county supervision is not a general one, owing to the fact that the affairs of the schools in Prussia are not systematically regulated by law. The school reports of the various inspectors are not published, but may be examined in their ofidces. Secret reports are also required, and are sent to the provincial headquarters. This practice of secretly report¬ ing upon the teachers and their work has been at times discouraged and discredited, but to a limited extent it is still in practice. In Berlin and other large cities the administration of the lower schools is similar to that of the American common schools. There is a school commission (a committee of the city council), a general superintendent (called ‘‘ school councilor ”), several assistant superintendents (called district inspectors”), a principal (called ‘‘rector”) at the head of each school building, and many associate teachers, but very few subordinate teachers. There is a distinction made between associate and subordi¬ nate teachers. 15G EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Y. — The Teachers. Normal schools. — It is well uuderstood that the professional training of teachers in Prussia is the foundation of strength of the people’s schools.^ The earliest attempts on the part of the State at improving the schools were directed to establishing normal schools for the profes- ^ sional training of teachers. While in this country and in England the idea seems to prevail widely that normal-school preparation is not ab¬ solutely necessary .for teaching, in Prussia it is considered the first and foremost need that the teachers be theoretically and practically taught how to teach. Hence the many normal schools each have a practice school where the normal students acquire practical exiDerience in teach¬ ing. In 1889 Prussia had 106 normal schools for men and 8 for women. Of these 114 schools, 72 were Protestant, 38 Catholic, 4 mixed. There were 689 professors and instructors engaged in them, while the preparatory schools had 78 teachers. The number of students in the normal schools in 1888 was 8,507 (against 9,400 in 1869), and the number of students in preparatory schools 1,991. The expenses of the state for normal schools (all Prussian normal schools being state institutions) is about 600 marks (or $150) per an¬ num i)er student. The number of students seems to be exceptionally small, if compared with the number in our country, but we must not measure Prussia by an American standard. The ‘^supply” is more than sufficient, because the “ consumption ” is not near so great as with us. As a rule, a teacher in Prussia is a teacher always. In Berlin, for instance, 108 new teachers were employed last year, and of these, 102 were for newly established schools ; hence only six vacancies occurred in a corps of more than 3,000. If we compare this with the large num¬ ber of changes taking place annually in our cities, it becomes obvious that 114 normal schools are sufficient for Prussia. The course of study in normal schools in Prussia is one of three or four years. It embraces a thorough review of the common branches, the high school branches, theoretical and practical instruction in instrumental music, drawing, gymnastics, and pedagogy (history of education, psy¬ chology, theory and practice of teaching). No foreign languages are taught in Prussian normal schools. Most of these normal schools are situated in small towns of 4,000 to 8,000 inhabitants ; indeed but very few are found in large cities (two in Berlin). The reason of this is found in the desire to keex) the young would-be teachers free from the temptations of a large city. The 1 Thus we see that there is on the part of the government a recognition of teaching as a profession, and this recognition pervades all classes of society. The teacher of any school or grade ranks with his clerical, legal, and medical brother. Indeed, so far as my observations go, the teachers of Germany, as a class, stand higher in the estimation of the people than do memb'^rs of other professions, and worthily so. — [J. T. Prince, agent Massachusetts Board of Education.] SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 157 schools are boarding- schools — that is, the students live in the school building, and are kept under rigid control all daylong. The following is a daily programme adhered to in a Prussian normal school : G o’clock A. M,, rising; G:30 till 7:30, preparing lessons under supervision; 7:30 till 7:50, breakfast ; 7:50 till 8, religious exercises in chapel ; 8 till 1, five or six lessons in experimental teaching; 1 till 1:30, dinner; 1:30 till 2, playing and walking in the grounds; 2 till 5, lessons in the academic department; 5 till 6, practice in instrumental music ; G till 7, exercises out doors and gymnastics ; 7 till 7:30, supper ; 7 :30 till 9:30 working and studying in class rooms under supervision ; 9:50 till 10, evening prayer; 10, hour for retiring. Examinations. — Previous to entering a normal school, many students pass a year or two in a preparatory school, but this is not obligatory. They may acquire their previous education anywhere. The state, being at times unable to secure a sufficient number of students, pays a pre¬ mium to teachers of good repute who prepare boys for the normal schools. There is a rigid examination for admission. At the close of the course a still more rigid examination precedes graduation. A stu¬ dent rarely fails to graduate, the government having taken the respon¬ sibility for his professional education. But the authorities grade the diplomas I, la, II, Ilb, III, and IV. A teacher whose diploma numbers IV is not likely ever to obtain a lucrative position. This marking or grading of the diplomas is analogous to the issuing of diplomas in this • country for one, two, three, or more years. A graduate of good stand¬ ing finds a place as teacher without difficulty. He spends two years in active work in the school room and then presents himself for his final examination (the ‘Repetition” examination). If he passes that he is free from further examinations and is recognized as a professional teacher all over the empire. There is, however, little chance for him to be appointed to secondary schools, except occasionally in the lowest grades. The teachers and professors in the middle and high schools are nearly all university men. All normal school examinations are conducted by the faculty in the jiresence of a provincial school coun¬ cillor. It is a postulate of the Prussian, and in fine, of the German Government, that the teacher is a servant or officer of the state, and as such must receive his training from the state. Prussia had in 1887 in round numbers 75,000 teachers in the people’s schools, of whom 10.6 per cent, were women, 89.4 per cent. men. Appointment. — The appointment of teachers is not regulated by a general law. The power of electing the teacliers is vested in communal school authorities where such authorities exist. In country places the circuit {Icreis) authorities perform this function, but whether elected by city authorities, or appointed by circuit inspectors, or chosen by patrons, the selection is subject to the confirmation of the representa¬ tive of the government, be he the representative of the county, pro¬ vincial, or state government, as the case may be. It must always bq 158 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. borne in mind that the Prussian governmental edifice is not a structure built on virgin soil as in America, where no historical obstacles ob- strncted the building, but a very complicated structure, which had to accommodate itself to existing circumstances and historical obstacles; hence the seemingly irregular mode of i)rocedure in teachers’ appoint¬ ments. In the main the principle is adhered to, that the local author¬ ities nominate the teachers and the government confirms or rejects the nomination. Tlie legal and social position of the teacher is much better defined in Prussia than in many other countries. He receives a pension after having taught a certain number of years, and his widow and orphans are entitled to support, though this support rarely amounts to more than one-half of the teacher’s salary. By means of cooperation the teachers of every German state have founded insurance, cooperative, and other societies for mutual aid — societies which, in a measure, sup¬ plement the measures of the state. Salaries. — The last official school report of Prussia, that for 1887, states the average salary of the teachers in the people’s or elementary schools to be as follows : Average iu the kingdom : marlis. 1887, 1,067 = $256. 1878, 1,102 = ^275. Average in the cities : marks. 1887, 1,279 = $319. 1878, 1,414 = $353. This shows a decrease in eight years of eighteen dollars in the kingdom* and of thirty-three dollars in the cities. These salaries are comparatively smaller than in America, but it • must be remembered that the teachers in Prussia have no rent to pay, as they live in dwellings attached to the school houses. Calculating the rent at 20 per cent., the average salary may be considered to be $340. The salaries of rectors (principals) of large elementary schools in cities are higher. The teachers and profes¬ sors of middle and high schools are not included in the averages men¬ tioned above; their salaries range much higher than the foregoing averages.^ VI.— The Schools. School age and compulsory attendance. — The legal school age is from the sixth (completed) to the fourteenth (completed) year. There are, however, exceptions in regard to the maximum limit. Confirmation in the Protestant church or first communion in the Catholic church termi- 1 The salaries of teachers, compared with what is paid for similar service in our own country, are small, hut when we remember that the purchasing power of money is far greater iu Germany than it is here, that the salaries in all professions are low, that the tenure of office of the teacher is very strong, and that liberal government aid is given to the teacher in case of a disability and to his family in the event of his death, we can well understand why the profession of teaching calls to it the highest talent and most profound learning which a highly civilized state can produce. [J. T. Prince, agent Massachusetts Board of Education]. SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 159 nates attendance ; hence chiidreu in rural districts frequently leave school at the completion of the thirteenth year. Attendance in school is compulsory. This compulsion, distasteful as it may seem to citizens of a republic, has become a leading feature of the foremost European nations. In Germany it is adopted in all the states without exception. School attendance is insured by long habit and tradition. The idea of compulsory attendance has taken so deep a root in the country, that it forms one of the most ordinary conceptions of the people” (0. G. Perry). More than a hundred and fifty years ago the government in¬ sisted upon regular attendance, and through the enforcement of minis¬ terial orders it had become almost a habit with the people, so that the framers of the constitution (submitted to the King and sworn to by him in 1850) could safely introduce the compulsory attendance clause. This compulsion refers only to elementary instruction from the age of six to that of fourteen, and does not apply to those receiving instruction in other than the people’s schools ; temporary absences for valid reasons may be granted, which reasons are very similar in all the states. A ppli- cations for permanent exemption, however, are relatively rare, for there are comparatively few private schools and very little private tuition ; the children of the higher strata of society are taught generally, when not at primary schools, in preparatory schools attached to the high schools. Default in attendance is punishable by fine or imprisonment, but the latter is rare. If parents are found unable to govern their children, the state takes care of the latter in reformatory institutions. The percentage of absence is variously estimated at between 3 and 10 per cent., never more. Ko special law exists against child labor in fac¬ tories, for the compulsory attendance law meets such cases effectively. School terms and length of sessions. — The school year begins at Easter, and commonly lasts from forty-five to forty-six weeks. Vacations are at Easter (one. week), at Whitsuntide (one week), at Christmas (one week), and at harvest time (three or four weeks). The daily sessions last six hours, from 8 till 12 and 2 till 4 j or from 8 till 1 and 3 till 4; or from 8 till 2. There is no whole holiday on Saturday as in this country, but the schools are closed Wednesday and Saturday afternoons. Schoolhouses. — The schoolhouses in Prussia, judged from an Ameri¬ can standi)oint, are insignificant looking and incommodious, but in the cities great progress has been made in school architecture. Forty-one million marks (about $10,000,000) were expended in 1886-87 for the erection and improvement of buildings for elementary schools. Most schoolhouses in cities are of recent origin, as is seen from the following statement ; From 1874 till 1882, 5,975 new buildings were erected and 2,710 build¬ ings were enlarged, at a total cost of 117,000,000 marks ($29,250,000). From 1883 till 1886, 3,977 new buildings were erected and 3,975 build¬ ings were enlarged, at a total cost of 104,000,000 ($26,000,000). Eighty-seven per cent, of the cost of erection was defrayed by the communities, 13 by the state. 160 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. The seatings are uot single-desks and chairs, but long benches and desks attached. The normal number of pupils to the teacher varies between 70 and 80, and even at that rate the number of buildings and teachers is not suflScient ; hence the authorities resort to half-day schools. According to the official report, 2,604,874 out of 4,838,247, or about 54 per cent., are seated in classes of not more than 75 each; while 2,233,373, or about 46 per cent., are seated in overcrowded schoolrooms. The re* port mentioned states that there are : School¬ rooms. Children to 1 teacher. Children in classes. UnsTaded schools. Graded schools. 19.210.. . 5.7.35.. .. 590 . 81 to 100 101 to 1.50 Over 150 71 to 90 91 to 120 Over 120 1, 546, 366 600, 504 86, 503 Total, 2,233,373 children in overcrowded schoolrooms. A])paratiis. — Generally the schools are well supplied with all neces¬ sary apparatus, such as charts, maps, models, simple instruments, ob¬ jects of natural history, etc. In this respect the schools in Germany are furnished better than the average school in America. Many schools have a little museum and library. All of this is easily understood if we remember that in Germany teaching is a profession. Hygienic precautioi^s. — The school authorities insist upon certain precautionary measures, such as vaccination certificates and occa¬ sional visits from physicians ; the German school, being subject to a centralized government, is more thoroughly precautionary than in this country. In time of epidemics schools are dismissed by the local au¬ thorities on short notice. YII. — Instruction. Course of study, — The course of study in elementary schools embraces religion, reading, writing, arithmetic, geograj^hy, singing, drawing, nat¬ ural history, natural science, history of man. No text-books are used for natural history, natural science, or history of man ; this instruction is oral. While in arithmetic, it ma}" be said, the German schools are less pro¬ ficient than the American, their course of study is more comprehensive than the average American course, and the advancement made in Ger¬ many in nearly all the studies is more rapid than in America. This fact is easily accounted for by {a) the difficult spelling of the English language; [h) the efforts made in learning and applying the tables of our arbi¬ trary measures and weights ; (c) the greater length of school sessions and terms; and (d) the want of a profession of teaching in this country, and consequent lack of proper teaching. These are the most important causes. Germany is very rich in text-books. In no country is a greater variety of text-books published than in Germany^ and though this may SCHOOLS OF GEFMAKY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 161" seem a disadvaDtage, its advantages preponderate. It secures greater variety in teaching and a very beneficial and healthy competition among schools and especially teachers. Of course the children of a school and of a community are required to use the same boohs. Methods of teaching.— ^YOuld be utterly impossible without writing a book to make a comprehensive statement concerning the methods of instruction used in Germany. Suffice it to say, there is no undue prominence given to the memory. Very little is learned by heart or by rote. The first object of the teacher is to make his pupils observe things, comprehend facts, and to lead them from stage to stage, so as to keep up an eager interest. Hon. Samuel Smith, of England, in his re¬ port on the German schools says : I saw uo signs of weariness or apathy among either teachers or scholars. The teaching was all viva voce, the teacher always standing beside the hlack-hoard and illustrating his subject by object lessons. The instruction was through the eye and hand as well as the ear, and question and answer succeed so sharply as to keep the whole class on the qui vive. There is absolutely no compulsion in the selection of methods. Every teacher has the greatest possible liberty in the selection of the methods of teaching. No inspector (or superintendent) prescribes methods,- all he would dare to do is to suggest improvements here and there. Since the state attends to the professional training of the teachers, it can safely leave teachers to their own devices, trusting in their professional spirit and ambition. The branches of study. — Eeligion : This instruction is nonsectarian in character, but Protestant, Catholic, and Israelites are, as much as pos¬ sible, taught in separate schools.^ Where they attend mixed schools they are separated during the lesson in religion. It must be re¬ membered that in Prussia church and state are not separated as in America ; hence the prominence given to religious instruction. Bibli¬ cal history, catechism with Bible verses, memorizing of hymns, essen¬ tial points of religious ethics and the creed, are what the public schools are required to teach. Language and reading: Familiarity with the mother tongue and a limited knowledge of German literature are, broadly speaking, the sum total of attainable results. Penmanship and drawing: As a rule the penmanship of the pupils is commendable. In drawing i:)articularly rapid progress has been made of late. The ex¬ ercises chiefly consist of ornamental drawing and form studies. In the higher grades drawing of solids and modelling is practiced. Arithme¬ tic: This study is less extended than in American schools, but very 1 From statistics of 1SSd-87: Of 3,063,000 Protestant children 2,919,000 attended exclusively Protestant schools ; 26,000 attended Catholic schools ; 118,000 mixed schools. Of 1,730,000 Catholic children 1,528,000 attended exclusively Catholic schools ; 55,- 000 atteuded Protestant schools, and 93,000 mixed schools. There were 13,249 Jewish children in 318 separate schools, which were also atteuded by 21 Christian children. ED 89 - 11 162 EDUCATION REPOHT, 1888-89. thorough, chiefly uaental work being done, and little figuring on slates and paper. Singing: Yocal music is i)racticed quite early and contin¬ ued through the entire course. Three and four part music is not infre¬ quently found in simple village schools. Geography: This is pur¬ sued without a text-book, unless a small atlas may be termed a text¬ book. This study stands in close relation with history, which branch is begun quite early with home stories and reference to the child’s home and environments. All historical knowledge is offered in biographies. Natural history : In form of object lessons natural history is taught without a text-book. . The upper grades take up the study of physics and not infrequently also chemistry. These studies are very elemen¬ tary but are pursued with the aid of simple, and sometimes home- made, apparatus. Gymnastics : Physical exercises are prescribed in the course, and no school is without suitable apparatus for regular exer¬ cise. Manual training for boys is not prescribed officially, but private efforts in this direction are greatly encouraged and even subsidized by the government. Industrial education for girls consists in knitting, crocheting, embroidering, sewing, darning, cutting, fitting, and patch¬ ing, and is found in every school. VIII.— -Gradinu and Examination of Pupils. The following is an official statement in regard to the progress made in Prussia in grading pupils. The 4,874,347 pupils eurolled in people’s schools are found in 31,016 schoolhouses with 75,097 schoolrooms. Grading of schools. No. of schools. Classes. Schools with one teacher ..... _ ... . . . . . . . . 23,152 5, 409 28, 561 Half-day schools (included in the above) .................... _ ......... _ ... _ 10, 818 14, 110 8, 046 32, 426 Schools with two teachers . . . . . . ............. _ ...... ...... 5,714 2, 682 Sp.hnnls witli three classes Cinclufled in the a, hovel . . . . . . Schools of more than three classes . . . . . 5,150 Within fourteen years from the issue of the decree which organized the schools anew (January, 1872), notable progress, that is to say, a bet¬ ter grading, has taken place. This progress, though slow, is made apparent by the following columns of figures. Among one hundred schools there were : - 1 1871. I 1882. ' 1886. Schools with — One teacher . . . . . Per cent. 74.7 14.7 10.6 Ter cent. 69.8 16.4 13.8 Per cent. 68.1 16.8 15.1 Two teachers . . . . . . . . . . . n'h ree or in ore teach era . . . . . . . i 100 100 100 There were 26,289 schools graded in two divisions in purely rural dis¬ tricts in 1886 ; there were 1,187 schools of six, and 290 schools of seven SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 163 and more grades, making a total of 1,477 fully graded schools ; these had 16,140 classrooms. The proportion of rural or ungraded schools and of city or graded schools is : Per cent. Ungraded schools . . . 35.51 Schools with two grades . . - . - . 18.64 Schools in rural districts . . . . . . 54. 15 City graded schools . - . 45.85 100 Hence less than one-half of the Prussian children were enrolled in graded schools; about one-third in entirely ungraded schools. Privy-Councilor Dr. Schneider, director of the Bureau of People’s Schools in the Department of Education in Berlin, attached to these official figures the opinion : It is an undisputed fact that the ungraded schools, manned as they are with well- trained graduates of normal schools, accomplish very satisfactory results. ^ * Shill, endurance, and professional zeal, and last, but not least, the greater physical strength of their teachers, are naturally of henehcial influence. It is well to remem¬ ber, then, that the graded city school is not under all circumstances, and hence should not, irevi manu, be considered the better school. There is less of grading in Prussian schools than is commonly ex¬ pected, and it is omitted purposely, for it is considered detrimental to have an entire class of pupils sifted by means of examinations till they are to all intents and purposes alike in knowledge and skill. There are always two, if not more, classes in one room. As regards examinations of pupils, much less is done in Germany than in this country; compe¬ tition is considered demoralizing, and promotions are in many instances determined by the teacher’s decision. In Saxony and other states of Germany school examinations are held annually and made public. They really consist in a review of what the class was designed to have gone over during the year. Kowhere, except in the upper grades of high schools, are written examinations held. The decision of the teacher is rarely questioned; being a professional man, he is expected to know his business. It would as little occur to a German to question the official acts of the teacher as to question the judgment of his medical adviser. Discipline. — Ever since the establishment of schools in Germany discipline has been strict. It is based upon the presumption that rev¬ erence for elders and obedience to the superiors of the children must be expected, and if wanting must be enforced. There being greater docility on the part of German children, harsh measures are not resorted to as frequently as it is commonly believed. Ko law exists prohibiting cor¬ poral punishment, but it is well understood that extreme cases are met and dealt with severely by the functionaries of the law* 164 ' EDUCATION KEPORT, 1888-89. School statistics of Prussia for 1887. fLatest official report. Total population of the kingdomjcensus of 1885) 28,318,470). Kindergarten (private) . . Elementary schools; Public (so-called peo¬ ple’s schools.) Private . . Elementary preparatory. Classes of secondary schools. Ages. 2 to 6 >6 to 14 >G to 14 'g to 10 Total elementary . . Secondary schools : Of a low grade, simi¬ lar to American ; high schools. Of a high grade, classical, and mod¬ ern, leading up to : nniver.sities and polytechnicums. Total secondary.. . ■10 to 17 ilO to 18' ' or 20 I Normal schools Universities. ... Total superior. Special schools. . 48 to 21 18 to 22 (?) Number of pupils. Unknown 4, 874, 347 J 8, 763^ 299, 280l Sex. Both sexes Number of teachers. Unknown Boys . 2,440,094 r -loo Girls . 2,434,253 C Boys . 2, 500 Girls . 6, 263 2G8 a5. 182, 390 Boys . 279, 180 Girls . 20,100 203, 310<^ 153, 602 5451)^912 9, 093< 13, 852^ 22. 945 (c) Bovs . 92, 084 Girls . Ill, 22G Boys . .153, C02 Girls . .none 106 schools for men . 10 schools for women Men only . Sexes taught in sep- erate schools. 7, 480 73, 881 ;> 10, 433 10, 433 833 1,363 (?) A ttendance. (?) ‘Calculated to range between 90 and 95 per cent, of the number en¬ rolled.” Infor¬ mation furnished by an official in Berlin. “Calculated to range between 92 > and 96 percent, of I the number en- I rolled.” J I )• No data. I J a 18.3 per cent of the population. &1.2 per cent, of the population. cNo data^ IX.— Supplement ARY Institu tions. The people’s schools are supplemented in the most ideal manner by a variety of institutions which tend to relieve the schools and make them more effective. (1) Schools for dullards. — Children who are weak-minded, but not idiots, and who retard the progress of the pupils in the elementary schools, are gathered in special classes, where they are treated with due consideration and educated to become useful members of society. Such schools are found only in industrial centers, however. (2) Asylums for vagrants. — Poor parents, working in factories, have little chance for watching their children at homej hence Knahenhorte are established, in which the boys spend their unoccupied afternoons and evenings in manual labor, play, singing, and drawing. The fees are nominal. These institutions are private, but have the encourage¬ ment of the government. (3) Continuation schools, which may be either day or evening schools, or, as in some places, Sunday schools. These schools are in fact post¬ graduate courses, and in many places are obligatory. (4) The state maintains reform schools for boys and girls, asylums for the blind, deaf-mutes, orphans, and idiots — and in fact for all of Nature’s SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 165 unfortunates. It is not necessary to enter into tbeir organization and management, because they differ little, if at all, from similar institutions in this country. It suffices to say that old nations, like the German, have a considerably larger number of children with defective sense organs than the American ; a fact which is readily understood if the natural conditions of life in Europe are considered. Industrial schools^ trade schools, and other similar special institutions, such as agricultural schools, which tend to perfect what the elementary school has begun, should be mentioned here. Besides these supplemen¬ tary institutions, societies and institutions for scientific purposes aid the work of the schools. Thus, for instance, all classes and kinds of schools of a city stand in close connection with and intimate relation to the management of art academies, museums, zoological and botanical gar¬ dens, the astronomical observatory, the library, gymnastic societies, and even the theater; in fact, with every institution which in some de¬ gree may be influential in assisting the work in schools. Plants are ordered for the study of botany at the botanical gardens. Certain hours are fixed at the zoological gardens for visits of the classes in zoology; admission is free. Classes in drawing are taken to the art collections and museums, where the teacher of advanced classes gives a lesson monthly. The libraries are open to the pupils on presentation of a membership ticket issued by the rector of the school. Classes in literature go with their teachers to see classic performances in the theaters. The schools having small but very valuable collections, frequently exchange specimens with the curator of the museum, or even make loans. And so to every department of the curriculum some in¬ stitution outside of the school ofl’ers assistance free of charge. The more one looks about himself in Germany, the more one is im¬ pressed with the fact that the whole nation is one great educational institution. Churches have their reserved seats for school children ; theaters offer classical performances for students; gardens and parks are open for children ; gymnastic halls and apparatus are provided for the use of pupils of the city schools ; in fine, all efforts are made to put public instruction upon a national basis, and to make the desire for education contagious. X.— Variety in School Organization in Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Switzerland. From the foregoing it would seem as though the so-called Yolks- Schule (people’s school), or more properly speaking, elementary school, is the main institution of learning for the people. This impression is erroneous. In the cities of Prussia, but more particularly in those of Saxony and other states, the authorities give a wider scope to their ele¬ mentary schools. Outside of Germany the word Yolks Schule has a different meaning and frequently stands for pauper school, while the 166 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Biirger Sclmle (citizens’ school) is a school almost identical with the common school in the United States, Leipsic and Dresden, in Saxony, have furnished the types of such schools. The citizens’ school of Prussia, on the other hand, is very much akin to our American city high school, and must be classed among the secondary schools; hence it is not mentioned in the preceding pages. If we consider the fact that the people’s schools of Prussia had 5,173,627 pupils in 1887, while all the middle and high schools (citizens’ schools, girls’ academies, real-schulen, and gymnasia) had only 357,000 students with about 300,000 in preparatory classes, the preeminence given to the people’s schools is fully justified. Switzerland, though quite independent of Germany i:>olitically, in- dustriall}^, and socially, is in a large degree imitating its two neighbors, Germany and France. The German system of religious instruction and the French system of secular instruction are blended in the Swiss schools. Altogether there is more instability in the Swiss schools than in the German, owing to the fact that each canton manages its own schools. There is no centralization. It is the American mode of self- government in miniature. This is evident from the following. As regards the object of the public schools there are in the different cantonal school laws two ideas that may be defined as meaning ‘‘edu¬ cation in the widest sense” on the one side, and “ mere instruction ” on the other. Zurich says in its school law of 1832, “ the children of all classes of society shall be educated according to the well-defined princi¬ ples of pedagogy, to be intellectually active, civilly useful, and morally good men and women.” Similar definitions are found in the constitu¬ tions of Baselland (1835), Zug (1850), Graubiinden (1853), Bern (1856), 'Aargau (1865), Wallis (1873), Ax)penzell (1875), Schwyz (1877), Nidwal- den (1879), Schaff hausen (1879). Obwalden (1876), on the contrary, simply says, “it is the duty of every community to see to it that its children b}^ attending a xnimary school shall acquire the knowledge for common life.” Lucerne (1879) says, “ the primary aiul continuation schools have the object to offer youth a general culture such as life de¬ mands.” Baselstadt (1880) says, “ the primary school has the object to make the children familiar with elementary knowledge.” Eleven cantons, among which are Geneva and Freiburg, do not define the ob. ject of the public school at all. As regards German Austria little need be said to characterize the schools save that they resemble the schools of Germany in organization, mode of maintenance, management,, and results. There are agencies at ’work, how'ever, depending chiefly upon the different degree of cul¬ ture of the people, differences in the appreciation of public instruc¬ tion, individual predilections, and tendencies of the ruling men in the government at different times, that cause varieties, changes, and mod. ifications which will in due course of time produce considerable differ¬ entiation. At present it can not be sdid to be very great. SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 167 Among the continental schools in Europe there seem to be, to the careful observer, two trends noticeable: one the (lermanic, the other the Eomanic. Theformer insists upon thorough discipline of mind and body and the fostering of a deep religious and moral sense, and in order to facilitate this, the following are considered necessary: {a) considera¬ tion for the feelings of all citizens in religious matters ; {h) local gov¬ ernment, including regulation of religious instruction (subject to the protection of minorities) 5 (c) direct local taxation, expenditure and ad¬ ministrative details ; (d) religion, subject to certain conscience clause provisions, considered the basis of instruction ; {e) compulsory attend¬ ance 5 (/) thorough qualification, of all teachers for private as well as for public schools; {g) recognition of the importance of gymnastic exercises. The special features of the Eomanic trend are: {a) the natural eager intention to render the system as perfect as possible, and in as short a time as possible; {h) in pursuance of that intention munificent expendi¬ ture upon public instruction is made ; (c) the absence of any religious instruction is a marked characteristic, but the system endeavors to be absolutely neutral in, and not hostile to, religion ; {d) special attention is paid to industrial training; [e) the organization of infant schools is very complete ; (/) the state far more absolutely than elsewhere con¬ trols the complete education of the people. XI.— The Schools of ETungaryt A few facts concerning the Hungarian schools should be added to complete the exposition of the German schools, for the Hungarian schools are to a great extent organized like the schools in Germany and Austria. In 1888 Hungary had 2,416,915 children of school age, 6 to 15 years. Of these only 1,950,879, or 80.73 per cent., attended elementary schools, namely, 1,750,013 between 6 and 12 years of age, and 606,932 between 12 and 15 years of age. Here is an instructive comi)arison : i8Ga. 1 1888. Children of school ago . . . . . 1 2, 284, 741 1, 152, 115 50. 42 2, 41C, 945 1, 950, 879 Children in school . Pfirceiit,.- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 80. 73 The number of schools has in accordance with this increase grown amazingly. The following comparison may show this 1869. 1888. Comnmnities . . . 1 12, 757 12, 694 Schools . 13, 798 16, 622 24, 379 $4, 950, 373 Teachers . 1 . ' . 17, 792 Lxpensos of elementary schools . . . $1, 253, 375 168 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. The normal schools have shared in this general forward movement, as is seen from these numbers : ' 1869. 1888. Xorraal schools . . . . . . 1 46 71 SUidents . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 556 271 3, 955 685 Professors . . . . . The infant schools are well organized, as is seen from the following : 1869. 1888. Infant schools . . . . . . . . 255 18, 624 315 $84, 043 603 55. 639 1, 212 $136, 415 Pupils . . . Teachers or nurses . . . . . . . . . Expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . Count Csdky, tlie new minister of education in Hungary, considers it his duty to regulate the aifairs of prescholastic institutions, such as kindergarten, infant schools, etc. In his first report, just issued, he ex¬ presses his determination to establish elementary schools wherever the communities fail in so doing, and he urges that the salaries and pen¬ sions of teachers be regulated by law. Among the new steps he has taken, we mention an order according to which courses have been arranged for female teachers in normal schools, also courses for training professors for secondary schools, so that henceforth the graduates of universities who wish to devote them¬ selves to teaching may obtain their professional training before enter¬ ing upon their duties. The salaries of teachers have hitherto been paid irregularly. The minister insists upon it that they be paid promptly. Also in regard to the chaos prevailing in Hungarian schools in the use of text-books he promises wholesome changes. Since the passage of the present school law in 1869, the number of schools has increased 2,824. Hungary has now 16,622 schools, among which are- 16,301 elementary, 74 advanced, 13 girls’ schools, 159 citizens’ schools. The state supports only 738 schools, communities 1,880, the religious congregations 13,783 5 202 were private schools; 10,712 towns or villages have their own schools, 1,783 have joined others in so-called combined schools, and 300 settlements or villages have no school at all. Of 1,000 German children of school age in Hungary, 907 were in school; of 1,000 Slavonians, 850; of 1,000 Magyars, 842; of 1,000 Croa- tians,858; of 1,000 Servians, 802; of 1,000 Kuthenians, 675; of 1,000 Eou- manians, 622. The number of teachers increased from 17,782 in 1869, to 24,148 in 1887. At present there are 71.72 children to the teacher. Of the 24,188 teachers, 3,133 (or 13 per cent.) have no certificate. The number of women teachers has increased 340 per cent, since 1869. There are at present 71 normal schools (46 in 1869) ; of these 25 were state schools, 46 confessional schools ; 53 were for men, 17 for women. SCJiaOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. 169 XII.— Secondary Schools among Gesaian- Speaking Xations. Variety in organization and scope. — The lower schools of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, as well as of Hungary, are, as has been stated before, not common schools in the sense in which that term is under¬ stood in the United States, free of charge and common to all, but of a variety of types. This differentiation is even more pronounced in the higher schools. The variety found among them is so great that it puz¬ zles the collector of statistics who has to classify them. Switzerland, wedged in between monarchies, has to accommodate itself to demands made by society, hence we find even there a great variety of schools, though not as confused as in Germany and Austria. Bilrgerschulen (citizens’ schools), Itohere mddchenschulen, progymnasia, gymnasia, realschulen, realgymnasia, prorealgymnasia are the public high schools. This array of technical terms is difficult to render in English. A verbal translation would be misleading, and a labored circumlocution useless. These secondary schools may be grouped into middle and high schools. The citizens’ school, girls’ academy, and the progymnasium (which is a gymnasium with incomplete course) may be classed among the middle schools. The gymnasium, realschule (with complete course), and the realgymnasium are the high schools. The gymnasium is the oldest of all secondary schools, and is the Latin school of the Middle Ages. It is the classical boys’ school par excellence. The realschule (the first one was established 140 years ago) substitutes modern languages for the classics, and bestows much attention upon nat¬ ural sciences, mathematics, and industrial drawing and designing. The gymnasium prepares for the learned professions, the realschule trains engineers, surveyors, artists, civil officers, etc. The realgymnasium is a combination of both kinds of schools, and found nearly always where a community can not support two secondary schools. From the charts (see pp. 173-G) the differences existing between the courses of these schools may be gleaned better than from verbal explanation. The great army of business men is recruited from these higher and from the middle schools. The boy of the iieople’s school has a hard time of it in courting success in the higher walks of lifej still such cases are by no means wanting. Statistics of secondary schools in Prussia.— In 1889, Germany had 418 gymnasia (or classical schools), namely, Prussia, 266; Bavaria, 35; Saxony, 17; Wlirtemberg, Baden, 14; Hessen, 7; Mecklenburg- Schwerin, 7 ; Braunschweig, 6 ; Oldenburg, 5; Anhalt 4; Saxe- Weimar, 3; Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 3; Alsace-Lorraine, 16; the other German principalities, 1 or 2 each. These institutions are distributed over the empire very irregularly, as is seen from the following figures : While in Saxony 187,000 inhabitants support 1 gymnasium, there is 1 to every 133,000 inhabitants in Wurtemberg ; 1 to every 114,000 inhabitants in Baden ; 1 to 107,000 in Prussia; 1 to 100,000 inhabitants in Alsace- i70 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Lorraine. In other parts of the empire GO, 000 and even 33,000 inhabi¬ tants support and maintain a gymnasium. In 1889, Germany had 54 progymnasia (6 years’ instead of 8 years’ course). Of these, 40 were found in Prussia. The number of realgymnasia was 133 in 1889. Of these Prussia had 90 ; Saxony, 1 0 5 Bavaria, 5 5 Hessen, 4, etc. There were, besides these, 106 real-progymnasia, and 15 upper realschulen. These schools are found chiefly in Prussia, namely, 84 real-progymnasia and 10 upper realschulen. These two kinds of schools do not differ materially in aims and scope. The number of realschulen and higher citizens’ schools in 1889 was 154. These two kinds of schools do not differ much, either. Of these 154 schools, Prussia had only 39, while Bavaria had 33 ; Sax¬ ony, 20; Hessen, 14; Baden, 11 ; Alsace-Lorraine, 10; Wiirtemberg, 10 ; the other states, 1 7. To these different classes of secondary schools should be added 87 public and private institutions, which it is difficult to classify. Hence, the entire number of acknowledged secondary schools in Germany in 1889 was 97G. Before long Germany will have a thousand high schools that are high schools in fact, as well as in name. In all the South German states and in Alsace-Lorraine secondary instruction is exclusively the state’s concern. Communal g3^mnasia, realschulen, and higher citizens’ schools are not found in Bavaria, Wiir- temberg, Baden, and Hessen, nor in Alsace-Lorraine. In Prussia, the majority of gymnasia are state schools, but there are still a number of municipal schools of that kind. Their number decreases, however, ever^" year, since the state takes hold of them as its means increase, nearly all the other schools, that is, those which depart from mere classical learning and emphasize scientific and mathematical studies, and particularly modern languages, are municipal institutions. Thus it appears that, in Prussia the state fosters classical, the city, modern edu¬ cation. The salaries of teachers in the high schools of Germany are highest in wealthy cities: Hamburg (maximum, $2,1G0), Lubeck (maximum, $1,575), Anhalt (maximum, $1,500), Prankfort (maximum, $1,540), Berlin (maximum, $1,500). The pensions paid to teachers in high schools are highest in Bavaria, Hessen, Wiirtemberg, Saxe-Weimar, and others of the small principalities. The following data are interesting : In Bavaria the i)ension amounts to 70 per cent, of the salary after 10 years of service, 80 per cent, of the salar\^ after 25 years of service, 90 per cent, of salary after the 40 years of service, 100 i)er cent, of the salarj^ after 50 years of service. In Hessen 50 per cent, of the salary after 10 years of service, 72.5 per cent of the salary after 25 j^ears of service, 90 per cent, of the salary after 40 years of service. In Saxony 33;!j- per cent, of the salary after 10 years of service, 41.5 per cent, of the salaiy after 25 j^ears of service, 70 per cent, of the salary after 40 years of service. In Saxony SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA^ AND SWITZERLAND. I?! tlie governmeut has released the cities from coiitributiog to the pen¬ sion fund and intends to assume all paying of pensions to teachers. An increase in the schools is confidently expected. Stimulus for higher education of hoys. — When we consider the fact that Prussia with 28,000,000 inhabitants has 356,912 pupils in second¬ ary schools, it is obvious that some powerful stimulus to higher educa¬ tion must exist in that country. Mere love of learning would not adequately account for the high percentage of youths seeking a higher intellectual plane. The motive is found in the fact that, b}^ govern¬ mental decree, students who have passed through a six years’ high school course are entitled to an abbreviation of their military service from three years to one year. Hence, continuing his studies till he reaches the “secunda” (the class below the graduating class), the youth se¬ cures not only a better education generally, but shortens his service in the army by two years. This system of artificially inducing the young men of the country to stay in school longer than they would otherwise do has been in existence for over 30 years 5 it has proven beyond doubt the most effective inducement for higher education, though it has its bitter opponents, and lately the government is contemplating its abolishment because the number of young men with a secondary edu¬ cation is so rapidly increasing that all the learned professions are over¬ crowded vdth candidates, and a new social species is being developed, that of ‘‘ educated paupers.” Graduates. — Prussia furnishes some instructive data concerning the number and choice of occupation of graduates of gymnasia or classical schools. In 1889 266 gymnasia conducted examinations for graduation ; 4,251 pupils signified their willingness to submit to the examination, but shortly before the day arrived 307 withdrew from the contest, and 93 were refused admission by the faculty, reasons not stated. Of the re¬ maining 3,851 who were examined, 3,702 passed, 149 failed. Six of those who passed were less than 17 years old ; 98 were 17 ; 579 were 18 ; 972 were 19 ; 959 were 20 ; 1,088 were 21 or more. Six hundred and sixteen of the graduates went to universities to study Protestant theology, 326 Catholic theology, 12 Hebrew theology 5 703 went to study law; 29 political economy; 873 medicine ; 210 philology and philosophy; 109 mathematics and natural sciences. Some, especially the youngest ones, had not decided what course of study to pursue. Two hundred and thirty-nine went to military academies with the view to entering the army; 110 will devote themselves to civil engineering; 33 to min¬ ing engineering ; 270 intend to enter forestry, postal, and state civil service; 130 will goto farming, commerce, and industrial pursuits; 37 to other callings. Austria had in 1889 172 gymnasia (classical schools for boys) with 55,404 students, 85 realschulen (modern high schools for boys) with 18,545 students ; 178 of these secondary schools were sui^ported ex- 172 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. cliisively {a) by the goveremeiit 25, (5) by communities 30, {c) by churches 14, {d) by private 1‘amls 11 ; the others are supported by state and communities, or by church and state, or by church and communi¬ ties, or by state and private funds, etc. In 155 of these high schools German is the medium of instruction, in 57 it is Bohemian, in 28 Polish, in 7 Italian.^ XIiL— Courses of Study. The four accompanying charts illustrate the differences in the courses of study in the various schools of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, as well as in the common schools of America. A comparison of these charts will afford an insight into the differentiation going on in these schools in order to meet the different demands of life. (See pp. 173-G.) On these charts, it mast be understood, the course of study for the American common school is an average course, such as may be found with slight deviations all over the country. It does not indicate any preferences in favor of this, that, or another language, and leaves the limit of time spent in the study of grammar undefined, but shows that much time is consumed in mastering the orthography of the English language. It is scarcely necessary for the reader in this country to see minutely delineated what by a slow process of evolution has become the average course of stud^^ Of coarse, if a selection were made here and in Europe among the schools, we might present a picture which would make a just comparison quite impossible. Statistics is the science of averages, and it is the average school, not the exception, which is here delineated. The courses of the Prussian schools sketched in the accompanying charts show the leading features of language instruction and the relative value bestowed upon it in the different kinds of schools. These charts are the result of comparison of many courses of study in use in Germany, and of the requirements made by the Prussian Gov¬ ernment, notably by the decree of May 31, 1882. i The number of secondary schools in Hungary is 180, namely, 151 gymnasia, 29 realschulen. In 120 of these secondary schools the medium of instruction is the Hungarian language, in 39 it is another language mixed with Hungarian, in 21 it is either German, Croatian, Roumanian, etc. The number of students in secondary schools was in 188S, 39,918, or 615 more than in 1887. Of these 32,255 attended gym¬ nasia, 6,563 realschulcu. According to their mother tongue the students are ckissitied as Hungarians, 28,487 (71.3 per cent.), Germans, 6,285 (15.8 per cent.), Rou¬ manians, 2,456 (6.2 per cent.), Italians, 123 (0.3 per cent.), Slavonians, 1,542 (3.9 per cent.), Serviau-Croatic 810 (2.0 per cent.), Rutheuians, 97 (0.2 per cent.), others 118 (0.3 per cent.). Another interesting fact is brought out, if we ask for the number of students who speak only their mother tongue : 16,967 students speak only Hungarian, 338 only German, 569 only Roumanian, 11 only Slavonian, 83 only Servian-Croatic. Hence 18,002 (or 45 per cent.) speak only their mother tongue, while 21,916 (or 55 per cent.) speak two or more languages. SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND, 173 Chart I. — Showing hoiv the time commonly devoted to linguistic studies in the American common school and the different classes of German schools is divided. Year of School. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 77 12 13 14 Year of Life. 7 8 9 10 n 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 American Mt •adu ig a T ^riti X iter iloyi Th u /siol a I F hysi & Istri ys f. _ 177 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY, AUSTRIA, AND SWITZERLAND. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS. I. — Prussia, 1887. No. of pu¬ pils. No. of teachers. School fund. Annual ex¬ penditures.® Pl'ip'jp.ry an.linnlfl - _ _ ......... _ 5, 173, 627 3.66, 912 22, 847 (M 75, 060 10, 433 1,363 (*) 6$7, 939, 512 (*) (*) (') C$39, 225, 450 7, 287, 125 3, 957, 875 2, 231, 750 Second pry _ _ _ _ _ _ Universities ...... _ ......................... _ _ .qf»linola /f, _ _ _ _ - _ _ Total . e62, 702, 200 a The items in this column are estimates for the j’ear 1888, furnished by the government. b Annual interest. c Eighteen per cent, of this sum is contributed by the state. dThere are in Prussia a great number of special schools, both state or communal and private. Where the state is unable to give pecuniary support, it aids those institutions morally and solicits the aid of those of its citizens interested in their existence. Prussia has the greatest vai iety of special schools, hut no definite statistics are available. From the large sum spent for the m iintenance of such schools it is obvious, however, that the statement made by an American author, to wit, “Prussia has the greatest number of educational experimental stations of any nation on the face of the globe,’’ is not an exaggeration. e 31.05 per cent, of this sum total is contributed by the state, 46. 19 per cent, by communities, 22.76 per cent, are raised by tuition fees and obtained from sundry other sources. The expenditure for educational purposes in 1888 in Prussia was $l 86 per capita of the population. (Compare Switzerland, where the per capita was $1.88, and Hungary where it was 42 cents.) * Not stated. II. — Austria, 1887. No. of pu¬ pils. No. of teachers. Annual ex¬ penditures.® ‘PriTTiP^y - - -- _ - _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ 2, 748, 347 71,425 18,405 119,491 57, 236 4, 880 1,783 8, 864 $757, 404 1, 934, 595 1, 299, 443 1, 092, 734 Secondary schools . Universities b ........................ _ ........ _ ....... _ Special schools c.. _ ..................................... _ Total . 5, 084, 176 Note. — No information available for school fund. a By state only. The Austrian official reports are silent on the question of expenditures. The state¬ ment in the foregoing column is made npon the authority of private information (see Annual Eeport ot the Bureau of Education for 1884^85), and includes only state appropriations. b Including art schools and theological seminaries. c Including normal, commercial, industrial, music, agricultural, raining, nautical, and other special schools. The ratio of school population to the entire population in 1888-87 was 12.9 per cent. (Compare Prus¬ sia, 19.5 per cent., Switzerland, 18.2 per cent., and Hungary, 11.5 per cent. III. — Hungary, 1887-88. No. of pu¬ pils. No. of teachers. School fund. Annual ex¬ penditures. Tnfnnt sebnols _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 55, 639 1, 950, 879 39, 918 8, 106 1,212 24, 379 2,913 648 (*) $12,676,534 1 1 1 (*) (*) $136, 415 ® 1, 50.3, 116 b 2, 357, 305 c 1, 089, 952 Primary schools _ _ _ _ Secondary and normal schoohs.... _ 4, 9.50, 373 1, 574, 000 398, 047 ITniversities and technical schools. _ _ Total . 7, 058, 835 * Not stated. Notes. — (a) Expenditures by state ; (5) by communities; (c) by the church for school purposes. In school affairs the church is a co ordinate power in Hungary. While in 1887 the ratio of children of school age was 17.3 per cent, of the population, only 11.5 per cent, were enrolled. (Compare Prussia, 19.5 per cent. ; Switzerland, 18.2 per cent. ; and Austria, 12.9 per cent.) The average salary of teachers in the lower schools of Hungary in 1887 was 471| florins, or .$157.28. (In Budapest $365.00 ; in Kukiild $74.00.) The expenditure for educational purposes per capita of the population in Hungary was 42 centSc (Compare Switzerland $1.88, and Prussia $1.86.) The foregoing figures concerning universities are somewhat mi.sleading if compared with other coun¬ tries. They include all theological and law schools of the country. There .are in fact only two uni¬ versities, and one polytechnic school. ED 89 - 12 178 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. IV. — Switzerland, 1887-88. 1 No. of pu¬ pils. No. of teachers. School fund. Annual ex¬ penditures. Kindergarten and primary schools . 540, 231 11, 155 f $27,000,675 <1 i a $1,370, 435 52, 975, .505 4, 345, 940 Secondary and normal schools . 18, 206 836 2,179,899 <{ 1 a 626, 168 b 126, 203 752, 371 Universities, (d) . . . . 3, 529 524 (*) c 370, 649 Total . 5, 368, 960 * Not stated. Notes.— (a) Expenditures by cantonal governments ; (b) by coinmanities, including tuition fees; (c) by federal government exclusively. (d) One hundred and sixty-one of the students in the univer.sities are ■women ; 806 are foreigners. Of the pupils below the universities 06.8 per cent, attend eleiu-m ary, 3.2 per cent, attend secondary schools. The ratio of school population (below the universities) to tlie eutire population was 18,2 per cent. (Compare Prus.sia, 19.5 per cent. ; Austria, 12.9 per cent; and Hungary, il.5 per cent.) The expenditures for educational purposes per capita of the population in Switzerland was $1.88. (Compare Prussia, $1.8G. ; Hungary, 42 cents ) The per capita of the school population was $7.60. Memorable dates in the history of the Prussian people's or elementary schools. 1717. Royal order that jiareuts should send their children to school. 1763. General School Regulations, issued by Frederick the Great. 1794. Adoption of the Prussian ‘‘Landrecht” (Code of Laws), in which the schools found complete recognition : Part II, Title 11, sections 217, 218, referring to funds; Title 12, sections 4 and 53, laws referring to the public schools; sec¬ tions 3 and 8 referring to private schools. 1806. Beginning of reconstruction of all governmental institutions of the Kingdom after the disastrous defeat at Zona; general obligation to army service and school attendance. 1808. Queen Louise introduces Pestalozzfs principles. 1825. Cabinet order referring to compulsory attendance and discipline. 1833. Royal order concerning abolishment of tuition fees (only partially carried out). 1834. Cabinet order concerning supervision of schools. 1850. Adox)tion of the constitution. Articles 21 and 26 containing the famous sen¬ tence, “Science, and the teaching of science, are free.” 1854. Three regulations (Muehler’s) for elementary schools. 1872. General Regulations (Falk’s) for Elementary Schools. 1875. Vaccination law. 1882 and 1885. Law regulating pensions for teachers and their widows and orphans. 1888. Laws contemplating the final abolition of tuition fees. 179 r r n r n n n n b 1 □ r t □ b □ b b b i (a.) KmdergartoM, 20,745. (h.) People’s Schools, 519,486. (c.) Secondary Schools, 18,206. Patio to population, 18%. NOTE. — Each little square ^ represents 5000 pupils.'- Q ! / ^ ' Z < UJ N fii H > > cn >3 Is. o A LL : < ^ : H O kSi H X w ^ " a <1 ^ 1 1 ^ t: w _ (C 1 — • i 0 ~1 0 s w ^ r X b M ra ^ :i V R j LN PH <1^ m t . «i fe: « II J a i > l or j < i J s m S' ] P L & lO CD ^ $:! I □ z P 1 n j b ^is n ^ o ^ ^ . j LU ° t-‘ 5 N % T; V - 0) ^ w § 1 29 . ^ ^ c- ^ sp ^ 0 .s 3,1 0 o ^ HH 2 LU ^ \>Hi ^ r ') rS ^ ” 1 *1 ij 1 — n k— 1 i~ lZ IVl Ph ^ |w| fE- H b E X “^l SVVV^' 7I b h" r . b ~ y 1 t ! u H ' r~ \ 1 SS&^ Sfi ' 1 — || 1 ! r t ii»! L ■ ' i~" 1 2 'Oi : 1 LU i j t 1“ a n oc r“ Hi h“ i~ t s t r S T- -a,-. r LU j Q 1 “1 . - 2 r U- 1 “1 n l — 1 j 1 fl 1 n L 71 VU- I n 8 _ t i— 181 CHAPTER VI. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ITALY'. Authorities consulted. — Staiistica delV Istruzione Elemeniare — Statistica delV Isirii- zione Secondaria e Superiore—Stato di Previsione della Spesa per VEsercizio finan- ziario — State del Personate addetto alia Puhhlica Istruzione — Codice della Istruzione Pul)l)lica — Nuove Illustrazione e Commenti alle Lcggi e Discipline sulla P. Istruzione — Atti Parlamentari, Legislatura XVI, 4*^ Sessions; Disegno di Leggi e Eelazione — Bollettino Ufficiale del Ministero di Puh. Istruzione — Sulle istituzione di istruzione prbnaria nella Lomhardia, Allocuzione da G. Eossi—Buisson : Dictionnaire de Peda- gogie et d’ Instruction Primaire — Hippeau : E Instruction Puolique en Italic — M. Arnold: Schools and Universities on the Continent — Statesman's Year Boole, etc. — Schmid: Encylclopddie des Erziehungs und Unterrichiswesens — Eevue Internationale de VEnseignement — Eevue Pedagogique. Constitutional monarcliy : Area, 114,410 square miles ] population, 30,505,253 (1888). Capital, Home ; population, 273,208 (in 1881). Minis¬ ter of public instruction, Paolo Boselli; appointed February 17, 1888. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. The territory known to-day as Italy has been subjected to the domi¬ nation of Germany, Spain, France, and Austria at different periods of its history, Spanish rule predominated during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; Austrian at the beginning of the eighteenth; the French victories changed the government between 1797 and 1814; Austrian rule was reestablished in 1814. In 1848 the Milanese and Vene¬ tians joined Piedmont; in 1859 the Austrians lost their hold, and the Kingdom of Italy, comprising Piedmont, Sardinia Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, the Komagna, Kaples, and Sicily, was formed. In 1866 Venetia was ceded to Italy by Austria, and the kingdom was consum¬ mated, with Eome as its capital, in 1870. The administrative divisions of Italy, as at present constituted, are provinces, territories (“ circondari ”), districts (‘‘ distretti ’’), and com¬ munes. The old ‘‘compartimenti’^ are no longer recognized as legal divisions. There are 69 provinces, of which 60 are, divided into terri¬ tories, and 9 (the province of Mantua and the 8 provinces of Venetia) into districts. There are 197 territories (‘‘ circopdari ’^) and 87 districts (“ distretti”). The territories circondari ”) ,and districts are divided into communes (“ comuni ”), of which at the census of 1881 there were 8,259; the number at present (18S9) is 8,256. The circondari ” are political, rather than administrative, divisions. The comuni ” or com- 182 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ITALY. 183 4 mune is a division comprised of one or more villages, and having any¬ where from 300 to 10,000 inhabitants. Then there are “ mandamenti,’’ which are neither political nor administrative divisions, but rather of a judicial character. Head communes. Population. ProvUinfia _ -i. . _ 60 215 4, 509, 159 2, 573. 004 Territoi'iea C‘ tiirr-oiidari or fliMti icts . . . Total . . . 284 7, 082, 163 21,877, 465 Other communes . . . . . . . . . . . Total . . . 28, 459, 628 The executive power of the state belongs exclusively to the sovereigu, and is exercised by him through responsible ministers. The legisla¬ tive authority is vested in the King, the Senate, and the Chamber of Deputies. The local government is administered by the provincial and commu¬ nal councils, each province having a provincial council and a provincial commission j each commune a communal council, a municipal council, and a syndic. The administrative and educational authorities are brought closely together in their duties, as is shown in the statement appended. The state, province, or commune maintains public instruction; a member of the cabinet is in charge of education ; the King himself ai)poiuts cer¬ tain grades of instructors ; the parliamentary bodies discuss and decide upon educational questions ; the prefect of the province is president of the provincial school council; the syndic looks after the registration of pupils of school age, notifies parents of neglect of duty, etc. The organization of the public school system in Italy is based on the law of November 13, 1859, called the Legge Oasati,’^ from the minister in charge of education at that date. This law, which was intended more especially for the schools of Piedmont, Sardinia, and Lombardy, is under a united Italy the basis of all later laws appertaining to the school sys¬ tem. Its main features may be gleaned in the following presentation. I. — General features of the school system. The state regulates public instruction, and maintains, either entirely or in conjunction with the communes and provinces, public schools of every grade. It also authorizes the establishment of private schools, among which are classed those conducted by religious corporations.^ At I By law of 18G7 all chapters of collegiate churches, abbeys, ecclesiastical benefices not attached to parishes, and all brotherhoods and foundations to which an eccle¬ siastical service was annexed, were suppressed. The property was transferred to the state under certain regulations. A great part w'as devoted to education. Religious corporations not being recognized by law, the schools carried on by them became of a private character. In addition to these schools there are also lay private schools. 184 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. the head of the school system is the minister of i)ublic instruction, who is assisted by a higher council of education. Another general council has special control of secondary and elementary instruction. The local control of schools is vested in a council of education for each of the sixty-nine provinces under the presidency of the prefect, which has the right of supervision in regard to the sanitary and moral state of the provincial schools. (For other school ofiQcers with their special duties see “supervision” below.) The divisions of the school system are: (1) Elementary, which in¬ cludes infant schools, primary of two grades, and normal schools 5 (2) secondary education, which includes classical and technical schools ; (3) higher education, including the universities, higher institutes, and special schools. The elementary grades and technical schools are maintained by the communes ; the lower grade secondary classical schools by the munici¬ palities : the higher grade classical schools, i. e., the “licei,” by the state and the municipalities; the technical institutes and the higher special schools by the state, provinces, and communes. The universities are maintained by the state and by their own ancient revenues. II.— Statistics. The population of Italy, according to census of 1881, was 28,459,028 Estimated for 1888, 30,505,253. The statistics of the different grades of schools mentioned above are as follows for the year 1886, which is the latest date obtainable for all schools of the Kingdom : Age. Enrollment. Boys. Girls. Teachers. 1 Length 1 of ^ school year. I. Elementary education. Trifanf' sc.honla _ _ _ 3 to 6 6 to 12 6 to 12 252, 763 1, 998, 724 77,217 176, 957 452, 839 ^ 10, 542 5, 603 44, 383 2, 643 8, 2G0 12, 805 1,245 Months. Public schools : Kegular . Irregular . Privatft schnolfi _ _ _ 1, 087, 605 44, 617 62, 044 911,119 32, 800 114,913 10 PvpniTio- flTifl hr.lifin.y np.ltnnln 12 to 25 h15 to 18 hlb to 19 Normal schools. . ^ Total . . . 1, 287 9, 255 10 2, 969, 042 2. Secondary education. Classical : Giunasi . . . 47, 230 13, 696 27, 131 7, 381 774 87, 884 4, 3641 1, 880 5 3, 259 1, 255 10 Licei . 14 to 17 11 to 14 Technical: Sen ole teen i eh R... . . . . latituti tecnicii _ _ _ _ Naval mercantile schools . Convitti (separate instruction for boys and girls) . 6 to 12 50, 221 37, 363 ( Total . 181,096 a Women. b Men. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ITALY. 185 Age. Enrollment, Boys. Girls. Teachers. Length of school year. 3. Higher education. Universities: vAmm^n tal _ _ _ 14, 500 317 50 1, 858 515 872 80 24 377 242 Months. n Free . . University courses connected with licei ..... _ ............. _ _ _ Higher institutes . . . . Special schools . . . . Total . . . . 17, 240 Grand total.. . ! 3, 170, 378 Note. — Percent, of population enrolled in sclioola: Elementary education, 9 per cent.; secondary education, 0.6 per cent. ; higher education, 0.5 per cent. The “ aaili infantili,” or intant schools, .are conducted after the Aporti method (founded by the Ab- bate Ferranti Aporti in 1847), that is ‘‘un poco troppo scuola e troijpo pocco asilo,” but a certain num¬ ber are conducted according to Froebel’s kindergarten system. The “scuola irregolare ” do not fulfil all requirements of the law in point of study and time of com¬ mencement. The “scuole normale,” inforiore e superiore, .are for the training of teachers, the former having a two years’ course, the latter extending through three years. The classical schools — ginnasi and licei — lead to the universities and learned professions. To sub¬ serve the necessities of modern life the “ scuole tecniche ” and “ istituti tecnici ’’ were established. The “ scuole tecniche ” prepare pupils for industrial or commercial pursuits; the “istituti tecnici” for the professions of civil engineering, surveying, etc. The “convitti ” connected with secondary schools are establishments where pupils are boarded and lodged, and within which are schools of an elementary character, preparing pupils for classical or technical schools. “ Convitti ” for girls prepare for higher institutes for that sex. Tiie universities are classed as free and governmental, the free universities being supported by the municipalities or by their own funds. Under higher institute.s, or schools which cooperate with the u::iversities, are classed the Institute for the Perfecting of Higher Studies in Florence, the normal school at Pisa, the scientific and literary academy and the higher technic.al school of Milan, the royal school of medicine and surgery, etc. Special schools include agricultural and mining schools, industrial and commercial schools, conserva¬ tories of music, etc. III.— Finances. Incoine. — The funds for public schools are made up from amounts derived from the state, from provincial and local taxation, and in the communes, from revenues derived from the ‘^opere pie” or foundations, and by tuition fees. The amount from revenues and from taxation is not known, but the funds as a whole in 1886 were : State, $7,189,061 ; provincial funds, $1,008,807 5 communal funds, $12,014,928. Total,, $20,212,796. Expenditures. — The expenditures, subdivided as to grades of educa¬ tion are not to be obtained for the year 1886. The total expended by the state, provinces, and communes together was $19,001,341 at that date. The state expenditures are usually applied to making up defi- ciences in teachers’ salaries 5 provincial subsidies to defraying the cost of school buildings, furniture, and similar material expenditure 5 com¬ munal funds to the general supj)ort of elementary schools. 186 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-80. The budorefc of the minister of public instruction for the year 188G-87 is liere appended : Ordinary expen diiiires. Lire. Central admiuistratiou . . 1, 790, 811 Provincial . 1, 161, 490 Superior and special iustruction . 9, 188, 788 Scientific and literary institutions and societies . 1,636,755 Fine arts and antiquities . . . 3, 918, 986 Secondary classical education . 5, 163, 704 Technical, industrial, and professional education . 5,606,744 Normal and elementary education . « . . 5,994,376 Sundries . 11,000 Extraordinary expenditures. 34, 482, 256 Central administration . . 47,900 Universities and other higher institutions . 1, 254, 138 Scientific and literary institutions and societies . . 127, 887 Antiquities and fine arts . 498,732 Secondary classical education . 63,912 Normal and elementary education . . . . . 366, 800 Sundries . . . 76,000 2, 435, 370 Ordinary expenses, $6,655,075; extraordinary expenses, $470,026; total, $7,125,101. Lire, 19.3 cents. IV. — Supervision. State. — The minister of public instructiou, appointed by the King, is at tlie head of the school system. His duties extend over all grades ot education, and through the school officers reporting to him, he may be said to control the whole educational system of the Kingdom. He is assisted b^’ the ^‘Oonsiglio superiore di Pubblica Istruzione or higher council of education, whose duties are advisory, administrative, and judicial in character. This council, by law of 1881, is composed of thirty-two members, fifteen of whom form a ‘^giunta” or board, to attend to current matters. The minister and higher council are aided by the Consultore Legale” or legal councillor. He gives legal advice concerning the interpretation and application of laws and regulations as applied to different grades of education. An inspector-general Isiiettore Generale”) and nine central inspectors (“Ispettori Cen- trale ”) are included among the state officers. They take the place of the “Provveditorate Ceutrale” of 1867, which was abolislied in 1881, and are executive officers of the ministry for all provisions relating to their own departments, and they have general charge of education under authority of the ministry. LocaL—Each province has a ‘‘ Oonsiglio Scolastico Proviuciale ” or provincial school council, and la ‘‘ Provveditore agli studi ” or super¬ visor of studies, who is appointed by the king. The school system of Italy. 18? Each district lias an “Ispettorede scuola elementare” or inspector of elementary scliools, and there are also school delegates in subdistricts or mandainenti.” The provincial school council is composed of the prefect of the province, who presides ; of the provincial supervisor of studies, who acts as vice president ; and of ten councillors. This council has the supervision of elementary, normal, technical, and classical edu¬ cation. It examines school laws and regulations, approves the budget for public schools, sanctions appointment of teachers, gives its opinion in regard to subsidies to the communes and to teachers, watches over private schools (the inspection of private schools covers hygiene and morals, but is not extended to the course of study) and in every way acts as representative of the minister of public instruction in the province. The Provveditore has special charge of classical, technical, and nor¬ mal schools. He acts as a link between the provincial council, the schools, and the minister. District school inspectors attend to the needs of the elementary schools, which they visit twice a year. A certificate of capacity is required, since 1881, of persons desiring to become district school inspectors. The delegates of the “ mandamenti are nonsalaried officials appointed by the King for three years. Their duties are to represent the provincial school council and watch over the elementary and secondary schools. V.— Teachers. The teachers of the Kingdom are trained in normal schools, scuole normale,” which are of two grades, higher and lower. These schools, 133 in number, with 10,542 x)upils in 1880, are divided into govern¬ mental, provincial, communal, endowed, private, and not assimilated, ‘‘non x)areggiate,” that is, those which arrange their own courses, classify their own studies, etc. The courses in the lower grade normals, which were called “ scuole magistrale” until 1883, are two years in duration. Those in the higher grade normals are three years. The applicants for admission to the normal schools must have attained, men the sixteenth year, women the fifteenth year. They must be able to pass a partly verbal and partly written examination in grammar, arithmetic, catechism, and Bible history, and must possess a certificate of high moral standing. They are also required to have a physician’s certificate, showing good physical condition. Teachers also have the advantage of teachers’ institutes and associa¬ tions for the discussion of methods, school management, salaries, etc. Applicants for teachers’ positions in elementary grades must be eighteen years of age, and must hold the required certificate of capac¬ ity and moralit}^ Kormal pupils desiring teachers’ positions in the lower grade require the certificate indicating completion of the two 188 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1888-89. years- course. For the higher grade positions the diploma for the three years’ course is required. To obtain a cerfcihcate as teacher in the lower grade elementary schools, normal pupils are required to pass an exami¬ nation in the following obligatory branches: catechism and Bible his¬ tory, Italian language, reckoning and the metric system, pedagogics and penmanship. To obtain a diploma as normalteacher for the higher grade elementary schools the obligatory branches are religion, compo¬ sition, history of literature, arithmetic and book-keeping, elements of geometry and natural sciences, history, geography, pedagogics, and penmanship. Teachers are appointed by the communal council subject to the approval of the i)rovincial council. The appointment is usually for two years, but a probationary six months’ period is some¬ times required. To receive a permanent appointment the teacher must be twenty -two years of age, prior to that the appointment is re¬ newed from year to year. Examinations for teachers’ positions are held annually in the normal centers. In private schools teacfiers must have the certificate required by law, and in private schools of a secondary grade they must be at least twenty-five years of age. The representative of the minister in the province sanctions the appointment of private school teachers. To teach in Sundaj^ or holiday schools no certificate is necessary, but there are certain requirements to be fulfilled before a person can obtain such position. The minimum salaiy of teachers in rural schools, by law of 1859, » was not to be less than $96; in city schools, $135. Later laws modi¬ fied this rate, and in May, 1885, Minister Coppino presented a bill to the Chamber of Deputies in which the salaries in higher city schools were not to be less than $193, women $156; in the higher grades of rural schools the minimum to be $152, women $123. In the lower grades the annual salary was less. By law of 1886 the salaries in the rural schools were to range from $140 to $180 for men, from $112 to $144 for women; in city schools from $180 to $264 for men, and from $144 to $211 for women. The subject of teachers’ salaries is freely dis¬ cussed each year, and an amelioration of the teacher’s condition is earnestly desired. In the secondary classical schools the professors are called titular and regent ; the former appointed by the King when recommended by the minister, the latter by the minister. The titular professor is selected by competition from persons who have obtained the degree of university doctor in the science or department of study for which he is competing, or he must hold other legal certificate. The regent may be appointed without previous examination, if a graduate of a normal, but he can not become a titular professor without examination. The salaries of these professors range as follows : Ginnasi, or lower grade classical schools, $309 to $386 ; licei, or higher grade, $387 to $425. Teachers in technical schools and institutes are selected as they are in the classical schools, excepting that on account of haste in organization of technical THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ITALY. 1S9 education competitive examinations were omitted. The salaries vary in the state, communal, and private institutions. The university professors are divided into ordinary and extraordinary professors. The former are appointed by the King, the latter by the minister. A competitive examination before a commission appointed by the higher council of education, or the handing in of printed theses, is required to show the aptitude of the candidate for the position de¬ sired. The extraordiuary professors are only appointed for the course, and a new appointment is required if they desire to continue in service. The salaries of the professors in the principal universities are placed at $1,158 after ten years’ service, and at $965 for less time than that. At the minor universities the salaries range from $579 to $694.^ Teachers’ pensions were allowed by law, but this enactment did not go into force until January, 1889. VI.— Courses of study. Elementary schools. — The instruction in the infant schools tends to develop the body of the child by gymnastic exercises appropriate to its age, to inculcate moral teachings, by example, to occupy the child’s time with games rather than book knowledge. The teacher endeavors to develop both body and mind and, in a measure, to exercise a mater¬ nal influence over the child. The kindergarten — the first one in Italy being established in Venice in 1868, by the Baroness von Marenholtz-Blilow — is gradually becom¬ ing engrafted on the school system in the larger cities, Borne and Naples taking the lead ; and a model school founded by the Baroness in 1871, in Florence, has been the means of educating the majority of directresses for such schools throughout Italy. The elementary schools are in two divisions. The course of study in the lower division covers religion (if the parents request it), reading, writing, elementary arithme¬ tic, elements of the metric system, and the Italian language. A comple¬ tion of this course occupies two years, and in a few districts three years. The higher course, covered by a two years’ period, includes composi¬ tion, calligraphy, bookkeeping, the elements of geography, natural his¬ tory, and natural sciences. In the higher grades of boys’ schools the elements of geometry and linear drawing are taught. Private schools are modelled after the public schools, and the course of study is doubt¬ less similar to the above. Schools of both elementary and secondary character for girls of the middle classes show considerable variety in their course of study. In a 1 The salaries in universities and secondary institutions may have been slightly in¬ creased since this statement was presented, as there have been numerous bills before the Chamber of Deputies regarding teachers’ salaries, but several of them have failed to become laws, consequently the above range of salary is presumed to be cor¬ rect to date, 190 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. few cases it is similar to the liiglier elementary grades. In otlier cases pupils are prepared to pass an examination for tlie position of teacher. Normal school courses cover religion, morals, i)edagogy, Italian lan¬ guage, and rules of composition, geography, national historj^, arithmetic and elements of geometry, principles of natural and physical sciences, elements of hygiene, calligraphy, linear drawing, and singing. Women are taught feminine handiwork j men have military exercises and gym¬ nastics. Secondary e(lucatioyi. — T.\iQ course of study in the ginuasi and licei extends through eight years; the first five in the ginuasio, then three in the liceo. The gymnasial studies are Italian, Latin, Greek, arithmetic, history, and geography, and the elements of instruction in Eoman and Greek archmology. The studies of the liceo tend toward a higher development, for they cover philosophy, mathematics, physics and ele¬ ments of chemistry, Italian, Koman, and Greek literature, history, and geography and natural history. Drawing and modern languages are optional branches. Gymnastics are obligatory if the student desires to be admitted to the examinations. The licenzaginnasiale,” or grad¬ uation diploma from the ginuasio, is required for a number of employ¬ ments under government. The ‘Micenza liceale,” or graduation diploma from the “liceo” is required for admission to the university. The technical schools, w'hich are for boys between ten and fourteen years of age, have a less advanced course of study. In the three years’ course the studies to be pursued are Italian and French, history — an¬ cient and modern — geography, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, tlie ele¬ ments of natural and physicafi sciences, and the rights and duties of citizenship. The examination for graduation includes all the studies of the course. In the technical institutes there are five divisions of study, the branches being grouped under the physico-mathematical section, the agronomic, the commercial, the mathematical, and industrial. Each of these courses is to have two years in general, and two for special studies. In the first year the studies are in common, and cover Italian language and literature, French, geography, history, mathematics, and drawing. Italian is continued throughout the course. Other studies common to all courses are physics, general chemistry, natural history, the duties and rights of citizenship, and the science of economics. Then there are special branches for the different sections, the needs of the locality where the institute is situated being taken into account. The physico- mathematical section qualifies pupils for the faculty of physics, mathe¬ matics, and natural sciences in the university, for such special schools as the higher schools of agriculture, commerce, and for the naval school at Genoa. The diploma of graduation from other courses fits one for a career as surveyor, bookkeeper, or for an industrial pursuit. The university faculties are jurisprudence; letters and philosophy; mathematics, physical and natural sciences ; medicine and surgery, and THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ITALIC 191 schools of pliarraacy. The free universities have no faculty of letters and philosophy. The institutes for higher studies have three faculties : Letters and philosophy 5 ph3^sics, mathematics, and natural sciences ; medicine and surgery, and schools of |)harmacy. Courses of study in the special schools vary, as under this head are classed agricultural schools, schools of mines, industrial and commer¬ cial schools, institutes for the stud3^ of fine arts and for music. VII. — School M aha cement. The management of elementary schools is left to muuincipal author¬ ities, or to special committees chosen from the communal councillors. Their business is to see that the admission of pupils is properly made, and the}" are expected to visit the schools and see that the prescribed laws and regulations are carried out. Schools for girls are subject to the inspection of women inspectors who report to the provincial super¬ visor of studies. Promotions take place in elementary grades at the end of six months, provided the oral and written examinations are successful!}" passed. The examinations are conducted by the teachers in the lower grade schools; in the upper grades teachers from other divisions are chosen. Text-books are ordered by the school authorities, but in secondary grades, at least, the lu’ofessor is allowed his own choice of books from among those suggested by the authorities. In matters relating to dis¬ cipline, the schoolmaster admonishes the pupil in private, or in public, or indicates the offense on the school register, or separates the pupil from his companions, or forbids his attending recitations, or suspends him for three days. If none of these punishments are sufficient he can suspend him for that year of the course, but before doing so must refer the matter to the official in charge of the district where the school is situated. Corporal punishment is forbidden, but other i)unishments, such as standing with outstretched arms, being made to lie flat on the hard floor, etc,, are allowed. In the higher schools of the kingdom lack of discipline, neglect of duties on the part of the student, etc., are brought for adjustment to the higher council of education. Expulsion is only used in extreme cases, as with the loss of diploma the student loses certain political rights or the power to hold governmental office. The formation of programs for schools is left to the minister of public instruction. The extent of studies to be used in schools is defined by him, but the teacher is not fettered by any very strict rules. VIII. — School organization. The system of public schools distinguishes between the national or elementary and the continuation schools. Tuition is free in the national schools, and every child is obliged to attend school from three to five years. 192 EDUCATION PvEPORT, 1888-89. Elementary schools are organized in two divisions — a lower and a higher division. Each division has two classes, and in no class are more than seventy pupils allowed to a teacher. Oo-education is not prac¬ ticed. Boys and girls are taught in separate rooms, with male teachers for the boys and female teachers for the girls. The school year lasts ten months, and is divided into two semesters. At the end of each an examination takes place. The school week is live days ; the daily ses¬ sion four hours, with a half hour recess. The school year extends from October 15 to August 15, but the school term usually commences fifteen days later and ends fifteen days earlier. Then there are holidays at Christmas (four days), carnival period (three days), Easter (six days), New Year, Epiphany, Ascension, Whitsunday, the day of the celebra¬ tion of the constitution (first Sunday in June), Sundays, and Thursdays. Attendance is compulsory from three to five years in the elementary grades. The school buildings are required to be in a healthful, respectable locality, to be well lighted and ventilated, and to possess seating capac¬ ity for all who are required by law to attend school. Separate schools are to be established for boys and girls, and if this is not possible separate entrances are to be provided. For the gymnastic exercises required by law a room or building must be provided. The commune is to provide school apparatus and fur¬ nishings for each school, also to employ a person to take charge of the building and attend to the cleaning, etc. If any of these conditions remain unfulfilled the district inspector reports to the communal au¬ thorities. Any controversy in regard to school buildings and school furnishings is to be settled by the provincial school council. Private schools are modeled after the public schools, but the organ¬ izers are required to publish their plan of instruction, and not more than two branches can be assigned to one teacher. Secondary schools are so organized as to keep the ginnasio or lower grade classical school distinct from that of the liceo or higher grnde school. The ginnasi have five classes, with a weekly average of 22 hours’ study in each class. The licei have a 3 years’ course ; in the lowest class 25J hours a week for study, and in the two upper classes 2G| hours. The school year in these secondary institutions is of ten months duration, from October 1 to July 31; the lessons last from the 16th of October to the 30th of June, the remainder of the school year being taken up with examinations. The technical schools and technical institutes have an entirely sep¬ arate organization from that of the classical schools. The studies of these schools are so arranged as to accord with the needs of the people of the section where the institutions are situated. The technical schools are preparatory in character and admit boys between 10 and 11 years of age. The technical institutes are organized in sections, the studies being in common the first year — 29 hours a week being sufficient for THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ITALY. 193 the branches included in that year — in the other years of the course 32 to 36 hours a week are required. The secondary schools are only open to boys. In regard to buildings and grounds, size of rooms, and seating capacity no information is presented. The “ convitti ” connected with secondary schools are separately or¬ ganized for boys and girls. They are of three kinds, national, com¬ munal, and private. The first two are managed by directors who are not required to have a university degree or other certificate. The pupils attend the public schools or are taught within the precincts of these establishments. The pupils are divided into classes; each class has a teacher who also looks after the pupil outside of school hours. No class is allowed to have more than twenty pupils. These convitti are boarding schools preparing pupils for normal or classical training, and their organization seems to be similar to such preparatory schools in this country. The universities are organized with a rector at the head, who corre¬ sponds to our college president. He is assisted by a council composed of the dean of each faculty. The faculties are five in number, but the free universities are minus the faculty of letters and philosophy. To be admitted to university privileges a certificate of graduation from a high grade secondary school is required. The academic year is of 0^ months. These institutions are open to both sexes. The student regis¬ ters himself at the beginning of the year for the course which he intends to pursue, but as in German universities he is free to follow his own in¬ clinations after this registration. He is, however, not permitted to register during the year for less than eighteen hours of study a week, or for more than thirty hours. For the medical faculty thirty-six hours is the maximum. Special schools are too different in character for their organization to be given in this condensed statement. IX. — Supplementary institutions. Italy has over 500 public libraries, 32 of them being subject to the au¬ thority of the state. As far back as 1877 nearly a million persons were reported as readers of books from these libraries. The Ambrosiaua in Milan, with its wealth of classical and philosophical manuscripts, the national libraries of Turin, Naples, and Rome, count among the most im¬ portant aids to learning. The government supports thirteen academies and institutes of fine arts, in addition to drawing schools for workingmen, the picture galleries in Turin and Florence, etc. In the academies the professors give instruction in the fine arts, in literature and history, drawing from models, perspective geometry, and architecture, etching, lithography, history of art, etc. There are also schools for music and dramatic art, the conservatory of music in Milan alone costing the government 80,000 lire ($15,810) annually. In this institution, in addi¬ tion to full musical instruction, the professors teach poetic and dramatic ED 89 - 13 194 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. literature, uuiversal and national history, Italian and French language and literature, the catechism, the rights and duties of citizenship, etc. For the student of archaeology Italy furnishes a rich field. The Museum of Archaeology in Turin has an Egyptian collection for which 400,000 lire (177,000) were paid. There are seventy-two or more commissions who have in charge the preservation of the ancient monuments scattered throughout Italy. The government takes great pride in all these methods for the development of a broader culture among the people, as the expenditure for such pur- poses in the year 1886-87 (see p. 186) clearly indicates. NTuDierous educational societies have aided in the general educational movements, among them the Society di Pubblica Istruzione,” organ¬ ized under Napoleon I, its object being to instruct the people of city and rural districts in the elements of language, logic, morals, the rights of citizenship, politics, etc. The “ Societa Nazionale per promuovere FIstruzione nella Oampagna was instituted at a later date. Its object was similar in character to that of the other society. The ‘‘Societa d’Istruzione e d’Educazione,’^ founded in 1849, had a journalistic organ which discussed all educational matters; through its influence educa¬ tional movements of every kind flourished. Memorable dates. 1729 and 1772. Establishment of famous royal constitutions by princes of the House of Savoy through which the control of secondary education was taken away from the religous orders, and the Collegio delle Province, with one hundred free scholarships, was established with the aim of preparing, in connection with the university, teachers qualified to give this instruction. Schools of methods were established to prepare teachers for primary schools, and with the title of Magistrate della Riforma the germ of a well-organized council of public instruction appeared. 1786. Reorganization of rural schools in Lombardy, the decree stipulating for free schools for the poor. 1802. Sub-Alpine republics decreed that all communes should establish elementary schools. 1808. Schools reorganized in parts of Italy under French domination. Academies established at Turin, Genoa, and Pisa as integral parts of the University of France. 1813. Reorganization of public instruction in Rome. 1818v New school law promulgated in the Lombardian-Venetian Kingdom which in 1822 became the code of education for that part of Italy. 1844. Establishment of ‘‘Asili d’Infancia,'’ infant schools, in Piedmont, which were the beginning of the well organized school system. 1847. (Decree of November 30). Office of minister of public instruction created. [Ministers since that date : Cesare Alfieri di Sostegno, November 30, 1847, to March 16, 1848 ; Carlo Bon-Compagni di Mombello, March 16 to July 29, 1848; TJrhano Kattazi, July 29 to August 4, 1848; Vin¬ cenzo Gioberti, August 4-16, 1848 ; Felice Merlo, August 16-27, 1848 ; Carlo Bon-Compagni di Mombello, August 29 to December, 1848 ; Carlo Cadorna, December 16, 1848, to March 27,1849 ; Christoforo Mameli, March 27, 1849, to November 10, 1850 ; Pietro Gioia, November 10, 1850, to October 20, 1851 ; Luigi Carlo Farini, October 21, 1851, to May 21, 1852 ; Carlo Bon-Compagni di Mombello, May 21 to November 4, 1852 ; Luigi Cihrario, November 4, 1852, to May 31, 1855 ; Giovanni Lanza, May 31, 1855, to October 18, 1858; Carlo Cadorna, October 18, 1858, to July 19, 1859; Gabrio Casati, July 24, 1859, to January 15, I860; Tprenzio Maniani della Eovere, January 20,1860, to March 22,1861; Francesco De-Sanctis, March 22, THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ITALY. 195 186], to March 3, 1862 ; Pasquale Stanislao Mancini, March 3-31, 1862 ; Carlo Matteuci, March 31 to Do- comher 7, 1862 ; Michele Amari, Decemher 7, 1862, to September 23, 1864 ; Giuseppe Natoli, September 23, 1864, to December 31, 1865 ; Domenico llerti, December 31, 1865, to February 17, 1867 ; Cesare Correnti, February 17 to April 10, 1867 ; Michele Coppino, April 10 to October 27, 1867 ; Emilio Broglio, October 27, 1867, to May 13, 1869; Angelo Bargoni, May 13 to December, 1869; Cesare Correnti, December 14, 1869, to May 18, 1872 ; Quiutino Sella, May 18 to August 5, 1872 ; Antonio Sciolqja, August 5, 1872, to July 10, 1873 ; Antonio Scioloja, July 10, 1873, to February 6, 1874 ; Girolamo Chntelli, February 7 to September 6, 1874 ; Kuggiero Bonghi, September 27, 1874, to March 24, 1876 ; Michele Coppino, March 25, 1876, to March 24, 1878; Francesco De-Sanctis, March 24, 1878, to December 19, 1878 ; Michele Coppino, December 19, 1878, to July 13, 1879 ; Francesco Paolo Perez, J uly 14, 1879, to hTovember 24, 1879 ; Francesco De-Sanctis, November 25, 1879, to January 1, 1881 ; Guido Baccelli, January 2, 1881, to March 29, 1884; Michele Cop¬ pino, March 30, 1884, to February 16, 1888 ; Paolo Boselli, February 17, 1888, to February 8, 1891.] 1849. EstablislimeDt of “ Society cVIstrnzioiie e d’Educazioue’Mn Lombardy- Veneti a, wbicli lias been of great assistance in the organization of the present public school system.* 1859. Promulgation of the ^‘Legge Casati/^ or school law, named from the minister of public instruction at that date, which forms the basis of the present school system, as it provided that each commune should maintain an elementary school, that teachers should have certificates of capacity, that there should be greater strictness in university examinations, etc. 18(5?. Keligious corporations abolished and their schools classed as private. Other modifications of law of 1859 made. 1877. Instruction made obligatory for children between 6 and 9 years of age. 1878. Gymnastics placed on school [)rogrammes. 1881. Legal enactments reorganizing higher council of education and making changes in school supervision. 1885 and 1886. Legal enactments bearing upon teachers’ salaries and teachers’ licenses. *To show the educational progress caused by the efforts of this society in the dec¬ ade 1848-1858, and to more clearly indicate the results of the Legge Casati, the fol¬ lowing statement is presented: In Piedmont during the decade 1848-1858 the number of illiterates in proportion to population decreased from 80 per cent, to 20 per cent. In 1871, for the whole of Italy, the population above 6 years of age (and about the same may be said for those above 15 years) who could neither read nor write was 69 per cent. In 1881 the numbers stood 62 per cent, for the whole kingdom. The illiteracy in upper Italy was 41 per cent.; in middle Italy, 65 per cent. ; in southern Italy, 79 per cent. ; and in the islands 80 per cent. The smallest percentage of illiterates was 32 per cent., which was reported from Piedmont. The illiteracy in 1889 was reported for the whole kingdom as 48 per cent. CHAPTER VII. EDUCATION m SWEDEN AND FINLAND. L— THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OP SWEDEN. Authorities consulted. I. — Laroverkskomitens Betankande I, afgivna af Kanslern for Rikets Univer- sitet, pp. 236-238. II. — Berat-telse om Statens allmanna liiroverk for gossar, liisearet, 188 4-85, p. 14. III. — Laroverkskomitens forslag angaende orgauisationen af Eikets allm^una laroverk Bilaga E. Redogorelse for den kygieniske undersokuingen. Testoch. Tabellan. ly. — Redogorelse for verksamlieten vid kogre lararinue-seminarinm och den darmed forenade norraalskolan for llickor, 1888-89, pp. 4, 6 — 22. V. — Normal plan for undervisningen i folkskolor och smaskolor, ar 1889, pp. 63-142. VI. — Proposition till Riksdagen, angfiende andrade hestiimmelser med afseende pS^de allmanna laroverken och pedagogierna, den 7 Februari, 1890, pp. 81-85. VII. — Das hohere Schnlwesen Schwedens, von H. Klinghardt, pp. 24. 1-17, 23, 137, 144-160. VIII. — Kongl. Tekuiska Hogskola i- Stockholm, lasearet, 1839-’90, p. 37. IX. — Inbiudning till ofvervarande af S-rsexamen vid hogre reallaroverket i Stockholm, varterminen 1889, pp. 8-14. X. — lubjndning till ofvervarande af ansexamen vid Stockholms hogre all- mauua alatinlinien fallstiindiga laroverk, viTi’terminen 1889, pp. 37-40, XI. — Nya Eiementarskolan i Stockholm, 1889, pp. 21-31. XII. — Vor Ungdom, 1890. 3d hmfte, pp. 25G-7. XIII. — Slojdundervisningsblad. No. 1., 1890, p. 1. XIV. — Redogorelse for Kongl. Uuiversitct i llpsala. 1889, p. 63. XV.— Indal council which decides on all questions of administration, etc. (Law of March 21, 1862.) Ecclesiastical affairs and questions relating to elementary schools are regulated by the parish assemblies, presided over by the pastor of the parish. Towns having over 25,000 inhabitants, such as Stockholm, Goteborg, Malmb, and Norrkbping, have their affairs administered sep¬ arately by municipal councils, (xxix, p. 949). 198 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. L— General features of the school system. EstablishmenL — The school system of Sweden is established by au¬ thority of the state, and is based upon the law of 1842 which provided for the establishment of a stationary school (fasta folkskola) in every churcli district or pafish, or if local circumstances prevented, for the establishment of a migratory school (flyttande folkskola) in each district, and for the establishment of preparatory schools (sm§80. iiig knowledge in regard to industrial and technical education. In 1887 the total expenditure for elementary education, including amount raised by taxation in the districts, was $3,127,102 j the state, subsidy was $859,000. . In 1886 the state subsidies were divided as follows : Normal schools . $92,949 Scholarships for normal pupils . 20,100 Inspection of elementary schools . 25,460 School apparatus . 4,020 " Subsidies for — j Higher elementary grades . 5,360 ' Educating Finns in northern sections of Sweden . 3, 216 ^ Teachers’ wages in elementary and preparatory schools . 771, 840 Higher people’s schools . 14,740 Schools for working classes . 4,020 Continuation schools . . . 8, 640 Industrial education . 6,700 Education of deaf, dumb, and blind . 88, 976 $1,146, 021 The state expenditure for secondary and higher schools at same date was. 870, 884 For the pedagogier . . . . . 20, 806 Normal schools for girls . 12, 462 Private schools for girls . 18, 760 Universities and medical schools . . . . . 235,715 Technical training . 105,967 $1,263, 594 Total for elementary and secondary educatiou . $2, 409, 615 The amount received from other sources is not presented, (xvi, p. 2838 ; XVIII, p. 21 5 xxix, p. 952.} lY. — Supervision and administration. Education is under the control of both state and local authorities. State, — The state supervision is vested first and foremost in the King, who exercises the highest functions of the office through the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs and education. The ministry has a special divi¬ sion for all affairs appertaining to public instruction, including the general inspection of elementary schools. The chief of that division has special charge of normal schools or seminaries for the education of elementary teachers, but the supervision of these schools is exercised in part by the chapter* of the diocese in which they are situated. Special in¬ spectors are appointed by the King to take charge of elementary schools in each diocese. These inspectors are each appointed for a term of five years to supervise the schools in their respective districts according to * The chapters consist of the bishop, as president, and, in most cases, of the dean or provost of the cathedral, and six teachers from the elementary schools of the town. (XLi, p. 83.) THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 203 instructions issued by the department. They visit the schools in the districts to which appointed, and report to the district school board and consistory of the diocese as to the improvements needed in the schools. At the expiration of their term of office as state officers, they must fur¬ nish a complete review of school affairs in their district to the depart¬ ment of ecclesiastical affairs and public instruction. The inspectors receive an annual salarj^, and also allowance for travelling expenses and board. A special division of the ministry has charge of secondary and higher institutions, all matters pertaining to secondary schools be¬ ing arranged by the bureau having charge of this grade of schools. The chief of the bureau acts as inspector-general of all secondary schools in the kingdom, and must visit them from time to time. The universities come under direct charge of a board of council, with the chancellor ot the university as chief officer, (xvi, p. 2835 ; xxvi, pp. 144-145 ; xxvii, p. 802; XVIIT, p. 20; XXii, p. 702; xxv, pp. G-S ; XLI, pp. 71-72, 87.) Local. — There is a school board for every school district — the school 'district may be one or several parishes. This school board is com¬ posed of the minister of the parish as chairman, and at least four members of the parish, who are elected for four years. The board superintends all the elementary and preparatory schools, devises rules for schools with regard to methods of instruction, discipline, etc., but submits its report for approval to the chapter of the bishopric of the diocese. It also extends its supervision over private schools as far as discipline and instruction are concerned, and it presents to the board of the diocese an annual report in regard to schools of the district (xvi, p. 2835; xlt, p. 71). In connection with these local boards it may be stated that in March, 1889, women were made eligi¬ ble to local school boards and boards of guardians, and that this new order of things is very generally carried out (xiii, p. 1; xxx, p. 458 ; XXXI, p. 45). The bishop and chapter (consistory) in every dio¬ cese exercise a careful supervision over all schools, watch over the man¬ agement and development of the same, and every third year they send in to the King an opinion as to the state of education in the diocese, to¬ gether with all necessary explanatory statements in regard to statistics, etc. Besides the school board of the district there are one or more in¬ spectors for each diocese, who are appointed by the minister of educa¬ tion. (See state supervision.) (xxvi, pp. 144-145; xxv, pp. 6-8; XLi, pp. 71-72.) In the cities of Stockholm, Goteborg, Malmo, Jdnkoping, and Korrkoping the schools are governed by special laws ; and in each of the cities they are under the management of a board of education. (XXVII, p. 801.) The local management of secondary schools is under charge of the rector and council of teachers, who act as a board of * One member of this board is to be a physician, whose duty it is to visit the schools once a month, and to report as to health and eyesight of pupils, and in regard to hygienic condition of the schools. This plan, if carried out, is an outgrowth of the investigations of the Swedish hygienic commission, (xxviii, p. lb.) 204 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1888-89. school directors. The bishop as ephor of all the schools of the diocese stands above the council of teachers. It is his duty to see that the schools under his superintendence fulfil the purpose for which they were established, and that the teachers in them carry out their duties faith¬ fully, All matters that can not be decided by these authorities must be submitted to the minister of education, and by the ministry to the King for final decision. The normal schools are under the direct supervision of the chapter of the diocese in which they are situated, but the chief officer of one ot the divisions of the department of ecclesiastical affairs has a higher controlling action over these schools. The universities are under the charge of a chancellor, who has the chief management, but the immediate control is vested in the vice chancellor, the rector, and the academical consistory, (xxvi, pp. 141— 145 1 XXYII, pp. 801-802 j XXV, pp. 6-8 ; XL, p. 87.) Y. — Teachers. Preparation. — Teachers are prepared for positions in the elementary grades at normal schools, in several of which there are special classes to fit teachers for the “ smfiskolor ” or preparatory divisions of element¬ ary schools. In order to be admitted to the normal school the candidate, who must be from 16 to 26 years of age, must pass an examination before a board of admission composed of the directors and professors of the school. He must also have a certificate of vaccination and be in good physical condition, and must be provided with a certificate from the pastor of his parish showing that he has been confirmed, and that he is of good moral character. The examination is especially severe in religions matters. Normal schools for men, at date of 1887, were situated at Karlstad t, Goteborg, Lund, Yexjo, Liukdping, Upsala, Hernosand; for women at Skara, Kalmar, Stockholm (higher normal school), Falun, and Umefi. There was also one at Haparanda on the Gulf of Bothnia, to prepare teachers for the “ smfiskolor ” among the Finns, and one for the Laplanders at Jokmok ( “ Laponie de Lulea ^^). The Swedish lan¬ guage is taught in the last mentioned schools, but pupils of the Fin¬ nish and Lapland schools who desire to obtain a complete diploma as instructor must pass a year in the Swedish normals, the men at Hernd- sand and women at Umefi. Normal schools are under the direct supervision of the chapters of the diocese through their principal or through their special inspector. They have as teachers a “ rektor” or director, who is assisted by four “ adjunkten ” or professors. These teachers are university graduates, and are supposed to have the grade of candidate in philosophy or the¬ ology, equivalent to licentiate in letters. Many of them possess the degree of Ph. D. (XLi, pp. 76-77 j xxvi, p. 156 j xix, pp. 545-5475 XXV, pp. 20-23.) THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 205 Women who are teachers in normals must have pursued their studies at the “ Hdgre Lararinne-Seminarium och den diirmed fdrenade nor- malskola for flickor i Stockholm’^ (higher seminary for teachers and the normal school for girls connected with it in Stockholm), but there are comparatively few women instructors in the normal schools. Bach normal has a primary school of application attached to it. There are special masters for music, drawing, and gymnastics ; a military instruc¬ tor, a professor of horticulture, and a physician* who is instructor in hygiene, etc. Tlie director has charge of the courses in religion and pedagogy, and Slojd is taught by special masters at the schools of Stock¬ holm, Kalmar, and Karlstadt, the normal school at Naas i)repaTing them for such position, (xix, pp. 545-547.) Examinations. — A four years’ course with an examination at the close of each year leads to the hnal examination, which entitles the student to a certificate licentia docendi, giving the right to teach. To obtain such graduation dif)loma, there are both theoretical and practical examina¬ tions. The written compositions cover a pedagogical thesis, a lesson in religion, and questions in regard to the Swedish language. The oral ex¬ amination lasts an hour in each branch. The i)ractice lesson — the sub¬ ject suggested twenty-four hours previously — covers an hour and a half in the school of application. A year’s experience as teacher is required after the four years’ instruction before the candidate can become a regular teacher. U uiversity study and graduation diplomas from normal schools are both requisite in order to obtain a position as teacher in the hogre elementarskolor (secondary schools), or in the normal schools, (xxvi, p. 153 ; XIX, pp. 54G-547 ; xxii, p. 713 ; iv, pp. 1-38.) Appointment. — Special rules for the appointment of teachers are given in the school regulations sanctioned by the King. Teachers are ap¬ pointed to the elementary grades by the school boards, which consist of the minister of the parish as chairman with four members as aids, if the proper normal certificate is presented. Three candidates for the vacant place are decided upon by the consistory of the diocese, then the school board chooses from among the three. The school board may also require the candidate to teach for one or two days, to show whether he is suited to the position. In rural districts the teacher is expected to fill the position of organist and sexton in the parish church, and in such case he must be familiar with music and he must also be able to vaccinate or to bleed a person. To obtain an appointment as teacher in the higher schools, university studies and attendance at a practice course in the normals are required. The consistory, that is, the bishop and chapter, selects three from the list of candidates and the school board appoints one of these three. For appointment in the preparatory, or ‘‘ smfiskola,” the candidate, if he does not bring a normal *A suggestion of the commission on hygiene, mentioned above, was to the effect that each teacher should be instructed in regard to health and hygiene, and that each school should have a teacher as hygienic assistant, (xxviii, p. 16.) 206 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. certificate, must undergo examination before the school board, (xxii, pp. 713-714; XXVI, pp. 153-154; xxv, pp. 17-20.) Tenure of office. — ^Ko information. Salaries. — The salaries of teachers are said to be small in Sweden. The annual salary of a regular teacher in the elementary schools must not be less than 500 kronor ($134), including 8 tunnor (36 bushels) of cereals, (xxvi, p. 155; xxii, p. 713; xli, p. 75; xvi, p. 2837.) If the teacher^s term of service extends beyond eight months the salary is in¬ creased by two tunnor of cereals for each month. Each regular teacher is also supplied by the district with suitable apartments, necessary fuel, and a piece of land for the raising of vegetables, (xxvi, pp. 154-155 ; xxv, p. 19.) By a royal enactment every regular teacher who has kept his ofiice blamelessly for five years is to receive a salary of not . less than $169. Teachers at the higher schools receive from $268 to $402, besides apartments and fuel. In many localities, however, this legal minimum is exceeded. In the larger cities there are teachers in the elementary grades who receive from $375 to $482, and even as high as $589. In this latter case, however, the teachers do not have free lodging and other material assistance. Assistant teachers and teachers of the smfiskola” are usually paid by the district authorities, (xvi, p. 2837 ; XXVI, pp. 154-155; XLi, pp. 74-75.) The teachers in secondary schools — that is, in Eeal schools, ^‘pedagogier,” etc. — receive a higher grade of salary, the salaries being in proportion to the duties entailed upon them, (xxii, pp. 729-730.) A gradual increase in salary from year to year for principals or rectors and for certain special teachers will be noticed in the following table, (xvi, p. 2837 ; vii, p. 24.) Teachers’ annual salaries. Class 1. Class 2. Class 3. Class 4. Class 5. Rektoren (principal) in- higher secondary schools.. 5 class secondary schools.. 3 class secondary schools. . 2 class pedagogier a . Crowns. 4, 500.-=:.$l, 206 3, 500— 938 Crowns. 5, 000=$1, 340 4, 000= 1, 022 3, 500= 938 3, 000= 804 3, 000= 804 2, 000= 536 Crowns. Crowns. Crowns. 3, 000= 804 2, 500= 670 3, 500= $938 Lektoren (vice-principal) . Adjunkten (professors and teachers) . Teachers at one-class peda- gogior . . 2, 500= 670 1, 500= 402 1, 500= 402 750= 201 3, 500= 938 2, 500= 670 4, 000=$1, 072 3, 000= 804 4, 500=$1, 206 3, 500= 938 Music teachers in— higher secondary schools. . 5 class secondary -schools.. 3 class secondary schools.. 2 class pedagMgier . 1, 000= 268 kO CO CO II o o CM 450= 120 300= 80 200= 53 1, 000= 2C8 Drawing teachers in — higher secondary schools.. 5 class secondary schools.. 3 class secondary schools.. Gymnastic teachers in- higher secondary schools . . 5 class secondary schools.. 3 class secondary schools and pedagogier . 1, 250= 335 1, 500= 402 600= 160 300= 80 1, 000= 268 1, 250= 335 1, 500= 402 600= 160 300= 80 a See note, p. 200. The increase in the principal’s salary at the higher secondary schools and five class schools comes after ten years’ service as “rektor” j increase THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 207 in salary at the three and two class secondary schools after fifteen years^ service as ordinary teacher ; the increase to 3,500 crowns ($938) in the two class “pedagogier” is after twenty years’ service; the increase in salary for assistant teachers and special teachers (as observed in table) after five years’ service at the former grade of salary. In the universities at Upsala and Lund the professors’ salaries range from $605 to $1,206, with an addition of from $268 to $402 from tuition fees. The private tutors receive no regular salary, but they average from $201 to $402 from tuition fees, (xxii pp. 730-734.) Teachers’ pensions. — Teachers’ pensions are an outgrowth of a royal enactment of the year 1866, by which districts or communities are to become shareholders in a pension fund for teachers. Shares in this fund are granted for amounts of not less than 500 crowns ($134), and notex« ceeding 1,000 crowns ($268), and the amount paid down, not by the teachers, but by the communities, is 4 per cent, of the share. The full pension, amouuting to 75 per cent, of the share, is paid to a teacher if he has served thirty years and attained sixty years of age, and also if the applicant for the pension is afflicted with an incurable disease at “that point of life when his age and term of service together amount to ninety years. Under certain circumstances a smaller pension may be granted. This is determined in proportion to the whole, and paid with a certain percentage, (xxvi, pp. 155-6; xxv, p. 20; xli, p. 76.) Teacher s\ institutes. — Teachers’ institutes, or educational conventions, also aid in the preparation of teachers for their life work. The number and extent of these associations is not known to date, but at a meeting held in Upsala in 1883 the subject of Slojd training was under discussion, and at a meeting of teachers in August, 1888, reform in methods of re¬ ligious instruction was fully discussed, (xii, pp. 256-7 ; xxxv, p. 419; XXXVI, pt. 2, p. 49.) VI. — Course of study. The general rules for instruction are that the exercises in the school shall be chiefly with a view to the development of the faculties; that the subjects to be taught must be introduced in suitable order; that the chil¬ dren, alternately with the reading exercises, shall early practice writing and counting; that the instruction in Bible history shall precede the catechetical instruction, and that the instruction in other subjects shall not be put off beyond the time when it can be profitably made use of by the scholars. In the higher people’s schools the same subjects are taught as in the common or lower elementary grades, but with more extended courses of instruction. In the secondary schools a general education above the range of the iieople’s schools is imparted, as well as an elemen¬ tary knowledge of the sciences. The study of the latter is pursued still further, either at a university or at some higher scientific school. In the normal schools the instruction is partly theoretical and partly practical, the first two years being theoretical. Practical instruction is carried on 208 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. in the second year by the pupils attending the instruction of the teacher in the practical department and by their assisting him (xxvi, pp, 149, 150; XLi, pp. 73, 74). The course of study in the primary schools com¬ prehends religion, beginning with recital from Bible history and the doctrine of faith from Luther’s catechism, Swedish language by the writing and reading method, writing, arithmetic, beginning with mental arithmetic — the first four rules being especially practiced — and geome¬ try, geography, and history, with a connected review of Swedish history, and outlines of history in other countries, natural history, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and in combination with them military exercises such as marches, movements, etc., horticulture and arboriculture, and manual training. In the smfiskolor the course is limited to religion, exercises in reading and writing (xviii, pp. 21-25; v, pp. 63-142; xxv, pp. 14-16 ; XXVI, pp. 150-157), arithmetic, drawing, singing, and gym¬ nastics. Keligious teaching is compulsory in the schools, but since a discussion of this question at a gathering of teachers in August, 1j^88, it has been decided to give less time to this subject. In the schools of Stockholm a reduction of two-thirds— from thirty-eight to twenty-five hours — constitutes the present stage of reform. Instruction is to be less dogmatic in character, and more attention is to be paid to biblical history, (xii, pp. 256-7 ; xxxv, p. 419.) The course of study in the schools of Stockholm has book-keeping as an additional branch, and swimming for boys and girls in the summer-time, l^atation is said to be obligatory in all the schools of Sweden, if they are not situated more than four kilometres from the sea. (xviii, p. 24). Skilled handiwork — husslojd ” — for girls is taught in the elementary schools, from the first principles upward. In an elementary school at Naas, established for this purpose, all feminine occupations, such as spinning, weaving, hand and machine sewing, and domestic economy, are taught to girls between ten and sixteen years of age. (xxxvi, part 1, pp. 20, 34). The training in ‘^Slojd’^ for boys is made a specialty in all schools — the word slojd” denoting manual work peculiar to schools, but not strictly belonging to any definite trade ; in ‘‘ slojd ” the same individual finishes the whole piece of work undertaken. There are 860 special schools for this branch of instruction, and each elementary school has one or more workshops where all children exercise one or two hours daily in some branch of the work for which they have particular adaptability. Exhibitions of their work are also given. The criticisms of older pupils, teachers, or friends aid them in their work. The objects made are then utilized in the school room or are sold. In Stockholm 331 hours a year are devoted to this class of work; at Goteborg, where there are also regular industrial schools, pupils devote 6 hours a week, with 40 weeks in the year, to these branches, (xyiri, p. 25.) The work is regarded more as an educating process than as tending specially" towards a trade. At Goteborg, for example, at the age of 10 or 11 years the children go into the workshop attached to the elementary school. The first year they are exercised in THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 209 wood work (carpentering, turning, and carving), on iron-work (at the forge), in paper and card board (book-binding), in color (house-paint¬ ing), and in wicker-work (basket-making). The second year the pupil specifies what trade he wishes to pursue, and the apprenticeship lasts un¬ til about the fourteenth year, (xxxvi, part 1, pp. 11-16.) There is no pro¬ gramme, in any strict sense, after the first year. A master workman gives the instruction to a dozen or more pupils grouped together, the exercises giving opportunity for the handling of ail tools peculiar to this class of work. (XXXVI, part 2, p. 53.) Every year those who have distinguished themselves by their industry or their progress receive a suitable reward in tools suited to their trade. At the close of the three years the pupils are so trained that they immediately receive pay from their employers. The object of this instruction in elementary grades is to exercise manual skill, to fix the attention and awaken intelligence, to give habits of order, to limit the construction to useful objects, to develop strength, and to present a progressive series, graduated according to difficulties of execution, (xxxvi, part 2, p. 50.) The normal school, “Slojdlarare- seminarium,” at Niias, which fits teachers for Slojd instruction, was established in 1875, and for five years its courses prepared teachers for schools of a technical character. The final examinations included theo¬ retical studies, a practical test in linear drawing and shop work, and a didactic examination in the school of practice, (xxxvi, part 1, pp. 20-25.) Since 1880 the course is modified, the theoretical course sup¬ pressed, and the instruction concentrated on manual work, with instruction in drawing, writing, ciphering, etc. Since then, the school is not limited to teachers merely, but it is open to all persons who have received diplomas from the school and who desire to introduce indus¬ trial education in the schools where they are employed, (xxxvi, part 1, pp. 20-25.) Lectures on pedagogy are given, and discussions take place in regard to the historical development of education and in regard to methods of manual training for primary grades, (xxxvii, p. 256.) The temporary normal course lasts 6 weeks and a review takes place the following year, covering 5 weeks. In general these two courses suf¬ fice for the preparation of teachers in the construction of the hundred models of the series, if they continue the tool practice during the year which intervenes between the two. (xxxvi, part 1, pp. 20-25.) The basis of the instruction at normal schools is noticed under train¬ ing of teachers, but, as a type of study in the higher seminaries, the course of study in the “ Hogre lararinnen seminariiim och den darmed forenade norinalskolan for flickor ” (higher seminary for teachers and the normal school for girls connected with it) is presented. In eight normal classes and the three seminary divisions the studies are the his¬ tory of religion, a comprehensive course in the Swedish, Danish, and Hor- wegian languages and literature with French, German, and English additional, ancient and modern history, particularly in the Scandinavian countries, geography — both physical and political — mathematics, natn- ED 89 - 14 210 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. ral sciences, and natural history, with lectures in physiology, tical instruction in pedagogy. Special classes for the preparation of teachers of the “ sniaskolor ” are found in the normal schools for women. ; (IV pp. (3-22.) In the secondary schools religion, Swedish and German languages, mathematics, natural sciences, history, and geography, caligraphy and drawing, singing, and gymnastics are taught in the three lower classes, and are continued to a certain extent in higher classes. But at the commencement of the fourth class there is a division into classical and scientific courses, the former having Latin as its basis; the latter, mathematics and natural sciences. In the ‘‘ Eeallinien ” — so-called — , English is commenced in the fifth class; in the “Latin linien’’ pupils j have choice between Greek and English in the sixth class. Those who choose Greek may, if desired, have instruction in the English classics during the last two years of the course. In both courses German lan¬ guage and literature are taught to the end of the seventh year. Physics, and in the Eeallinien” chemistry, are included in the course during the last four years, and philosophical propadeutics, i. e., logic and anthro¬ pology, in the last two years. (XVI, p. 283S; IX, pp. 8-14; X, pp. 37-40.) This course is varied somewhat in different schools. The French lan¬ guage is usually included, and in the “ Statens allmanna laroverken for gossar,” which include the Latin and Keal schools of Upsala, Lund, and Stockholm, Hebrew is a part of the course of instruction, (ii, p. 14.) A preponderance of classical studies is especially noticeable in these schools, and in both elementary and secondary schools complaints in re¬ gard to the number of studies and of hours of study have brought about investigations concerning the health and eyesight of school children, which will be referred to farther on. (ix, pp. 8-14 ; x, pp. 31-40 ; xxviii, pp. 1-16.) Special attention is ijaid to gymnastic exercises, which, according to Swedish methods, omit ropes, rings, parallel bars, etc., and simply pre¬ sent free and easy movement tending to produce suppleness and agility, and to exercise all organs of the body. In connection with these are the military exercises which tend especially to muscular development. They are given to all the seven classes for half an hour each day ; the fifth class has one hour, and the sixth and seventh classes two hours each week in the use of arms. At the beginning and end of each school year a more extended course of training is given in drill, target shoot¬ ing, and field manoeuvres for eight or ten weeks, to the pupils of the sixth and seventh classes. The “Gymuastika Central Institut,” or cen¬ tral institute for gymnastics, founded b^’ Henrik Ling, the inventor of Swedish gymnastics, is an especially noteworthy institution. Its course is in three departments. One to train officers to superintend gymnastics in the army and navy, a second to train teachers of gymnastics for the town and country schools, and a third for the study of gymnastics as a system of medical treatment. The Swedish system, as taught at this and prac- THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 211 school, has beeu adopted in Germany, England, and other countries. (XVIII, pp. 16, 24; XXXVIII, p. 383.) The technical elementary schools give both a theoretical and practical education, comi)rising mathematics, linear and freehand drawing, mod¬ elling, mechanics, mechanical technology, engineering, natural philoso¬ phy, chemistry, botany, zoology, modern languages, bookkeeping, and commerce. Mechanical trades are taught in free evening and Sunday classes, (xxvi, pp. 184, 185 *, xxxviii, pp. 383-387 ; xviti, p. 51.) The “ Kongl. Tekniska ITogskola in Stockholm, a higher type of technical school, adds geology and topography, road and canal construction, min¬ ing, and smelting. (Viii, pp. 8-17.) The Chalmerska Slojdskola,” in Goteborg, omits the mining branches. In some of these technical schools there are divisions for art industries to which women are admitted, a regular theoretical course, and instruction in wood-carving, modelling, engraving, etc., being included, (xxxviii, p. 381 ; xviii, p. 50.) The agricultural schools have a course of study leading up to the agricultural colleges, where the instruction comprises agricultural and rural economy with study of land laws, farm architecture, diseases of domestic animals, cattle raising, etc., in addition to such branches as chemistry, natural philosophy, and practical mechanics; courses of lectures, finely illustrated, are also given by distinguished professors. Among the many elementary and secondary schools there are private institutions, the coarse of study being such as to entitle the graduates to admission to the universities. There are also a large number of lirivate professional and trade schools with courses of study similar to the public secondary and slcijd schools, (xxxviii, pp. 3S1-387.) For students who have successfully passed the examination at the “ elementar-skolor ” (secondary schools) there are the universities at Upsala and Lund which have complete theological, legal, medical, and philosophical faculties. Each faculty confers three degrees of scholar¬ ship, viz., the degree of candidate, of licentiate, and of doctor, and it is stated that no man in Sweden can be a clergyman, a lawyer, or doctor unless he has graduated at either Upsala or Lund. The student is free to follow any course that he desires, and all instruction is gratuitous. The academic year is divided into two terms, the one from September 1 to December 15, and the other from Januar^^ 15 to the first of June, (xli, p. 87.) Among the teachers are found training masters in music, draw- iug, gymnastics, and fencing, and in horsemanship at Upsala. Women are admitted as students in the universities after passing the regular examination ; they are allowed to follow the studies of their choice, and some are on the rolls as students of philosophy and medi¬ cine. (XXVI, p. 195.) Oomprehensive courses of study for the professions are found in the medico surgical institute, in the institute of pharmacy, in military and naval schools, and in other higher grade schools, (xxxviii, pp. 381- 390; XXVI, pp. 193-195; XXII, p. 737; XVI, p. 2839.) 212 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. VII. School Management and Methods oe Discipline. Methods, — The management of the school is left almost entirely to the teacher, and he is free to carry out his views in regard to grading the studies, arranging class work, etc., providing he keeps within prescribed limits for each course. His school is, however, subject to inspection from time to time, and the general progress in the schools, needs of reform, if any, are reported by the inspectors to the consistory annually, and to the department of ecclesiastical affairs and education every fifth year. (XLI. p. 71.) Discipline, — The principal keeps a class journal in which he notes from hour to hour the incidents of the day, the cases of corporal punishment, neglect of duty, mistakes occurring, visits received, etc. This journal assists the teacher in exercising control over himself, and aids in keeping up the discipline of the school, (xviii, pp. 16, 21, 23, 25.) Study and recitations. — The schools of Stockholm, under the direc¬ tion and inspection of M. Meyerberg for twenty-five years, and which serve as models for the whole country, have developed the following methods, viz: After forty-five minutes’ work, teachers and pupils go out into the court or school yard and remain ten minutes engaged in exercises of different kinds. Eifteen minutes after the close of the les¬ son, invigorated by the change, they are back in well-aired rooms with body and mind rested and ready for another lesson. Ko lesson lasts more than forty-five minutes, and while the programme of studies is very complete, overpressure is avoided by the above arrangement. The school commences at 8 o’clock, lasts till 1, and during that time one of the recesses is extended to thirty minutes so that pupils and teachers can take their lunch. This management is said to bring about admir¬ able results, the physical and the mental being equally in training at the same time, (xviii, pp. 18, 22.) Promotion of pupils, — The promotion of pupils from class to class takes place at the end of each year after an examination in presence of the district director, two pastors of the neighborhood, several of the teach- , ers, the inspector, parents, and others. The examination is a kind of festal occasion, schoolrooms, blackboards, etc., being decorated for the ' occasion. The work accomplished by the pupils is on exhibition, and the teachers examine orally in the different branches. The whole ex¬ amination has a quasi-familiar air, the pupils and teachers seeming quite at ease, (xviii, p. 16.) Formation of programmes, — The formation of programmes is unknown to date. VIII. — School Organization. Buildings and grounds. — The school law prescribes that every school- house shall be constructed according to certain requirements; the school rooms to be sufficient in number, light, and high-studded, provided TITE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 213 with fireplaces, and arranged with strict regard to the health of pupils, and with necessary conveniences for instruction. As a result of this law the school buildings are large and well arranged with wide stair- waj^s and well ventilated and well lighted classrooms, the light usually coming from the left side. Kew school buildings have furnaces in the cellar, ventilators,* separate buildings for gymnastic exercises, cloak rooms for each class, suitable toilet arrangements, two work rooms where the teachers correct class work, prepare their lessons, rest when they are at liberty, and have lunch. Independent of these is the prin¬ cipal’s room, where parents, teachers, and pupils are welcome morning or evening. The court-yards or play grounds for each sex are spa¬ cious, and sometimes there is an additional garden for women teachers. In Stockholm the school buildings are of a high type of architecture with vast covered galleries upon which open the class rooms. The walls of these class rooms are wainscoted and adorned with engrav¬ ings and plaster casts. The seating capacity of each class room is for thirty-six pupils, each pupil having a chair and table, (xviri, p. 11.) Hours of school. — The hours of school are usually from five to six a day, with intermissions of a few minutes between hours, but in some schools instruction is given in the forenoon only, (xxvi, p. 148 ; XXV, pp. 11-12.) Length of recesses. — The length of recesses varies; it may be a few minutes, fifteen minutes, or half an hour, (xviii, p. 18 ; xxv,pp. 11-12 ; XXVI, p. 148.) Holidays and vacations. — The vacations are of three consecutive months in Sweden, and the instruction generally covers eight school months divided into two terms, but sometimes into three or four terms. In a few schools instruction is given during nine or ten months, (xxvi, p. 148; XVIII, p. 18.) Compulsory attendance. — Attendance upon school is compulsory for children who have attained their ninth year, and all who do not receive instruction at home or in private schools must attend public schools. The instruction generally begins with the seventh and lasts till the four¬ teenth year. Children whose parents are not able to keep them in school during that jieriod are aided by the authorities, (xxvi, p. 146; XXV, p. 9.) School supply. — The schools are well supplied with apparatus, and every school has a library to which additions of books are made each term. There are also school museums with zoological, geological, and bo- *Tlie stateraenta made in 1^83 by the commission appointed to investigate the hygienic condition of school buildings, sickness of children, near-sightedness, etc., indicate that at that date the school rooms were not well aired or properly ventilated. The ventilators were arranged so near the floor, the pupils could not sit near them ; the ventilation pipes were often filled with mortar, and the air became very impure; the carbonic acid in the air increased from 0.67 before school to 2.34 parts in a thous¬ and after one hour, even with windows and ventilators open before the commence¬ ment of the session, (xxxix, pp. 188-205, 194-197.) 214 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1888-89. tanical collections, and the gymnastic hall attached to each educational institution is fully equipped, (xxxviri, p. 378.) IX.— Supplementary Institutions. Libraries and museums. — Sweden possesses libraries and museums connected with most educational institutions, and in the higher grade schools flue laboratories for chemical experiments are found. There are also public libraries in the various districts containing books of an educational and scientiflc character, which are freely loaned to the people of the district. Among the most noted libraries, which serve as aids to learning, are the Royal Library at Stockholm, the libraries con¬ nected with the universities at Upsala and Lund, the library connected with the Academy of Sciences at Gbteborg, the polytechnic library, the library connected with the Instifcut Carolin, that of the central bureau of statistics, and of the Academy of Fine Arts, History and Archaeology, the collections varying in numbers from over 200,000 volumes in the flrst mentioned library to about 15,000 in the last mentioned institution. The museums which serve as aids to education are the national museum, with sections for industrial and flue arts ; the state historical museum, or “Ryks museum,” which is rich in antiquities j the museum of the Swedish Society for Arts and Trades, ‘‘Svenska Slojdforeningen,” aiming to develop industries j the Scandinavian ethnographical museum; and museums at Goteborg and TJddervalla. (xxvi pp. 198, 203-210 ; XXX VIII, vols. 1,2.) Societies — A large number of learned and scientific societies may be classed under this head, i. e., the Swedish Academy, founded in 1786, aiming to increase knowledge of the language and history of the coun¬ try; the Academy of Sciences, “ Yetenskaps Akademien ;” the Acad¬ emy of Literature, History, and Archeology, “ Vittertets, Historia, och Antiqvitets Akademien ;” the Academy of Agriculture, Landtbruks- Akademien;” the Academy of Fine Arts, ‘‘Akademien for de Fria Konsterna ; ” the Academy of Music, “ Musikaliska Akademien ; ” and the Academy of Military Sciences, ‘‘ Krigsvetenskaps Akademien,” which aids progress in military sciences ; the Society for the Historical Study of Scandinavian Paleography, “ Samfundet for Utgifvande af Handskrifter rorande Skandinaviens Historia; ” and many other socie¬ ties which promote the study of geology, anthropology, archieology, medicine and iiharmacy, horticulture, pedagogy, etc. (xxvi, pp. 202- 203 ; XXVI, pp. 199-203 ; XL, pp. 96-97.) Another society, the “ Handarbetet-Yanner,” established in 1874, encourages and develops home industries for women, especially from the artistic side, instruction being given in embroidery, lace making, and weaving, (xvii, p. 53.) School savings banJcs. — Savings banks and postal savings banks are thoroughly established in Sweden and benefit a large class of employtSs, but whether there are school savings banks is unknown to date. (XT, sup.) THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ■ SWEDEN. 215 Charities.— VxMiq cliarities for the beuerlt of the wording classes and others are quite numerous. There are hospitals and societies, twenty charitable institutions to help the ignorant and vicious, temperance societies, and in fact philanthropic institutions too numerous to men¬ tion. (XV, sup.) Schools for special classes.— Among the schools for special classes is the school for the deaf and dumb at Manilla, which was also open to the blind until recently, but now the blind to the number of 400 are taught in special institutions supported by the state. The instruction for this class is both theoretical and practical, comprising preparatory and primary courses, and special attention is paid to Slojd training. Instrumental music and singing and trades suited to their condition are also taught. There are eighteen schools for deaf mutes, four of them state institutions, six established by communities, and the others free schools with scholarships established by the government. A normal department for teachers of this class is attached to the Manilla school. The course of study is two years in duration, and pupils are taught by the articulation method, (xviii, pp. 29, 33, 37, 40.) The Society for the Education of Idiots has established seventeen schools for this class since 18GG, all supported by the state, and with women in charge. The course of study covers object lessons, religious instruc¬ tion, reading, writing, dictation, singing, gymnastics, domestic economy, and skilled handiwork; for girls, spinning, weaving, lace-making, rug- making, and knitting ; for boys, work in the garden, cabinet-making, wood-carving, and other suitable occupations, (xviii, pp. 37, 40.) Classed among the institutioiis for special classes are orphan asylums, those under the auspices of the Masonic fraternity and of the society “ Pro Patria ” being especially mentioned. An orphan asylum in Stock¬ holm places its children in the country to be brought up among the agricultural classes. Special institutions for abandoned children are not reported in Sweden, (xxvi, p. 232, 161.) X. — Historical Statement. The people^s schools in Sweden, as in German}^, may be said to be a creation of the Reformation, although prior to that there were cloister schools taught by the Catholic priests, while mendicant friars wandered about from place to place teaching the church commandments, but omitting all instruction in reading and writing. During the sixteenth century Catholicism was crow'ded out, and Protestantism took its place as the religion of the country. The Protestant Kings, Gustavus Yasa, Charles IX, and Gustavus Adolphus, vied with each other in trying to educate the people, and it is stated that in 1637 there were few children of the peasant class who were unable to read and write. In 1640 Queen Christina, aided by her counsellors, established a school or pedagogic in every city belonging to the Swedish Crown. The lowest class was an 216 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. B C ” class, but at a later date these schools were metamorphosed into the grade of burgher schools. Forty-six years later King Charles IX commanded his chaplains to see that all children were taught to read, and by ecclesiastical law of 1686 promulgated an order that no person should marry unless he could repeat LutheFs catechism and had partaken of the Lord’s Supper. As a result of this law, the peasantry endeavored to establish schools and called upon the govern¬ ment for aid through state subsidies. The government not having the necessary funds at disposal, and the peasants being too poor to carry on the schools themselves, the ambulatory school was considered the best substitute for the desired stationary school, and it was not until a century and a half later that an organization of the schools took place. The ambulatory school of that date is thus described : The teachers were ignorant and frequently unfitted for the position. The schools were held in the peasants’ huts, with the domestic affairs carried on in the same room. The master,” as he was called, sat at one end of the table with the ‘^A BO” children near him on benches without backs. The older pupils sat farther away, with their books on their laps, while only the few who were learning to reckon and to write were allowed to sit at the “ master’s ” table. The text-books consisted of the primer, the smaller and larger catechism, and singing books. When any pupil was competent to read in these books he was supposed to no longer require instruction. In 1786 efforts were made to improve upon this class of schools, and governors of provinces and the church consistory were called upon to establish regular schools, to build school- houses, to arrange for the payment of teachers, etc. But unfortunately these plans failed of fruition, for during the eighteenth century not more than 165 stationary schools were established. The first earnest efforts towards an improvement in educational matters were observed in 1820, when the consistory and clergy were ordered to examine into the teacher’s fitness for the position occupied, so that no persons of bad reputation should be allowed to instruct children. In 1824 a new order established schools according to the Bell-Lancaster system, and for¬ bade any persons holding the position of sexton ( who is the teacher in rural districts) unless familiar with that system. The associations established at Stockholm and Goteborg for the extension of this moni¬ torial system aided in this matter by the funds which they were able to accumulate. Xormal schools were established at Stockholm and Lund for the preparation of teachers, a greater uniformity in meth¬ ods of instruction was brought about, and the general deportment of teachers was improved upon. Still the school was only a private in¬ stitution, and the attendance of children was left entirely to the parents, so that at that date the percentage of attendance of pupils of school age was very low. After lengthy discussions in regard to educational affairs, the organ¬ ization of the schools was taken up in 1840-41, and a law was passed THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. 217 on June 18,1842, whicli entirely reorganized the school system. As an outcome of that law, the number of stationary schools increased from 165 in 1800 to 786 in 1842, and to 6,448 in 1883. This law was super¬ seded by one of January 20, 1882, which retained, however, many features of the original law. The laws being similar, the main points of that of 1882 are interpolated here. According to that law, every dis¬ trict in the city and every parish in the country was to have at least one stationary school with a trained teacher. Still, in case of a sparse population, several districts were allowed to unite in the establishment of such schools. Each school district was to have a school board, and to pay for its own school buildings. All children of school age were to be enrolled in the schools, and in the principal town of the bishopric normal schools were to be established. As will be observed, a special feature of the school system is the in¬ fluence of the church over the school. While every district has its school board, the board is under the control of the church authorities, and merely acts as executive for the consistory. The school inspectors have a sort of counteracting influence, however, and act in a measure for the government. Yet, while the teacher is subordinate to the church authorities, the church’s controlling action is such that steady progress in educational aflairs is observed. In 1858, by the addition of certain branches the sm^skolor” were made preparatory divisions of elementary grades, and higher people’s schools were established at which the teachers were expected to have a higher class of attainment, and the school was to be superior in char¬ acter to any established before. The government granted subsidies to the different districts to aid in the establishment of these schools. In 1871 the schools, Stockholm excepted, had increased to 7,118, among them 10 higher people’s schools, 2,268 stationary schools, 1,164 ambu¬ latory schools, and 2,676 sm^skolor. The number of teachers’ semi¬ naries required by law of 1842 had diminished greatly during this period, as a centralization of such instruction had been determined upon. The above schools had increased in 1883 to 9,794, among them 13 higher people’s schools, 6,448 stationary schools, and 3,346 ambula¬ tory schools. The number of pupils of school age was 716,025, and an average of about 73 pupils of school age to each school is observed. According to school regulations every pupil must attend school, or be properly taught at home, and children who are taught at home must come to the school for yearly examination. Instruction is gratuitous, but the parish has the liberty, if additional funds are needed, of de¬ manding a small sum for each child who is not too poor to pay, though this demand is seldom made. Private schools are also under the super¬ vision of the regular board, so that there is perfect correspondence be¬ tween imblic and private instruction, (xxii, pp. 707-710 j xxiii, pp. 53-54.) Secondary schools also date from a very early period, the instruction 218 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. being first given in cloister scliools and by monks. The secondary schools were a creation of the Eeformation, as were the lower schools. An ecclesiastical decree of 1571 is looked upon as the first Swedish school law, unless papal letters of an earlier period maybe so called. Accord¬ ing to this law, each school had a schoolmaster, and if there were too many pupils one of the ‘‘ hearers ” aided him. Beligion, Latin, Swedish language, and hymns were taught, but whoever desired to learn Greek and Hebrew had to look out for such instruction himself. Gustavus Adolphus first established gymnasia, and in 1649 Queen Christina, his daughter, promulgated a decree which divided the schools into people’s schools and higher schools. The former had as course of study read¬ ing, writing, and the elements of arithmetic, religion, and Latin j the latter were divided into the ethnological, the syntactic, the rhetorical, and the logical classes. The lower classes had class teachers j the upper class, in which Latin was the language spoken, was taught by a rector and assistant rector. The branches were Greek, rhetoric, logic, and arithmetic; history and geography were not taught. The first germ of the burgher school, the precursor of the Keal school, was found at that date in the writing classes,” in which were taught catechism, read¬ ing, writing, the mother tongue, and arithmetic through the quartanos. This was the basis of the ‘trivial school, which is still in existence to-day after two hundred years. The gymnasia of that period had four classes with instruction in doctrinal theology, Hebrew, natural sciences, mathematics, and the basis of the Swedish laws. History and geography were taught later, but only verbally. A decree Of King Charles XI, in 1693, added a fifth class to the gymnasia. Church history and moral philosophy were added to the course, and while it was especially speci¬ fied that the trivial school was to fit for practical life, the gymnasia was gradually verging towards a church seminary. The consistory had full control of these schools, and by law of 1724 no one except a resi¬ dent of the church district could be appointed to a teacher’s position. From that date to 1807 a more practical turn was given to the trivial schools ; physical training was attempted, physics, anthropology, his¬ tory, geography, and bookkeeping were added to the course. The school law of 1807 added Swedish statistics and modern languages to the course in the gymnasia, changed the pedagogier of that period into burgher schools, and planned to have a general course of study for the lower classes of gymnasia, burgher, and trivial schools, (xxii, pp. 718-721, VII, pp. 1-17.) This plan was opposed by the church consistory, and a commission was appointed in 1820 through whose efforts new regulations were made which brought out the distinct sub¬ division of classical and non-classical schools — or those which dealt with the old-classic humanities as apart from those which dealt with 1 In the Middle Ages the irivium, from which the word trivial school is derived, in¬ cluded the studies of grammar, rhetoric, and logic ; to-day the term is understood to include the ordinary branches required in practical life. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OE SWEDEN. 219 the encyclopredic realities j but this law failed to meet the requirements of the Keal and burgher schools, and again in 1828 another commission was appointed to investigate the whole subject of education. NTew methods were adopted which sanctioned greater freedom of instruction, introduced optional branches, allowed each student to go to a higher class whenever he showed fitness for such change, grouped all students together in one large room where the teacher could go about from pupil to pupil and suggest as to methods of study, brought about a state of monitorial instruction, the farther advanced helping those less so, and permitted the passing of graduation examinations for the universities with the classics omitted. The so-called new elementary schools, “ K’ya elementarskolor,” of Stockholm were established on this i)rinciple. Even this plan failed to satisfy the learned men of Sweden, and from 1828 to 1845 discussions took place in regard to a revision of methods by which a reuniting of the higher classical schools and gymnasia was accomplished, (xxii, pp. 721-723). On July 10, 1840, a royal decree united the writing classes (burgher schools)-aud trivial (or Real) schools into an institution in which instruction was given in all branches taught in both; made the gymnasia preparatory schools for the univer¬ sity, and created the “ elementar liiroverken ’’ which were the means of greatly increasing attendance in the higher grades of schools and in the universities ; but this decree brought in a class of pupils unfitted for the higher courses and unable to keep up with them, (xxiv j). 347.) The opposition of the consistory, the lack of system, and the superficial knowledge of too many studies were very perceptible at this period of affairs, and in 1850 when the encyclopedic methods of study were at their height other attempts were made to still improve upon former educational plans, but the new decrees only served to add to the confusion, while those of 1850 simply adhered to the so-called new methods, strengthened the study of the classics, and limited the special studies. From that date gradual changes were made until a new law of November 1, 1878, was promulgated. This law still holds good. But again in 1882 a new commission was appointed to remodel the secondary grade of instruction. The results of the investigations of this commission were presented in 1834, but their antipathy to the classics was so apparent as to awaken opposition among the school officials, and it is doubted whether the proposed reorganization will be carried out. One point specified by the commission was the removal of the secondary schools from the control of the ephor (bishop), and the appointment of a special higher school officer or council, to have direct charge of these schools. This officer was to deal directly with head¬ quarters, and to relieve the ephor and school inspectors under his charge in regard to all points appertaining to school organization, hours of study, programmes, reports to higher school officers, etc. But so much oppo¬ sition to this plan was engendered, that latest advices would indicate its non-acceptance by the people. (Yii, pp. 23, 137, 144-160 ; xxii, pp, 723-724.) 220 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Among other questions proposed by the commission were whether students who had not pursued classical studies could be admitted to university examinations, and whether the preparatory examinations were suitable for all university requirements, these queries being an outgrowth of discussions concerning the preponderance of Latin and Greek in the secondary schools. The answers presented by the mem¬ bers of the diderenl university faculties varied somewhat in character, but the decision as a whole was in favor of more modern studies suited to the progressive movements of the times, and with less Latin and Greek. (VII, pp. 155-160 ; I, pp. 236-238.) The medical faculty at Stockholm considered the superabundance of Latin in the classical schools unne¬ cessary and the studies in natural sciences and other branches found in the Real schools better suited to requirements for physicians, and it was conceded that botany and zoology as well as chemistry and physics were needed for the preliminary^ medical examination. The school commission appointed by the Swedish Government in 1883-84 to inquire into the organization of the higher grade schools also examined as to their hygienic conditions, the investigations covering general health of school children, overpressure, and near-sightedness. The commission examined 14,722 boys and 3,246 girls and found that 13.5 per cent, of the boys were suffering from headaches, 34.4 per cent, of boys in the lowest classes of middle schools were troubled with sick¬ ness, that the illness-curve (the results being given in diagrams and tables of ratios and percentages) increased from 37 per cent, in the sec¬ ond school year to 40 per cent, in the fourth year, as the burden of work increases from class to class. This sickness-curve corresponds with the growth period of the boys, or from the seventh to the thirteenth year. In the Latin schools, the sickness was about 50 per cent.; in the real schools, about 40 per cent.; in Stockholm the per cent, of sickness was greater than the general average throughout the Kingdom. The percentage of near-sightedness rose from 6.1 per cent, in the lowest class of the secondary grades to 37.3 per cent, in the highest Latin class. (XXVIII, pp. 1-16.) In the girls’ schools 61.7 per cent, were suffering from disorders, many from constant headaches, 10 per cent, from spinal complaint, and here again it was apparent that a reorganization of the school system was necessary, as the overpressure of studies and the number of hours of work caused this liability to Illness. The regular gymnasial schedules presented seven hours of work daily in the lower classes, with an in¬ crease to eleven or twelve hours in the higher classes, and this did not include private instruction or optional studies. As the girls’ schools are modelled on similar plans to those for boys, the causes of illness are easily determined. Oomputations as to the average time of work in each class of the boys’ schools indicated that the amount of illness of those who worked longer than the average was 5.3 per cent, higher than that of those who worked a less number of hours. That is, among THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN. . 221 tbe boys who worked a shorter time than the average 50.8 per cent were ill, while among those who worked more than the average 56.1 per cent, were classed as sick, A comparison between the higher grade schools and elementary grades was not made, as the commission did not take these lower schools into consideration. This was done in Den¬ mark, however, in 1881, when tbe hygienic conditions there were in¬ vestigated, and the results presented by the Danish commission were such as to indicate a similar percentage of sickness in both elementary and secondary grades, (xxviii, pp. 1-16.) The reorganization brought about by the investigations of the Swedish commission is to include the appointment of a school physician. He is to visit each school once a month to consider hygienic conditions, to measure and weigh the pupils at the beginning and end of the year so as to report upon their growth, to examine as to nearsightedness, etc. He is also to be consulted about school programmes and hours of study, so that there will be less liability to over-pressure and consequent illness. The teacher is expected to act as his assistant, so far as daily watchful¬ ness is concerned, and to consult with him in regard to possible changes of method. Since the publications of these investigations other educa¬ tional reforms have been attempted from year to year, all tending towards improvement in methods and with the special object of shorten¬ ing the number of hours of study. The present plan of reconstruction seems to be to throw Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Sanscrit out of the intermediate schools and gymnasia, and place them in a special depart¬ ment of the university, (xxxiy, p. 10.) This is probably the result of a suggestion to the Government made by the Swedish university com¬ mittee that the youngest students should receive instruction similar to that given at the school ; that the professor is personally to advise be¬ ginners how to plan and commence their university studies; that he is to ascertain by oral and written examinations whether the students fol¬ low his advice, and finally that none but those who pass an examination are to be admitted to the higher classes, where scientific lectures by the professors are the students’ sole guide.* (xxv, p. 32.) * The latest progressive movement is that of the students of the University of Upsala, who, in 1891. are to present a request to the King that instruction in military admin¬ istration and organization be given at that university. The course to cover military history and strategy of defense in case Sweden is attacked. Fifteen to twenty les¬ sons a year to be given, (xl, p. 628.) 222 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. II.-THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND. AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. I. — Statistisk Arsbok for Finland, 1838-90, pp. 95-119, lfil-162. II. — Statistisk Ofversigt af Elemcritarlaroverkens i Finland tillstand ocb verksam- bet, iUsearet, 1888-’89, pp. 1-47. III. — Polytekniska institiitet i Finland: Beriittelse for liise^ret, 1888-’89, pp. 1-27. IV. — Brabestads Borgare-ocb Handelsskola. Beriittelse, 1836-87, pp. 22-28. V.— Vor Ungdom. Haefte 1-2, 1890, pp. 70-80 ; Haeft 1, 1891, pp. 8.3-90. VI. — Ue Graud-Ducbe de Finlaude. Notice statistique par K. E. F. Ignatius (Ex¬ position Universelle de 1878 ii, Paris), pp. 47-57. VII. — Revista de Educa^ao e Ensiuo, Lisboa, ^Oct., 1890, pp. 459-467 ; Nov., 1890, pp. 497-504. VIII. — Larousse: Dictionnaire Universel, t. 8, p. 401. IX. — Fortnightly Review, Jan., 1891, pp. 50-^65. X. — Barnard’s Journal of Education, v. 24, 1873, pp. 209-224. XI. — Statesman’s Year Book, 1890, pp. 846-891, 843-844. XII. — Almanac de Gotha, 1890, p. 981. XIII. — Bnisson’s Dictionnaire de P6dagogie et d’lustruction Primaire.t. 2, Irepartie, p. 2659. The references in the following statement correspond in number to the foregoing. INTRODUCTORY. Finland j Grand Duchy; area, 144,255 square miles; population, 2,270,912 in 1887. Capital, Helsingfors ; population, 55,740. (XI, pp. 846, 891.) Department of ecclesiastical affairs, sciences, fine arts, and public instruction. Dr. G. Z. Yrjo-Koskinen in charge of educational affairs. (XII, p. 981.) Finland has been annexed to Eussia, but not incorporated in it. Since it was ceded to Eussia on September 17, 1809, it has preserved, by special grant of Alexander I in 1810 (renewed by his successors), some remains of its ancient constitution, which, dating from 1772, was reformed in 1789, and slightly modified in 1869 and 1882. There is a national Diet consisting of nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants, who discuss laws proposed by the Emperor. Schemes of laws are elabor¬ ated by a committee for the affairs of Finland in St. Petersburg. Four of the members of this committee are nominated by the Grown (two of them being proposed by the senate). The senate, which sits at Hel¬ singfors, is nominated by the Crown. It is under the presidency of the governor-general, who represents the Czar. The senate is the supreme administrative power in Finland, and consists of two departments, justice and finance, which have the administration of various divisions of the internal affairs of Finland. The educational system of Finland is separated from that of Eussia. (XI, pp. 843, 844 ; XIII, p. 2659.) I. — General features of the school system. The school system includes four classes of schools, grouped as ele¬ mentary, higher, professional, and for the education of the deaf, dumb, and blind. All except the professional schools are in charge of a cen¬ tral board of education at Helsingfors. (YI p. 47.) THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND. 223 Establishment. — The establishment of public schools was brought about by a decree of April 19, 1858, which required rural districts to establish stationary schools, and promised them governmental support. The diet of 1863-’64 having voted necessary funds for promoting popu¬ lar education, a decree of May 11, 1866, definitely organized elementary instruction in Finland. According to this decree each town was to pro¬ vide a sufficient number of elementary schools for ail children between seven and fourteen years of age, who were not being educated at home, or in schools of a higher grade. Schools must be established also for pupils of a more advanced age who were without earlier advantages. According to this decree elementary schools were to be divided into lower and higher grades, the former for children between six and ten years of age,, the latter for those between ten and fourteen years. In rural communes the earliest instruction of children is given in families, but by this same decree the authorities are required to see that if such instruction is not given the children attend either a stationary or ambu¬ latory school. (YI, pp. 47, 48 5 YII, pp. 459-461.) Control. — The control of the school system is vested in a higher school board — ‘‘ Ofverstyrelsen for Skolvasendet’’ — at Helsingfors. This board is an adjunct of the lm[)eria] Senate of Finland, and especially con¬ nected with the administrative section of public instruction and wor¬ ship. An inspector in chief, appointed by the Czar, as suggested by this higher council, acts as inspector of elementary and normal schools. There are also local inspectors, provided for bylaw of 1869, in each gov¬ ernmental subdivision of Finland, and in each district, or commune, a local board of education composed of from four to six members. (X, p. 218 5 YII, pp. 464,465.) Maintenance. — The schools are maintained by both state and local funds. The state gives an annual subsidy for the payment of teachers, providing the district constructs suitable school buildings and furnishes the teacher with lodging and ground around it. Private schools also receive state subsidies. The school budget contains subsidies for second¬ ary, higher, professional, and special schools. (YI, y>. 48; I, p. 161.) II. — Statistics. Population, 2,270,912 (in 1887) ; enrollment in elementary schools, 62,893 ; ratio of enrollment to total population, 2 per cent. (XI, p. 846). Elementary schoolSj j^uinls, and teacJicrs.— There were 971 elementary schools (fasta folkskolor) reported in 1887-’88 in Finland; teachers (lararepersonal), 1,264; pupils in elementary and infant schools (barn- skolor), 62,893 ; boys, 34,113; girls, 28,780. (I, pp. 106,107). Secondary schools^ pupils, a7id teachers. — The secondary and professional schools^ (elementarskolor and realskolor) in 1887-88 were 27 in number; ’Finland, as well as Sweden, classes its secondary schools under the heading Ele- mentarlaroverkeu. All schools mentioned in this paragraph are included under that head. 224 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1888-89. teacliers, 172 ; pupils, 1,051. The lyceums (lyceer) were 28 in number; teachers, 432 4 pupils 4,461. The 4 preparatory schools (forskolor) for pupils desiring to enter the lyceums had 13 teachers and 159 pupils. Classed under secondary schools are 52 institutions for girls, with 559 teachers and 4,057 pupils. There are also 5 industrial schools (indus- triskolor), with 37 teachers and 255 pupils. (I, pp. 100-117; YI, p. 51.) Higher education. — The 4 normal schools (folkskollarare och lararinue- seminarier) had 45 teachers and 563 pupils. The ‘‘ Universitet i Hel¬ singfors” had 90 professors and 1,703 students, 14 of them women. Classed under secondary and higher education are the following special schools : The Polytekniska Institute!,’^ with 31 professors and 132 stu¬ dents in 1888-^89; 7 navigation schools (navigationsskolor), with 113 pupils ; 6 commercial schools (handelsskolor), with 57 teachers and 297 pupils ; 31 Sunday schools for apprentices in 1886, with 111 teachers and 2,111 pupils ; 12 agricultural schools (landtbrukslaroverken), with 44 teachers and 279 pupils; and 16 dairy schools (mejerila: overken), with 41 teachers and 148 pupils in 1887-’88 ; trade schools (handtverk- skolor), 12 ; pupils, 965 ; teachers, 68 in 1888-’89. Then there are the 5 deaf and dumb schools (dofstumsskolor), with 22 teachers and 225 pupils; the 2 institutions for the blind (blindanstalter), with 11 teach¬ ers and 54 pupils ; and the asjdums for idiots (idiotanstalter), with 2 teachers and 9 pupils, which also report for the year 1888-’89. (I, pp. 95-118. ; YI, p. 53.) Length of school year. — This is not specified for the elementary schools, but it is stated that instruction must be given at least 30 weeks and 30 hours a week during the year, in order that the higher elementary schools may receive governmental aid. Secondary schools are kept open from September 1 to December 20, and from January 14 to May 31 ; the university from September 15 to December 15, and from Jan¬ uary 15 to May 15. (X, p. 215; YII, pp. 466, 497.) Ages of pupils. — According to decree of May 11, 1866, districts are required to establish schools enough for all children between 7 and 14 years of ago who are not receiving instruction either at home or in a higher grade school. Still older pupils are required to have school facil¬ ities allowed them if their early education has been neglected. In the lower grade elementary schools the age is 6 to 10 years ; in the higher elementary grades from 10 to 14 years. (YI, p. 48 ; YII, p. 460.) III. — Finances. Income. — The income for school purposes is derived from governmental subsidies and from communal funds. The government gives an annual subsidy of $154 for the payment of each male teacher, and of $116 for the payment of each woman teacher in the commune, providing the district establishes stationary schools and furnishes the teachers with lodging, ground, etc. City districts receive 25 per cent, of their expenses. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND. 225 The amount voted by the Diet in 1S87 for elementary education was $246,395, namely : For elementary schools in cities and rural districts, $155,801; for teachers’ seminaries fitting teachers for i^rimary schools, $75,960; for inspection of elementary schools, $11,260; incidentals, manual ’traiiiing, etc., $3,374. (VII, p. 464.) The amount raised in the communes or districts is not known to date. The amount received from tuition fees is not known. Tuition fees^ are, however, requisite in secondary schools, the fees varying in amount according to the subjects of instruction. (X, p. 216.) Expenditure. — The expenditures for the year 1889 included the follow- lowing amounts: For the university and polytechnic school, $168,453; supervision of schools and for higher educational institutions, $466,264; normal and public elementary schools, $254,670 ; professional schools, $54,413; institutions for blind and deaf mutes, $17,518; incidentals, $5,539; rental of buildings, $13,802; reserve funds for elementary schools, $77,200; agricultural and dairy schools, $57^707. (I, pp. 161, 162.) IV.— Supervision and administration. State supervision. — The “ Ofverstyrelsen for Skolviisendet,” or higher council of education, at Helsingfors, has supervision of elementary, secondary, and special schools. This board or council is an adjunct of the imperial senate of Finland (administrative department), and of the section of public instruction and ecclesiastical affairs. It regulates the programmes for schools from the pedagogical and technical side, and attends to apportionment of school material, etc. Private schools sub¬ sidized by the state are under the supervision of this central organiza¬ tion. There is also an inspector in chief for elementary education and normal schools, who is appointed by the Czar at the suggestion of the board or council. His duties as presiding officer of the central board are to decide upon all questions appertaining to elementary instruc¬ tion. The University as reorganized by law of 1852 is under control of the academic authorities, consisting of the rector and 12 professors ; in cases of special importance 32 professors are added to this board. Any project modifying its organization must be referred to the senate and there receive imperial sanction ere it can be carried out. (VII, pp. 462-464, 497, 498.) Local supervision, — A local inspector has charge of elementary schools in each governmental subdivision or province. A council of education has the immediate inspection of the communal schools. This council is composed of 4 to 6 members, who serve without pay. (VII, p. 464.) The local supervision of secondary schools is in charge of a council Hn 1873 it was stated that secondary schools, though public, were not free, the tuition fees varying as above mentioned. Later legislation may have modified this statement. ED. 89- — 15 226 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. of state composed of 3 to 5 members appointed by the central or higher council of education, the names of the appointees being suggested by the communal authorities. (Yll, p. 465.) V — Teachers. Prei)aration. — Teachers for the elementary grades receive the requisite preparation at the normal school in Jyvaskyla (Jyvaskyla seminarium), which, founded in 1863, has, with its two divisions for men and for women, the special object of preparing teachers for the districts where Finnish is spoken. The normal school for women at Ekenas (Ekeniis lararinne seminarium) established in 1871, and the normal for men at 'N'ykarleby (Nykarleby larare seminarium), established in 1873, pre- liare teachers for the Swedish-speaking population. There is also a school with two divisions, the Sordavala Seminarium,” which has 16 teachers and 122 pupils. The schools have a four years’ course, the last year being more particularly for practice in the elementary schools of higher and lower grade, each seminary having such schools attached to it. The normals for women have each a kindergarten and infant school, so that the pupils may early train themselves to fill positions in such schools. The normals receive both boarding and day pupils, the greater proportion being day pupils. The age at which pupils are received in the seminaries is eighteen years. Many of the professors connected with city schools of elementary grade have received a university education; the women teachers in similar schools formerly attended pedagogical courses at Helsingfors. (I, p. 105; VI, p. 48; VII, p. 461.) Examinations. — There are examinations at the close of the normal school course, the passing of which entitles the graduate to a certificate of qualification to teach, but further information as to examinations and licensing has not been obtained. (X, p. 215.) A;ppointment. — The appointment of teachers is made by the higher council of education. (X, p. 215.) Tenure of office. — The tenure of office is for life, subject to removal after trial by the higher authorities. (X, p. 205.) Salaries.— Tho, salaries of teachers in district elementary schools average $154 for men, and $116 for women. This salary is paid by the governmental authorities, and the district authorities add lodgings, con¬ taining at least two rooms and a kitchen, with ground for gardening, and pasturage enough for a cow. Salaries^ of teachers and professors in higher grade schools not known to date. (VI, p. 49; VII, pp. 461, 462.) 1 According to a statement made in 1873, after the first ten years’ teaching, the salary is increased 20 per cent, for 5 years, and 10 per cent, for each subsequent 5 years. The salaries of regular teachers in Real schools ranged at that date from $463 to $579 with lodging ; in lyceums, from $540 to $887 with lodging; in girls’ schools from $579 to $772 for men, with lodging ; and from $307 to $463 for women, with lodg¬ ing. The principal of each school received from $57 to $193 additional compensation. (X,pp. 215,216.) THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND. 227 Teachers’ pendons. — NTo information to date.^ Teachers’ institutes? — No mention is made of any such meetings, but the advanced educational movements noted in Finland would imply that such conferences were held from time to time for the discussion of educational questions. VI.— Courses of study. Kindergarten. — Instruction in the kindergarten not specified, but doubtless Frobel’s methods are carried out. The earliest teachings for children are commenced at home, or else they learn to read in ambula¬ tory schools, which move from district to district every 2 or 3 mouths. (VI, p. 50.) Elementary schools. — The course in elementary schools is 4 years, divided into two parts of 2 years each. These form the higher and lower grade of elementary schools. The course of study is so arranged that the two lower classes are complete in themselves; the higher classes simply continue the course and introduce new Lnethods. The studies for the higher elementary grades are religion, mother tongue, geography, history, arithmetic, elements of plane and descriptive geometry, natural sciences and their applications, drawing, singing, gymnastics, manual training for boys, and feminine handiwork for girls. In the lower ele¬ mentary grades the same studies, omitting history, geography, geometry, and natural sciences. Manual training is made a specialty in elementary grades, and occupies about 5 hours a week in each class. (VII, p. 462.) The course of study in the industrial schools is either a continuation of that found in the elementary schools, or it is adapted to prepare stu¬ dents for special schools. (VI, p. 51.) Secondary schools. — The secondary schools form three groups, i. e., lyceums with eight classes or years, with course of study leading di¬ rectly to universities or special schools; elementary schools for boys with two, three, four, or five classes or years, the programme correspond¬ ing to that of similar classes in the lyceum ; elementary schools for girls with five classes. Pupils are admitted at 9 years of age in the boys’ schools, and 11 years of age in the girls’ schools. Studies for these grades are religion, Swedish, Finnish ; Russian (in boys’ schools); Ger- 1 Teachers’ pensions: In 1873 it was stated that teachers of elementary schools after 30 years’ service were entitled to a retiring pension for life, equal to the Government allowance for the last year’s salary of the teacher. Teachers of secondary grades who have taught 35 years, may retire with an annuity equal to the salary at that date ; after 30 years with three-quarters of his salary ; and after 25 years with the half ; after 20 years’ service with one-quarter salary ; and if afflicted with incurable disease at an earlier period, he is entitled also to a pension. Later information in regard to this point is wanting. (X, p. 216.) 2 A teachers’ association was organized in 1863 at Tavastehus, its central organiza¬ tion being in Helsingfors, however, with branches in several cities. Meetings were held once a mouth Regular conventions were called every 3 years for discussion of educational matters. (X, p. 221.) 228 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. . man, French, English (in Eeal Ijceums); the classics, history, geography, botany, zoology, physics, mathematics, drawing, singing, gymnastics j and in girls’ schools feminine handiwork. (V, x). 466.) Two normal lyceums (Swedish and Finnish) in Helsingfors serve as practice schools for [persons who intend to become teachers in secondary grades. Two Swedish and Finnish continuation schools for girls in Helsingfors have each a 3 j^ears’ course of pedagogical study. The seven schools for girls supported by the Grand Duchy comprise in their courses of study modern languages, whatever scientific branches are required to give a solid education, and the pupils receive instruc¬ tion in feminine handiwork. Private schools, juost of them boarding- schools, prepare pupils for the secondary schools, or have courses simi¬ lar to the public secondary grades. Among the x^rivate schools are six lyceums, five Swedish, and one Finnish, where boys and girls are edu¬ cated together. (VII, p. 466 j VI, p. 52.) As a type of the course of study in commercial schools, that of the ‘^BrahestadsBorgareoch Handelsskola”is given. It includes Swedish, Finnish, German, and English languages, Russian and French optional, (these branches so taught as to cover grammatical construction, keep¬ ing of books, correspondence, etc.), mathematics, commercial book¬ keeping (including double entry), physics and chemistry, national economy, geography and history, penmanshixi and gymnastics, through all classes. (IV, pp. 23-28.) Higher education. — The course of study in normal schools prepares teachers to be instructors in the primary grades j the studies are not specified. The university has the four faculties : Theology, law, medi¬ cine, science and letters, including an historical x^hilological section, and aphysico mathematical section. (I,p.95.) Connected with this institu¬ tion are anatomical and x>athological institutes ; chemical and pharma¬ ceutical and x>hysiological laboratories j an astronomical observatory j a gymnasium ; kindergarten ; library, museum of history, ethnography, sculpture, etc. (VII, x). 497.) Glassed under special schools, some of which are of secondary and others of higher grade, is the polytechnic school “Polytekniska Insti¬ tute!,” which in a 4 years’ course prepares its students to be either architects and builders or mechanical engineers, land surveyors, or as ‘‘Kemisk Tekuolog,” (that is, to have knowledge of chemistry as applied to building materials used in construction). During the firstyear’s course the studies are in common. The course in land surveying, however, is only of 2 years’ duration. (Ill, pp. 1-27, VII, x>* 498.) Another technical school, the Agricultural Institute, which bears the same relation to the fifteen agricultural schools that the university bears to the secondary schools, has a number of specialists connected with it who are experienced in all branches of agriculture. The aim of this institute is to diffuse general knowledge of agriculture and other cognate matters, to aid and advise in regard to agricultural machines, THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND. 229 to the cultiYation of foreign plants, to form plans and estimates for reclaiming waste lands, etc. The course of study may be inferred from the following classification of the members of the teaching force, namely: One agricultural engineer, one governmental agronomist, eight provincial agronomists, ten assistant agronomists, one expert to give instruction in flax-growing and flax-scutching, two teach¬ ers of dairy farming designated by the Government, and two by iiro- vincial authorities, eleven women teachers from the provinces to teach dairying, two masters of forestry, one lecturer on arboriculture, six teachers of horticulture, two controllers of grain and seed, three instructors in the art of plowing, and one inspector of fisheries. Courses of popular lectures on agricultural subjects are also carried on in remote divisions of the Grand Duchy. The Institute of Forestry, by its course of study, also aids in iustructiug the people to make the most of nature’s gifts. It forms an advanced course for the school of forestry. (IX, pp. 50-65.) VII. — School management and methods of discipline. The methods employed in teaching children in both city and rural schools follow the latest developments in pedagogical science. Corporal punishment is not employed j the teacher relies on the honor of his pupils. (IX, pp. 50-65.) The pupils in elementary and secondary schools are examined annu¬ ally for promotion. (X, p. 216.) Little is known in regard to methods of study and recitations, but it is stated that most of the subjects are taught from the text-books and orally, and that in the plan of studies five hours a week are devoted to instruction in manual training in each class of the elementary grades. The methods of study and formation of programmes are determined, however, by a commission appointed bj' the higher council of educa¬ tion, this commission having authority to investigate as to the very latest improvements in pedagogical methods. Formerly boys and girls were taught separately. Of late years coeducation has been attempted in many schools, the first schools of this kind being established in Hel¬ singfors in 1883, and women are admitted to the university as students. (VII, p, 462; X, pp. 215-216; V, pp. 70-80.) VIII. — School organization. Buildings and grounds. — Information is wanting in regard to the gen¬ eral condition of school buildings and the grounds, if any, around them. But it is stated that in Helsingfors the school buildings are constructed with vast corridors, spacious and w^ell- ventilated class-rooms, lighted by electricity, and large halls for gymnastic exercises. The buildings are supplied with all necessary school material, and have extensive playgrounds connected with them. (IX, pp. 50-65.) 230 EDUCATtON REPORT, 1888-89. Hours of school. — The number of school hours a day is not speci¬ fied, but, as has already been stated, at least thirty hours’ instruction a week must be given in the higher elementary grades in order to obtain funds for school purposes from the state. (X, p. 215.) Holidays and vacations. — Date of holidays and vacations in elementary grades not known; in secondary grades, the Christmas holidays — De¬ cember 20 to January 14 — and the vacation months of June, July, and August are specified. (VII, p. 466.) Compulsory attendance. — Attendance is compulsory for children be¬ tween seven and fourteen years of age, earlier instruction being given either in the family, or in the ambulatory schools established in farm¬ houses in rural districts. Teachers of these schools, which move from point to point every two or three mouths, are paid by the commune, or receive small fees from the children taught. (VI, p. 48; VII, p. 461; X, p. 214.) School supply. — The regularly established city schools are reported as well supplied with apparatus and school material. (IX, pp. 50-65.) IX. — Supplementary institutions. Libraries and museums. — Aids to intellectual growth are libraries and museums, either of a public character or connected with institu¬ tions in cities and in a number of rural districts. There are also read¬ ing rooms for special study connected with people’s libraries in different parts of Finland. The largest library and the most important collec¬ tions are affiliated with the University of Helsingfors. These include a library of 200,000 volumes, a small library of Russian literature, and a choice library of classical philology, an anatomical and zoological museam, a cabinet of numismatics, an ethnographical and historical museum, a collection of mineralogical specimens, an art museum, and a collection of armor and weapons of different periods. The archives of Finland aid in the study of the country’s history, as they contain a collection of acts dating back to 1265, and a fairly com¬ plete collection of Finland’s administrative reports since 1531. (VI, pp. 56,57, VII, p. 498-501.) Associations and societies. — Xnmerous societies and associations are reported in Finland, several of which have initiated movements to pro¬ mote progress in scientific, literary, and educational matters. The ma¬ jority of these societies are under the direct influence of the university (VI, p. 53). The Finnish scientific societ;^ (Finska Vetenskaps Socie- tet), founded in 1838, has three sections — physics and mathematics, natural sciences, history and philology. Its “ Acta Societatis Scientia- rum Fennicse,” contain papers on divers subjects and biographical notes. Th‘" central meteorological observatory is under the direction of this society. The “ societas Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica,” founded 1821, has a com- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND. 231 plete collection of the country's fauna and flora, as found by prominent naturalists in annual excursions for such purpose. From 1848 to 1875, a bulletin of this work was presented to the public; since 1876 the ^‘Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica’* takes its place. (VII, pp. 501-503.) The Finland Archmological Society, established in 1870, has united its collections with the historical ethnographical collections of the uni¬ versity. The “ Suomen-Muinaismusto-yhdistyksen aikakauskirja,” i)ublished since 1874, is the organ of this society. The historical society, founded in 1875, investigates history, archae¬ ology and cognate sciences, publishing documents relating to such sub¬ jects. Two geographical societies were established in 1888 — the one for general study, the nther for the study of the geography of Finland. The society for the study of Finnish literature, founded in 1831, com¬ prises three sections — philology, history, and fine arts. The “ Suome,” or annual publication of this society appears in the Finnish tongue. Its most notable collections consist of national songs and folklore. In contradistinction to this society is the one for the study of Swedish literature in Finland, which, established in 1855, publishes annual re¬ ports of its investigations. (VII, pp. 501-503.) The Society for Fine Arts, founded in 1846, for the purpose of art study, owns at present, through gift and purchase, a collection of sculp¬ ture and paintings, which forms the basis of an annual exhibit of works of art. The Society of Arts, as applied to industries, established in 1875, main¬ tains a professional school at Helsingfors. There are also societies or associations for promoting technical, horticultural, and agricultural pursuits. An imperial economic society for Finland, dating from 1797, aims to promote progress in agriculture, dairy fanning, etc. It publishes annual reports and separate papers on similar subjects. A society founded by the women of Finland in 1884 aims to ameliorate the condition of women, and to give them opportunities for higher edu¬ cation (VII, i>p. 501-503). Many other associations work for the edu¬ cation of the poor or are engaged in philanthropic and religious work. One such society has opened a people’s library, where books, jour¬ nals, and reviews are at the disposal of the people, and it is stated that “ the workingmen come in thousands in autumn and winter to read them.” It also gives an annual subscription to an asylum for poor children between 4 and 7 years of age, who are taught to read, write, and mend. It supports a school of domestic economy for girls, and a school for the children of the poorest classes, where they are given ele¬ mentary instruction and are taught a trade, and are taken care of from 6 in the morning until 7 or 8 o’clock in the evening. It also helps sup¬ port a reformatory for children of criminal propensities. 232 EDUCATIOjST EEPORT, 1888-89. Schools for special classes. — Subordinated to the central administra¬ tion are two institutes for the blind, one in Helsingfors and the other in Kuopio ; four schools for the deaf and dumb (Dofstumskolor), in Abo, Borga, Kuopio, Jakobstad, and a private school for the deaf and dumb at Hvittis. (VII, p. 465.) The governmental schools for the deaf had 205 pupils in 1888-89, the private school, 20 pupils. Expenditures by the state, 110,558; for the school at Hvittis, $434. The two institutions for the blind (Blindan- stalter) had 54 jiupils, and the state expenditures were $7,684. (I, p. 110.) The course of study in these institutions extends from three to eight years. Information in regard to methods is wanting. A private institute for the education of idiots, in Jakobstad, had nine pupils — Swedes — in that year (1888-89). To support this school $579 were required. (I, p. 110 ; YII, p. 465.) Ftiblic charities. — Information is wanting in regard to charities, although the statements made above as to philanthropic effort indicate that much is accomplished by the people of Finland for the benefit of all classes. X.— Histoeioal statement. The school system of Finland is distinct from that of Eussia, of which Empire it is a grand duchy. Its main features are similar to those of Sweden, to which country it belonged until 1809. Prior to 1611 educa¬ tion was under the control of the monks, as in Sweden ; after that date the schools were subject to governmental regulations. (X, p. 213.) In 1630 the first gymnasium was founded at Abo. In 1640 a uni¬ versity was established at Abo, but on account of loss of the buildings by fire, it was removed to Helsingfors in 1827. According to its pres¬ ent constitution, decree of 1852, the government of the institution rests with the chancellor and consistorium. The Czar is really at the head of the university, but he is represented by one of the grand dukes. The consistorium, composed of the rector and regular professors, attends to the internal management of the university. (X, pp. 213, 217 ; YIII, p. 401.) In 1649, 1693, and 1724 important school laws were passed, and in 1686 an edict of Charles XI, which is still in force, required the clergy to hold an annual examination for the purpose of ascertaining whether the children of Finland could read, and whether they knew their cate¬ chism. That law led to the establishment of schools for the common people, for it prohibited the marriage of parties who had not been con¬ firmed, and could neither read nor pass an examination in regard to the doctrines of the Lutheran Church. In 1780 the military school of Frederickshams was established, with a three years’ course and three years’ preparatory department ; the graduates to enter a higher school of special service. (X, pp. 213- 220.) THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND. 233 In 1812 three navigation schools were created. The courses continue from the middle of October to the middle of April. In 1837 agricultural institutes are first mentioned. (X, p. 220.) In 1843 a new school law was promulgated, which was modified by acts of 1856, 1862, and 1864. In 1847 the polytechnic school at Helsingfors was established, but a reorganization took place in 1872. In 1858, April 19, a decree required rural communes to establish sta¬ tionary schools, governmental aid being guaranteed. From this year dates the first school for deaf mutes. (YII, p. 460; X, p. 220.) In 1863 the first Teachers’ Association was organized. It held monthly meetings, and its membership fee was $1.50 a j^ear. (X, p. 221.) A normal school for teachers was established in 1863-64, in Jy vaskyla, which had for its director tJno Oygiifeus, the organizer of primary in¬ struction in Finland. (X, p. 214.) In 1863-64 the Government voted the necessary funds for carrying on the public schools. (VII, p. 461.) In 1865 a Folkskole-forordning” or school law was passed, which, with modifications in 1869 and 1872, withdrew the higher public schools from ecclesiastical supervision and control, and instituted a system of governmental supervision for all the schools of Finland. (X, p. 213.) A decree of May 11, 1866, definitely organized elementary instruction in Finland, each commune or district* being required to establish a suffi¬ cient number of schools for all children between seven and fourteen years of age, or to see that they were instructed in reading, spelling, and the catechism, either at home or in an ambulatory school. Govern¬ mental grants were to be withheld if the communal authorities failed to carry out this decree. (VI, p. 48; VII, pp. 460-461; X, p. 214.) This law also provided for three normal schools, the course to extend through four years, the last one devoted to practice in model schools and kindergarten attached to the schools. During this year a school for the blind was founded at Helsingfors; the one at Kuopio dates from 1870. A law of 1869 created a central board of education (Ofverstyrelsen for Skolvasendet), consisting of a president and six members, two of whom were to be governmental officials, and the other four engaged in educational or scientific work. One of the four members was to super¬ vise ^ the common schools; the other three the higher schools. * Finland for purposes of civil administration is divided into 8 Ians (circles or terri¬ torial divisions), which are again subdivided into 51 hiirader (districts for tax pur¬ poses), and again into 249 Liinsmans (districts for other civil purposes). For ecclesias¬ tical purposes the country is divided into 3 dioceses (Abo, Borga, Kuopio), which con¬ tain 485 parishes. (X, p. 210.) 2 The position of supervisor of common schools was held at that date by Eev. Uno Cygnaeus, who was commissioned by the Government to visit Sweden, Denmark, Ger¬ many, and Switzerland for the purpose of studying their common-school systems, preparatory to reorganizing the school system of Finland. 234 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. In 1871 a normal school for the education of women teachers was established in Ekenas; in 1873 a second normal, for male teachers, at Nykarleby ; in 1880 one at Kymola, near Sordavala, for both sexes. (X, p. 213 ; YII, p. 460.) An act of 1872 classified the real schools, lyceums, and higher schools for women under the heading “Elementarlaroverkeiij” the Eeal schools to receive pupils from nine to twelve years of age, to continue their ele¬ mentary education and prepare them for special schools ; the lyceums to include all the old gymnasiums and higher elementary schools ; the schools for women to instruct in similar subjects to those of the Eeal school, with bookkeeping omitted. These schools were under the su¬ pervision of the central administration, and although public they were not free, except to those who were unable to pay fees. Tuition fees varied according to studies pursued : in the lower classes of the Eeal schools the fees were $2.50 a year ; in the higher classes $5. In lyceums and schools for girls $7.62 was considered a requisite amount for tui¬ tion. (X, pp. 215-216.) The university, according to the constitution of 1852, has the four fac¬ ulties : theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, each faculty awarding its own diplomas. To enter the university students must pass a final examination at the lyceums, and an examination conducted by a committee of professors des¬ ignated by the academic authorities. The’student is required to enroll himself in one of the four faculties, and in one of the six nations” into which the students are divided. These nations — “Xylandska,” Savolaks-Karelska, Tavastlandska, Westfinska, Wiborgska, Osterbot- niska—indicate the subdivision of the duchy from which the students come. Each “nation” supervises the morals of its members, and its disciplinary power even extends to the suspension of a refractory mem¬ ber from the university for a period not exceeding 2 years. (X, p. 218.) The “ nation ” taxes its members for necessary expenses for both special and general purposes. A professor or “ inspektor,” designated by the chancellor for a 3 years’ period, stands at the head of each of these bodies. His aid is a vice president elected by the members from among the graduates belonging to the nation. To obtain a regular professorship in any given faculty, the candidate must hold the degree of doctor in that faculty and write a thesis on the subject he is to teach. To obtain the degree of doctor he must be an M. A., and have submitted to a second examination. To be an extraordmary professor, a doctor’s degree and evidence of learning and ability are required. The senatus academicus requires satisfactory credentials of candidates for the position of docent or instructor. (X, p. 217.) Any change of university organization or statutes — those of 1852 being still in vogue — must be examined by the academic authorities and senate, and then receive imperial sanction. (X, p. 497.) As regards technical education, it is stated that numerous agricul- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND. 235 tural schools, as well as other special schools, have been opened since 1863. Among them dairy-farming schools, forestry schools, a groom’s school (for theoretical and practical instruction in the breeding of horses), a cattle-breeder’s school, two schools of horticulture, and two farrier’s schools. There are also agricultural, chemical, and seed sta¬ tions in various parts of the country, where, for a nominal sum, the peasants and farmers can have analyses made of the composition and agricultural value of the soil, etc., and can watch practical experiments in gardening, forestry, and dairy farming. The growth of education within the last 20 years may be inferred from the fact that, according to a statement made by a late traveler^, there are probably at the present moment not 5,000 persons in the grand duchy unable to read and write, and a large percentage of those who are inscribed in that category are not Finns. The ambu¬ latory school is still indispensable, however, as a single parish is sometimes scattered over a dozen islands, but the stationary elementary school compares favorably with corresponding educational establish¬ ments in England and the United States. The teachings of the university and the discoveries of the laboratory are also brought within the reach of the humblest classes, while the peasants of the remotest hamlets have their paper, and so keep up with the world’s progress. (IX, pp. 50-65.) Article in Fortnightly Revio^v, Janucary, 1891. CHAPTER VIII EDUCATION IN SPAIN. Spain, a constitutional monarchy; total area, 197,G70 square miles; total population, 17,550,246, census of 1887. The country is divided into forty nine provinces, each of which administers its own affairs; the provinces are subdivided into municipios (municipal districts). STATISTICS OF PUPILS AND TEACHERS. The following tabulation presents the latest general educational sta¬ tistics : Date of I Enrollment. Attend¬ report. Boys. Girls, Total. ance. Primary schools: * Public . . 1885 1 88G, 850 135. 479 665, 584 155, 270 1,552, 434 290, 749 1, 057, 277 223, 204 Private . . . . . 1885 Secondai’Y schools . . . 1889 a 30, 331 Universities . . . . . . 1889 a 15, 787 Speeifil schools c ... _ _ _ _ _ 1889 19, 583 Teachers. Expenditures. Male. Female. Total. Salaries. Incidentals. Primary schools :* Public . . . . . 16, 75'9 8, 412 25, 271 $3, 614, 156 $1, 295, 325 Pri te _ _ _ _ _ _ Rpcnnilary schools _ _ _ _ b 654, 3.56 Universities . 6611, 056 127, 395 Special schools c . . * The term “ primary instrnction” (instruccion primaria) has a more extended signification in Spain than in the United States, including as it does, in a great measure, both elementary and high school instruction, as those terms are commonly understood in this country. It is classified into preparatory, elementary primary, and superior primary instruction. a Public aud private establishments. c Technical, art, and industrial schoolsc b For public establishments only. GENERAL VIEW. In the absence of full official information respecting education in Spain, various educational works aud papers have been consulted for general information as to the condition aud progress of the Spanish school system. These make it evident that Spain, which several cen- ^36 EDUCATION IN SPAIN. 237 turies ago reached its zenith in learning, and whose university of Sala¬ manca equaled the famous universities of other nations, is at the present time somewhat behind other civilized nations in respect to education. A law of September, 1857, ^ provided for a system of public primary instruction, which if fully developed would bear excellent fruit ; but the practical application of this law has been sadly hindered and retarded by political disturbances and the resulting depletion of the treasury of the Government. The census of 1883 showed that 45 per cent, of the population above seven years of age were illiterates, a proportion surpassed only by Eus- sia, Eoumania, Servia, Portugal, Bulgaria, and Turkey. This is a sufficient proof that elementary education has not been widely diffused among the peo])le. The educational statistics show a fair supply of teachers; for example, in 1880 there was 1 head teacher to every 120 children of school age (4-14), and including assistants 1 teacher to every 102 of the population of school age. The inference is that the low con¬ dition of the people with respect to education comes largely from their own indifference to the subject. In respect, however, to the diffusion of education, Spain shows the same want of uniformity as is noticeable in other countries, certain communities having attained a much higher level of general intelligence than others. Liberal and broad-minded men, scientists, and philosophers have worked faithfully for several years to advance the cause of public in¬ struction, and to call the attention of the state and the public to the disheartening condition of education in general. Since 1881 several favorable changes have been made by the Gov¬ ernment relative to school buildings and their equipment, and higher institutions have been established, so that the general prospects are more promising than formerly ; but the latest results can not be shown as yet. Frimary schools, how maintained. — Public and private primary schools are maintained either by religious corporations and associations, or by communities, provinces, and the state. The law of 1857 made primary instruction obligatory upon all chil¬ dren and gratuitous for those who could not pay tuition fees; a law of 1808 extended this gratuity to all pupils.^ Parents are free to choose whether their children shall be instructed in public or in private schools or at home. Secondary instruction. — Every province is obliged under the law to maintain one or two institutos {i. e., classical schools for secondary in¬ struction). Each of these institutos has in affiliation with it or under the supervision of its officers a number of local colegios. ‘ See Sclimitl’s EncucJopddie des Erziehungswesens ; Buisson^s D'lCtionnaire depMagogie, Tome I: Compllaclon legislativa de instriiccion gt'hlica, Tomo 1. 2 See Buiiisou’s lJict io)i naive de pedagogic, Tome I, aud Compilacion legisla tiva de instruc- cion pulUea, Tomo II. 238 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Universities. — There are ten universities partly supported by the State. The fees largelj^ cover the expenses of the universities. The« Government also supports numerous special schools. DETAILED VIEW OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. A statistical work, Resena geogrdfiea y estadistica^ prepared by Sr. Ibanez, giving a detailed view of the operations of the primary schools inl880, and a report ^ covering the year 1885 enable us to compare the condition of education at the beginning and the end of the half de¬ cade. The number of pupils enrolled in public primary schools in 1880 was 1,442,577, in 1885 it was 1,552,434, or an increase of 7J per cent. The enrollment in private primary schools, which in 1880 was 326,879, had fallen to 290,749 in 1885, or a decline of 11 per cent. The enroll¬ ment in both public and private schools in 1885 was 1,843,183, as against 1,769,456 in 1880. The enrollment in public primary schools in 1885 was equivalent to 9 per cent, of the population (census of 1887), while the enrollment in private schools increased the number to 10 per cent, of that population. The average attendance, public and private schools included, does not show improvement, standing in 1880 at 73 per cent, of the enrollment and in 1885 at 70 per cent. Sr. Ibanez notes the good effects of the compulsory law up to 1880. “ This law,” he says, “ has accomplished remarkable results. ’ The cen¬ sus of 1860 and the census of 1877 show a difference in the number of illiterates, a difference in favor of the latter census. Of 100 inhabit¬ ants only 20 could read and write in 1860; in 1877 we find 25. Data are wanting for carrying this comparison to 1885. The relative number of boys and girls enrolled in the two years may be seen from the following : 1880. 1885. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. Public schools. .............................................. 848, 561 135, 479 594, 016 155, 270 886, 860 106, 319 665, 584 116, 885 Pr i vfl ... _ _ _ _ _ _ ... _ _ The distribution by age in the public schools was as follows : 1880. 1885. Below 6 years of age .......................... _ _ _ ......... _ ............... 287, 757 705, 276 449, 544 288, 211 748, 185 516, 038 Six to 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-bove 9........................ . . . . EXPENDITURES. The expenses for primary instruction are borne by the municipal dis¬ tricts, the provinces, and the State. ’ Republished in the Boletin de ensenanza primaria, Montevideo. All the statistics ^iven in this article for the year 1885 have been drawn from the above report, all relating to 1880 from the work of Sr. Ibanez. The comparative estimates „have been made in this Office. EDUCATION IN SPAIN. 239 State grants,— Fov the year 1879-80 the sum of $4,060,828 was in¬ cluded in the general appropriation for education. It was distributed as follows : Salaries of teachers in — Infant schools . - . $91,445 Schools for boys . 1, 408, 989 Schools for girls . 762, 225 Mixed schools . . . 337, 230 Schools for adults and Sunday schools . 42, 402 Compensation agreed upon between the teachers and the municipal coun¬ cils in lieu of residences . 305, 697 Total... _ J . $2,947,988 Material — Construction, maintenance of school buildings and houses for teachers . . . 446,495 School material and other expenditures . 639, 455 Expenses for local school counsellors and prizes for pupils . 26, 890 Total . . $1,112, 840 Provincial appropriations — For the same year (1879-80) the sum for primary instructiou incladed in the provincial appropriations amounted to $339,850, i. d., $275,762 for salaries and $64,088 for school material, which sums were distributed as follows: Salaries. Material. Provincial ^/lottos (boards) of public instruction . $32, 717 23, 813 82, 690 26, 203 27, 700 1,325 81,316 $5, 465 15, 539 18, 207 9, 905 13, 216 1, 755 Inspection of primary instruction . . . . Normai schools for— Miile teachers _ ... _ ........................ _ _ _ ................. Female teachers . . . . . . Schools for boys in provincial cha,ritable institutions . Schools tor girls in provincial charitable institutions . . . Gradual increase of teachers’ salaries in public schools of the provinces . Total . . . . . . - . $275, 762 $64, 088 $339, 850 The expenditures for the year 1885 amounted to $4,909,481, of which $3,614,156 were paid for teachers’ salaries and $1,295,325 for material. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION. State authorities,— Aaaor^mg to the law of 1857 the highest educa¬ tional authority is the minister of education and public works, etc. (ministro de fomento) ; under him there is a general director with a council [consejo de instruceion puhlica). There is also at least one in¬ spector for every province. These officers are appointed by the King and are responsible to the minister. In 1885 they numbered fifty for the inspection of primary schools, besides three general inspectors for normal schools.^ ^ For complete register of officials see Anuario estadtstico de instruceion ;piiblica, 1889, pp. 3-21. 240 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89, Local authorities. — Every province has a provincial board of educa¬ tion {junta)y and every town its local board, consisting of tbe principal officers of the province or town, a priest, and at least two heads of families. In 1885 juntas for primary instruction comprised 50,000 per¬ sons, of whom 48,264 could read and write, 352 could read but not write, and 1,384 could neither read nor write. TEACHERS OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS. Appointment, number, and classification. — From the report by Senor Ibanez it appears that teachers of public schools are appointed by the government, while teachers of private schools are appointed by the local juntas. The number of teachers engaged in public primary schools in 1880 was 23,783 and in private schools 9,751, making a total three of 33,534. At the beginning of 1885 the teaching force for the public primary schools numbered 25,271 persons. At the earlier date there was I pub¬ lic primary school teacher for every 60 pupils enrolled, and for every 43 pupils in average attendance, while in 1885 there was 1 teacher for every 61 pupils enrolled and for every 41 in average attendance. The force reported for 1885 was composed as follows : Male. Female. TTAn.fl tpiar.hftrs _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 15, 842 917 7, 390 1, 022 A SRistaiita _ _ _ _ _ _ .... _ _ _ _ .... Qualifications. — The decree of October 14, 1868, modifying the law of June 2, 1868, permitted Spaniards not provided with diplomas to give primary instruction, but the government has continued in a certain measure to exact a diploma or at least a certificate of its public teach¬ ers. The law provides that teachers must be at least twenty years of age and must give proof of good moral character. An idea of the guar¬ anties actually offered by the teachers may be formed from the number of teachers and assistant teachers who have nothing to show but a certificate of aptitude. These certificates are obtained by means of an examination before the \oG2i\ juntas or before the board of counsellors of the normal schools j that is to say, the certificates are obtained from persons who do not understand anything about teaching. In 1880, ac¬ cording to Senor Ibanez, 67 per cent, of the teachers of public schools had obtained diplomas, 23 per cent, had only certificates of aptitude, 9 per cent, had neither, while the status of a small proportion was un¬ known. The intellectual level of public school teachers is in general higher and their preparation more complete than is the case with private school teachers. In the same year, 1880, of the private school teachers 38 per cent, had diplomas, 5 per cent, certificates of capacity, and 56 per cent neither. EDUCATION IN SPAIN. 241 The report for 1885 classifies the teachers of public schools with respect to diplomas as follows: Ten thousand two hundred and forty-six masters had obtained diplo¬ mas, i e., profesores titular es ; 5,015 had only certificates of apti¬ tude; 581 had neither; 7,070 female teachers had diplomas, 143 certifi¬ cates, and 121 neither one nor the other. The proportion of teachers having diplomas increased slightly from 1880 to 1885. Salaries of teachers. — Teachers’ salaries are very small and, owing to the exhaustion of the Spanish treasury, are paid irregularly. They ranged in 1880 from $24 to $386 per annum. In 1885, the distribution of teachers with respect to salaries was as follows : One hundred and eighty received an annual remuneration of $386; 1,450 received an annual remuneration of $212 to $328; 14,926 less than $193; 8,715 from $24 to $81. Training of teachers. — Article 110 of the law of 1857 makes provision for the establishment of a primary normal school for the training of teachers in each of the principal cities of the provinces. Normal schools.~ln 1885, 48 normal schools for men were maintained ; 20 in buildings specially devoted to the purpose and 20 in rented build¬ ings; 7,467 candidates presented themselves for final examination, some for national schools {ensehanza oficial) and others for private schools {ensenanza Uhre). Of this number 6,008 were approved ; 4,320 for elementary grades, 1,438 for superior elementary schools, and 250 for normal elementary schools. Thirty-three normal schools were at the same time supported for the training of female teachers; 8,896 can¬ didates presented themselves for examination ; 4,577 obtained certifi¬ cates for elementary schools ; 2,574 obtained certificates for superior primary schools ; total, 7,151. Pensions. — Teachers of public schools are, by the law of 1857, entitled to a pension, and this right extends to their widows and orphans. The age for pensioning is sixty years, exceptions being made in severe cases of illness. All teachers of public primary schools are likewise en¬ titled to a respectable dwelling house, large enough to accommodate their families. PRESCRIBED STUDIES AND ORGANIZATION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The courses of studies in the elementary primary schools is substan¬ tially that prescribed by the law of 1857 ; it includes religion, scriptural history, reading, writing, the elements of Spanish grammar, and the rudiments of aritliemetic. The superior primary course comprises the elements of geometry, of linear drawing and surveying, history and geography, chemistry, and natural history. Classification and distribution of schools. — In the category of public schools are included infant schools {escuelas de pdrvulos), primary day schools for children of six to fourteen years of age, Sunday schools for ED 89 - 16 242 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. secular instruction (Sunday schools not in a sense of religious schools, hut ordinary schools held on Sunday for the accommodation of those who can not attend at other times), and adult classes. The statistics of enrollment and attendance already given (p. 236) in¬ clude all the classes of schools j information as to their relative number in 1885 is wanting ; the showing for 1880, which is presumably not far from the actual state at the end of the half decade, is of value, as it throws much light upon the conditions of school attendance. The classification of schools in that year was as follows : Public. Private. Infant schools . . . . . . . . . 347 8, 613 6, 671 7,151 890 468 1,592 2, 398 805 1, 433 Solinnls for bovs _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Schools for girls . . Mixed schools . Adult schools . . . . . . . . Total . 23, 132 6, 696 These schools were distributed irregularly’ throughout Spain, the number of inhabitants to a school varying greatly. In the province of Alava there were 265 inhabitants to each school district; in the prov¬ ince of Cadiz, 1,185. These numbers give the extremes; the general average in Spain at that date was 561 inhabitants for each school dis¬ trict. Between 1850 and 1880 the number of schools was almost doubled, a result undoubtedly of the law of 1857. In the period 1871-80, 5,828 schools were established, but only 2,132 were permanent. In the institutions supported by the State education is free. The union of public and ecclesiastic agencies in the work of elemen¬ tary instruction is indicated by the following: Statistics ofpullic and private schools in charge of religious corporations and divers asso¬ ciations, October 30, 1880. Schools in which gratuitous instruction is given . . G80 Schools where fees are charged . . 370 Teachers belonging to the laity . . 212 Teachers belonging to religious orders . . . . 816 Assistant teachers belonging to the laity . 672 Assistant teachers belonging to religious orders . 1, 790 Pupils paying . . . 29, 673 Pupils receiving free tuition . 95, 390 Total . 125,063 Appropriations for the above schools. From public funds . $119,203 From religious establishments . 31,214 Total . . . $150, *417 The above number of schools includes 64 private institutions belong¬ ing to other denominations than the Catholic ; 13 were Methodist, 18 Evangelical, 7 Protestant, 10 Presbyterian, and 16 unknown. EDUCATION IN SPAIN. 243 Nearly all these schools were pay-schools, 14 were supported by the contributious of the pupils, 2 by a society in Loudon, 7 by other foreign societies. As to the remainder, their sources of support are not re¬ ported. These schools instructed 2,052 boys and 1,344 girls ; their teaching force, small in number, consisted of 1 male or 1 female teacher for each school ; 42 assistant teachers carry the total number of teachers to 106. School biiildmgs and muterm?.— Official regulations are issued prescrib¬ ing the minimum size and capacity of school-rooms, the modes of light¬ ing and ventilation, and'the equipments, as follows : A platform 2 feet high and from 10 to 12 feet wide, with steps ; a writing desk and arm¬ chair for the teacher; a crucifix and the portrait of the king; a wall clock; two cases with shelves ; two tables with chairs for the inspect¬ ors; six chairs for persons who visit the school; writing material; desks for the children 24 to 30 inches high and 12 to 14 broad, 3 to 4 inches distant from the benches ; the benches should be 14 to 16 inches high and 6* inches wide. The table and bench form a single body with 14 inches mean length. The space between the walls and the first row of benches is 6 feet. Blackboards, slates with the number of the classes, reference books and apparatus with which to teach arithmetic, maps, etc., are objects belonging to school-rooms according to the actual system. A school-room holding 60 to 70 children should be 14 varas in length and 9 in width, or 11 metres 70 centimetres by 7 metres 52 centi¬ metres. The condition of the Spanish schools with respect to hygiene is unsat¬ isfactory, and the necessity is felt of selecting localities which will bet¬ ter unite the conditions of health and comfort required in school buildings. The private schools are as unhealthy as the public schools. In 1885 there were 1,375 public schools occupying buildings which were the property of the respective localities ; 10,184 school buildings were mediocre or bad; 8,210 dwellings, designed for residences of teachers, were in a deplorable condition. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. The chief establishments for secondary instruction are the provincial institutos ; in affiliation with these are local colegios. According to a regulation of May 22, 1859, the directors of the instiiu- tos are nominated by the King from among the incumbents of university chairs, or if circumstances require, a director may be appointed from the rank of doctors or licentiates of science, philosophy, and letters. In some cases selection may be made of a person not having the specified degrees, but of recognized qualification for the duties. From the report of Seiior Ibanez it appears that in 1878-79 the prov¬ inces had established 61 institutos {i. e., secondary classical schools), which, with 356 colegios^ made a total of 417 secondary establishments. 244 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. The official report for 1889 ^ gives the number of institutos as 59, with 481 colegios, or a total of 540 secondary schools. The pupils under secondary instruction at the two dates were dis¬ tributed as follows : 1878-79. 1888-89. Following the courses of the — Institutos . . . . . . . . . . 12, 734 14, 290 8, 562 4,476 11, 337 17,484 4,488 3, 022 Cologios . . . . . . . Private secondary courses . . . . . . . lleceiving home instruction . . . . .t. . . Expenditures for secondary instruction. — In 1878-79 the total expendi¬ ture for secondary instruction in public institutions was $475,384, viz : salaries, $416,677 ; material, $58,707. In 1888-89 the expenditure had increased to $651, 356. Receipts. — The receipts, in addition to public appropriations, amounted in the former year to $208,436 j in the latter to $333,177. The following itemized statement for 1878-79 indicates the sources of income other than public appropriations from which public secondary institutions derive their support : School fees . - . $119,898 Examination fees and fees for the diploma of baccalaureate . 27, 779 Rents and other funds belonging to the several establishments . 60, 759 Total . . . 208,436 Teachers of secondary schools. — The law of 1857 prescribed that all teachers in secondary schools should be at least twenty-four years of age and should hold the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The revolutionary government of 1868 required a competitive examination.^ In 1880 the number of professors in secondary institutions was 2,649 j 888 taught in institutos^ 1,761 in private colleges. • Pensions,— The, provision of the law relative to pensions extends also to teachers of secondary schools. Course of studies. — Secondary instruction consists of two distinct courses, i. e., a course of general study and a course of applied study or practical course. The former is subdivided into two parts, the first comprising religion, scriptural history, reading, writing, universal and Spanish history, modern languages, Spanish and Latin grammar, com¬ position, the rudiments of Greek, logic, psychology, and drawing. The second part comprises religion and morals, analysis, exposition of texts, and composition in the Latin and Spanish languages, elementary course of Greek, universal and Spanish history, physics, chemistry, natural ' All the statistics in the following pages relating to secondary and superior instruc¬ tion for 1889 have been taken from the Anuario esiadtsiico de instruccidn publica. 2 See Schmid’s Encyclopddie des Erzichungswesens. EDUCATION IN SPAIN. -245 history, logic, and psychology ; also modern languages. These studies prepare for the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The course of applied studies comprises linear and object drawing, mercantile arithmetic, and all branches connected with agriculture, arts, trades, commerce, and navigation. In 1878-79 there were 69,325 pupils undergoing the ordinary and special examinations ; 9,247 were judged incompetent ; 30,317 passable ; 13,150 good; 9,184 remarkable; 7,427 superior ; 659 prizes were distributed, and 396 pupils were honora¬ bly mentioned ; 3,057 candidates received the diploma of bachelor. The institutos offer the instruction which leads to the degree of bach¬ elor, forming the preparation for university courses ; a few institutos add to their programme preparatory courses in commerce and industry. ‘‘ In order,” says Sr. Ibanez, “ that Spain may be brought to the intel¬ lectual level of other countries in Europe, it will be necessary to mul¬ tiply the institutos, to give a vigorous scope to technical instruction, to create everywhere schools of arts and trades. In this manner a large number of young people who do not devote themselves to a uni¬ versity career will find a practical secondary instruction, preparing them to follow agricultural and commercial pursuits, arts, and industry ; L e., all vocations which form the veritable force of nations.” SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. Superior instruction is given in the universities and special schools. The universities s,Te ten in number: each has a faculty of law; each except Oviedo a faculty of medicine ; Madrid, Barcelona, Grenada and Santiago have schools of pharmacy ; Madrid, Barcelona, Grenada, Sala¬ manca, Seville and Saragossa faculties of philosophy and letters. In 1888-89 these ten universities had 9,737 students in the regular courses and 573 special students ; there were also 6,050 students fol¬ lowing private university courses, or a total of 15,787 students in courses of letters, philosophy, law, etc., as against 16,874 in 1878-79. The university faculties confer three degrees, viz : bachelor, licenti¬ ate, and doctor. The number conferred in 1878-79 was 2,257, of which 2,008 were licentiate degrees. Very few students take the degree of doctor, the largest proportion being found among the students of science. The number of students who continued their studies far enough to receive the higher degrees in the year specified was as follows : Degrees conferred 1878-79. Faculties. Licentiates. Doctors. Philosophv . - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 47 11 Law . . . - . - . 820 29 79 Sciences . . . . . . 11 Medicine . 829 136 Pharmacy . . . . 283 12 246 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Expenditures. — The State appropriates a sufficient sum to cover the expenditures of the universities and special public schools, the receipts from fees being passed over to the public treasury. Three faculties only make an exception to this rule, viz., the faculty of science and the faculty of medicine at Salamanca and the faculty of medicine at Se¬ ville, which are supported by the juntas {i. e., provincial and local coun¬ cils). The expenses of the universities are in general much greater than their receipts from fees. The universities of Madrid and Barcelona appear to be the only exceptions. The total expenditures for the ten universities in the scholastic year 1878-79 was: For salaries . $442, 116 For material . 78. 366 Total . 520,482 The corresponding total for 1883-S9 was . 611, 056 Receipts. — The receipts consist of tuition fees, examination fees, and fees for diplomas. In 1878-79 the amounts from the lirst-named source was $169,928 j and from the last two, $327,308, or a total of $497,236. These details are not given in the report for 1888-89, but the total reached the sum of $372,219. On an average $40,000 are used every year for the purchase of scientific material, scholarships, books, and divers prizes for the pupils. This sum is taken from the university fees. SPECIAL SCHOOLS. Professional schools, i. e. technical, art, and trade schools, constitute a noticeable feature of the public educational provision of Spain. These schools are conducted in accordance with special decrees, prescribing the courses of study and the conditions of admission and graduation. The following statistics show the number of these schools and their attendance as reported, in 1888-89: Statistics of piiblic special schools. SCHOOL TEAE 1888-89. Schools. Xumher. Students. Superior schools of architecture . . . 2 212 Superior school of diplomacy . . . . . . . 1 75 General preparatory school for eno'ineers and architects . 1 119 Speoia.l veterinary achnnla . . . . . . . 5 1,148 1,474 190 Kational school of music and ora.tory . . . 1 Special school of painting, sculpture, and engraving . '. . 1 Superior commercial schools . . . . . . . . . 3 466 School for mechanical engineers of Barcelona . 1 180 Centtal school of gymnastics . j . 1 35 Elementary commercial schools . . . 8 78« Elementary naval schools . ^ . 4 115 Schools of fine arts . . 10 6, 126 6, 047 2, 566 42 Central school of arts and trades . . . 1 Schools of arts and trades . 8 Industrial school of Alcoy . . . 1 Total . 48 19, 583 EDUCATION IN SPAIN^ ' 247 The income of the prolessioual ischoois in 1888-89 was $41,464, and their expenditures $127,395. LIBRARIES. In concluding, it may be added that Spain possesses many popular libraries ; 678 of these establishments, containing 104,909 works, or 114,075 volumes, were opened from 1869 to 1880. The Government has also tried to instruct prisoners by means of libraries introduced in the reformatory establishments ; 9,130 volumes are at present at the dis¬ posal of the prisoners. / CHAPTER IX. EDUCATION IN BRAZIL. AUTHOEITIES CONSULTED. I. Relatorio do Ministerio dos Negocios do Imperio, 1874, pp. 1-36. Anexo A-B ; Law Schools, pp. 11, 12 ; pp. 62, 63. II. Camara dos Deputados. No. 224, 1882. Kiforma do Easino Primaria, pp. 1-366. '' III. Actos e pareces do Congresso do instrucgao, 1883, 24“^ Questa, pp. 26,27. IV. Annaes da Escola de Minas do Ouro Proto, p. 165. V. Museu Escolar Nacional : Eegulamento, I; Statutos, II; pp. 1-7, 1-9. VI. L’Instruction Publique on Br68il — Perez de Almeida, pp. 267 ; 845-850; 748- 794; 1098, 1056; 1020-1053; 514-520; 786, 810-814, 852-860, 645,646, 275, 803-807, 845-848, 971-973, xxix-xxx, xxiv, 426, 750-752, 1006-1010, 3, 9-13, 22-45, 60-63, 96, 100-106, 132, 163-169, 177-180, 185-190, 195-197, 229-239, 248, 314-317, 1056-1096. VII. Buisson, Dictionnaire de P^dagogie et d’Instrnction Primaire, vol. i. Ire partie, pp. 152, 278-9, 286. VIII. Larousse, Dictionnaire Universel. Supplement 2, p. 657. IX. Encyclopaedia Britannica, v.: 4, Brazil, p. 238. X. Brazil at tbe Centennial. Philadelphia, 1876, p. 164, 167, 201-206, 197. XI. Interview with Senhor Borges, of the Education Commission to the United States in 1883, as reported in the New England Journal of Education, March 22, 1883, p. 183. XII. Evang. Lnth. Schulblatt, 1886, No. 1, pp. 45, 46. XIII. Letter from Senhor Amaral -Valente, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plen¬ ipotentiary to the United States of America. XIV. Statesman’s Year Book, 1890, pp. 391,392, and 1889, pp. 573,574. XV. Bulletin Administratif du Ministere de I’lnstruction Publique, 10 mars, 1883, pp. 540, 541. XVI. Allgemeine Deutsche Lehrerzeitung, March 2, 1890, p. 94. XVII. Haydn’s Dictionary of Dates, pp. 109, 110. XVIII. Portugal: Codigo administrativo annotado, 1863. XIX. Diccionario de legislacion y jurisprudencia, por Don Joaquin-Escriche, 1847. XX. Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1883-84, p. cclix. XXI. Le Petit Journal, 2 avril, 1887. (Scrap Book, v. 1, p. 113.) The references in the following statement correspond in number to the foregoing. Brazil. Constitutional empire (republic’ in 1889-’90) : Area 3,209,878 square miles; population, 14,002,335 (1888). Capital, Kio de Janeiro; population, 357,332 (in 1885). Minister of Education (under the Eepub- lic). General Benjamin Constant B. de Magalhaes.^ (XIII; XIY, pp. 391, 392.) 248 Declared a republic November 15, 1888. Death reported January 22, 1891. EDUCATION IN BRAZIL. 249 I. — General features of the school system. The system of public instruction in Brazil includes elementary/ sec¬ ondary, and higher schools in Rio de Janeiro and throughout the prov¬ inces, the organization in Rio serving as model for the provinces. (VI, p. 267; yil, pp. 278-9, 152.) Elementary schools are subdivided into two grades, inferior and su¬ perior. The completion of the elementary course of study leads to the secondary grades, and these to the higher grades. Normal schools for the training of teachers, professional schools for technical and indus¬ trial education, and also special schools for the defective classes are found. (VII, pp. 278-9.) Supplementary to these institutions, as aids to intellectual growth, are school and public libraries and museums, while numerous societies have as their object the establishment of schools for the instruction of the masses in the ordinary school branches and for certain industrial pursuits. (VI, pp. 845-850, 748- 794.) The present educational system is based upon the constitution of 1824, and upon laws of 1851 and 1854, although later decrees have brought about modifications of those laws. Elementary instruction is gratuitous. (VII, p. 278.) Control. — The schools are under the control of both state and local authorities, the central administration at headquarters being a branch of the Ministry of Postes and Telegraphs (Ministerio dos Negocios). Since the establishment of the republic a minister of education is in charge of educational affairs. As auxiliaries there are inspectors-gen- eral and a higher council of education. This central authority has con¬ trol of elementary and secondary schools in the “ Municipio Neutro’^ (Rio de Janeiro and its environs), and of higher education throughout the provinces. Each province has charge of its elementary and sec¬ ondary schools, the provincial assembly arranging school affairs, ex¬ cept in the case of the liigher institutions. (VII, pp. 152, 278 ; I, pp. 1- 21; VIII, p. 267.) The governor of the province fills the place of a provincial minister of education. He is aided by superintendents, inspectors, school com-' mittees, and local committees. (VII, p. 278.) Maintenance. — The schools in the Federal District are maintained by the Government, those in the provinces by the municipalities and pro¬ vincial legislatures. Private schools are also under the supervision of the authorities, and can only be opened by their consent. For a more complete expose of the system, see under the different heads below. (VII, p. 278; XIV, pp. 391, 392.) II.— Statistics. With a population of 14,002,335 (in 1888) and a school population of 1,902,455 (in 1881) Brazil has only about 2 per cent, of its population iRy decree of April 19, 1879, each district of the “Municipio Neutro’’ (Rio and ita environs) was to have a kindergarten. 250 EDUCATION REPORT, 1883-89. in school (XIV, pp. 391-2), due in part to the distance between schools in poorly" settled districts and in part to a want of united effort on the part of the authorities in regard to school matters. (VI, pp. 1056-1098.) The number of children registered (inscripQoes) in 1888-89 as receiv¬ ing elementary instruction (instruc§ao primaria) in the Municipio Xeu- tro and in the provinces was 266,100 in 8,064 schools, but a careful investigation of the tabulated statements from the different provinces shows that this number includes pupils in asylums, apprenticeship schools, schools established by aid societies, evening schools, two agri¬ cultural schools, a farm school, etc. Separated from these institutions the numbers read: Public elementary schools (escolas publicas), 6,530; pupils, 207,973; private schools (escolas particulares), 989; pupils, 29,846. The private schools include subsidized and non-subsidized schools. The secondary and higher grades (escolas secundarias e su¬ perior) grouped together present a total of 24,898 students in 138 sehools. Included in this number are 25 normal schools (escolas nor- maes) with 3,544 pupils ; the college of Dorn Pedro II, which is a sort of faculty of letters, has 569 students; the 2 faculties of medicine (fac- uldade de medicina) report 240 students (at the faculty in Kio), and 705 at Bahia; the 2 faculties of law (faculdade de direito) report 535 students at Sao Paulo (in 1884 ) and 858 at E^cife ; the polytechnic (escola polytechnica) has 161 students, and the school of mines at Ouro Preto (escola de minus de Ouro Preto) has 79 students. Included also under the totals for secondary and higher education are military and naval schools, theological schools, each diocese having a seminary for theological instruction, lyceums, and schools established by various societies. (VI, pp. 1020-1053 ; I, pp. 1-104 and A-B.) The elementary school age is nominally from 6 to 15 years, but in reality the lower elementary grades are open to children of 5 years of age, while an extension of from 12 to 18 years of age is accorded to the higher elementary grades. (VI, p. 278.) Coeducation is not allowed by law, the boys being taught by men and the girls by women, but about the year 1885 Dom Pedro II estab¬ lished a number of schools where boys and girls recited together, but outside of the recitatidn rooms they were kept apart. About 500 of these schools are reported in 1888-89. (VI, pp. 520, 708-721,1020- 1053 ; VII, p. 278.) III. — Finances. Income. — The schools are supported by taxes imposed by the central government, as voted by the Chamber of Deputies, seconded by local taxation in each province. The government provides for the elemen¬ tary and secondary schools of Eio and its environs, and for higher education throughout the Eepublic. The provincial authorities pro¬ vide the funds for elementary and secondary schools of the provinces (XI, p. 183; IX, p. 238; XIV, p. 392). 'The amounts voted for the 251 EDUCATION IN BRAZIL. schools vary in the different provinces as the authorities realize the need of funds to carry ont the plan of gratuitous instruction imposed by the constitution, of providing free text-books, and of clothing poor children so that they can attend school. In high schools and colleges a fee is charged. The provincial and state funds amounted to $5,639,255 in 1888. In 1887-88 the budget for Rio and environs was $305,858. (XIV, p. 574; yil, p. 278; XI, 183; Yl, p. 10540 Expenditures. — The expenditures for school purposes throughout Brazil have averaged, according to tabulated statements, over $5,000,000 annually during the last 5 years, that is from 1884 to 1889 (VI, p. 1054). The total expenditures for public instruction in 1889 in the 20 provinces and the federal district, or Municipio Xeutro (Vll, p. 278), which includes Rio and its environs, Avere $5,217,539; the expenditures by the government at the same date for elementary, secondary, and higher instruction were $1,746,153, but this does not include expendi¬ tures for professional education in the military arsenals, for text-books of a scientific character, and other similar expenses. The state expenditures for higher education throughout the Empire were $405,234 in 1889. The state and provincial appropriations for the year 1890 were $5,310,841 ; government alone $1,913,383. The amounts to be expended for teachers’ wages, incidentals, etc., are not specified. (VI, pp. 1054-1056, tables.) IV.— Supervision and administration. State. — Education is under state and local supervision. An inspec- tor-generab of public instruction, who forms with his aids a division of the “ ministerio dos negocios” has direct charge of the schools in the Municipio Xeutro. This central administration, which has also a governing influence over education throughout the country, consists of the inspector-general, and a higher council of studies composed of vvell known educators, four of its members being subject to election and seventeen being persons delegated by the district authorities, eleven of them from Rio alone (VII, pp. 152, 278). The inspector- general, who fulfils the functions of a minister of education, can neither be a pro¬ fessor nor a director of an institution. His duties are to have charge, either personally or through the members of the higher council, or through the delegates in the different provinces, of all educational in¬ stitutions of Brazil ; to preside at the examinations of professors and instructors and confer diplomas ; to authorize the opening of schools and revise classical text-books or to replace them by others, if need be; to combine the reports forwarded to him from the different provinces with his own, and compare them with his annual report of education in the Municipio Xeutro, so as to observe how far thp schools of the federal ^Tbe newly appointed minister of education seems to haA^e taken the place of the inspector. 252 EDUCATION REPORT) 1888-89. district have served as models for the schools of the provinces ; to so organize public instruction at the capital that it may serve as a model for the provinces ; to prepare regulations by which all schools are U be governed and to formulate rules for the examination of professors and assistant teachers j to appoint teachers, and indicate when their salaries shall be increased and when they shall be pensioned 5 to sug¬ gest the establishment of elementary schools, and to indicate when it is advisable to extend the course in the college of Dom Pedro II by the establishment of new chairs. (VI, pp. 266-270.) The council of education, with the inspector-general as presiding officer, has for its duties the investigation of the best methods and systems of public instruction, the choice and revision of text-books, discipline in private and public schools, the form and programme for examinations, etc. The council is consulted in regard to all subjects appertaining to elementary and secondary instruction. (VI, p. 268.) In the capital, elementary and secondary schools are under the direct supervision of the minister. In the provinces he delegates his authority to the head of the provincial government. (VII, p. 152.) Local. — Each province has its provincial assembly, which decides questions appertaining to elementary and secondary education. The governor of a province — there are twenty provinces — is in charge of public instruction in that province. He is aided by superintendents or general inspectors, while, as local officers, there are district school committees and local committees, which usually have two teachers ^‘emeritus — that is, those who have had twenty years^ service as teachers — connected with them (VII, pp. 278, 286). The superintend¬ ents visit annually all the schools in their division, and each one pub¬ lishes an annual report. The district delegates visit the schools once a month, and report to the minister every three months (VI [, p. 152). The local school committee attends to the management of the schools. Private schools are also under the supervision of the school authorities and must submit to inspection as far as morality and hygiene are con¬ cerned. (VII, p. 278.) V.— Teachers. Preparation. — Teachers are prepared for the position which they de¬ sire to occupy either at the College of Dom Pedro II, or at the “Esco- Jas Normaes” (normal schools) in Rio and in the provinces (X, p. 164). There are also pedagogical courses connected with several secondary schools. (VII, p. 278.) Examinations and licensing. — The diploma of the normal school, or of the courses in pedagogy in secondary schools, is a prerequisite for the teachePs position (VII, p. 286). If, however, the applicant be a col. lege graduate a special license may be obtained. If he be a foreigner he must have a diploma from a university or pass an examination (XI, EDUCATION IN BRAZIL. 253 p. 183). A certificate is accorded after a certain number of years’ serv¬ ice as assistant teacher in the lower elementary grades, if the theoret¬ ical and practical examination is passed, and this certificate is required if an increase of salary is desired. The questions for the examination of teachers are determined each year by the Council of Studies (YII, p. 286). Candidates for the position of teacher must be at least twenty- one years of age, and twenty-five years if the aspirant desires to be the principal of a school. (X, p. 164; XII, pp. 45, 46.) Appointment. — The Government appoints teachers throughout the country and they are chosen from the graduates of normal schools or from the assistant teachers who have passed the requisite examinations for assistant teachers in lower-grade schools, receiving a diploma for the same, and who have had at least three months’ experience. After five years’ service a teacher may be appointed for life. Changes in location are authorized by the provincial department of instruction. (VII, p. 279; XI, p. 183). In order to open a private school the teacher must be provided with a certificate of morality and capacity. (VII, p. 278.) Salaries, — Teachers’ salaries are said to be the same for men and women. If the third examination has been passed, teachers receive about $33 a month salary ; prior to that, as assistants, they get from $15 to $30 a month. (VII, pp. 278, 279, 286.) Marked differences in salary are noticeable, however. The largest cities pay at least $579 a year to a lower-grade teacher, and from $675 to $739 to elementary teachers of the higher grade. In the city of Eio a higher grade of salary is reached, however. Free lodging and ground around the house are also allowed. For each pupil who succeeds in passing the examination, a certain premium is accorded to the teacher. When the regulation number of 30 per class is exceeded, 33 cents a month is accorded to the instructor for each boy added to the class limit, and 50 cents a month for each additional girl. (VII, p. 279.) Teachers’’ pensions. — After ten years’ service as a teacher, a pension is accorded which is sufficient for the teacher to insure his life. After fif¬ teen years’ service the amount is augmented 25 percent. ; after twenty years, he becomes a teacher ‘‘emeritus.” (VII, p. 279.) Teachers’’ institutes. — A decree establishing “conferencias pedagogicas” (teachers’ conferences) was promulgated in 1872, and as a result of this decree, the first conferences were held in Eio in 1873. These gather¬ ings seemed to be of great interest to teachers, and many pedagogical questions were discussed, among them, the subject of coeducation. Over 500 of these conferences were reported in Brazil between the dates 1872 and 1889. (VI, pp. 514-520, 852-860.) In 1883 the “ Gongresso do Instrucg.ao,” held in Eio, brought together the most prominent educators of the country. (VI, p. 785.) This association was divided into two sections, the first taking up questions appertaining to elementary, secondary, and professional edu¬ cation; the second section discussing higher education. The discus- 254 V EDUCATION REPORT, 1888 89. sions covered reorganization, courses of study in different grades, nor¬ mal training, technical branches, etc. Educational progress in other nations was brought before the assembly in the various papers pre¬ sented. An outgrowth of this congress was the “Primiera Exposic9ao Pedagogica do Rio de Janeiro,” held in 1884. This, the first pedagog¬ ical exhibit of the country, was stated to be of incalculable benefit to teachers, as by means of it they were able to form some estimate of progress in education as realized in other countries. (Ill, pp. 17, 18 j VI, pp. 810-814.) VL— Courses oe study. The grades of schools are, as stated above, the elementary, which with its two divisions corresponds with the primary and grammar grades of the United States; the secondary, which corresponds with the high and academic grades of the United States; and the schools for higher education (XI, p. 183). Classed under elementary, on account of the course of study, are a few normals and lyceums, the remainder coming under secondary or higher instruction. Also classed under secondary instruction are asylums for those who have no one to care for them, although hot necessarily orphans (VII, p. 785), evening schools for adults, and preparatory schools for apprentice boys desiring to enter the naval or military service (VI, pp. 1020-1U53). The schedule of studies for all elementary institutions includes: Lower grade primaries. Portuguese grammar. Reading, writing. Arithmetic, systems of weights and measures. Religion, morals. Sewing (in girls’ schools). (VII, 278.) Higher grade primaries. (Additional branches.) Geography, national history. Applied arithmetic, geometry. Natural history. Sacred history and Christian doctrine. Drawing, music, and gymnastics. (VII, p. 278.) By decree of April 19, 1879,^ the following branches were added for the elementary schools in the “Muuicipio Xeutro,” which, as before stated, serve as a model for similar grades in the provinces: Lower grade primaries. (Additional branches.) Linear drawing. Elements of music. Gymnastics. By decree of Xovembor 6, 1883, were added : The metric system. Elements of history, and geography of Brazil. (VI, p. 804.) Higher grade primaries. (Additional branches.; Algebra and geometry. Elements of physics, chemistry and nat¬ ural history. Duties of citizenship. Constitution of the Empire. Elements of agriculture, horticulture, and of social economy (for boys). Practice in certain trades. Domestic economy (for girls). (VI, p. 645.) ^ By this decree a kindergarten was to be established in each district of the “ Muni- cipio Neutro.” EDUCATION IN BRAZIL. 255 The secondary schools include in their course of study Portuguese, French, English, and Latin languages; arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry ; geography, history, rhetoric, mental and moral phi¬ losophy (XI, j). 183). The College of Dorn Pedro II, which occupies the highest rank among secondary institutions, has a seven-years’ course of study in two divi¬ sions leading to the degree of B. lit., and admitting to higher schools without other examination (XX, p. cclix). Its course of study is as fol¬ lows: Languages, Latin, Greek, English, French, German, and Italian; literature, Portuguese language and literature; rhetoric and poetry, mental and moral i^hilosophy; historj^, general and national; geogra- phy, cosmography, and chorography of Brazil; arithmetic, algebra to equations of second degree, geometry, and trigonometry ; natural sci¬ ences, physics, and chemistry; drawing, music, dancing, and gynjuas- tics. (YI, p. 275; X, p. 167.) The normal schools vary in character, but, as in other countries, their main object is to prepare teachers for both city and rural schools. In order that the normal students may be cognizant of the products of the earth and of the industries appertaining thereto, courses in horticul¬ ture were established in some of the schools similar to courses reported in France, Austria, and Germany (YI, pp. 743-744). The regular course of study in the higher class normals in Brazil may be judged from a proposed reorganization of the ‘^Escola Xormal da Corte” at llio, as suggested at the ‘‘Congresso do Instruc^ao” of 1883. The course, to cover four years, is as follows : Science and letters. Portuguese aud French lauguagos and national literature. Geography and history. Mathematics through elements of me¬ chanics. Moral and civic education. Pedagogy and methods. Astronomy and physics, chemistry and elements of mineralogy. Biology, with elements of botany and zoology. Sociology; social aud domestic economy. This proposed reorganization must have been carried out in part, as it is stated that a decree of October 13, 1888, modified this plan to a certain extent. The course was to be limited to three years. The studies were to iuclude religiou, moral aud civic education, with elements of political economy; Portuguese, elements of Portuguese history and literature; French; geography, particularly that of Brazil history, and above all that of Brazil to the present day; arithmetic and elements of algebra 5 bookkeeping for pupil teachers ; geometry, elements of physics, chem- Course in avis. (Additional branches.) Drawing. Caligraphy. Music. Gymnastics. Sewing. (Ill, pp. 2G-27.) 256 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. istry, botany, zoology, and geology, witb the principal applications of these sciences 5 writing, drawing, vocal music j manual training for pupil teachers, and sewing for girls ; gymnastics and military exercises. Criticisms of this change in the course of study were noticed, and it may not have been carried out. (YI, pp. 962-963.) Classed under higher education are the two faculties of medicine at Kio and Bahia, which with a six-years’ curricula m cover medicine and surgery, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany and zoology, gynaecol¬ ogy, and pharmaceutics (IX, p. 239; X, p. 197). The two faculties of law have each a five-years’ course covering natural and administrative laws, civil, public,^ Eoman, ecclesiastical, constitutional, criminal, and commer¬ cial laws; also procedure before the courts, political economy, etc., (I, pp. 11, 12 ; XIX; XYIII). The polytechnic school, a development since 1874 of the “Escola Centrale,” in which school were taught scientific branches and military engineering, has undergone many transformations since that period. In addition to its preparatory and general courses, it has a special three-years course for natural sciences, a similar one for mathematics, one for engineers and geographers, one for civil engineers, one for mining, and one for arts and industries. Its laboratories are especially well equipped (IX, p. 239 ; XII, pp. 46, 46 ; YIII, p. 657). The “ Escola de Minas de Ouro Preto ” includes in its elementary course arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, botany, and zoology ; in its higher course, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, min¬ ing, mechanics, descriptive geometry, analytical geometry, topography and surveying, geology, assaying, metallurgy, applied mechanics, stere-' otomy, and the securing excavations with timber (lY, p. 165). There are courses of study in naval construction in the higher national schools. The higher branches of military science and engineering, which formerly were taught in the central college, are now a part of the polytechnic course, and there are regular schools for military and naval science, artillery practice, etc. (IX, p. 239.) YII. — School management and methods of disciplinb. Methods and management, — In regard to school management it is stated that by a decree of November 6, 1883, enforced from January, 1884, the following regulations were applied to the lower elementary schools of the ‘‘ Municipio Neutro,” which schools, as mentioned above, are models for the whole country. The principal is responsible for the manage¬ ment of the school. A teacher usually has charge of about 30 children, although 40, and sometimes 50 boys or girls are under the charge of one teacher. If there are more than 50 pupils he must have an assistant; if more than 100 pupils, 2 assistants, and 3 assistants if there are 150 ^Direito publico: Laws which govern the whole social body in contradistinction to those governing each individual as such. Direito civil: Laws appertaining to each people or nation in contradistinction to laws common to all nations. Direito natural : Laws that govern the human race. EDUCATION IN BKAZIL. 257 pupils. The principal must by his example inculcate habits of neat¬ ness, morality, and good breeding. He must be at his desk 15 minutes before school opens, and remain until the close of school. He must maintain order and regularity in the class, and try to make himself be¬ loved by his pupils. He must be ever ready to furnish verbal or writ¬ ten information to the authorities in regard to schools, and permit persons to visit the classes, if no disturbance is caused by it. He must report at the end of each trimester as to the enrollment and aver¬ age attendance. He must see that religious instruction^ limits itself to the sign of the cross, the Lord’s prayer, and the angelical salutation re¬ cited at the opening of the school for the lowest class; for the second class, the apostles’ creed and a prayer to the virgin are to be added ; for the higher class, the ten commandments, and those of the church, the works of charity, and the seven sacraments. Added to this, moral teachings are to be inculcated mostly by example, and it is considered the duty of the principal to thoroughly imbue his pupils with the love of God, love of country, etc. (VI, pp. 803-807.) Discipline. — A general statement in regard to management and methods throughout the country is as follows : Corporal punishment is positively forbidden in the schools. (XI, p. 183 ; YII, p. 278.) If the teachers do not properly fulfill their functions they are subject to cen¬ sure, suspension, dismissal, and in extreme cases they are forbidden to teach again. (II, p. 366.) Promotion of pupils. — Promotions are made from elementary to sec¬ ondary schools through examinations given by the teachers ; from the secondary to the higher*grades on the basis of governmental examina¬ tions arranged by the minister of education, i. e., the inspector-general. (XI, p. 183.) Formation of school programmes. — The formation of school pro¬ grammes is left to the principal, and no elementary school of either grade can be opened until the Government has been informed in regard to the programme of studies. (X, p. 165.) Text-books are provided by the department of public instruction, and the best text-books in use are translated from French, German, and English sources ; still, any book may be adopted save those expressly forbidden. (XI, p. 183 ; X, p. 165.) VIII.— School organization. Buildings and grounds. — Public edifices are constructed from the plans and under the direction of national architects, and it is stated that city schoolhouses are fairly well built. (VI, p, xxiv.) In the rural districts an inferior class of buildings is reported. (XI, p. 183.) The 1 Since the establishment of the Republic religious instruction is omitted in the state schools, and these religious exercises may possibly be omitted also, although this is not distinctly stated. (XVI, p. 94.) ED 89 - 17 258 EDUCATION^ REPORT, 1888-89; size of rooms, seating of pupils, and conduct of schools have been dis¬ cussed by those interested in bringing about educational reforms in Brazil, but the decisions are not known to date. (II, pp. 336-340.) Sours of school — Holidays. — The hours for school are from 9 to 12 a. m., and 2 to 5 p. m., Monday to Saturday inclusive, except on na¬ tional and religious holidays. What these holidays are is not specified. A month’s vacation in the schools at Christmas is reported, however. (XI, p. 183.) Compulsory attendance. — Attendance is compulsory in the schools, and in the larger cities where there are graded courses the law is carried out to a certain extent. Most of the provincial councils have also voted for this measure, but have been unable to enforce it. (VII, p. 278.) No distinction is made in schools as to color ; blacks and whites are admitted on equal terms. (XI, p. 183.) IX.— Supplementary institutions. Libraries and museums. — Among the institutions which serve as aids to intellectual growth are the ‘^Museu Nacional” at Eio with its ethnological and paleontological collections, and the ‘^Bibliotheca Na- cionale,” which possesses 170,631 volumes, 1,761 specimens of Brazilian flora, 30,000 engravings, 12,000 manuscripts, etc. (VI, p. 845.) There are also many school and society libraries in Eio, and in the larger cities of the provinces public libraries supported by the provincial au¬ thorities. In addition there are libraries connected with the majority of colleges and academies. Provincial museums, too, are quite numer¬ ous, many of them containing material especially valuable to those who are carrying on scientific or educational work. (XII, pp. 45, 46.) In Eio the “ Museu Escolar Nacional,” established in 1883, has, as its stat¬ utes indicate, five sections, viz : (1) Legislative, administrative, and statistical documents relating to education. (2) Didactic and other pedagogical works. (3) Plans for the construction of school buildings. (4) Types of school furniture. (5) School furnishing and apparatus, models, geographical, scientific, and technological collections, etc. (Y, pp. 1-7, 1-9 5 VI, pp. 810-816.) Societies, — Other aids to progress in education are educational and scientific societies in Eio and the provincial capitals. (yi,pp. xxix, xxx.) Among them are the “Institute Historico, Geografico e Ethnografico” (Historical, Geographical, and Ethnological Institute) of Brazil; the “Gabinete Portuguez de Leitura,” with over 70,000 volumes in its library; the “Sociedade Propagadora das Bellas Artes” (Society for Art Culture) with its schools ; the “Conservatorio de Musica” (Conserv¬ atory of Music); the “Sociedade Amante da Instruc5ao” (Society for Promoting Education), which maintains several elementary schools, and an asylum for orphans, and has courses in French, Latin, steno¬ graphy, linear drawing, music, etc.; the “ Lyceu Litterario Portuguez,” EDUCATION IN BRAZIL. 259 which has professional courses, and aims in every way to develop popu¬ lar education. (YI, pp. 748, 760-768, 928-933 ; I, pp. 64-67.) There are many other societies with a similar object in view, and also numerous lecture courses on scientific subjects, for which a merely nominal fee is charf^ed. (XII, pp. 45, 46.) School savings hanks. —School savings banks were established by a decree of April 19,1879, which called for such institutions in each school district of Eio. In the province of Pernambuco a decree regulating public instruction instituted school savings banks as a part of the regu¬ lar school programme. The statute refers to them as “ of great educa¬ tional value,” and as of the utmost importance in connection with a thorough civic education.” (YI, pp. 645-646 j XXI.) Schools f 07* special classes. — As a means of educating the special classes there are such schools as the Institute dos Surdos Mudos ” (Institute for the Deaf and Dumb), which, founded in 1826, and supported by the Government since 1868, has an elementary course of study, and gives instruction in boot and shoe making, bookbinding, horticulture, and floriculture; the “Institute dos Meninos06gos” (Institute for the Blind), with both elementary and secondary courses, and with complete instruc¬ tion in vocal and instrumental music, harmony, rules of counterpoint and instrumentation, typographical art, bookbinding, and piano-tuning, and for the girls needle-work; the asylums maintained by the “ Socie- dade Portugueza de Beneficencia ; ” by the “ Sociedade S. Francisco de Paula ; ” by the “ Sociedade Amante de Instrucgao ” — all of which have elementary courses and generally instruction leading to a trade. Added to these is the institute “ Providencia,” where the native population of the provinces of Amazona and Para is taught such trades as black- smithing, carpentry, tailoring, the mason’s and locksmith’s trade, etc. They also receive instruction in the elementary branches, the rights of citizenship, and Christian doctrine. (YI,pp. 983-992, 846-847, 971-973, 1006-1010, 750-752; X, pp. 201-206; I, pp. 62-63.) X.— Historical statement. The history of education in Brazil may be traced to the advent of the Jesuits from Portugal, in 1549, and the establishment of numerous schools by that order in different parts of the country, during the period preceding the events which led to the expulsion of the Order in 1758-60. A school founded by one of the fathers at Sao Yicente may be said to be the cradle of elementary instruction in Brazil. At the beginning of the eighteenth century are noticed the first traces of official intervention in regard to the studies directed by the Jesuits. The municipality con¬ trolled education until the first quarter of the present century. Since then a tendency towards centralization is noticeable. In 1730 instruct¬ ors and professors were called “ ministros de lettras,” and were con¬ sulted by the highest authorities. Secondary studies at an early date 260 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. were found only in Episcopal seminaries, where arithmetic, algebra, geometry, Latin, Greek, rhetoric, and philosophy were studied. For higher branches students went to the University of Coimbra, in Portu¬ gal. The secularization of education in the early part of the eighteenth century brought about the so-called ‘‘Letters Patent,” which aimed at reorganizing the studies of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and rhetoric, and to bring about a higher intellectual development. Eoyal letters of No¬ vember 10, 1772, established a “ literary subsidy ” for the special main¬ tenance of primary schools. This was supplemented by a decree of October 17, 1795, by which the municipal authorities were to use the amount raised by such taxation for the payment of teachers and pro¬ fessors. And again, on July 6, 1797, the subsidy was placed under the control of the boards of finance of that period (VI, pp. 3, 9-13, 22-45, 58, 60-63). In 1816 this library subsidy was repealed ; on March 16, 1816, a director-general of studies was created, and the municipal chambers ceased to have a direct influence upon education (VI, pp. 60- 63). From 1808 to 1818 date many of the higher institutions of learning, such as a naval academy in 1808 ; medical and surgical courses in 1809 ; in 1812 a medical and surgical board, which could confer the bacca- laureaute and doctor’s degrees; in 1814 schools of agriculture and botany and a commercial school ; in 1813 the nucleus of a public library at Eio, formed by the sending of 50,000 volumes from Lisbon ; in 1818 the National Museum at Eio was established. During this same period elementary education was not neglected, and according to the law of October 20, 1823, any citizen could open an elementary school without having to pass an examination or obtain any license or author¬ ization. Monitorial schools according to the Lancastrian system were next attempted, and a ministerial decree of August 22, 1825, urged the necessity of establishing such schools. (VI, pp. 96, 100-106, 132, 163-167.) The next step was to formulate a law — October 15, 1827 — by which a sufficient number of elementary schools for those desiring to attend school were to be established in cities, towns, and populated districts. From the formation of the constitution in 1824 to the laws of 1851 and 1854, which form the basis of the present educational sys¬ tem in Brazil, various progressive efforts were made. In the provinces the general councils of education created elementary schools for both boys and girls and founded chairs for secondary instruction, which in¬ cluded the studies of philosophy, rhetoric, geometry, French, and agri¬ culture; faculties of medicine v. ere created in 1832 to take the place of the former courses in medicine (VI, pp. 177-186) ; reforms in the constitution in 1834 brought about a number of laws and decrees ap¬ pertaining to education, but there was little plan or method in the arrangements made (VI, p. 191) ; teachers’ wages were increased in Eio, but suitable training for teachers by means of normal schools, etc., was not chronicled till a later date. (VI, pp. 193-195.) In 1836 a EDUCATION IN BRAZIL. 261 special control and inspection of elementary schools in the capital were established, and a director of schools free from municipal surveillance was created. (VI, p. 196.) From 1837 date the first attempts towards a faculty of philosophy in the establishment of the College of Dom Pedro II, (VI, pp. 237-249.) In 1840 with the advent of Dom Pedro II upon the throne (XVII, p. 110), new constitutional reforms were ef¬ fected. At that date Brazil had a population of 6,000,000 inhabitants. As 2,500,000 of them were natives and slaves they formed no part of the school population, but even then only about 1 school to 520 pupils was reported. (VI, p. 229.) This lack of schools was so manifest that in 1845 the (xovernment was authorized to furnish funds for school build¬ ings and apparatus, and in 1847 a commission was ajipointed to visit both jiublic and private schools — the Government’s intervention in pri¬ vate schools is here noticed for the first time. (VI, p. 233.) To the pres¬ ent day more attention had been given to secondary and higher education than to the elementary grades, and a reorganization of elementary in¬ struction was said to be absolutely essential. A vote of the Chamber of Deputies, September 17, 1851, gave the Government full power to reorganize elementary education in the municipality of Rio de Janeiro, and this act was supplemented by a decree of February 17, 1854, which holds good to the present time. These decrees extended public instruc¬ tion, exacted better training for teachers, required proofs of capacity, investigated the pay of teachers, regulated private instruction, ap¬ pointed inspectors for the schools of the capital, and placed the organ¬ ization of secondary instruction in charge of the provincial assemblies. (VI, pp. 229-239.) From 1854 on, general progressive movements were noted in schools of the provinces, and extraordinary efforts were made by the Government to develop public instruction in all parts of the Em¬ pire. Evening schools were opened for adults and day workmen. Meth¬ ods of instruction in the capital were improved upon ; additional schools were opened ; new school buildings supplied with modern apparatus were built; the best text-books adopted by the authorities were translated from French, German, and English sources ; teachers’ salaiies were in¬ creased; poor children were given suitable clothing so that they could attend school, and even text-books were furnished them ; large sums of money were vored annually by the Government for higher instruction throughout the Empire, and for elementary and secondary instruction in the capital and its environs. (VI, pp. 1054-1056 ; XV,p.540; VII, p. 278.) With the abolition of slavery in 1871, special measures were taken to educate all children born to thatclass. (VII, p. 278.) Progress in higher intellectual development was brought about by the fact that in Brazil, as in other countries — Germany and Italy, for instance — many situations under Government require proficiency in practical mathematics and nat¬ ural history, and hence a taste for such studies was encouraged. The advent of foreign engineers and naturalists also gave the people knowl¬ edge of late achievements in Europe in regard to mathematical and ex- 262 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. perimental sciences. (IX, p. 239.) The discussions before the Camara dos Deputados (Chamber of Deputies) from year to year in regard to re¬ form of elementary education have brought out many facts appertaining to educational movements in other countries, and the result of these combined efforts has been to cause marked progress in educational mat¬ ters in Brazil within the last twenty years. (VI, pp. 1056-1096.) A tabulated statement of the amounts given for education in the prov¬ inces and by the state from 1874-75 on, will exemplify this to a certain extent, although the lack of school statistics from year to year militates against a clear exposition of the gradual increase iu school facilities during that period. Total appj'opriations for puhlic instruction in the provinces and in the “Municipio NeutroT 1874- 75 1875- 76 1876- 77 1877- 78 1878- 79 1879- 80 1880- 81 1881-82 $3, 257, 097 1882-83 .. 3,518,715 1883-84 .. 3, 819, 376 1884-85 .. 3, 718, 740 1885-86 .. 3, 558, 523 1886-87 .. 3, 546, 886 1888 . 4, 046, 227 18S9 . 4,243,671 1890 . $4, 545, 345 5, 024, 178 5, 228, 572 5, 385, 167 5, 430, 290 5, 639, 255 5, 217, 538 5, 310, 841 Appropriations hy the state for elementary, secondary, and higher instruction.^ 1874- 75 1875- 76 1876- 77 1877- 78 1878- 79 1879- 80 1880- 81 1881-82 )|1, 097, 017 1882-83 1, 189, 672 1883-84 1, 285, 543 1884-85 1, 302, 686 1885-86 1, 185, 056 1886-87 1,241,646 1888 ... 1, 375, 137 1889 ... 1, 377, 949 1890 .., $1, 526, 236 1, 526, 333 1, 779, 257 1,797, 839 1,774,009 1, 730, 699 1, 746, 153 1, 913, 383 Incomplete returns in 1874-75 for 18 out of the 20 provinces gave 5,562 elementary schools, with 169,895 pupils. Data for the succeeding years are not available, but in 1889-90 this number had increased to 8,064 schools, with 266,100 pupils. That is, in 16 years an increase of 2,502 elementary schools and of 96,205 pupils is observable, and during the same period the total appropriations for public instruction increased $2,053,744, and the state appropriations $816,366. And yet it is stated that the result of such expenditure is not especially satisfactory^. The cause of this is, the lack of density of population in many of the prov¬ inces; the non-enforcement of laws pertaining to school attendance; the indifference of parents in regard to the education of their children, and lastly, a lack of unity in school matters, a spirit of local pride dom¬ inating that national spirit which would bring about a centralization of educational interests, and with that a national system of education. (VI, pp. 579, 1015-1056.) 1 These do not include professional instruction in the naval and military arsenals, nor amounts for printing educational and scientific works. CHAPTER X. NAME REGISTEE.i I. — Chief state school officers. Name. Address. Official designation. J. G. Harris . . Slieldon Jackson . . . . George W. Cheyney Montgomery, Ala Sitka, Alaska - Tombstone, Ariz. Josiab H. Shinn J. W. Anderson Nathan B. Coy... C.D.Hino . Little Rock, Ark . Sacramento, Cal . Denver, Colo .... Hartford, Conn .. A. N. Ranh . W. B. Powell . A. J. Russell . S. D. Brad well - John E. Harrouu . Henry Raab . H. D. Vories . Henry Sabin . George W. Winans J. Desha Pickett . . W.H. Jack . N. A. Luce . E. B. Prettyman .. J. W. Dickinson.. Ferris S. Fitch ... Newark, Del . . ■Washington, D. C Tallahassee, Fla .. Atlanta, Ga . Boisd City, Idaho Springfield, Ill.... Indianapolis, Ind Des Moines, Iowa Topeka, Kans . . . , Frankfort, Ky _ Baton Rouge, La Augusta, Me . Baltimore, Md . . . Boston, Mass .... Lansing, Mich... State superintendent of educa¬ tion. General agent of education. Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Secretary of State board of educa¬ tion. President of State board of edu¬ cation. Superintendent of Districtschools. State superintendent of public in¬ struction. State school commissioner. Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. State superintendent of public instruction. Do. Do. Do. Do. State superintendent of educa¬ tion. State superintendent of common schools. State superintendent of public in¬ struction. Secretary of State board of educa¬ tion. State superintendent of public in¬ struction. D.L. Kiehle . I. R. Preston L.E. Wolfe... John Gannon St. Paul, Minn . Jackson, Miss . Jefferson City, Mo . Helena, Mont . Do. State superintendent of educa¬ tion. State superintendent of public schools. Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. 1 Including all changes reported to the Bureau up to May, 1891. 263 264 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Chief State school officers — Contitiued. Name. Address. Official designation. A. K. Goudy . Lincoln, Nebr . State superintendent of public instruction. Orvis Ring . . . Carson City, Nev . Do. .T. W. Patterson _ Concord, N.H _ ... Do. E. 0. Chapman . Trenton, N. J . Do. Amado Chavez . Santa F6, N. Mex . Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. A. S. Draper . Albany, N. Y . State superintendent of public instruction. S. M. Finger . . . Raleigh, N. C . Do. John Ogden . Bismarck, N. Dak . Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. John Hancock . Columbus, Ohio . State commissioner of common schools. E. B. McElroy . Salem, Oregon . State superintendent of public instruction. D. J. Waller, jr . Harrisburg, Pa . Do. T.B. Stock well . Providence, R. I . Commissioner of public schools. W. D. Mayfield . Columbia, S. C . State superintendent of educa¬ tion. Cortez Salmon . Pierre, S. Dak . Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. W. R. Garrett . Nashville, Tenn . State superintendent of public schools. IT. C. Pritchett . Austin, Tex . State superintendent of public instruction. J. S. Boreman . . . Ogden, Utah _ .... Commissioner of schools. E. F. Palmer . Waterbury, Yt . State superintendent of public instruction. JoTin Fi. Mnssey _ Richmond, Ya . _ Do. R. B. Bryan . . . Olympia, Wash . Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. B. S. Morgan . Charleston, W. Ya . State superintendent of free schools. 0. E. Wells . Madison, Wis . State superintendent of public schools. S. T. Farwell . Cheyenne, Wyo . Superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. NAME REGISTER. - 265 II.— City school superintendents. ALABAMA. AnnistoD, - . Blrmingbara, J. H. Phillips. Eufaula, William D. Jelks. Gadsden, G. G. Jones. Huntsville, S. J. Mayhew. Lively, J. M. Osborn. Mobile, E. R. Dickson. Montgomery, C. L. Floyd. Selma, Louis E. Jeffries. Sheffield, John S. Long. Tuskaloosa, Carleton Mitchell. ARIZONA. Tombstone, F. N. Wolcott.* Tucson, W. W. Gillette. ARKANSAS. Eureka, C. S. Barnett. Fort Smith, J. L, Holloway. Helena, J. Caldwell Davidson. Hot Springs, G. A. Hays. Little Rock, J. R. Rightsell. Pine Bluff, Ruth McBride. Texarkana, W. G. Cook.^ CALIFORNIA. Alameda, D. J. Sullivan. Chico, D. W. Braddock. Eureka, F. H. Gibson. ^ Fresno, - Heaton. Los Angeles, W. M. Friesnor. Marysville, H. H. Folsom. Napa City, F. G. Huskey.* Nevada City, William H. Wentworth. Oakland, J. W. McClymonds. Pasadena, Will S. Monroe. Pomona, F. A. Molyneaux. Riverside, C. H. Keyes. Sacramento, Albert Hart. Salinas, A. D. Tenney. San Diego, Eugene De Burn. San Francisco, John Swett. San Jos6, Frank P. Russell. Santa Ana, P. Manley. Santa Barbara, Francis W”. Conrad. Santa Clara, A. L. Kellogg. Santa Cruz, D. C. Clark. •Superintendent of county schools. ® County school examiner. * Principal. * Secretary of the school board of the town of Derby. Santa Rosa, Mrs. F. McG. Martin,* Stockton, W. R. Leadbetter. Vallejo, J. M. Chase. Visalia, C. J. Giddings. Woodland, George Banks.* COLORADO. Aspen, W. T. Eddingfield. Colorado Springs, P. K. Pattison. Denver: Aaron Gove, District No. 1.; L. C. Greenlee, District No. 2; Charles V. Parker, District No. 17, Fort Collins, Edward G. Lyle. Leadville, W. W. Watters. Pueblo: James S. McClung, District No. 1 ; P. B. Search, District No. 20. CONNECTICUT. Ansonia, W. H. Angleton. Birmingham, Edward B. Gager. “* Bridgeport, Eugene Bouten. Bristol, James F. Williams. Danbury, J. M. Smith. Danielsonville, Anthony Ames. Greenwich, Myron L. Mason.® Hartford, William Waldo Hyde.® Manchester, Oliver B. Taylor.® Meriden, J. T. Pettee.® Middletown, W. B. Ferguson, New Britain, J. N. Bartlett. New Haven, Virgil G. Curtis. New London, Charles B. Jennings.® Norwich, N. L. Bishop. Rockville, W. B. Foster. South Norwalk, William C. Foote. Stamford, Lewis R. Hurlbutt.® Thompsonville, E. H. Parkman.'^ Waterbury, M. S. Crosby. Willimantic, F. H. Beede.’ DELAWARE. New Castle, D. B. Jones. Wilmington, David W. Harlan. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Washington: William B. Powell, superin¬ tendent of public schools ; G. F. T.Cook, superintendent of colored schools. ® Secretary of the hoard of school visitors. ® Acting school visitor. ’ Principal of the high school. EDUCATION KEPOET, 1888-80. 266 City Continued. FLORIDA. Fernandina, Eptiraim Harrison.^ Gainesville, W. N. Slieats.^ Jacksonville, Joel D. Mead.® Key West, C. F. Kemp.® Palatka, Alexander Strauz.® Pensacola, N. B. Cook.® Tallahassee, N. W. Eppes.® Tampa, L. W. Buchholz.^ GEORGIA. Americus, A. J. M. Bizien. Athens, Eugene C. Branson. Atlanta, W. F. Slaton. Augusta, Lawton B. Evans. Brunswick, Edgar H. Orr. Columbus, W. H. Woodall. Griffin, Bothwell Graham. Macon, B. M. Zettler. Milledgeville, R. N. Lamar.® Rome, B. Neely. Savannah, W. H. Baker. Thomasville, K. T. MacLean,® IDAHO. Boisd City, Fred Lucca Squiers. ILLINOIS. Alton, E. A. Haight. Aurora, J. H. Freeman, District No. 5. Beardstown, A. C. Butler. Belleville, Henry Eaub.^ Belvidere: J. C. Ziuser, North Belvidere j J. G. Lucas, South Belvidere. Bloomington, Miss Sarah E. Raymond. Braidwood, F. M. Muhlig. Cairo, T. C. Clendenen, Canton, C. M. Bardwell. Carlinville, R. B. Anderson. Centra] ia, S. G. Burdick, Champaign, M. Moore. Chicago, George Howland. Collinsville, D. P. Fager. Danville, O. E. Latham. Decatur, E. A. Gastman. Dixon, E..C. Webster. East St. Louis, James P. Slade. Effingham, I. A. Smothers. Elgin, H. F. Derr. Evanston, Homer H. Kingsley, Freeport, A. O. Renbelt. Galena, E. S. Hill. Galesburg, William L. Steele. Geneseo, S. A. Harrison. Jacksonville, I. W. Davenport. Joliet, D. H. Darling. Kankakee, F. N. Tracy. La Salle, L. A. Thomas. Lincoln, Ambrose M. Miller. Litchfield, Joel M. Bowlby. Mattoon, B. F. Armitage. Mendota, William Jenkins, West Side. Moline, W. H. Hatch. Monmouth, James C. Burns. Olney, 0. J. Bainum. Ottawa, D. R. A. Thorp. Paris, Alfred Harvey. Pekin, James Kirk.'* * Peoria, Newton Charles Dougherty. Peru, Fred W. Smedley, Quincy, T. W. Macfall. Rock Island, S. S. Kemble. Rockford, P. R. Walker. Springfield, J. H. Collins. Sterling, Alfred Bayliss, District No. 3, Streator, B. B. Lakin. Waukegan, M. W. Marvin.2 INDIANA. Anderson, John W. Carr. Aurora, Robert W. Wood. Brazil, John C. Gregg. Columbus, J. A. Carnagey. Crawfordsville, T. N. Wellington. Elkhart, D. W. Thomas. Evansville, J. W. Layne. Fort Wayne, John S. Irwin. Frankfort, B. F. Moore. Goshen, William H. Sims. Greencastle, Robert A. Ogg. Greensburgh, W. P. Shannon. Huntington, Robert I. Hamilton. Indianapolis, L. H. Jones. Jeffersonville, P. P. Shultz. Kokomo, Sheridan Cox. La Fayette, Edward Ayres. La Porte, W. N. Hailmann. Lawrenceburgh, W. H. Rucker. Lebanon, David K. Goss. ' Superintendent of county schools; post-offico ^ Qo^nty superintendent; post-office, Bloom- address, Dyall, Fla. ingdale. * Superintendent of county schools. ^Resigned ; name of successor not reported. NAME REGISTER. 26? City 8?fj9en«ifen(Zewfs— Continued INDIANA— continued. Logansport, Anna V. La Rose, Madison, F. D. Churchill. Marion, John K. Walts. Michigan City, James C. Black. Mount Vernon, H. P. Leavenworth. Mnncie, W. R. Snyder. New Albany, J. B. Starr. Peru, George G. Manning, Richmond, Justin N. Study. Seymour, William S. Wood. Shelbyville, J. C. Eagle. South Bend, James Du Shane. Terre Haute, William H. Wiley. Valparaiso, William H. Banta. Vincennes, Edward Taylor. Washington, William F. Hoffman. IOWA, Atlantic, J. J. McConnell.’ Boone, George I. Miller. Burlington, R. McCay. Cedar Rapids, J. F. Merrill. Clinton, O. P. Bostwick. Council Bluffs, H. W. Sawyer. Creston, H. B. Larrabee. Davenport, J. B. Young. Des Moines: Amos Hiatt, East Side; F. B. Cooper, West Side. Dubuque, Thomas Hardie.- Fort Dodge, F. C. Wildes. Fort Madison, N. C. Campbell. Iowa City, W. A. Willis. Keokuk, W. W. Jamieson. Le Mars, J. W. Love. Lyons, H. E. Robbins. Marshalltown, C. P. Rogers. Mount Pleasant, Frederick A. Jackson. Muscatine, F. M. Witter. Oskaloosa, Orion C. Scott. Ottumwa, A. W. Stuart. Sioux City, C. W. Dean. Waterloo, F. J. Sessions, East Side. KANSAS. Abilene, W. D. Moulton. Arkansas City, Mrs. Lida S. Brady.” Atchison, Buel T. Davis. Clay Centre, G. W. Kendrick. El Dorado, W. H. Fertich. > Kesigned; name of successor not reported. ® Secretary of the board of education. ‘County superintendent; postoffice, Winfield, Kans. Emporia, - Reece. Fort Scott, Guy P. Benton. Hutchinson, H. C. Minnick. Independence, S. M. Nees. Kansas City, A. S. Olin. Lawrence, Edward Stanley. Leavenworth, J. E. Klock. Marysville, A. C. Hancock. Newton, J. W. Cooper. Osage City, John A. McClain. Ottawa, Frank P. Smith. Parsons, Charles H. Harris. Pittsburgh, D. E. Pence. Salina, C. Y. Roop. Topeka, John M. Bloss. Wellington, L. Tomlin. Wichita, R. W. Stevenson. Winfield, James H. Hayes. KENTUCKY. Ashland, J. G. Crabbe. Bowling Green, W. B. Wylie. Covington, John W. Hall. Dayton, R. M. Mitchell. Frankfort, E. AVhitesides.'* Henderson, Edward S. Clark. Hopkinsville, Charles H. Dietrich. Lexington, M, A. Cassidy. Louisville, George H. Tiugley, jr. Maysville, .1. H. Kappes. Mount Sterling, Mis. W. F. Hibler.’’' Newport, John Burke. Owensborough, A. C. Goodwin. Paducah, George O. McBroom. Paris, Clarence L. Martin. LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge, George W. Buckner.’* New Orleans, Warren Easton. Shreveport, H. H. Hargrove. MAINE. Auburn, W. W. Stetson. Augusta, J. O. Webster.'^ Bangor, Miss Mary E. Snow. Bath, George E. Hughes. Belfast, A. I. Brown, Bid deford. Royal E. Gould. Calais, A. J. Padelford. Ellsworth, R. M. Peck. Lewiston, Giles A. Stuart. Chairman of the school board. " Principal of the higli school. ® President of the parish school board. ^ Secretary and school yisitor. 268 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. City superintendents— Coutm-a&A. MAINE — continued. Portland, Orlando M. Lord. Rockland, Levi Turner, jr. Saco, Walter T. Goodale. MARYLAND. Annapolis, Jolin C. Bannon. Baltimore, Henry A. Wise. Cumberland, H. G. Weimer.i Frederick, Glenn H. Worthington.^ Hagerstown, P. A. Witmer.^ ■ MASSACHUSETTS. Adams, Walter P. Beckwith. Amesbury, Frank Savage.^ Attleborough, J. O. Tiffany. Beverly, William H. Lovett.* Boston, Edwin P. Seaver. Brockton, B. B. Russell. Brookline, S. T. Dutton. Cambridge, Francis Cogswell. Chelsea, Eben H. Davis. Chicopee, R. H. Perkins. Clinton, C. L. Hunt. Danvers, A. P. Learoyd.* Dedham, O. S. Williams. Everett, R. A. Rideout.'^ Fall River, William Connell. Fitchburg, Joseph G. Edgerley. Framingham, Frank S. Hotaling.® Gardner, Clara E. Howe.s Gloucester, Freeman Putney. Haverhill, Albert L. Bartlett. Holyoke, Edwin L. Kirtland. Hyde Park, Richard M. Johnson.* Lawrence, George E. Chickering. Lowell, George F. Lawton. Lynu, Orsamus B. Bruce. Malden, Charles A. Daniels. Marblehead, John B. Gifford. Marlborough, H. R. Roth. Medford, Ephraim Hunt. Melrose, Guy C. Channeil. Milford, S. F. Blodgett. Natick, G. D.Tower.3 New Bedford, William E. Hatch. Newburyport, William P. Lunt.* Newton, Joseph C. Jones. North Adams, Anson D. Miner. 1 Secretary of county board of school commis- Bioners. 2 County school examiner. * Chairman of the school committee. North Brookfield, L. Emerson Barnes. Northampton, Alvin F. Pease. Peabody, Thomas Carroll.^ Pittsfield, Thomas H. Day. Plymouth, Charles Burton. Quincy, G. I. Aldrich. Salem, Alfred B. Brown.* Somerville, Clarence E. Meleney. Southbridge, John T. Clarke. Spencer, F. L. Johnson. Springfield, Thomas M. Balliet. Stonehain, Sarah A. Lynde. Taunton, G. C. Capron. Waltham, Henry Whittemore. Watertown, George R. Dwelley. Westfield, G. H. Dauforth. Weymouth, I. M. Norcross. Woburn, F. B. Richardson. Worcester, Albert P. Marble. MICHIGAN. Adrian, George W. Walker. Alpena, L. S. Norton. Ann Arbor, Walter S. Perry. An Sable, W. A. Morse. Battle Creek, E. M. Russell.® Bay City, J. W. Smith. Big Rapids, S. W. Baker. Cadillac, E. P. Church. Cheboygan, W. C. Thompson. Coldwater, H. M. Slauson. Detroit, W. E. Robinson. Escanaba, Kirk Spoor. Flint, D. Mackenzie. Grand Haven, E. L. Briggs. Grand Rapids, W. W. Chalmers. Ionia, W. D. Clizbe. Iron Mountain, Miss Flora Wilber,® Ishperning, Harlow Oloott. Jackson: Wesley Sears, District No. 1; Charles O. Hoyt, District No. 17. Kalamazoo, Henry N. French. Lake Linden, C. G. White. Lansing, Walter H. Cheever. Ludington, J. W. Miller. Manistee, Albert Jennings. Marquette, AnnaM. Chandler. Marshall, Stuart McKibben. Menominee, Jesse Hubbard. Monroe, W. H. Honey. Mount Clemens, A. S. Whitney. * Secretary of the school committee. ® Principal of the hi Arit.hmetie . . . . . Mr. Webb. E Reading and orthography . Mr. Eaton. [f Reading . Miss Hance. THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 285 Time. Class. Teacher. 1 to 1:5 p. m . 1:5 to 1:50 p. m . | 1:50 to 2 p. m... . “a" D E F Intermission. Mr. Clark. Principal. Mr. Bowen. Miss Hauce. Mr. Webb. Human physiology . Mental arithmetic . Elementary arithmetic . Dismission. TTciinesday is devotrd to penmanship, composition, declamation, “sublectures,’' lectures, and gen¬ eral exercises. Time. Class. Teacher. 3 to 4:30 p. m . | A B C ? Vocal music — Monday, Wednesday, Friday ... i Drawing— Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday . Mr. Isley. Mr. Howard. The experimental school was under the charge of ‘‘a permanent teacher/’ who was aided by “two ‘teachers’ and two ‘visitors ’each week; it being understood that the ‘ visitors’ of the one week shall become the ‘ teachers ’ for the next.” THE NORMAL SCHOOL OF PHILADELPHIA. We have spoken of the necessity when considering the question we have in hand, of beginning with the action taken in New York, but by the fifth section of the act of the 6th of March, 1818, for the education of children at public expense within the city and county of Philadelphia,” the controllers of the public schools were “ to es¬ tablish a model school to qualify teachers for sectional schools in other parts of Penn¬ sylvania.” The building and furnishing of this “ model school ” cost $4,9.38, the teach¬ ers’ salaries, stationery, etc., $2,157, and furniture $862, as reported on the 31st of De¬ cember, 1819 ; this was the first sclioolhouse erected by the city school authorities. The city had adopted the Laucasterian or monitorial system, in which “ one teacher, aided by monitors from amongst his own pupils, was considered sufficient for the care and government and instruction of 300 children.” In the eleventh annual report of the controllers (1829) we find that “ several per¬ sons of both sexes have recently availed themselves of the privilege of acquiring a knowledge of the Laucasterian plan of instruction by attending the model and other schools, and some of the individuals thus qualified are candidates for employment in Pennsylvania ; ” and that “ the ];)rincipal of the boys’ model school has compiled an epitome of geography especially adapted to seminaries of mutual instruction.” In 1834, sixteenth annual report, an “experimental infant school was established in the building occupied by the model school, exhibiting “ under the directions of its accom¬ plished teacher, a constant and rapid improvement in the children, and at the same time has furnished an admirable seminary for the instruction of infant-school teachers, numbers of whom have regularly devoted their time to the acquirement of practical skill in conducting these schools, and are believed in several instances now compe¬ tent to take charge of similar establishments.” About 1836 a system of “ infant schools ” and another of “ primary schools” hav¬ ing grown up by the side of the “monitorial schools,” and a committee having visited Boston and New York, the monitorial system began rapidly to decline, and an effort, “an experiment” as the president of the board calls it, was made to supply the place of “juvenile monitors, often incompetent and always indifferent to the improvement of their fellows” by well-qualified teachers, of whom a number should be of the gentler sex, that the “ peculiar benefits to be derived from their presence and influence” might be secured. The high school established in the following year was for boys only; many of its graduates, however, became teachers. In the twenty-fourth annual report (1842) “ a plan for organizing a branch of the high school for females and a school for female teachers, in the model school had been discussed during the year, but nothing definite had been determined on in rela¬ tion to them.” One of the three courses of the high school was the “classical course for teachers and others.” In 1844 “ Saturday classes, to consist of girls and female teachers, connected with the public schools, were formed. The following is 286 EDUCATION REPORT, I88S-89. the course, to continue for eighteen months, proposed by the principal of the high school — I. Eeading of the English poets. 11. Ehetoric and composition. III. Outlines of history. IV. Drawing. V. Penmanship. VI. Hygiene. VII. Uranography. VIII. Arithmetic. IX. Algebra. This course was to correct the singular anomaly of intelligent and well-educated young women, from the date of their appointment as primary teachers, actually reirograding, and becoming finally disqualified for promotion by the time their age and experience entitled them to it.” On February 1, 1848, the city normal school was established, with seven departments, under as many instructors, including the principal, who had charge of the professional training. The names of the depart¬ ments and their scope are thus given in the first semi-annual report ot the principal, dated August 29, 1848. L Theory and Practice of Teaching. — Lectures on the principles of education, embracing mental, moral, and physical education, and instruction in teaching the elementary branches. II. Department of 'Mathematics. — Eeview of elementary arithmetic, and instruction in higher arithmetic, algebra, and elementary astronomy. III. Department of history. — Eeview of geography and history of the United States, and instruc¬ tion in ihe history of America, with the contemporaneous history of England. IV. Department of Grammar. — Eeview of English grammar, and instruction in the elements of composition and rhetoric. V. Department of Reading. — Instruction in the art of reading, course of reading and analysis of English words. VI. Department of Drawing and Writing. VII. Department of Music. Practice in teaching and lectures on school government were to be added, and a course in chemistry, physics, and physiology. The session lasted five hours and four recitations were had daily. The theory of the instruction is thus given by the principal : “The style of recitation, mode of illustration, and perspicuity and precision of language, have been made prominent objects of instruction; and while care was taken to familiarize the pupils with the branches reviewed, a thorough acquaint¬ ance with the best means of rendering them intelligible, especially to dull minds or weak capacities, was insisted on. The members of the classes were themselves made the subjects of practical illustration of the methods to be pursued, by requiring all who were found ignorant of the elements to return to first principles and master them before being allowed to enter upon a study requiring a knowledge of these principles; nor were any permitted to pass to a higher subject of study until their perfect acquaintance with the lower branches was demonstrated by their exhibiting ability to communicate what they knew to the fellow members of their classes.” The principal would maintain that “the real difiereuce between a normal school and an ordinary school consists in learning to impart, as well as learning.” He says: “The difference between acquiring a knowledge of a branch for the purpose of teach¬ ing it, and studying merely for personal improvement, must be apparent to the most superficial observer; and if in a school a course of instruction is pursued adaptedto qualifying teachers, then the school is no longer an ordinary one, but becomes a nor¬ mal school, and a twofold duty is imposed upon the pupils ; first to acquire a knowl¬ edge of the branches, and then to learn to communicate that knowledge to others. The performance of the latter evidently involving loss of time and waste of effort to all except those who are preparing themselves for teachers.” The school of practice was composed of a girls’ grammar school, with 230 pupils undera female principal and an assistant, and a boys’ secondary school, with 147 pupils, under a female principal and an assistant. At least three pupils of the normal school were employed at one time in teaching in one of these schools. It was the duty of the regular teachers to aid the novice by teaching with her and for her. Before plac¬ ing a pupil in charge of a class the principal carefully informed her as to the particular duties connected with its instruction and management. Should the pupil prove de¬ ficient, she was withdrawn, and her subsequent instruction in the normal school properly directed r-o removing her deficiencies. THE CONNECTICUT NORMAL SCHOOL. In 1849 the legislature of Connecticut passed an act of which the first section reads; “There shall be established, as hereinafter provided, one normal school or seminary for the training of teachers in the art of instructing and governing the common schools of the State; the object of which normal school or seminary shall be, not to educate teachers in the studies now regarded by law, but to receive such as are found competent in these studies in the manner herein afrer provided, and train them in the best methods of teaching and conducting common schools.” THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 287 The course of study at the heginning of the second year is given by the Connec¬ ticut School Journal (the earliest circular in our files is for 1855) as follows: Junior C'lk.ss.— Every term. — Reading, writ¬ ing, spelling, English grammar, arithmetic, geog¬ raphy, United States history, composition for mjvate inspection, and declamation in private. During the six weeks’ session, spring and fall, this class attend a course of lectures on school arrangements. Middle Class (consisting of all who can hear thorough examination in all the above branches).— Every terjR.— General history, algebra, physiol¬ ogy, analysis of English idioms, composition for public criticism. Deciamation in public. Also, first session, lectures on mental philosophy and astronomy; second and third sessions, study of globes anil lectures on the art of teaching ; third session, lectures on natural philosophy and botany. Senior Class (including those familiar with the studies of the other classes). — Every term. — Rhetoric, geometry, daily public extemporaneous discourses and debates, with public declamations and essays, read by the author weekly, and open to criticism by the class. Also, first session, logic;, third session, lectures on chemistry, mineralogy and geology ; and, fourth session, critical exam¬ ination of one of the English classics. German, French, Latin, and Greek may be studied by any desiring to do so without charge for tuition, rovided their attainments in branches required y law warrant it in the view of the teacher. Singing and drawing are taught to all classes every term. Returning again to the fifth annual report of the State superintendent, from wbicli we have quoted the section of the organic law, we find among other matter pertain¬ ing to the new school the following : “By means of the regular classes in the normal school and in the schools of jiractice an opportunity will be offered to every member of the school to review thoroughly any one or all of the elementary studies required to be taught in the common schools of the State, and to extend his attainments in any of these studies, and such kindred branches as will facilitate his success as a teacher in any grade of common schools.” * * * In addition to the studies now generally taught in our schools, it is proposed to give some practical instruction in vocal music and physiology ; and to those whose previous training or whose residence at the institution will be long enough to allow of this extension of the course with¬ out abridging the time and the attention which are duo to the elementary studies, a general view of the principles of agricultural chemistry and of domestic economy will be presented. The manner in which these subjects were to be taught was told in the following language : “ Subjects will be taught in the normal school rather than text-books ; and the manner in which the same subject is treated by several of the best authors will be compared and discussed, in order that the graduates may be prepared to de¬ cide on the comparative merits of school books, * * * and at the same time be able to teach the subjects properly, even if pupils of the same class should study the subject in different books. * * In addition to familiar and practical suggestions on particular points in the organization, instruction, and discipline of scho<3l8, as occa¬ sion may call for the same in the daily routine of the instruction, lectures will be given on the history of education and schools ; on the objects and principles of public education in general, and of our own system in particular; on the art of teaching and its methods, and the application of these methods to each particular study ; on the theory of discipline and its practice ; on the peculiarities of a district school, as well as of other grades of schools ; on the principles of school architecture ; on legal position and relations of a teacher in our system of common schools, and a variety of other topics.” MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. Michigan has always been an educating State, and from the normal schools estab¬ lished in New England and in the Middle States we turn to the region of the Great . Lakes. • We learn from the first section of the act of 1849 establishing the school, “That a State normal school be established, the exclusive purposes of which shall be the in¬ struction of persons, both male and female, in the art of teaching and in all the various branches that pertain to a good common school education; also, to give in¬ structions in the mechanic arts, and in the arts of husbandry and agricultural chem¬ istry, in the fundamental laws of the United States, and in what regards the rights and duties of citizens.” By section 10 it is further provided, “ That any person may be admitted who shall pass a satisfactory examination.” The State board of education, in the report for 1880, comments on the foregoing pro¬ visions thus : “It will be seen that the above statement of the work of the normal school really includes all the work originally planned for the branches of the university. At the time the normal school was projected the branches of the university had been per¬ manently discontinued, and the high schools of the State not definitely planned. * ^ * There was, in fact, nothing in the way of public-school facilities between the district school and the university. * * * qq^e normal school, therefore, as the only State school of the same grade, was to be a teachers’ school, a farmers’ school, an academy, all in one. In reality the academy had but little more right to a place 288 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. in a true normal scliool than had the farmers’ department. But for the time academic instruction had to be furnished there, because it was to be had nowhere else. In 1857-58, the date of the earliest catalogue our files possess, the course of study is given as follows : Class B.— Arithmetic, mental and written; geog¬ raphy, local and descriptive; grammar, synthet¬ ical spelling ; readina:; penmanship. Class C.— Arithmetic, algebra begun; book¬ keeping; natural i^hilosophy; grammar, analyt¬ ical; vocal music. ClassD. — Algebra; natural philosophy ; botany, summer term; thorough bass, winter term; el¬ ocution; analysis of the alphabet ; art of teaching. I Class E.— Geometry ; geology ; rhetoric ; prac- I tice of teaching in the model school. Senior Class. — Intellectual philosophy as ap¬ plied to education ; trigonometry and surveying ; chemistry. IS’OTE. — Latin and German optional through¬ out the course. The studies of each class occupy at least one entire term. ‘'As soon as the student has made sufficient progress,” continues the circular for 1858-.59, “ he is placed under a course of instruction designed to prepare him for his future duties as a teacher.” This course, the only one which need detain us, em¬ braced — 1. Specific instruction to all classes in the normal school, in the methods of teach¬ ing the various studies usually pursued in our schools. 2. Oral instruction on schoolroom duties, given to the B and C classes. 3. A course of familiar lectures on the science and art of teaching, given to the D class. 4. Practice in teaching in the model school, by the E class. 5. Instruction in the philosophy of education, given to the senior class. CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED IN THE SIXTH DECADE The normal school established in the city of Boston in 1852 was also fora thorough review of the studies taught in the grammar schools, and “instruction in the theory and practice of teaching and in the art of government.” The city normal school of S t. Louis was established in obedience to the “ idea ” which was then “ rapidly becom¬ ing recognized all over our country where there are free schools, that teachers must receive a professional training before they are properly fitted for their work.” The doctrine that “ any person who had only a partial knowledge of arithmetic, gram¬ mar, and geography, and could read any composition in the English language with¬ out stopping to spell the hard words, was capable of teaching a school,” had become antiquated, and it was necessary to provide a course of ^‘professional training as will be to them what the study of law, or medicine, or theology is to their respective pro¬ fessors.” In Charleston, S. C., a normal school was provided for in 1858 to aid “in carrying out a permanent and efficient plan of education,” which the board of edu¬ cation fodnd difficulty in inaugurating on account of a want of suitably qualified teachers. Jn the Boston school the pupils were admitted after an examination from the highest grammar grade, in St. Louis from the high school, and in Charleston after an examination in the common school studies. In Boston and St. Louis the course was of two years, in Charleston of three. The curriculum of the St. Louis school was as follows ; FmST TEAR. First and second quarters. Arithmetic, mental and written, and modes of teaching. Geography, topographical and political, with the construction of map.s, practice iti drawing them, and modes of teaching. English grammar, with analysis and parsing of Paradise Lost, and modes of teaching. Re.ading, including elocution, drill upon the ele¬ mentary sounds of the language, critical examina¬ tions of the selections read, both in respect to the thought and the expression, with modes of teach- ing. ' Spelling, oral and written. Third and fourth quarters. Physical geography, with modes of teaching. Human anatomy and physiology, with modes of teaching. The theorj-and art of teaching, by conversational lectures and discussion in the class-room, to be followed by essays from the pupils, with practice in teaching. Shakespeare ; careful reading of one of the plays, critical examination of the language, explanation of historical and other allu.sions, etc. History of the English language and literature. Vocal music and modes of teaching. Drawing and penmanship, with modes of teach¬ ing. Spelling, oral and written. SECOND TEAR. First and second quarters. Algebra, with modes of teaching. Constitution and history of the Hnited States. Theory and art of education, by topics. History of education, with educational biogra¬ phy, and practice in teaching. History of English language and literature. Vocal music, and modes of teaching. Drawing and penmanship, with modes of teach¬ ing. Spelling, oral and written. Third and fourth quarters. Geometry, with modes of teaching. Astronomy and physics, with modes of teaching. Theory and art of education, in connection with psychology and moral philosophy, and practice teaching. History of English language and literature. Universal history. Vocal music, and modes of teaching. Drawing and penmanship, with modes of teach¬ ing. Spelling, oral and written. THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 289 In addition to the above “ Orthosomic exercises, or practical exercises for the de¬ velopment of the r)hy8ical frame,” were engaged in during the whole course “ under the direction of a gentleman who devotes his whole time to the subject.” Graduates of the high school and others of equal attainments were given a dJ.ploma “at the close of one year, provided their qualifications are deemed satisfactory.” The course at Charleston was for the — FIRST YEAR. First term. — Reading, spelling, writing, draw¬ ing, aritlmietic, grammar, physical geography, history, French, music, and composition. Second term. — Orthography, writing, drawing, music, hi.story, French, composition and read¬ ing continued ; algebra, ancient geography, and rhetoric. SECOND YEAR. First term.— Orthography, writing, drawing, music, French, composition, reading and algebra continued ; physiology, and English literature. Second 5M ■ .2^ a a c '3 'S ’■§ ® 'C ® a " r p, w • -Po a2 c3 a P^d'- s a c S tc bc . '— o.i 03 'r- -4. I ai ‘o f" >' etry, algebra, astron¬ omy. Second term.— Modern history, rhetoric com¬ menced, Latin, French, and German, geometry, astronomy. Chemistry, physics, and physiology are taught to the students in the college. Reviews of pre- SECOND YEAR — Continued. vious studies, and regular exercises in spelling, etymology, and composition are required of the students of these grades. Music and drawing are also taught to the students of the second year. THIRD YEAR. First term. — Rhetoric, and English literature; Latin, French, and German, zoology, civil polity, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Chemistry, physics, mineralogy, and physiol¬ ogy are taught by means of lectures in the col¬ lege. Reviews are conducted with a view of developing the power to teach. Music, drawing, and composition are also taught. Second term. — Practice in the training school, discussion on the method of instruction, the crit¬ icisms from the training school forming the basis of such discussion, object and objective teaching in theory and practice, intellectual philosophy, Enelish literature, and essays. Elementary branches reviewed; lectures on anatomy, physiology, hygiene, chemistry, physics, and school government, by the several professors; music and drawing taught in the college ; spelling, English grammar, and arithmetic, reviewed and discussed. “ This programme of study,” says the president, Mr. Hunter, “broad and liberal in its scope and especially adapted to develop the mental faculties, was constructed with a view to create facility and accuracy of expression, so important to instructors, and to impart a correct knowledge of the principles which underlie professional teaching.” CURRICULUM OFFERED BY THE AMERICAN NORMAL SCHOOL ASSOCIATION IN 1870. The American Normal School Association, at its meeting in 1869, had appointed a committee “to consider and report upon the subject of a course of study adapted to normal schools.” The committee reported that “ the supreme function of every school ” was “not merely to accomplish a given course of study, which is too often made an end unto itself, but to develop character ; * and it must be confessed that this end in a majority of cases is not realized. The value of a curriculum depends, first, upon its adaptation to the special purpose for which it is designed, and still more upon the manner in which it is handled.” In the next place, says the committee, “ there is unquestionably a choice of studies to be regarded here. The studies to be pursued in our training schools for elementary teachers ought, in a measure, to be determined not so much by the branches which are, but which ought to be, taught in the common schools.” * * * The standard the committee would fix for admission to a normal school was (1) the ability to spell correctly; (2) a free and legible handwriting; (3) the power to read fluently aua to enunciate with distinctness all ordinary words of the language ; (4) the ability to parse and analyze any common English sentence ; (5) the power to perform with facility all the processes to percentage ; (6) a knowledge of the leading facts of mathematical geography and of the political geography of the United States; (7) satisfactory evidence of good moral character; (8) a sound, healthy body. Their program was as follows : FIRST YEAR (2 TERMS EACH OF 20 WEEKS). SUBJECTS. SYLLABUS. First term. English language . Elementary arithmetic, including mental processes. Writing and drawing . Geography . Botany as a means of cultivating observ¬ ing powers (8 weeks). Parts of speech and their properties ; composition, pars¬ ing, and analysis of sentences. Processe.s and principles from the beginning to percen¬ tage; mental practice; methods of rapid calculation. Theory and art of penmanship ; free hand drawing. United States and Europe comprehensively studied; map drawing. Morphology of leaves, stems, roots ; use of schedules. THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 295 FIRST YEAR (2 TERMS EACH OF 20 WEEKS). SUBJECTS— continued. First term — Continued. Physiology (12 weeks) to follow botany . .. Theory and practice of teaching . Vocal and physical training . Ethical instrnctiou . SYLLABUS— continued. General outlines of the subject ; hygienic rules. Observation and criticism of teaching exercises; lessons in teaching primary reading and number classes. Free calisthenic exercise.s ; mnsical notation ; reading through key of C ; simple chorus practice. Manners and morals ; formation of right habits. Second term. English grammar (completed) . Elementary arithmetic (completed) . Drawing . Botany (8 or 10 weeks) . Geography (completed) . Geometry . Theory and practiceof teaching (continued) Book-keeping . Vocal and physical culture . Analysis and parsing; impromptu composition; brief essays. Percentage, ratio and proportion, roots, alligation, mensu¬ ration, analysis, mental processes, commercial calcula¬ tions, methods of rapid calculation. Perspective; drawing of simple objects. Continued to analysis and classification of plants ; use of schedules continued. Asia comprehensively; general review of world; map construction ; methods of rapid delineation. Geometrical facts, lines, figures ; definitions inferred. Lessons and criticism of methods in language ; form and place. Theory and practice in double entry and in business forms. Reading and singing in all scales and keys ; written ex¬ ercises ; rhythmic exercises. SECOND YEAR (2 TERMS EACH OF 20 WEEKS). First term. Geography (to follow reading) . English language . . Algebra (10 weeks) . Natural philosophy (20 weeks). History of the IJnited States . Science of government . Chemistry (follows algebra) — Physical and vocal culture . - . . , Teory and practice of teaching Second term,. Phenomena of ocean and atmosphere ; terrestrial as¬ tronomy. Vocal exercises; reading; elocution. To quadratic equations. Transportation ; chorus practice. Nomenclature; study of elements; experimental practice in laboratory. Calisthenic exercises ; chorus practice. Practice and criticism of object lessons ; management and methods with advanced classes. Chemistry (continued) . . Geology . Geometry (4 weeks) . Physiology . Theory and practice of teaching . . Philosophy of education, including mental philosophy. Elements and compounds; lectures; laboratory manipula¬ tion. General principles; fieldwork; classification of specimens. Demonstrations inferred from facts and principles. Resumed and completed. School organization, discipline, and management ; school laws ; history of education. Nervous mechanism : The senses, sensation, perception, observation, memory, reason, imagination, etc.; princi¬ ples and methods of training inferred from above. THE ERA OF DISCONTENT. Having conducted our inquiry to the close of the Civil War, and to a time when, as we shall see, much dissatisfaction began to appear with the work of the normal school, we shall not swell th© bulk of our article by following the great de¬ velopment of academically inclined normal schools in the South subsequent to the War of the Rebellion, or those added to the category in the North aud West. The stamp that had been given the normal-school course by a Pierce and developed by his suc¬ cessors began to want a unanimous consent to its value and propriety, either from the absence of a Pierce to conduct the work or from the absence of the crude conditions that made academic work valuable to the generations for which they immediately labored. When the historian of education in the United States shall have arisen and vindicated his claims, it will be shown, perhaps even by statistics, that an educa¬ tional renaissance set in upon us after 1870 that was in some measure stimulated by the great European activity in the same line. In the education of the people, we gave Europe practice aud examples to a great extent; she imparted to us theory and criticism. It was about that epocli that this Office was established, and in the following we shall consult the pages of its rojjorts in order to trace hurriedly the form in which the 296 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. discontent with the work of the normal schools was here and there manifesting itself. In doing this we intend neither to be exhaustive nor to anticipate the suppositive historian of education to whom we have just alluded. To give an illustration of the professional basis attempted, and in some instances attained, during the eighth decade, we insert the argument of the principal of the normal school of St. Louis, made in 1880. It will be remembered that this school was perhaps the first (“ perhaps,” as it is ever dangerous to use unqualifiedly this ordinal adjective) to take its pupils from the high school. Mr. Soidan says : The reason why a review and extension of the study of the common branches should form part of the professional training of the normal school may be stated as follows : “ 1. The applicants to the school, as a rule, left the grammar school four years be¬ fore resorting to the normal school (being high-school graduates), and it may be rea¬ sonably supposed that, no matter how thoroughly they acquired the knowledge of common-school studies four years ago, they need a review to refresh their memories. “ 2. The teacher should not simply know as much of the grammar-school studies as a child knows who has passed through a common school, but more ; for she is to teach them to others. A mere review of grammar-school work is hardly sufficient to give the amount of knowledge necessary in order to teach it to others. An extension of the work in the common branches beyond the limits of the grammar-school course is essential for the teacher, while it is not equally necessary for the general pursuits of life. ^ * “3. The study of methods of teaching, in order to be practically useful, should be carried on at the beginning, in close connection with the subject-matter that is to be taught. In other words, it is well enough to let the pupils study how to teach geography according to the general principles of the science and of child nature, but it is not less necessary that the special topics should be studied in connection with applied methods of teaching; the pupil should learn, for instance, how the form of the earth or the change of seasons may be taught to a class. The normal-school pupil, as a part of her training, should review and continue grammar-school work. And she looks upon it from the standpoint of the teacher and tries to discover the best way of presenting the matter to a class of children. Her recitation is a teaching exercise ; she presents the subject she has studied and illustrates it as if she were to teach her classmates. Grammar-school work reviewed in this way is professional work and is essential to the training of efficient teachers,” In 1870 we find the principal of the Farmington Normal School saying, ^‘Although the normal school in theory is a place for professional training — for teaching teachers how to teach — the facts do not fully sustain the theory. We spend half of our time, or more, in teaching what should be known as a condition of entering. By one year devoted to training in methods of instruction, to mental science in its application to teaching, to the study of modes of school organization and educational history, to practice in model schools, etc., wdth classes fitly prepared for such work, we could accomplish more of real normal work than now can be accomplished in our whole course-. We ought not to be forced to spend our time, as is often the case now, in teaching the rudiments of arithmetic, geography, and grammar.” In the thirty- fourth annual report of the Massachusetts Board of Education, their secretary says that classes in the voluntary course of two additional years had been formed in each normal school of Massachusetts, the pupils being chiefly “former graduates who have learned from their experience in teaching the value of a more advanced scholarship.” He continues thus: “As is well known to the board, I have from the beginning been an earnest advocate of this higher course, as one means of meeting the rapidly growing demand for teachers of a thorough normal training, and also of a grade of scholarship superior to that which the normal schools had hitherto been able to give. It is a well-known fact that it is to-day impossible to supply the demand for female teachers of this grade.” The local board of management of the Buffalo, N. Y., school was considering the proposition “to provide a department in which those who are suitably prepared and are willing to pay for tuition may prosecute a course of advanced study similar to that pursued in our colleges, except that it is to embrace instruction in the theory and practice of teaching and to be conducted throughout on normal principles.” To extend the normal course the committee thought would destroy its usefulness for the many, inasmuch as but few would have the time and means to pursue the added portion. In 1871 the State superintendent of Pennsylvania, Mr. Wickersham, suggested that “the standard for admission be greatly elevated, so that the instruction of the grammar school need not be repeated after entering the normal school;” and the common school commissioner of Ohio urges that “academic instruction, except such as may be incidentally given in the illustration of methods, should be dispensed with that the science of education and the art of teaching may receive exclusive THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 297 attention.” Principal Phelps, of the Winona Normal School, in his report for 1872 ob¬ serves: “Oar common schools have hitherto been and many of them still are in a weak and inefficient state. The quality of the work done in them is very poor, and as the great bulk of the students entering the normal schools must come from these people’s colleges it is obvious that a large majority of them must come very poorly prepared. In fact, there is so much vague, loose, and inaccurate teaching still done in our elementary schools that at least nineteen-twentieths of those who enter the normal schools must go back to first principles, learn those subjects of which they are ignorant, and unlearn that which they have learned amiss. Not only are they ignorant of the very beginning of the common school studies, but they have no power of expressing what they do know.” Again, Principal Beard, of the South Missouri State Normal School, observes: “Something is evidently wrong in our common school system of education. The majority of students entering our school we find know more of arithmetic than they know of all the other sciences taken together. * * * The design of the nor¬ mal school therefore should be to remedy these irregularities in the common schools.” In the report of the secretary of the State Board of Education of Massachusetts, that officer says : “ I have attended the examination of the applicants for the normal schools and have at such times severally made a very careful and critical examina¬ tion and analysis of the results presented in the papers of the applicants. An analysis made of one of these examinations is, I think, a fair specimen of all of them. The average age of the 48 examined was 18 years and 9 months. Twenty-oue of the 87 ladies examined were graduates or had been members for some time of high schools, 5 of academies, and 11 of grammar schools; 9 of them had taught school for a period varying from 12 to 143 weeks. The questions were not above the average of those proposed to candidates for admission to our high schools. There should have been an average of at least 80 per cent, of correct answers. Only 4, however, had this average, and only 11 had 70 and upward ; 18 had less than 60 per cent. To attain even this result their reading had to be taken into account, for which they were marked much higher than for their written papers. With this the general average of correctness for all who were examined was 62 per cent. ; without it, 59. Yet only 4 of the 48 were rejected. ‘ ‘An examination of the papers of these applicants shows that in too many cases the writers were allowed to take up the higher branches of study in high schools and academies before they had thoroughly mastered the simj)le elementary branches, which are the corner stone of a good education. The papers of many were very faulty in respect to the correct use of language, the construction of sentences, the use of capital letters, and spelling.” “ The great value of these schools,” says the State superintendent of West Vir¬ ginia in 1872, “ is the facility they afford tor a higher grade of education than can be secured in the schools of inferior rank. * * * Our normal schools are valuable as higher academies.” In 1874 the State superintendent of Maine, Mr. Johnson, after proposing a normal course of three years for the schools of Maine, one preparatory and probationary and two properly normal, says: “The studies should be nearly as now appear in the course of study. * * In some future time we may be able to imitate the Vienna arrangement and establish a pedagogium — a normal school of normal schools — in which shall be received from the several sub-schools those students desirous of making further advancement.” In 1872 the Boston Normal School, which had become a mere high school for girls, was separated from the Boston High School and, in 1874-75, erected into an institution having for its first “ regulation ” the following : “ The Boston Normal School is established for the purpose of furnishing an oppor¬ tunity for such young women as wish to become teachers, a thorough course of dis¬ tinct professional instruction, and to fit themselves for teachers in the public schools of Boston.” To enter, the candidate must be proficient in the studies of the high schools of Bos¬ ton and have attained the age of 17. The course was of one year and embraced the following studies : 1. Mental and moral science and logic, 2. History and principles of education, school management, and methods of instruction. 3. Physiology and hygiene. 4. Physics and natural history with reference to objective teaching. 5. Study of language; its history, acquisition, and analysis. Commenting on this curriculum the committee on normal schools observes that the requirements for admission were not high and “ it is hoped that many will ex¬ ceed them ; that they will take a fourth or even fifth year of general study,” so that those who enter the school will be prepared “ for a year of close and professional 6. Grammar school studies with reference to teaching. 7. Drawing and its use as a means of illustration in teaching and vocal music. 8. Observation and practice in primary and gram¬ mar schools. 298 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1888-89. study.” In 1876 the city superintendent, speaking of the school established in 1852, says that “ it is hardly an exaggeration to say that during almost the whole period that has elapsed since the establishment of the school the arrangements and provisions for giving the requisite normal training to female teachers for our public schools have been insufiBcient and unsatisfactory.” Speaking of the new school the same authority says : “ Its course of training is but one year, but it is exclusively profes¬ sional. The four great pedagogical branches — psychology, physiology, ethics, and logic — are here judiciously handled.” In 1875 the deputy superintendent of Pennsylvania, Mr. Curry, after a thorough ex¬ amination of the normal schools of that State, says (remarking, however, that in some schools the candidates were quite up to the requirements for graduation in the ele¬ mentary course), “ But in others the course has been practically abridged by restrict- ting the study of some of the branches to the contents of superficial text-books, too meager to furnish more than a fragmentary knowledge of principles involved.” In 1876 the superintendent of public instruction of New York began to attack most determinedly the academical features of the eight normal schools of New York. He says in his report for 1876 (dated 1877); ‘ ‘ For myself I am free to say that I would greatly prefer to have our normal schools what they profess to be — institutions simply and solely for the training of teachers for the common schools of the State. They ought to be mainly schools where those in attendance should be taught how to teach, hav¬ ing reasonably fair understanding of tvhat to teach. The young person who is ap¬ pointed a pupil in a State normal school is required to possess a good English educa¬ tion. As I understand it, the function of the normal school is to t“ach this young person how to impart successfully to others the knowledge which he or she may possess, how to govern a school, how to win the confidence of pupils, and how to in¬ struct them to obtain from books knowledge of an order far higher than that which the teacher possesses. It ought not to be expected that the State should, in a few localities, support high schools and colleges.” The bold move of the State superintendent to improve the State normal schools was simultaneous with another on the part of the governor suggesting the expediency of abolishing them. On June 11, 1877, the superintendent d^iscontinued the academic departments in the normal schools, but the legislature in 1878 requested him to re¬ voke his order. In 1877 the principal of the State Normal School at Ypsilanti, Mich., remarks that the admission of 16 graduates from high schools was a “new feature” that promised much good to the normal school, as it would insure that those who thus obtained admission were more qualified to follow the course. The work of the school was divided into two departments, one called scholastic or academic and the other professional. “Such is the low condition of common school instruction in the State,” says the principal, “that a considerable portion of the instruction is to impart knowl¬ edge and discipline; but as these are required for a definite purpose, our methods of instruction are directed to that end.” * * * “ Professional instruction, however, should be the peculiar feature of the work of a normal school, and it is the constant elfort of the faculty to make this feature more and more prominent every year.” The same tendency towards a more professional status is quite as observable in the schools of Minnesota about this time. In 1878 the board of visitors of the Michigan State Normal School, after an examin¬ ation on two different occasions, spoke thus in regard to that institution : “ As to the general question of normal instruction, your committee recognizes the difBculty of finding a satisfactory solution. The first object of the normal school is, as the name implies, instruction in the art of teaching. It is, however, inevitable in the present condition of things that this should be supplemented by purely academic instruction, and the tendency has always been to give what seemed to many. persons a disproportionate share and attention to what should be in strictness only subordi¬ nate. This seemed to us to be the case at Ypsilanti. At the time of our visit there, our opinion was substantially that of the visitors of last year, that the normal school was more like an excellent academy, with some excellent iustruc ion given in peda¬ gogics and the science of education, than a normal school proper. * * * With the growth of the school system, with the increase in the number of graded and high schools, the necessity of academic instruction in the normal school becomes less im¬ perative, and the disproportionate time and attention bestowed upon it more offen¬ sive.” The visitors then speak of the reorganization that had been made since their last visit “ to look more closely into certain matters, concerning which complaints had been made,” and continue thus : “ We sincerely hope that the requirements for admission, as set forth in the pro¬ spectus, may not be at all lowered. The catch-all common school course of the past 7 years, with its low standard of requirements, its diploma, and its constantly in¬ creasing roll of ‘graduates’ has been the bane of the normal school. We earnestly hope for better things in the future.” THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 299 In the report of the visitors for the following year (all new men as compared with their immediate predecessors), the following opinion is expressed : With the new building, it was fitting there should he this new life. We believe the normal school is doing a good work — work that must necessarily render our schools more efficient ; yet the maximum has not been reached. Much remains to be done before it takes its rightful position in the educational system of the State.” The changes referred to are noticed in our Annual Report for 1878, at page 123 ; those jiarticularly applicable in this connection are, (1) the division of the normal course proper into common school, higher English, and language courses ^tting teachers respectively for the lower and higher grades in the State common and graded schools; (2) higher requirements of admission ; and (3) professional instruction. The remarks of the superintendent of the Boston schools on the question of the normal school, then much agitated in Boston, are given in our Report for 1879 at page Ixxviii, and it is not thought necessary to repeat them here. Secretary Dickinson, of the Massachusetts Board of Education, says under date of January, 1880 ; “A teach¬ er’s seminary should have for its special object the training of teachers to teach. This includes a thorough study of the philosophy of teaching, and a discussion of a course of studies embracing an elementary and scientific course. It includes also as much practice as possible in teaching in experimental schools, the topics of the course of studies made out, and to such pupils as will study the same topics in the public schools, and lastly a study of the best methods of school organization and school government. If the normal schools are to be confined pretty closely to their legitimate work, the standard for admission to their classes must be raised. ” CHAIRS OP PEDAGOGICS. Towards the close of the eighth decade two terms not before in common use began to appear with considerable frequency, pedagogics and didactics, both used it seems as different names for the same thing, the science, or the seiei.ce and art of teaching. But one of them was an old term in the University of Iowa, where the degree of bachelor of didactics wasoft'ered in 1870 to those who would complete an “advanced course ” for one year and teach for two years successfully. This advanced course may be considered as a purely professional one, and finally in 1873 became a “ chair, ” hav¬ ing the design to prepare teachers for advanced schools ; “ hence ” says the catalogue, “ only those academical seniors who intend to become teachers and special students, who may become qualified to be classed with them, will be allowed to pursue nor¬ mal studies.” In 1878a “college of normal instruction” was opened in the univer¬ sity and granted the “ academic normal degree of bachelor in pedagogics” to those graduates of one of the four academical courses who took also one semester of higher pedagogics; but it is the Chair of the Science and Art of Teaching in 1879 in the University of Michigan that will best enable us to show the stage of advancement that the pedagogical public had attained to as regards education as a science. The object contemplated in establishing this chair, says Professor Payne, who oc¬ cupied it, was “to fit students for the higher positions in the public school service,” “a natural function of the university as the head of our [the Michigan] system of public instruction; ” “ to give a more general diffusion to educational doctrines,” which involves human interests of the highest order ; “to promote the study of educational science;” “to teach the history of education,” “to promote the transformation of teaching from an occupation to a profession,” for “the very basis of professional ac¬ tivity is in an articulate body of doctrine.” The courses were as follows; 1. First semester: Practical, embracing school supervision, grading, courses of study, examinations, the art of instructing and governing, school architecture, school hygiene, school law, etc. 2. Second semester : Historical, philosophical, and critical, embracing the history of education, the comparison and criticism of the systems of different countries, the outlines of educational science, the science of teaching, a critical discussion of theo¬ ries and methods. The first course was evident!}’’ intended to cover the duties of a superintendent. The second course maybe illustrated by the following topics, which were a part of it: Analysis and synthesis as related to method, acquisition, the office of books in educa¬ tion, empirical law of conduct ; Comeuius ; the comprehensive nature of education as a liberal study, plastic theory of development theory; the two factors in primary in¬ struction, art of interpretation, etc. Pedagogy and School Government in the European Training Schools for Teachers. It is well known in informed circles that an educational revolution has occurred in France during the last decade; but it was not a blind, unreasonable revolution based on vague theories, but one carried forward in a scientific, patriotic spirit. The 300 EDUCATION EEPOBT, 1888-89. educational revolutionists to whom we refer saw how powerless they would be with¬ out trained teachers, and as early as January, 1881. the commission charged with preparation of a programme for the normal schools for men and women, established or about to be established, began to solicit from foreign lauds such information as would enable them to know what other countries had done in the same direction. These requests were made a matter of state, and the diplomatic agents of the Re¬ public collected and forwarded the information, which has since been put in print, and to which we are under obligation for the following matter, — matter which we have introduced not only as an appendix that will complete our review of the Amer¬ ican normal school curriculum, but also that the reader may use it as the French commission used it. The arrangement is simple. Under each country will be given the character of the purely pedagogical course and then, in tabular form, the position that it occu¬ pies in the curriculum of the school. The manner in which the other subjects of the curriculum, such as history, geography, etc., are taught present no particular claims for translation ; but it is to be regretted that the method by which the several coun¬ tries provide for the instruction of their future teachers in the mother tongue is not germane to the subject-matter of this paper. FRANCE. HEN. First year— Greneral principles 0/ edweaYiow.— Physical education: General hygiene plays and exercises of the child, gymnastics. Education of the sense by observa¬ tion. “ Intellectual” education : Ideas upon the intellectual faculties, their development at different ages, their culture and their application to the different kinds of knowl¬ edge ; role of the memory, of the judgment, of reason, of imagination; method, its di&rent procedures, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction. Moral educa¬ tion : Will, the liberty of man [free-will ?] studied in tbe child; moral conscience, responsibility and duty ; relation of duties and rights ; culture of the child's sensi¬ bility ; modification of character and formation of habits; natural diversity of in¬ stincts and characters. • Second year — The school {education and instruction in common), — Schools: Kindergar¬ ten ; the primary, elementary, and higher school: continuation (complbmentaire) schools. Buildings and fittings : Buildings and furniture; appliances for instruction; col¬ lections ; libraries. Pedagogical organization: Classification of students; programmes; use of time; register (journal de classe). Forms of teaching, intuition, object teaching (enseigne- meut par I’aspect), interrogating, oral exercises, correction of pupils' wmrk, school promenades (promenades scolaires). Study upon the particular procedures applica¬ ble to the teaching of each part of the programme. Examination: Certificate of primary studies, composition. Discipline: Rewards, punishment, emulation, self-respect in the child ; personal activity of the teacher, the conditions of his authority, his relations with the stu¬ dents and their families. Third year — History of pedagogy and school management. — Revision, theoretical and practical, of the subjects studied daring tbe first two years. History of pedagogy : Distinguished educationists and their doctrines ; analysis of the more important work. Legislation and administration of school affairs : Laws, decrees, regulations, admin¬ istrative circulars. Organization of normal schools and the conditions of admission. Elementary schools: Difibrent kinds of public schools; creation and support of communal schools; mixed schools, as to sex, as to religious belief; admission of children in the schools ; gratuitous education ; construction of school buildings ; board¬ ing places annexed to public schools ; higher elementary schools; national scholar¬ ships (bourses); accounts of the public schools; communal and departmental ac¬ counts relating to the elementary instruction ; school registers ; private schools taking the place of public schools; private schools. Kindergartens : Their relation to the elementary classes ; their history; their special government. School aids : Popular libraries of the school and other popular libraries ; courses for adults and apprentices ; public lecturers and courses ; school museums ; school funds; school savings banks; shops for manual work; gymnastics. Personnel : Teachers and their assistants in public and private schools ; appoint¬ ment ; legal position ; professional duties ; ten year engagement; pay; pension; au¬ thorities established for supervising and directing elementary instruction; pedagog¬ ical libraries; pedagogical conferences. THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 301 WOMEN. The work in pedagogy and school management is the same for women as for men, except that in the third year only the “ history of pedagogy” is taught and a sum¬ mary outline of elementary school education given. Place of pedagogy in the official French programme. [Hours per week. J Order on pro¬ gramme Subject of study. Men. Women. First year. Second year. Third year. First year. Second year. Third year. Requiring preparatory study : I Moral and civil instruction . 2 2 1 1 1 If Pedagogy and school management . 1 1 1 1 1 HI French language and literature . 7 5 4 6 .5 4 IV History . . . 4 3 3 4 3 3 V Geography . - . 1 1 1 1 1 1 VI Arithmetic . . . 2 3 3 3 3 3 VII Geometry . . 1 2 3 0 0 0 VIII Physios (VII for women) . 2 2 0 a\ 1 IX Chemistry (VIII for women) . 1 1 0 1 ak X Natural sciences (IX for women) . 1 1 2 1 1 bli XI Agriculture and horticulture . 0 2 1 0 0 0 Domestic economy and hygiene (X for women) . 0 0 0 0 ai 1 Total . 20 23 22 17 17 17 Not requiring preparatory study: Writing . - . 3 1 0 3 1 0 XI Sewing . 0 0 0 3 3 3 XII Drawing . 4 4 4 4 4 4 XIII Singing and music . 2 2 2 2 2 2 Total . 29 30 28 29 27 26 Instruction given during recess: 1 XIV Gymnastics . . 3 3 3 2 2 2 Agricultural and “manual ’’ labor . 4 4 4 0 0 0 Botanizing and gardening . 0 0 0 2 2 2 Optional: Modern languages . 2 2 2 2 2 2 a One hour during one semester. 6 Two hours during one semester ; one hour during the other. THE HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS (^COLE NORMALE SUPliRIEURE D’INSTITUTRICES) OF FRANCE. Under date of July 13, 1880, the minister of public instruction and fine arts made the following report to the President of the French Republic : “Mr. President: The law of the 9th of August, 1879, imposes the duty on each department to provide, within four years, a normal school for women who desire to prepare themselves for teaching ; while the decree of the 5th of June last has estab¬ lished an examination for the persons who are to become directors or professors of these schools, which requires siiecial knowledge on the part of candidates for these positions. “ The Government is thus placed under the necessity of providing in a compara¬ tively short time a numerous personnel that is to fulfill conditions as to aptitude more difficult than those which have obtained in the past. Under these conditions the Gov¬ ernment is concerned to find the means of making headway against the difficulties of the situation. “ Excluding the idea of individual preparation (which would be very insufficient), different measures have been proposed. Some would create a normal course in each academy others wmuld establish a fourth year of study to the existing counse of the normal schools. But it is not possible to see the results of these two combinations. Moreover, the putting them in practice presents difficulties. “ The educational press has proposed that a beginning be made by creating a higher elementary normal school (^cole normaleprimaire sup^rieure), and a bill for the estab¬ lishment of a high school of pedagogy for women has been presented. Without wait¬ ing for the legislature to pass upon this bill and wuthout intending to prejudge as to the final character of the projected establishment, it seems to me necessary to take ' The University of F^<^nce is composed of seventeen “ .scademies. ” These academies are not build¬ ings, but educational jurisdictions. The department.s are subdivisions of the academy. 302 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. those steps during the current year which if not taken will make it very difficult to provide a personnel sufficiently well prepared for the normal schools which are about to be opened.” The same day the President of the Republic signed the decree establishing the school, which is now known as the Ecole Normale Sup6rieure dTnstitutrices, Fontenay-aux- Eoses. On the 30th of December, 1882, the following order was issued “ relative to the con¬ ditions of admission to the higher elementary 'normal school for women at Fontenay- aux-Roses ” : Art. 1. An examination for admission to the higher elementary school for women at Fontenay-aux- Roses is held every year during Juiy. Art. 2. To enable the candidate to compete, she must be unmarried or a widow, and not less than -.iO years and not more than 25 years of age at the date of October 1 of the year in which she presents herself for examination. She must have made en¬ gagement for 10 years as provided in the decree of the 29th of July, 1881, ^ and must be provided with a higher brevet ^ or a college diploma (dipldme de bachelier)k Finally, to produce a physician’s certificate, stating her ability to perform the duties of a teacher. Art. 3. Modifications of the age limits may be made by the minister of public in¬ struction upon the motion of the rector of an academy. Art. 4. Applications [inscriptions] are received, in the departments, at the office of the inspector; at Paris, at the department of public instruction. The list is closed 15 days before the examination comes off. With the application for examination each applicant gives her age and place of birth, mentions her diplomas, and gives a sketch of the duties she has performed in public or private schools. The minister of public instruction makes up the list of those who are to be examined. Art. 5. No applicant is admitted to compete more than three times. Art. 6. The examination for admission comprehends written tests, which are elim¬ inating (that is to say, eliminating those who are least fitted to survive,) and oral tests. Art. 7. The written examinations are held at the principal town of the department where the application has been made. The papers are placed under the charge of the inspector of the academy, or, in his absence, of a substitute approved by the rector. The written examination is composed of three compositions : 1. For the candidate for the section of letters : (1) A composition having for its subject-matter a tale, a letter, a literary analysis, the discussion of a maxim, the development of a rule of grammar, etc. (2) A composition upon a subject selected from the history of France, which may be accompanied by geographical questions. {3) A composition upon a pedagogical subject. 2. For the candidate for the section of science : (1) A composition upon a mathematical subject. (2) A composition upon a subject pertaining to physics, chemistry, and natural science. (3) A composition upon a pedagogical subject. The pedagogical composition may be common to the candidates for both sections. The time allowed for each composition is 3 hours. The subjects of composition are selected by the minister of public instruction upon the motion of the examination committee and addressed to the inspectors of the academy under seal, to be opened in the presence of the candidates. The compositions are, immediately after each examination, addressed to the min¬ ister of public instruction by the inspector of the academy, with an account of the proceedings. Art. 8. The written compositions are corrected at Paris by a commission named each year by the minister. The candidates who are found worthy of admission are called to Paris to undergo the oral examination. 1 In applying for permission to be examined for admission to a public normal school the candidate must file (Decree, July 29, 1881) — (1) Her request, indicating therein the school or schools that she has attended since her twelfth year. (2) (Certificate of birth (acte de naissance). (3) Certificate of elementary studies. (4) An engagement to serve for 10 years as a public-school teacher. This paper is accompanied by a declaration on the part of the candidate’s father or legal guardian, authorizes the candidate to make the liontract, and engages to pay the cost of instructing his child or ward if he or she should voluntarily break the engagement. 2By thedecree of January 4, 1881, three “ brevets decapacitd ” were established for the teacher. The “ brevet of the second order or elementary brevet.” the “brevet of the first order or higher brevet,” and the certificate of pedagogical aptitude, which was to be complementary of either of the others. To be examined for the higher or advanced brevet the candidate must have obtained the elementary bre¬ vet and have attained the age of seventeen on the Ist of January of the year in whichhe is examined. 3 It should be added that this requirement of a brevet or a diploma does not appear in the text of the order as originally issued. THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 303 Art. 9. The oral examination consists of interrogations, readings, corrections of scholars’ work, exposition of a topic orally after a short time for preparation, etc. The school for men of the same kind, at St. Cloud, was established by the high council of public instruction, by the following order: Art. 1. The studies of the higher normal school of elementary instruction at St. Cloud comprise the matters taught in the elementary normal schools. Art. 2. The school receives boarders and day scholars, but the number of board¬ ers is lixed at 40. Art. 3. The students are divided in two sections — the section of sciences and that of letters. The courses of psj'chology, and of morals, civics and political economy, and contemporaneous history, school legislation and administration are common to the pupils of the section of letters and to those of the section of science. There shall be established a special course of composition and of French literature for the students of the section of science. Art. 4. The director and the professors constitute the school council, which is con¬ vened and presided over by the director. The director pronounces upon the ability of the first-year students to pass into the second-year course, makes up the list of books that the students use, and in general directs the course the instruction shall pursue. Art. 5. The examination for admission occurs annually, between the dates of Sep¬ tember 15 and October 15. Art. 6. In order to participate the candidates — Must be at least 20 years of age and not more than 25 at the date of October 1 of the year they present themselves for examination. Must have entered into the 10-year engagement to teach. Must have obtained a brevet supdrieur, a diplome de bachelier es lettres ou fes sciences, or a dipldme do bachelier de I’enseignement secondaire special. In addition they must have a certificate of a physician as to their ability to teach. Art. 7. The conditions as to age are modified by the minister of public instruction on the proposition of the rector of an academy. Art. 8. Applications [for admission] are received (in the departments, at the office of the inspector ; at Paris, at the office of the minister of public instruction) 15 days at latest before the opening of the examination. With his request the candidate for¬ wards the time and place of his birth, his diploma, and an account of the services he has performed as a teacher. The minister makes up the list of those who are to be admitted to the examination. Art. 9. No candidate is permitted to enter an examination more than three times. Art. 10. The examination for admission consists of written and oral tests. * The written examination is held at the principal place of the department, under the super¬ vision of the inspector, or, in his absence, of a delegate approved by the rector. The examination consists of three compositions, as follows: 1. For the candidates of the section of letters. (1) A French composition (having for its subject matter a tale, a letter, a literary analysis, the discussion of a maxim, the development of a rule of grammar, etc.). (2) A composition upon a subject selected from the history of France, which may be accompanied by geographical questions. (3) A composition upon a pedagogical subject. 2. For the candidates of the section of sciences : (1) A composition upon a mathematical subject. (2) A composition upon the subjects of physics, of chemistry, and of natural sci¬ ence. (3) A composition upon a pedagogical subject. The pedagogical composition may be common to both classes of candidates. The duration of each of the above compositions is three hours. The subjects are selected by the minister upon the motion of the commission, and are sent under seal to the inspectors, who open them in presence of the candidates. Immediately after the examination the inspectors send them to the minister, and render an account of the proceedings. Art. 11. The compositions are corrected at Paris by a commission which is ap¬ pointed each year by the minister. Those candidates who are deemed worthy of admission are called to Paris to submit to an oral examination. Art. 12. The oral examination consists of interrogations, readings, correction of pupil’s work, and exposition of a fact after a short time for preparation. The course of study at school at Foutenay-aux-Roses is given in Buisson’s Diction¬ ary of Pedagogy, as follows : Psychology and morals applied to pedagogy, history and criticism of pedagogical doctrines and methods, grammar, history of language, French composition and critical reading of classic works ancient literature, French literature of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, French literature of the eighteenth and nineteenth cen¬ turies, aucient history, history of France, and general history (up to the eighteenth century), history of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, arithmetic and elemen- 304 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. tary geometry, physics and chemistry, natural history, geography, elements of car¬ tography and exercises, organization of classes and elocutionary studies, inspection of ^schools, ideas of political economy, school legislation, hygiene, elements of ac¬ counts, English language and literature, German language and literature, drawing, singiug, gymnastics, lessons on cutting and fitting. PRUSSIA. Third class (two hours iveeTcly). — The students receive the essential ideas connected with the history of education and teaching in the shape of biographical and histor¬ ical narration (r^cits), in which the more important epochs, the lives of the more impor¬ tant men, and the most interesting and far-reaching reforms accomplished in popular education are told. As a complement to these narratives, the attention of the pupil is directed to the principal works in the literature of pedagogy, especially those of the time of the Reformation. These readings are selected in such a way as to give an occasion for the development of some pedagogical principle. Second class (two hours weekly). — General science of education and teaching. Teach¬ ing, its form ; educating by teaching. Notions of logic and psychology. First class (two hours weekly). — Special science of teaching (methodology). Func¬ tions of the teacher, school management. “ Ulterior^’ development and complemen¬ tary culture of the teacher. The regulations relative to elementary instruction in vigor in the district where the pupils are to teach are especially taught to them. In addition to the two hours devoted by the class to this subject an hour each week is given to a conference held by the director of the practice school [sometimes known as a model school] with the pupils, in which he communicates to them the impres¬ sions that he or other instructors have received while observing their work in the practice school. Place of pedagogy in the official Prussian programme. [Honrs per week.] Obligatory branches : Pedagogy . . Religion . . German . . History . . Arithmetic . . Geometry . Natural history, physics, and chemistry. Geography . . Drawing . . . Writing . Gymnastics . . . Music and singing . Total . - . Elective branches : French, English, or Latin . . Third Second First clasB. class. class. 2 2 3 4 4 2 5 5 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 (a) 4 4 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 0 2 2 2 5 5 3 35 34 19 3 3 2 a Instruction in geometry is given during the hour devoted to arithmetic. SCHOOLS PEErATlATOKT TO PRUSSIAN NORMAL SCHOOLS. These schools are, in general, private establishments. There is no uniform official plan of studies elaborated by the state department of public instruction, but the branches of studies are determined by the official programme for admission to the normal schools of the 15th of October, 1872. These branches are religion, German, arithmetic, elementary geometry, geography, history, physical and natural science (Naturkunde), penmanship, drawing, music, gymnastics. The study of a foreign language is optional. The study of pedagogy is left for the normal school proper. The length of the course of study in private establishments is not necessarily uniform ; in the state schools it is fixed at two years. BAVARIA. FOR MEN. First course. — General principles of physiology and psychology, as apreparation for pedagogical studies ; science of education and of teaching ; participation in the exercises of the practice school. THE NOEMAL SCHOOL CTJEEICULUM. 305 Second course.— History of pedagogy and of methodology ; pedagogical principles, biographical sketches, school discipline, followed by the method in the different branches of teaching. Continuation of the practical exercises in the practice school. Brief review of the laws and orders in force concerning elementary instruction. If the circumstances permit, some ideas are given to the pupils as to the method of teaching the deaf and the blind. The lessons of special methodology and the practical exercises are distributed among the different professors, each having the branches which he is employed to teach. On this account there is an understanding between the professors of the normal school and the teachers in charge of the practice school so that the work of the normal school pupils disturb as little as possible the course of study of the prac¬ tice school and thus enable them to be truly model schools. FOE WOMEN. First course, — General principles of psychology and of logic as a preparation for pedagogical studies, science of education and of teaching, participation in the ex¬ ercises of the practice school. Second course. — School discipline and special methods, short history of pedagogy and methodology, rapid review (coup d'ceil) of the school laws of Bavaria, ideas of school hygiene, participation in the exercises of the practice schools. Place of pedagogy in the official Bavarian programme, FOR MEN. [Honrs per week.! Prepar¬ atory school course of three years. Normal school. First year. Second year. T?AUginTi _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ........ _ _ _ 3 3 o Gerjnan 6 4 o A Aiithmetic “ and mathematics” . . . . . . . . 4 3 Q Geography.-- - . . . . 2 2 t> ' 1 O History . . . . . . 2 2 N atural history _ _ _ _ _ _ ... . . . 2 2 O Physical science . . . . . 0 2 u Agriculture. . . . . . . . 0 0 A Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . 0 5 U A Penmanship . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 A Drawing _ ............................................................... 2 2 U 2 Ct 6 6 0 Acting as secretary to commune . . . . . 0 O 1 Assisting at church service . 0 0 X Total . . . . . 29 30 Q1 ul FOR WOMEN. [Hours per week.] Preparatory school. Normal school. First year. Second year. Third year. First year. Second year. Religion . . . - . 2 2 2 2 o Germ a, n _ ... _ _ _ _ 5 5 5 5 pr French . . . . . . . 4 4 4 3 D o Arithmetic and geometry . <1 4 4 3 o 3 Geography . .' . 2 2 2 1 1 Historv _ _ _ _ 2 2 2 2 o Natural and physical science . 2 2 2 3 ib 3 Pedagogy . 0 0 0 6 7 Penmanship . 1 1 1 0 0 Drawing . 2 2 2 2 2 Music : Singing . . . . 2 2 2 2 2 Violin (optional) . 1 1 1 1 1 Needlework . . . 2 2 2 2 2 Gymnastics . . . 2 2 2 2 2 Total . . . . 31 31 31 34 35 ED 89 - 20 306 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. SAXONY. MEN. The three lower classes of the normal school do not receive instruction in peda¬ gogy. Third class (four hours ). — Psychology and logic, as introduction to pedagogy. Exer¬ cises in catechetic and method. Second class (five hours). — Continuation of the studies commenced in the third class. Science of teaching. First class (five hours). — Catechetic, science of education, history of pedagogy. Practical exercises. —The third class should he admitted from time to time to wit¬ ness the model lessons given, either in the practice school or in the sixth class of the normal school. Second and first classes (four hours iveeklij for each student). — Listening to model lessons. Practice teaching under the supervision of the professor. Critical examina¬ tion of the teaching done by the pupil. Normal pupils of the first class may be ad¬ mitted to the conferences concerning the work of the practice school. WOMEN. The two lower classes of the normal school for women do not receive instruction in pedagogy. The three upper classes receive theoretical instruction similar to that on the programme for men. As to the practical exercises the programmes differ but slightly. Place of 2)edagogy in the official programme of Saxony. FOR MEN. [Honrs per week.] Sixth class. Fifth class. Fourth class. Third class. Second class. First class. Ob¬ liga¬ tory. Op. tion- al. Ob¬ liga¬ tory. Op¬ tion¬ al. Ob¬ liga¬ tory. Op¬ tion¬ al. Ob. liga- tory. Op¬ tion¬ al. Ob¬ liga¬ tory Op. tion- al. Ob. liga- tory. Op¬ tion. al. Religion . 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 3 0 Gennan . 3(4) 0 3(4) 0 3(4) 0 3(4) 0 4 0 3 0 Latin . 7(6) 0 7(6) 0 5(4) 0 4(3) 0 2 0 2 0 Geography . 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 History . 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 Natural history . 2 0 2 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Physical sciences . Arithmetic and geom¬ 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 etry . 4 0 4 0 5 0 4 0 4 0 3 0 Pedagogy . 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 5 0 5 0 School practice . Music: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 4 0 Singing . 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 Harmony . 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Violin . 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Piano . 0 1 0 1 - 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 Organ . 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Penmanship . 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Stenography . 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 Gymnastics . 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 Drawing . 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 36 1 35 4 34 5 33 4 36 2 30 2 37 39 39 37 38 32 THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 307 Place of Pedagogy in the official programme of Saxony — Continued. FOR WOMEN. [Hours per week.] Fifth class. Fourth class. Third class. Second class. First class. Ob¬ liga¬ tory. Op¬ tion¬ al. Ob¬ liga¬ tory. Op¬ tion¬ al. Ob¬ liga¬ tory. Op¬ tion¬ al, Ob¬ liga¬ tory- Op¬ tion¬ al. Ob¬ liga¬ tory. Op¬ tion¬ al, Religion . . . 3 0 3 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 German . 4 0 4 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 French . 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 EnglivSh. . 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 Geography . 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0 History . . . 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 Natural science . 3 0 3 Q 3 0 2 0 2 A Arithmetic and geometry . 3 0 3 0 2 0 2 0 1 o 0 Pedagogy. . . 0 0 0 0 4 0 5 0 0 School practice . 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 Singing . 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 Harmony . . 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Piano .i . 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Drawing . 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 Penmanship . . . 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Gymnastics . . 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 A Needlework . . . 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 u A Stenography . 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 u 0 30 1 7 30 7 32 5 32 1 5 31 1 .5 37 37 3 7 3 36 HAMBURG. Object: («) .From a theoretical standpoint: t First. The students should learn to teach eaeh of the different branches of the school curricnlnm, and uiiderstaud the school organization in general. Second. The knowledge of psycological facts and the scientific laws of education should permit them to work in such a way as will enable them to cultivate and develop their future j)npil8. Third. The history of pedagogy (aud that of school institutions) should familiar¬ ize the pupil with the development of this science and present to him noble ex¬ amples to emulate in his future career. (6) From a practical point of view : The students should be enabled to apply the knowledge that the theoretical in¬ struction has given them. PLAN OF STUDIES. ^ Third class: Oral and written exercises of chatechetical teachino-, upon easy sub¬ jects, accompany ing the usual lessons in each branch of the plan of studies. Second class (ffve hours) : (1) Catechetical exercises upon more difficult subiects* more personal redaction of written lessons (redaction plus personelle des iecons Ocrites) ; beginning of practice iu listening to model lessons, and practice lessons o-iven to a few pupils. (2) Methodology: This instruction should familiarize the students with the general principles aud the special method of the different branches of the programme of the primary school aud make them acquainted with the most usual and best use of the means of instruction. (3) Psychology; its relations with physi¬ ology (as an mtroduction to pedagogy) : First class, four hours : (1) Science of edu¬ cation, physical and intellectual, of man ; (2) history of pedagogy and of the nri- mary school, especially since the Reformation. Practical exercises : The students are exercised in their profession by teachino- in the practice school. In order that the practice school children may not suffer from the inexperieuce aud errors of the normal school pupils, the normal school pupil is required to prepare himself for the teaching that he is to be called upon to givm To this end there are “ lessons of preparation,’^ in which the details of the proposed les¬ son in the practice school is written out and corrected by the professor. The normal pupils who do not participate in teaching must be present regularly when lessons are given to the practice school children by the ordinary instructors of the school or by normal school pupils. They must, in addition each week in turn, make an at¬ tempt ,,o teach (legou d essai) upon a subject selected from one of the different sub¬ jects ot the programme. The preparation of these essays at teaching should be done tn the same manner as the lessons given in the school of axiplication. 308 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888'89. The course to he followed during the week as to the practice exercises is deter¬ mined by a conference of the professors of the normal school, the teachers of the practice school, and the pupils of the first class. The teachers of the practice school must, in addition, in the conferences with the pupils of the normal school in matters relating to the practice school, make themselves understood upon the particular needs of each of their classes and upon those of their pupils. Place of pedagogy in the programme of the Hamburg City Teachers' Seminary for Men. [Hours per week.] Third class. Second class. First class. 0 5 4 Practical exercises . . . . . 0 0 8 2 3 2 2 Peliffion ..................................................................... 2 2 GrcrruO/H 4 4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 3 3 . . _ _ _ _ _ 3 Aritlimetic and. algebra . . . . . 3 2 0 Geometry and matbematical geography . . . 2 2" 2 Botany and Zoology . . . . . . 2 2 0 0 PIt yai PH _ - _ _ - _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ 2 2 Chemistry and mineralogy . . 0 0 3 History . . . . . . . . . 3 2 i (T-pnoTa.phy _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 2 1 2 pAprpH.iiaViip _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 0 3 0 Gymnastics .................................................................. 2 2 2 Drawing . . . . . . . . 2 ] 1 1 Piano and organ . . . . . 1 1 2 2 2 1 Sinffinj? ................................................................... _ 2 1 Total . 36 36 35 AUSTKIA. MEN. Students of the first year class do not receive instruction in pedagogy. Second year {three hours a week). — Science of education in general. This instruction forms a general introduction to the science of education, treating of the end, the means, the principles, the methods, as well as of persons and institutions. Atten¬ tion is also given to the education of weak-minded children. The essential princi¬ ples of psychology are taught in connection with the several parts of the foregoing instruction. Third year {five hours). — First semester (three hours a week): Science of teaching in general. In introducing the science of teaching the logical relations which are the most readily apprehended are taught by means of examples taken from the experience of the pupils. The programme comprehends, in addition, the methods, forms, and means of teaching, the principles of educative teaching, as well as that which con¬ cerns the persons who receive and give instruction and the places where it is given. During the second semester (two hoars a week) special methods are taught. The branches of the elementary school are passed in review. The usual books are used, and the best means of teaching and the best books treating of methods and elementary instruction indicated. Practical exercises: The students of the third year are present during the lessons given in the practice school, one hour a week during the first semester, two hours during the second. They commence with the lowest class of the practice school and pass successively through the several grades of instruction. As far as possible, es¬ pecially in the beginning, the normal pupils are brought together in a class room and are instructed to observe attentively and to note down their observations. Each pupil must write out a short statement of each lesson at which he has been present. These statements are criticised in a weekly conference of one hour, the director of the normal school presiding, the professor of pedagogy, the regular teach¬ ers of the practice school, and, in the second semester, the professor of special meth¬ odology assisting. In the second semester the normal school pupils may be called upon to take an active part in teaching in the practice school. Fourth year. — History of education and instruction, biographies of distinguished educators, important epochs in education, the most far-reaching reforms in the THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 309 domain of popular instruction. The pupils are informed as to the principal peda¬ gogical works, and as to the historical development of the Austrian elementary school. Laws and regulations of elementary instruction iu Austria (two hours). Practical exercises : These exercises form the continuation of the lessons on meth¬ ods iu the elementary school received in the third year, and complete a special course of methods in each branch, given by each of the several i>rofessors simulta¬ neously with the lessons upon that branch. The exercises comprehend — (a) A preparatory conference. (h) The lesson given by the normal pupils in the practice school. (c) The criticism of these lessons. In the preparatory conference, which is held under the presidency of the director, with the assistance of the professors of special methodology and the regular teachers of the practice school, the plan of work for each week is fixed in advance. The object is to occupy the largest number possible at the same time and to afford to each stu¬ dent an opportunity to employ himself practically during the course of the year in each branch and each grade. As far as possible each student should have the oppor¬ tunity of prolonging, at least in one subject, his exercises for a certain time. The normal pupils may be required to prepare themselves for their practical exercise by writing them out, should it be thought necessary. The essays in teaching made by the normal school pupils occur in groups under the direction of the teachers of the practice school, who communicate subsequently, ^ to the normal school pupils, the result of their observation of this practice work (three hours a week). Each week certain essays at teaching are made in the presence of all the pupils of the normal school under the presidency of the director, who is assisted by the pro¬ fessor of methods of the branch taught and by the teacher of that branch in the school (two hours a week). These essays at teaching become the object of a conference at the close of each week, in which the normal school pupils take part as well as the members of the fac¬ ulty who are interested (i e., whose subjects are involved). In this conference the more important events that have happened during the week in the institution are discussed in order to habituate the pupils to think upon questions of administration and education and to familiarize them with the duties of a teacher. (Two hours a week are giv(m to the preparatory conferences and ‘‘conferences de critique.”) When circumstances permit, the normal pupils visit the elementary schools of the locality accompanied by their professors. In every grade of study, private reading is an auxiliary to the course. In order to a(iComplish this the students should have at command appropriate works on general pedagogy, didactics, and special methods. To insure that such works have been care¬ fully read the students should be called upon to render an account thereof either by word of mouth or in writing. WOMEN. The text of the plan of studies is the same, as far as pedagogy is concerned, as for men, except the following paragraph. In the normal schools for women to which is annexed a kindergarten, the pupils of the third and fourth year employ a portion of the time devoted to practical exer¬ cises, to the exercises of the same kind in the kindergarten. Place of pedagogy in the official programme of Austria. FOK MEN. [Hours per week.] 1 Studies. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Religion . . . . . 2 2 1 1 Pedagogy . . . 0 3 5 9 Mother tongue . . . . . 4 4 4 4 Geography . . . . ... . . . . . . . 2 2 1 History and constitutional law . . . 2 2 2 2 Mathematics and geometrical drawing . . 5 4 3 2 Natural history . 2 2 2 1 Physical sciences . 2 2 3 2 Agriculture . 0 0 2 2 Penmanship . 1 0 0 0 Free hand drawing . . . 2 2 2 1 Violin . . . 2 2 2 2 Singing . . . 2 2 1 1 Gymnastics . 2 2 1 1 Total . 28 29 30 29 310 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. Place of pedagogy in the official programme o/J.Ms/rm— Continued. FOE ^YOMEX. [Hours per Treek.] Studies. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Ee, lip-ion . . . . . . . 2 2 1 1 Pedap-op-y. . . . . . . 0 3 5 9 Mother tongue . . . 4 4 4 4 Geography.. . . . . . . . . 2 2 1 Hi.sl.ory . . . . . 2 2 2 1 Arithmatic and elementary geometry . 4 3 2 1 [Natural hist-irv . 2 2 2 1 Physical sciences . 2 2 3 2 Penmanship 1 0 0 0 Free-hand ur.i wing . 2 2 2 1 Singing . 2 2 2 2 Needlework . 2 2 2 2 Gymnastics . 2 2 1 1 Total . 27 28 28 26 BERN. MEN. Lower class. — In this class one or two hours a week are given to the several ques¬ tions relative to the physical and mental development of the individual, and to public and private education, by. taking as a point of departure the observations made in the family and in the school by the students themselves, in order to awaken in them a propensity to observe psychological and pedagogical facts, and thus to pre¬ pare them for the systematic instruction in pedagogy that comes later on. Intermediate class. — Psychology (three hours a week): The instruction in psychol¬ ogy has the object to give a clear conception of the organism and the evolution of the subjective mind (I’esprit subjective) from the lower degrees of the soul’s activity to the realization of intellectuality. It comprehends : (a) The evolution of the soul to intellectuality (I’esprit). (&) The faculties of the mind (I’esprit). (c) The particular characteristics of the mind. Higher class. — General pedagogy (three hours a week) : The instruction in general pedagogy has the object to give the student scientific ideas upon education in gen¬ eral, in order to permit him to study pedagogical works unaided, and to form an exact and complete idea of the end, as well as the ways and means of education in the elementary school. It treats : {a) Of the essence of education. (b) Of the elements of education. (c) Of the work of education. Practical pedagogy (three hours a week): Practical pedagogy is essentially th science of school organization in the widest sense of the word. By it the pupil learns to recognize, on one side, the relation of the elementary school to domestic education and to the other establishments for popular education ; on the other side he learns the task which the public school has to accomplish, the means of accomplishing it, and the historical development of our system of public instruction. The instruction comprehends the following divisions : (a) The family and the school : The relation between domestic education and public education, educational establishments in their organic totality, the primary school, its definition, its end, its means of activity. (h) Education in the primary school: Discipline and instruction in the elementary school, the organization of elementary instruction in general and the proper method to follow in teaching each branch in particular. (c) The principal facts of the history of pedagogy, especially in what concerns the elementary school. Concurrently with the instruction in practical pedagogy, exercises in methods are given in the practice school which are criticised in the conferences which the pupils have as a class with the teacher of the practice school. The pupils of the middle and highest classes are present, turn about, either one alone or two together, at the lessons in the practice school. This occurs twice a year and lasts a week for each time. While the student so detailed is present in the THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 311 practice scliool be is under tbe control of the regular teacher of that school, who, however, gives him a certain amount of freedom, reporting at the end of the week as to the pupil’s conduct. The pupil on his part keeps a journal in which he notes the lessons and other duties of the different classes of the practice school and his ob¬ servations. Towards the end of the school year all the students of the highest class are present for some days during the lessons in the practice school or schools of the neighbor¬ hood, receiving on these occasions supplementary instruction in school-keeping. Place of pedagogy in the official programme of the Canton of Bern, Sivitzerland. FOE MEN. [Hours per week.l Third class. Second class. First class. Ped a^off V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 6 Eeligiou . . . . . . 3 3 3 Geriuaii . . .'. . . . . . . . 7 7 7 French . 3 3 2 Mathematics : Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . 4 3 3 (TeninpitTP . . . - . . . 2 2 2 Sciences; Physics and chemistry . 2 2 1 Natural history . 2 2 1 Histoi'y . . . . . 3 3 2 Geo2,Taphy . . . 2 2 2 Music : SiTif^inp" . . . - . - . . . 3 3 3 Piano . . . 2 2 2 Violin . 2 2 1 Urnwin'T . . . . . . . 2 2 2 Penmaiishij} . 3 2 1 Gymnastics . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 43 1 40 FOR WOMEN. [Hours per week.J First semes¬ ter. Second semes¬ ter. Third semes¬ ter. Fourth semes¬ ter. Religion . . . . . 3 3 3 3 Pedagogy . 3 3 3 4 Methodology and practical exercises . 3 3 6 8 German: Literature . . 3 3 3 3 Composition . 2 2 2 Grammar . '. . . . 2 2 2 0 Arithmetic . 2 3 2 3 Geometry . . . 2 2 2 1 History . 3 2 3 2 Geography . 2 2 . 2 4 Natural and physics ... . . . . . 3 2 3 Singing . 3 3 3 3 Piano . . . 1. 5 1.5 1 1 Penmanship . . . . . 2 2 2 Drawintr . . 2 3 3 3 Nee^Jework . c 6 6 6 Gymnastics . 2 2 2 2 44.5 45. 5 47 50 ITALY. The object of the normal school being to educate persons so as to render them ex¬ pert in the art of education, the most important study is pedagogy, which has edu¬ cation for its particular object. The professors of the other studies have it in hand to furnish the normal pupil with the information which is necessary to train the 312 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. mind, and indirectly to train these normal pupils to impart this information to their future pupils in the elementary school ; bnt the professor of pedagogy’s duty is not only to teach his pupils the maxims of the science of education, hut especially to he their guide and master in the art of methodically communicating the information acquired. But general maxims and rules of method are the products of particular observations and of experience^ and without actual experiments the students are neither able to comprehend them nor to appreciate the results. It follows from this that pedagogy should be taught according to a plan rigorously experimental, and that practice ought not only to form the base but the crowm. Practice consists in part of the remembrance of personal experience, in part of the observations that have been made while teaching, and finally, in part, of the commu¬ nications that have been received from another. The memories of personal experi¬ ence contribute to produce the effect desired if all the professors of the school, each working to do his part towards the gradual development of the pupil’s mind, are careful to conform to the maxims of general pedagogy and to the rules of special method taught by the professor of pedagogy. The observation of another has no practical value, at least so far as can be ascertained by experiment, for the purpose of producing real educational results. It, therefore, follows that the principal foun¬ dation of practice is the observations that one makes while teaching. On this ac¬ count the practical exercises in the school are of so much importance. While offer¬ ing the material for observation and an occasion to apply abstract theory, they serve to form and to perfect professional ability which assumes that the pupil has the nec¬ essary talent for the work. Having thus determined the role of the professor of pedagogy, it remains to sum¬ marily indicate the programme that he should follow. (The students of the first course do not receive lessons in pedagogy.) Second course. — Definition of education and instruction. The family and the school. Ideas as to the development of the faculties of the human mind. Manner in which the development ought to accord with the acquisition of knowledge. The activity of the intelligence in particular. Method, its principles, character, and means, general results that it should produce. The form of instruction. The school in general, place of the elementary school in the organization of public instruction. Studies and programme of elementary instruction. Special methods for teaching each of the subjects of the programme in the different classes of primary schools. Pedagogical organization of infant schools. Organization of an elementary school, as to matters of study, as to persons and the division of time. ’ Pedagogy : The intellectual development of man ; character of each stage of this development. Foundation and directing principles of education. Laws and means of action of education. Duties and role of the educator. Habits. Education in its different relations with the several ages of man. Forms of education : Home, school, individual, collective [social ? ]. Laws and special means which should regulate the development of the faculties of each order. Physical, intellectual, aesthetic, and moral education . Third course. — The matters taught in an elementary way in the preceding course are reviewed in this in a more thorough and methodical way. Necessity for the education of man. Definition of education. Possibilities and limits of education. Duration of [the period of] education. Pedagogy, its origin, auxiliary, sciences. The subject of education. The end of education. The method of education. The forms (persons and institutions) of education. Elements of the history of education. Education among non-Christian peoples, among Christian peoples, Middle Ages, Renaissance, modern times. Special details upon Italian institutions and methods, and upon the great educators of Italy. Practical exercises: (1) Upon each subject taught in the elementary school, each professor giving to his class oral or written lessons as an exercise in methods. (2) The students give once a week a lesson in the model school under the direction of the professor of pedagogy and the professor of the branch which is being taught. After this practical exercise the normal pupils’ classmates criticise the manner in which the lesson has been given and the professor of pedagogy gives judgment on the different remarks that have been made. (3) The students are present at the lessons of the model school, and the time as¬ signed to each exercise is so divided that the normal students of the first two courses shall be able to be present during all the lessons in the lower practice school classes, and those of the third course during the lessons given to the higher practice school classes. The normal school pupils who have not yet commenced the study of pedagogy are limited to listening or employed as monitors in the lower classes. When they have reached the study of special methodology, they give essay lessons upon each branch of the curriculum, under the direction of the regular teacher of the practice school. Finally, they prepare, under th« direction of the regular teacher of the model school. THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 313 the subjects for the different written exercises that are given to the x^ractice- school pupils. Every week the normal school pupils make up a report in which they speak of the observations they have made as well as of the work they have done while employed in the practice school. The professor of pedagogy examines these reports before the class, and takes pains to develop among his pupils a spirit of reflection and observa¬ tion, and to form in them a pedagogical judgment. Official programme of the class preparatory to the normal schools for ivomen in Italy. Subjects (lower section). Hours weekly. Subjects (upper section). Hours weekly. Italian . . . . 10 3 Italian . . . . 9 TTisitorY anrl peograijiby _ _ History and geography _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 Practical arithmetic and “metric” deci¬ mal system . . . . 4.5 Practical arithmetic and “metric ” deci¬ mal system . 3 Penmanship . . 3 Penmanship . . ... . . 3 Gymn astics . . . . . 2 Gymnastics . . . . . •2 Needlework _ _ _ _ 4.5 Drawing . . . . . 3 27 Singing . . Needlework . 2 3 28 Place of pedagogy in the official programme of Italy. [Hours per week.] ! First course. Second course. Third course. Notions of riffbts and duties . . . . . . . . 2 1 1 Lianguafire and literature of Italy . . . . . . G 6 4.5 3 History and geography . . . 3 3 Pedagogy . . . . 0 3 3 “Lessons ” in the model school . 0 1.5 1. 5 S6ances in the model school . . 1. 5 3 7. 5 Arithmetic, bookkeeping, and geometry . 4.5 3 1. 5 Natural history, notions of physics, chemistry, and hygiene . 1.5 1. 5 3 Drawing . . . . . 4. 5 3 3 Penmanship . 3 3 0 Gymnastics . . . 2 2 1 Singins: . . . 2 1 1 “ Practical agronomie ” (for men) . 3 2 2 Needlework (for women) . . . 3 2 2 33 33 32 BELGIUM. FIRST YEAR. I. Education in general. — Purpose and importance of education. Mission of the ele¬ mentary teacher. Essential qualities of the teacher, physical, intellectual (i. e., well- balanced mind, scholarship, accurate use of language), moral. Object of pedagogy, its divisions. Necessity of pedagogical studies. II. Physical education. — Observation. As the programme of the normal school com¬ prehends special courses upon anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, as well as a well- developed instruction of gymnastics, the professor of pedagogy confines himself to the exposition of the following points : (1) The object and imxiortance of physical education. Physical education should be based upon the nature of the child. Necessity for the teacher to study human anatomy and physiology. (2) Importance of general hygiene and of school hygiene. (3) Gymnastics, their object and advantages. Exercises proper to an elementary school. Apparatus, methods, order, and discipline. Child-plays. Necessity of an active supervision during the time of play, responsibility of the teacher. SECOND YEAR. III. Elements of psychology — (A) Consciousness ; the ego ; psychological facts of consciousness ; physical facts, intellectual facts, facts of the will ; relation of psychological facts and physiological 314 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. facts. Distinction between the three great faculties of the mind — the feelings, the un¬ derstanding, and the will. (B ) The facts of willing and of the feelings in their lower forms (sensitive facts). Physical activity : Movement, instincts, bodily habits. Physical sensibility : Pleasure and pain, internal sensations, external sensations ; the senses, interpretation of sen¬ sations, illusions; needs and appetites [of life?]. (C) Faculties of intellectual and moral life. The understanding : External percep¬ tion and the conscience, attention. Memory and association of ideas, imagination. Abstraction and generalization. Judgment and reasoning. The reason. The theory of certitnde, ideas upon scientific method deductive and inductive. Family affection, social affection, love of country, aesthetic and religious sentiments. Analysis of the acts of the will, free will and responsibility, habit. IV. Methodology of intellectual education, — Object of the education of the mind. Education of the senses. Observation and other exercises. Kindergarten exercises Ways of causing the child to be attentive. Cultivation of the judgment and of the reasoning power. The cultivation of memory (association of ideas), and of the imagi¬ nation. General methodology : Method follows- from the study of psychology and is based upon the laws of mental evolution. Foundation of a good method of elementary instruction insisting on the following points ; The instruction should be based as far as possible upon sensible intuition. It should provoke constantly the mental activity of the pupil and be a veritable gymnastic of the senses and faculties. It is not only necessary that the child should see, observe, analyze, compare, and judge, it is also necessary that he invent and create. Intel¬ lectual work should correspond to the stage of the development of the faculties and not be caused to impede physical development. The child should be accustomed to express simply but correctly his own observations and judgments. Nothing should be left to the memory that has not been seized by the intelligence. It is necessary to teach things, not words. It is necessary to go from the simple to the complex, from the concrete to the abstract, wheu speaking of what is not familiar to the child. It is necessary to awaken in the child a lively interest for the object of the lesson. It is necessary to go slowly, to return frequently to the simpler ideas, to make numer¬ ous applications and frequent repetitions, but to vary the exercise, to give “ a hun¬ dred aspects” to what the child has learned. It is necessary that education and instri^tion should go hand in hand ; for all the branches that are taught should con¬ cur in giving the pupil a general culture and prepare him to continue alone the further work of educating himself. The different general procedures of method : Analysis, synthesis, observation, ex¬ perimentation, induction, deduction, forms of teaching, modes of teaching, exercises of the elementary pupil, repetition, examination. Special methodology : Theoretical and practical exposition of the method that should be followed in teaching each of the branches of the official programme for elementary schools. V. Discipline. — Some practical lessons upon the system of discipline adopted in the practice school in order to prepare the normal pupils- of the second year to teach in that school. VI. Practical exercises. — The students are present in the school of application, one hour weekly (throughout the year) while the professor of method6logy, and the teach¬ ers of the practice school give lessons. The students witness the teaching exercises of the third-year students, and summarize their observations and hand them to the pro¬ fessor of methodology. During the last session the students are more intimately connected with the exercises of the practice school. THIRD YEAR. VII. Moral education, its olject and importance. — Habits and example. Tendencies sources of our action. General means of favoring the tendencies which are good and of breaking up those which are bad. VIII. JEstlietic education. * * * IX. Natural education. — Means of developing patriotism, and of preserving and ameliorating the national character. X. Object and importance of discipline. — Basis of a good discipline; emulation; rewards and punishments. XI. Organization of the elementary school. — Different kinds of elementary schools, buildings, furniture, etc. Rules and regulations, classifying, programmes, prepara¬ tion of lessons, etc., kindergartens. Courses for adults. XII. History of pedagogy in modern times. — Montaigne, Comeuius, Locke, FcSnelon, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Frcebel, principal contemporaneous authors. Bibliography of pedagogy. XHI. Practice. — The pupils are present at the model lessons given by the professor THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 315 of metlioclology and by the teachers, in the practice school. Once a week there are didactic exercises which consist of (1) a lesson given by a normal-school pupil in the presence of his classmates; (2) criticisip of such work; (3) ilie synopsis, by one or more students designated for the purpose, of the discussion thus evoked. The teaching exercises tika place under the direction of the professor of pedagogy, the director of the normal school, the professor of the branch in which a lesson is being given, and the teachers of the i)ractice school. The subject to be taught is select^l two days in advance and is prepared by all the normal-school pupils. He who is to give the lesson is designated by lot on the morning of the day on which the lesson is to be given. Before a student may teach a second time each of his classmates shall have had a turn. The exercises of the practice school are regulated in such a way that each stu¬ dent has an opportunity to give six half-hour lessons each week. The bulletins, successively sent to each normal-school pupil, form a series embracing every branch of the curriculum. Each student is taught to direct a class of two and even of three divisions. The students are required to prepare the lessons and to submit them to the examination of the teacher in charge of the practice-school division to whose pupils the lesson is to be given. The professor of methodology examines the students’ note-books containing these lessons of preparation once a month. Each student cor¬ rects, under the supervision of a teacher, a certain amount of the practice-school pu¬ pils’ work which they have done under his teaching. FOURTH YEAR, I. Psychology. — Revision and development of the teaching of the second year. IT. Methodology. — Revision of the more important partsof methodology wit h special application to tlie programme of the higher primary schools. III. History o/pednyoyy.— Summary of the history of pedagogy from the sixteenth century to the present and critical exposition of tiie principal systems of <'dncation : Bacon (Novum Orgauum), Rabelais, Montaigne (De I’instrnction des enfauts), The Jesuits, Tiie Oratory and the Jauseuists, Locke, Conienius, Fdnelon (De I’dducation des fi lies), Rolliu (Traitd des dtudes), Jeau-Jacques-Rousseau (Emile), Basedow and the philanthropists, Pestalozzi (Wie Grertrud ihre Kinder lehrt ; Lienhard and Ger¬ trud, Fbre Girard (Cours de langue maternclle), Diesterweg, Froebel, Herbert Spencer (Education, intellectual, moral, and i)hysical), Alexander Bain (The Science of Edu¬ cation), Pedagogical bibliography. IV. Practice of instruction. — Teaching followed by criticism once a week. Practical exercises in the school of application. Place of pedagogy in the ojjicial programme of Belgium. FOE MEK [Hours per week.] First year. Second year. Third year. Finishing class, fourth year. Pedavnofy . . . . . . . 1 a3 u3 2 Morals, i'. e., conduct (savoir vivre) . . . 1 1 1 1 M oth PT ton vu e . . . . . . . 5 5 4 4 A forci gn Ian vii . . . . . . . . . 4 4 4 4 History . . . 2 1 2 2 Geography . . . 1 1 1 1 Mathematics . 3 3 3 3 Natural sciences, hygiene, and notions of agriculture and of horti¬ culture . 3 3 2 1 Notious of constitutional and commercial law and of social econ¬ omy . 0 1 1 0 Penmanship and bookkeeping . 1 1 0 0 Drawing . . . 2 2 1 1 2 Music . . . 2 1 Gymnastics . 3 12 b2 bl Eecommended reading . . 2 2 1 2 Manual work in the shop . . . 2 2 1 2 Total . . . . 32 33 c27 c26 a Time given to “didactic exercises” included. & In addition, and at least twice daring the week, gymnastics are given during recess (two half- hours. c Not including the time devoted to practice in the model school. 316 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Place of pedagogy in the official programme of Belgium — Continued. FOE WOMEN. [Hours per week.] First year. Second year. Third year. Upper normal school, (a) 1 &3 63 2 1 1 1 1 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 b'l b2 61 61 4 4 3 3 2 1 1 1 32 33 c27 c27 Pedagogy and methodology . Morals — conduct (savoir vivre) . Mother tongue . A foreign language . History . Geography . . Mathematics . Natural science, hygiene, and notions of domestic economy Notions of organic laws . Penmanship and bookkeeping . Drawing . . Music . Gymnastics . Needlework . Eecommended reading . Total . a Literally a higher elementary (primaire) normal school. h See note a of preceding table. c See note c of preceding table. Place of pedagogy in the official programme of Holland SCHOOLS OF THE SECOND RANK. Dutch . National history . Geography . Arithmetic . Elementary geometry . . . Natural sciences . Singing . Pedagogy . Needlework (for women) Total . [Hours per week.J First class. Second class. Third class. Fourth class. 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 16 15 14 15 Dutch . History . . . Geography . Arithmetic . Elementary geometry ... Natural science . Singing . . Pedagogy . Drawing... . Mathematics . Gymnastics . French . . Needlework (for women) Total . SCHOOLS OP THE FIRST RANK. 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 22 23 22 23 CANADA. We take the following information from the papers read at the Internatio,fial Congress of Educators,” at New Orleans, in February, 1885. From the paper entitled “The normal schools and their work in Ontario,” by School Inspector Joseph H. THE NORMAL SCHOOL CURRICULUM. 317 Smith, we obtain tlie curriculain of tlie two normal schools of that province; from the “County model school system of the province of Ontario,” by J. J. Tilley, in¬ spector of county model schools, we obtain the programme of the Ontario County model schools. NOEMAL SCHOOLS. 1. Education. — In this subject a course of eighty lectures is given, embracing the history of education, the science of education, the principles and practice of teaching, school organization, and school management. 2. English language and literature.— study of these subjects consists in the critical reading of one of the plays of Shakespeare or the work of some other standard author, together with a course of twenty lectures upon words and their uses, the proper construction of sentences, and the correct use of language, and the beauties and defects of style as found in the writings of standard authors. 3. Hygiene. — In this subject a course of twenty lectures is given on the preservation of health, the air we breath, the food we eat, the clothing we wear, the fluids we drink, and the physical and mental exercise necessary for the highest development of man. 4. Chemistry. — Thirty lectures on elementary chemistry are given, illustrated by jSimple experiments. The objects are (1) to make the experiment understood, (2) to ‘have the students explain it, (3) to cause the student to reason on natural phenom¬ ena, and (4) to enable the student to repeat the experiment when a teacher. There is laboratory work under supervision of a science master. 5. Botany. — This subject is made as practical as possible by the examination of specimens collected from time to time, and consists of a course of twenty lectures, em¬ bracing the chemistry and histology of plant life, the structure of flowering plants, and the general classification of plants. 6. Zoology. — A general outline of this subject is given in a course of twenty lectures. 7. Physics. — The course in this subject consists of a series of thirty lectures upon heat, light, and electricity. In this, as in chemistry, great importance is attached to the explanation of the physical phenomena of daily life. 8. Drawing. — This subject is taught by a specialist, who gives a course of forty les¬ sons, in which designing, model drawing, free-hand, perspective, constructive draw¬ ing, scientific perspective, and practical geometry are taught. 9. Music. — This subject is also taught by a specialist, and consists of a course of forty lessons, in which the scales and their various transpositions are taught, com¬ bined with the singing of songs in two, three, and four parts. 10. Calisthenics. — The course in this subject consists of a series of calisthenic exer¬ cises, under the direct supervision of a competent drill master. 11. Military drill. — The exercises in this subject are taught similarly to those in calisthenics and by the same person. 12. Methods of instruction. — A course of 115 lectures in which the following subjects are reviewed with the object of illustrating the best methods of teaching them, viz : Language lessons, grammar, composition, spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, algebra, Euclid and mensuration, history, geography, and object lessons. 13. Practical teaching. — During the early part of each session the students, accompa¬ nied by the normal school masters, are required to visit the model school and observe the methods of teaching the different subjects, as practically illustrated by the teach¬ ers in the model school. They are also required to observe the methods adopted for securing attention and interesting the pupils in their work. After sufficient oppor- tunies have been given to the students of witnessing the manner in which the differ¬ ent subjects are taught in the model schools, they are called upon to teach before each other in the normal school, under the guidance and supervision of the masters, and to criticise each other’s teaching in a friendly way. 14. School law. — Under this head is given a knowledge of the elementary principles of law and of their application under the statute of trustees, teachers, inspectors, etc. Finally they are required to take charge of classes in the model school, under the supervision of the teachers, and are expected to teach at least three times in each department of the model school. There are two sessions of the two normal schools in each year. The first opens in January and closes in June, the second opens in August and closes in December. Candidates for admission are required to comply with the following conditions, viz : To be native born or naturalized subjects of Her Majesty ; to have passed the pre¬ scribed examination for second-class non-professional certificates ; to hold a third- class professional certificate or its equivalent; to have taught successfully for at least one year as certified to by the public school inspector in whose inspectorate the teaching was done ; to give satisfactory evidence of good moral character at the time of making application ; and, if females, to be not less than eighteen years of age, and, if males, nineteen. 318 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. COUNTY MODEL SCHOOLS OF ONTAEIO. Course of study. 1. Principles of education. — School organization, management, and discipline, methods of instruction, and practice in teaching. 2. Physiology and hygiene. — (a) Laws of health, temperance, cleanliness; hours for study, rest, recreation, and sleep. (&) Heating and ventilation of the school-room, (c) Functions of the brain, eye, stomach, heart, and lungs. 3. Music drawing and calisthenics. 4. School laic. — A knowledge of school law, so far as it relates to the duties of teachers and pupils. 5. Revieio of non-professional work. — The teachers in training are required to review and supplement their knowledge of the principal subjects of the public school curricu¬ lum, such as composition, spelling, arithmetic, and literature. For this purpose the principal gives a few exercises on these subjects during the term, and by oral and written examination tests the student’s knowledge of matter as well as of methods of instruction. Management. First section of term ( tivo iceeks). — ( I ) Teaching by the principal : For the first two weeks of the session the principal teaches in the separate room provided for this purpose those subjects with which he intends the students subsequently to begin. In teaching a class as above the principal first lays before the students the plan of the lesson and illustrates this plan by his teaching. He also requires the students to take notes of his methods and these are discussed in the criticism hour. In this way about ten lectures, combined with illustrative teaching, are given on the best "methods of teaching some of the primary subjects. During this time the students are not required to visit the different departments of the school for observation, as it is believed that no one can observe intelligently or with profit until he has some idea of the object to be attained by the teacher. (2) The students having noted and discussed the methods as outlined by the prin¬ cipal and having observed the practice of these methods are now themselves prepared to begin to teach. They are therefore next required to teach classes in the separate room, under the guidance of the principal, and subject to the criticism of their fellow students after the conclusion of the lesson. (3) Observation: The principal next prepares the students for taking observation in the different rooms set apart for model school purposes, their attention being specially called to the matter of the lesson, to the method of presenting it, and to the class. Second section of term {three weeks). — (1) Observation and class teaching in the sepa¬ rate room in {a) observing class teaching by the principal, (6) class teaching before the principal and their fellow students, (c) criticisms. (2) Observations in the different divisions: During the second half of the day the students are engaged in observing teaching by the assistants in the different rooms and in taking notes. These notes are afterwards given to the principal and dis¬ cussed in the separate room. The assistant teachers are required to explain to the students the purpose and the plan of the lesson before they begin to teach, to call attention to points in the progress of the lesson, and to summarize at the close. Third section of term {seven weeks). — Teaching by students in the divisions: The students having seen the principal teach a number of subjects, having taught the subjects themselves under the direction of the principal, having observed how classes are taught by the assistants, and having some idea of the matter and method of a lesson, are now able to take charge of classes in the subjects already illustrated. The assistant teachers are required to take notes of the work done by the students and to report the same to the principal. Students when assigned to a room remain a week in one (iivision. The average number of lessons taught by each student during the session is thirty. Fourth section of term {one week). — Review and examination : Students are not re¬ quired to do any school work during the last week of the term. CHAPTER XII. THE TEACHING FOECE OP NEW ENGLAND FEOM 18G6 TO 1888.' PUKPOSE AND CONDITIONS OF THE STUDY. In no other manner can statistics he used to greater advantage than by employing them in the spirit of the “ historical method.’^ Especially valuable is this method when applied to the study of educational affairs. Had statistics of the teaching force been given by all or by a majority of the States of the Union some conclusions of a definite nature might have been drawn from comparing State with State, but such a comparison of synchronous facts is far different from comparing the present condition of a State with its record at times past — from comparing it with itself. From the fullness of their statistics, the New England States have been selected as best adapted to the purposes of the historical view of the condition of the teaching force that we are about to undertake. It must not be supposed, however, that the statistics of the six New England States are uniform or complete ; quite the contrary. But such as they are we shall attempt to use them to show the movement in the jiast and the present condition of the teaching body in each of the several States of the section under review : (1) As to the annual changes that occur; (2) the proportion of men to women ; (3) the average wages paid ; and finally, and most important for the purpose of this chapter, (4) the number of inexperienced persons that enter upon teaching, and the educational attainments of the teaching force, as far as those attainments are indicated by the place of education. In selecting a period at which a beginning shall be made in prosecuting this under¬ taking, that has been chosen which saw the termination of the War of the Eebelliou. The call to arms undoubtedly caused many vacancies in the teaching corps. Mon¬ sieur F. Buisson, president of the French educational commission to the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, observes in his rex^ort on elementary instruction in the country in 1876 : “ In the United States the teaching corps is made up of a large number of females, to whom classes containing boys of every age are frequently intrusted. The superi¬ ority of the female element of the teaching body over the male in point of numbers dates from the war of secession, the original cause being the voluntary enrollment of all the young men who were teaching, as soldiers.” In 1862 the superintendent of Ohio estimates that 5,000 teachers in that State had entered the Northern army. One can surmise without fear of contradiction that the case was not otherwise in the South. ^ One of the most annoying tasks of the statistician, though one in which he would seem to take xiarticular delight from the frequency with which he discusses the mat¬ ter, is the imperfection of his statistics. Without dwelling then on this subject, we will mention two points that should be remembered. First, in obtaining the ratios of Tabulation Gr we have given, wherever it was possible, the relation which the num¬ ber of teachers necessary to supply the schools bears to the different teachers em¬ ployed during the year. Were every “ necessary place ” filled and were there no mutual exchange of schools, and no x>romotions, this figure would be of more value than it is, as indicating the changes that have occurred during the year, to say nothing of new schools and departments established during the interval elapsing be- ^ See note, p 275. 2 In tlie fourtli annual report of tlie superinteudent of public instruction of Kansas, we find the fob lowing : “School teachers are proverbially patriotic. No class have boon more ready to do for their country. Illinoi.s has furnished for the Army 3,000 teachers. Among these was Professor Hovey of the State Normal School. With him enlisted nearly a regiment of his own pupils. Ohio sent 5,000; nearly half of her male teachers. Now Vork sent from the schoolroom to the battlefield, 3,000 of her teach¬ ers.” 319 320 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. tween the begiuniug and closing of the school year. Second, as the number of teachers necessary to supply the schools” has not been given in the case of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Connecticut, we have been obliged to use the number of “ public schools ” ot “ departments ” instead of the “ number of teachers required ” by the system. I.— Social Conditions. Preparatory to canvassing the statistics of Tabulation L (p. 328) we will anticipate and illustrate one of its indications. It is evident that the columns of that table for Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island show much more favorably for those States, considered either individually or collectively than similar columns for Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont show for those States whether taken also individually or collectively. This suggests an inquiry as to tbe social conditions of the two sections thus marked off by the figures, and first of all as to the geographical distri¬ bution of the population of the two groups. The following tables will show how far apart they are in this respect and in others. DISTRIBUTION OF THE INHABITANTS OF THE NEW ENGLAND STATES, THEIR OCCU¬ PATION, AND WEALTH. Tabulation K.— Density of population of the New England States. 1870. 1880. 1889 a Group I : IVIaine _ ..... _ _ _ _ _ _ Sq. m. 20,9 Sq. m. 21.7 38.5 Sq. m. 21.5 40.9 36.5 New Hampshire.... ...... .. ............... _ ..... _ ............. _ _ 35.3 V erraont . . . . . 36.1 36.4 Group n : Massachusetts 181.2 221. 8 249.7 Connecticut .............................................................. 110. 9 128.5 140.5 Rhode Island _ _ _ _ _ _ 200.3 254.9 291.7 a Estimated. As this is somewhat vague, inasmuch as in Maine, for example, the population is concentrated in the southern part of the State as in Massachusetts it is the eastern, the following table is presented. It should be considered in connection with the fore¬ going one. Tabulation B. — Percentage of population in New England States in cities of A f 00 and over.^ 1870. 1880. Group I : _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ Per ct. 24 Per ct. 26 New Hampshire _ _ ' _ _ _ _ 26 30 Vermont. . . . . . . . 15 16 Group II : M a.saaeh n setts . - _ _ _ _ _ _ 69 76 60 Connecticut . . . 52 Rhode Island _ _ _ 74 85 The indications of the first of these tabulations is corroborated by those of the second; although the villages of 1,000 to 4,000 have not been included. It is very evident that the New England States may be separated into two groups, when con¬ sidered as to the density of their population. An examination of lithograph map 27, Vol. I, of the last census shows that the population of Vermont, Maine (southern part), and New Hampshire are quite evenly distributed over those States, while Massachusetts and Rhode Island have comparatively many centers of concentration of population. Connecticut is evenly divided into a rural and urban society. Having found the distribution of population to vary so widely in the two groups of States, our next inquiry is to ascertain what the industrial character of the popu¬ lation of each group is; for it is well known that manufactures flourish in New England. ‘ These percentages have been computed on the figures given on p. 416 et seq., of YoL I, of the Cen¬ sus of 1880, and not on those contained in the table on p. xxx of that volume. THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 321 Tabulation C. -Population ten years of age and over in New England employed in man-- ufacturing and mining industries and in agriculture. Group I. Group II. Maine. New Hamp¬ shire. Vermont. Massachu¬ setts. Connecticut. Rhode Island. j In manufacturing. 1 In agriculture. j In both. In manufacturing. j In agriculture. o .a H til o 3 a In agriculture. 1 In both. .5 s w g a j In agriculture. .3 o .O a 1 In manufacturing. 6 'B & c4 In both. j bi .5 V 5 c 0 j In agriculture. 1 In both. P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P.ct P ct P.ct P.ct 1870 . 18 17 80 18 18 86 9 22 31 19 6 25 20 12 32 1 2- 7 34 1880 . 14 1 16 30 20 16 86 10 21 31 26 5 81 23 9 32 30 5 35 Increase of population during decade . 4 9 1 22 16 27 As in the previous tables, these States were plainly divisible into two groups when considered as to geograpliical distribution of their respective population, so, too, in the case of the population employed in manufacture and mining and in agriculture may they be placed in two groups, each group being made up of the same States as be¬ fore. It appears from the figures that about 30 per cent, of the population over ten years of age are engaged in one of the two occupations which may be said to have the object of supplying the necessities of life — food and clothing. In Group I these occu¬ pations have very nearly an equal following ; in Group II no such equality appears. If the statistics for 1870 be compared with those of 1880, we find that the two groups show very much the same thing, a tendency away from agriculture and towards in¬ dustries of an artisan cast. It will also be noticed, though the fact is well known perhaps, that the States of Group II have received the largest increase to their pop¬ ulation ; and even New Hampshire, which is almost on a par with Connecticut as to manufactures, far surpasses her sisters of Group I in respect to the increment to her population during the decade. Bearing in mind that a factory is a nucleus of a town, the preceding tabulations are corroborated by this. It is not the peojfle, however, who, immediately at least, support the schools, but the taxable property. Let us then compare the capital invested in manufactures with the value of the farms. It is known that the valuation per capita of New England far exceeded that of any other section of the Union in 1880. It is necessary to ascertain if the States of this section differed among themselves as to the character of money values in the two particulars of manufacture and agriculture. Tabulation D. — Capitalinvested in manufactures and value of farms, live stock, and im- plemeyits in New England for the year IwSO. Capital invested in manufac¬ tures. Value of farm and all acces¬ sories. Group I : Maine . . . . . . . . . Per capita. $77 147 70 170 193 273 Per capita. $191 256 394 92 217 103 New Hampshire . Vermont . . . Group II : Massachusetts . . . . . Connecticut . . . Rhode Island . . . Disregarding Connecticut, it is evident that the other States of Group II have much more invested in manufactures than in agriculture. But the differeuce between Con¬ necticut and the other States of Group II is not nearly so great as that between the two groups. In Group I agricultural values are far in excess. Connecticut and New ED 89 - 21 322 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Hampshire require a word of separate comment. In Tabulation C it is observable that the percentage of persons engaged in manufacture in New Hampshire is much larger than the same percentage for the other States of Group I ; while in the case of Connecticut the percentage of persons engaged in agriculture is much larger than the other States of Group II. In the tabulation under consideration the capital in Con¬ necticut invested in manufacture is larger per capita than in Massachusetts, and the value of farms, etc. per capita is larger than that of Maine, and it is doubtful whether Connecticut belongs to Group I or II. Perhaps it would be more proper to consider it as a State in which urban and rural life are equally well represented ; in fact, a State, from an educationist’s standpoint, worthy of study as a type. II. — Professional Conditions. In the six communities thus circumstanced as to geographical distribution, occu¬ pation, and finances at the epoch of the censuses of 1870 and 1880, the phenomena represented in the following tables occurred during the eighth and ninth decades : CHANGES IN THE TEACHING FORCE. Tabulation G. — Number of different teachers employed to each 100 places for them. Year. Based on number neces¬ sary to supply the schools. Based on number of schoolrooms. Massachusetts. Rhode Island. Ohio. Maine. Connecticut. d 02 E tS 1 Vermont. Wisconsin. 1866 . (*) (*) 159 (*) 149 (*) (*) 158 1867. . (*) (*) 159 (*) 151 (*) (*) 165 1868 . (*) (*) 153 (*) 139 (*) (*) 163 1869 . . (*) (‘) 152 {*) 138 (*) (*) 159 1870 . (*) (*) 152 (*) 147 (*) (*) 165 1871 . n (*) 149 (*) 147 144 173 157 1872 . . . (*) (*) 149 (*) 145 156 168 159 1873 . (*) (*) 147 (*) 143 153 156 155 1874 . (*) 127 152 (*) 141 152 159 152 1S75 . (*) 128 149 (*) 139 147 152 1876 . (*) 125 147 (*) 141 147 173 135 1877 . (*) 130 146 (*) 136 138 170 150 1878 . (*) 127 145 (*) 134 142 146 1879 . (*) 124 143 (*) 132 141 174 144 1880 . 117 126 142 (*) 131 137 167 145 1881 . 123 121 141 (*) 131 135 173 140 1882 . 118 123 141 157 131 136 173 142 1883.. . 119 122 139 158 124 131 169 149 1884 . 119 126 142 156 125 131 167 143 1885 . . . 116 123 135 157 123 130 166 143 1886 . 117 122 136 156 125 126 167 140 1887 . 114 121 133 159 121 123 165 140 1888 . 116 121 132 158 122 133 157 140 *No statistics. Had the number of schoolrooms under the charge of a single teacher been given, it would have added materially to the value of the foregoing tabulation. Had the num¬ ber of teachers and of supervisors not in charge of a schoolroom been given, the value of the table would have been still further enhanced. If to these had been added the assistants (teachers) to teachers in charge of a single school and the assistants (teach¬ ers) to teachers or to supervisors not in charge of a single school, the table, if we are not greatly mistaken, might have been made to show, with all desirable accuracy, the number of teaching places to be filled. Until some general attempt is made by those in whose hands the initiative lies to obtain complete statistics, the statistician will be compelled to guess, to patch, and to do the best under the circumstances. But though the reader may acquiesce in the propriety of dismissing thus summarily the question of heterogeneity, it would be inexcusable not to point out which of the two meanings that the statistics we present are capable of conveying, is the true one. In the case of Massachusetts, for instance, the “ number of teachers required THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 323 by the ijublic schools’^ (Report 1885-86) W'as8,275, the “number of persons employed as teachers in the public schools during the year ’’ was 9,670. It is evident that these figures are for the period beginning with the first day of the annual session 1885-86 and ending with the last. And this fact we imagine is what is told by the statistics we have just given in the table. They show the change during the school year but say nothing about the change in the personnel between the last day or week of the preceding school year and the first day or week of the school year under consid¬ eration. Suppose we were to consider every place in a system of public schools to have be¬ come vacant before the first day of a new school year. Then we might ask, “How many of last year’s teachers have been reemployed ?” and if this inquiry could be an¬ swered we would be able to come to a conclusion as to the permanence of the force as shown by the proportion that one year has of the teachers of the preceding year. This would'be a far more accurate way of estimatingpermanency than the rather rough and ready process of comparing the number of places with the number of different teachers employed during the year as we have done to show the changes occurring during the year. There will be an opportunity to investigate the changes that occur from session to session when speaking of the “summer and winter session” of the New England States. We thought at one time that the Rhode Island report — very full and encouraging on the points under consideration — made the distinction expressed in the foregoing paragraph. That report gives the “number of changes in teachers from report of last year.” But in turning to page 96 of the report for 1883 we find that “ nearly one- third of the whole number (of teachers) in the State have changed their location dur¬ ing the year,” the one-third being the 346 “changes iu teachers from report of last year.” “ If we drop out of ou,r calculation,” the school commissioner continues, “ the towns where the town system prevails, we find that nearly one-half of the teachers iu the remainiug towns where the district system holds, are changed during the year.” Subject to correction, then, let us take the actual number of changes occurring in Rhode Island and place the ratio they bear to the number of teachers necessary to supply the schools, by the side of the Rhode Island column of Tabulation G, which’ also is estimated on the number necessary to supply the schools. Year. Per cent, of changes. Actual. Estimated. 37 21 36 23 37 22 1884 . . . 41 26 38 23 1886 . . . 36 22 34 21 33 21 We would attribute the discrepancy between the two columns to the omissions we have mentioned in discussing Tabulation G. The division into two groups which has been justified in the foregoing is still pos¬ sible in the table under discussion. In Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island the number of teachers employed to each one hundred places is much nearer and lower than in the other three States of the geographical section under consideration, although New Hampshire is much nearer the southern group than the northern. But Connecticut is computed on the basis of school- rooms or departments as are the computations for all the New England States except Massachusetts and Rhode Island. It must not be forgotten that there are two bases of calculation in Tabulation G, and that it is far more adapted to permit the comparison of the figures for the differ¬ ent years in the same State than the figures for the same year of the different States. The statistics of Ohio have been introduced to compare with those of Massachu¬ setts and Rhode Island, while the statistics of Wisconsin serve the same purpose for New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Vermont. Wisconsin is preeminently an agricul¬ tural State, and iu 1880 Ohio was undoubtedly in the same category, over half of her population “ having an occupation,” being on farms. It is not necessary to say that the number of different teachers to a place is rapidly growing less. Massachusetts leads in this respect ; but it must be borne in mind that the number of school-rooms has been used in the case of Connecticut, though undoubtedly it is too small; for in 1874, 1878, and 1881, periods for which the “num¬ ber required to teach the schools ” is at hand, there were only 136, 127, and 121 teachers to each hundred places. If the diminishing tendency shown by these figures 324 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. has been raaintaiued Connecticut would perhaps be on an equality with Massachusetts in respect to the relation which the different number of teachers hears to the number required to teach the schools. If the basis of calculation for Vermont may be trusted, the table shows but little sign of advancement for that State. As we have before remarked, an examination of lithograph map 27 of the last census shows Vermont 'to have a population almost without those centers of concentration which are comparatively numerous in the southern part of New Hampshire and of Maine, the other less densely populated States of New England. SUMMER AND WINTER SESSIONS OF NEW ENGLAND. To the student of the political institutions of New England who had failed to dis¬ tinguish between aNew England “ town ” and “a collection of houses,’’ the peculiar phraseology in this respect of the States of that section would be misleading; no less misleading to the uninitiated is their useof the term “ school year,” as used in the past. Every twelve months saw two or more school terms in these States, and it is doubt¬ ful whether their “ annual report,” which covers the period called a school year in other sections of the Union, is not more properly to be viewed as representing to all in¬ tents and purposes what is covered by the so-called biennial report of several States, and whether in trying to treat the statistics of two terms as the statistics of a single continuous period, things have been put together in these annual reports which should have been kept apart. In two States, however, this has not been done; these are Maine and Connecticut, whose statistics therefore will enable us to examine into the change that has taken place at the date when one consecutive school period is ended by the vacation that intervenes before the beginning of another period of school. In Tabulation G wo have compared the different number of teachers wdth the places for them. We will now compare the number of different women employed as teachers during each term with the whole number of different persons — men and women— employed during that term. Tabulation H. — Women in the winter and the summer teaching corps of Connecticut. 1871. 1876. 1881. 1886. 1888. Women in — Winter ton chin"' corps ...... ............................ Per ct. 71 Per ct. 71 Per ct. 76 Per ct 82 Per ct. 84 Summer teaching ewps . . . . . 92 88 87 88 89 Teachers (both sexe^) of winter corps, ej)%ployed during suinmor. 59 67 77 82 86 For Maine the number of teachers employed during the summer as well as during the winter term is not at hand. But it is possible to find the relation which the num¬ ber of women in the summer corps bears to the number of women in the winter corps. Tabulation I. — Women in the winter and the summer teaching corps of Maine. 1871. 1876. 1881. 1886. 1888. W'^omen in — Winter teaching corps . 55 52 52 65 71 Summer teaching corps . 97 96 94 92 94 For every 100 women in winter there were women in summer. 174 182 193 167 121 It is quite observable that in Connecticut the number of men employed is steadily retrograding, while the continuity of service is still more rapidly advancing. The converse of this is shown by the statistics of Maine. There we find that until lately the percentage of women in the winter corps has been quite uniform, wliile the number of women in the summer corps has been equally uniform and nearly twice as large as ihe number employed in winter. It must be remembered in the case of Maine that this is the minimum change that occurred during the year, it does not necessarily follow because there is a female teacher in a school for the winter term, and a female teacher in the same school for the summer term, that this statistically one teacher is the same woman. These facts while helping out the showing of Tabulation G, lead us to inquire what has been the THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 325 PROPORTION OP WOMEN IN THE TEACHING CORPS. Not only did the calendar year in New England see two distinct scholastic periods, hut each period saw a scholastic revolution, a sort of educational somersault’. In winter the larger pupils attended school aud were taught by young men ; in summer the little children attended and were taught by young women. The change, as far as it was a change in sex, is readily seen from the following percentages of women in each corps for 1858 : Winter. Summer. New Hampshire (1855) Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . 51 98 69 92 55 90 49 91 “Previous to twenty years ago,’^ says the State superintendent of Maine in 1878, in discussing the change in the character of the attendance at the schools, “ it was the almost universal practice, in the country districts at least, for young men and women to attend school [in winter] till their majority; now they are rarely found in them after they are sixteen or seventeen years of age. Of this change » » the fol¬ lowing figures give conclusive evidence : Average annual number of scholars in State for — Five years, including aud following 1850, for winter . HI, 158 1874-78, for winter . 131i 627 Decrease for winter 15, 531 Summer schools (1850-54) . 122, 39i Summer schools (1874-78) . - . 123,861 Increase for summer . 1. 467 “ Cue of the most frequent causes for the change of teachers,” says the State super¬ intendent of Maine in 1866, “is to be found in the long-cherished idea that there must be a male teacher for the winter and a female teacher for the summer. This idea doubtless originated in the olden days of our New England life, when the educa¬ tion of the females had received but little attention and when needlework and knit¬ ting were deemed indispensable qualifications to be acquired in the schoolroom, and the literary attaiiimeuts of the mistress were not expected to go much beyond the ability to manage the little pupils in reading (for the larger ones were not expected to be present) and hear them read and spell.” The Rev. Birdsey G. Northrop, in 1863, while agent of the Massachusetts Board of Education, speaks incidentally of this matter thus : “In chemistry, in the arts and ag¬ riculture, experiments, however expensive, are often necessary aiid^useful. Perse- veriug trials and repeated failures usually precede, and sometimes suggest valuable inventions. But of all experimenting, the most needless, costly, and fruitless, aud yet the most common, is the practice of placing a new hand at the wheel, annually or even twice a year, in our school houses. * And yet not a few prudential agents in our districts, from mere whim, or pique, or more often from nepotism, practice a system of change in teachers which introduces confusion, waste, weak¬ ness, discouragement, aud often retrogression, in the place of system, economy, efli- ciency, and progress. * * * There are still towns which retain the old system of semiannual changes, male teachers in the winter and female in the summer, and even each successive summer and winter, in some towns, the same teachers are seldom reemployed. In such places I find the schools in the lowest condition, with no uni¬ form methods, or well-arranged plan consistently and persistently sustained. * * * It often requires nearly a term to initiate a new teacher into the policy of the school committee who officially direct his course. * * * It has long been a conceded point among successful teachers that a second terra in the same school is worth at least [to the pupil] one-third more than the first. The schoolroom is the most unfortunate place for those experiments which ‘ rotation in office,’ must here involve — entailing a dead loss of more than 30 per cent, of the expenditures made for the schools. * * * Many towns seem, from precedent, to take it for granted that there is a necessity for male teachers in the winter, and therefore of semiannual changes, as they can not aft’ord to continue males in the summer. This was formerly the general practice throughout the State.” ^ ’ Speaking of the “ Duration of Schools,” the superintendent of Vermont in his report for 1867 says: “Taking all these facts together, then, it will appear that in a large proportion of the schools the prevalent custom must be to secure the services of a teacher to sustain a school for two and one-half mouths, and then at the close of that term to allow a vacation of three and one-half months after which another teacher is engaged and a school supported for another term of two and one-half months, to which succeeds another vacation of three and one-half months.” 2 In an account given of a “common school from 1811 to 1831,” by “ a teacher,” in the October, 1831, number of the American Annals of Education, we tind it recorded that “ male teachers have been uniformly employed [for the school] in winter and females in summer. The instructors have usually 326 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. We have shown both hy figures and expert testimony that not very long ago the New England States had a summer and a winter teaching corps, the first almost entirely composed of young women, the other about equally divided between the sexes. It is known that, for the country at large, the female element has been gaining on the male, and we shall now attempt to ascertain how far this fact holds for New England, reproducing in a parallel column for two States in Tabulation J, the results obtained in Tabulation G. This should show for these two States any coincidence of increase of permanency in service as compared with the increase in the number of women in the teaching corps. Tabulation J. — Ratio of women employed during the year to whole number of different pei'sons employed during same period. For school year. For winter session. Massachusetts. Ehode Island. New Hamp¬ shire. Vermont. Maine. Connecti¬ cut. Tear. Percent¬ age of women. Number of differ¬ ent per¬ sons em¬ ployed to every 100 places. Percent¬ age of women. Number of diff’er- ent per¬ sons em¬ ployed to every 100 places. Fer cent. Per c^nt. Per cent. Per cent. 1866 . 88 86 53 71 1867 . 89 87 52 72 1868 . 87 84 53 71 1869 . . 87 82 63 71 1870 . 87 84 53 70 1871 . 87 75 85 84 55 71 1872 . 88 77 85 84 54 71 1873 . 88 85 80 85 55 72 1874 . 88 80 127 87 85 55 73 1875 . 87 82 127 86 85 56 73 1876 . 86 81 125 85 85 52 71 1877 . . 87 81 130 ’ 83 83 51 72 1878 . 87 81 127 83 83 51 72 1879 . 86 81 124 82 82 50 72 1880. . 87 117 80 125 83 83 51 73 1881 . 87 123 84 121 84 85 52 76 1882 . 88 118 84 123 87 85 55 78 1883 . 89 119 84 122 87 87 59 80 1884 . 89 119 85 126 87 87 62 81 1885 . 89 117 85 123 88 87 62 82 1886 . 89 117 87 122 88 88 65 82 1887 . 89 114 86 121 87 87 66 83 1888 . 90 116 87 121 90 88 70 84 Where the distinction between the winter teaching corps and those employed in summer has been continued down to recent years as in Maine and Connecticut, the work of the investigator is probably reliable. But in the other New England States, as this distinction was discontinued, as far as the annual reports show at various dates before 1870, the statistics are not above question. In Connecticut, for instance, in 1865 the male teachers formed 31 per cent, of the winter corps, but only 5 per cent, of the summer corps ; yet by adding the number of male teachers em¬ ployed in summer to the number employed in winter it will be found that the men formed 20 per cent, of the two corps. Taking 1880, 28 per cent, of the winter corps of the same State were men, but of the summer corps only 14 per cent. To add the two corps and compute the percentage of men on that base is to bring out strongly the weak point of an average. Under such circumstances comment on the table is somewhat hazardous, yet it is plain enough that the per cent, of women has been increasing in Ehode Island, Maine, and Connecticut. In the late comprehensive report of the secretary of the State Board of Education of Connecticut the principal of the normal school of Con¬ necticut notes that about 1883 an extraordinary increase occurred in the enrollment ofthat school which he admits he can not explain. It is noticeable that just before this date Tabulation J shows a rapid advance for Connecticut in the numlier of been changed every season, but sometimes they have been continued two successive summers or winters. A strong prejudice has always existed against employing the same instructor more than once or twice in the same district. This prejudice has yielded in one instance so far that an instructor who had taught two successive winters twenty-five years before was employed another season. I have not been able to ascertain the exact number of different instructors who have been engaged in the school during the last thirty years but, I distinctly recollect thirty-seven. Many of them, both naales and females, were from sixteen to eighteen years of age, and a tew over twenty-one. TSJE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 327 women employed, and that; this was preceded by a period of slight depression, a period covering the “ hard times” that marked the last half of the seventies. In Maine the same phenomena appears, and also, though to a less extent, in Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Had we extended our inquiry into the elements of the teaching of New England back for 20 years the constantly increasing proportion of women in the winter corps would have been shown still more clearly. In Massachusetts, for instance, 76 per cent, of the different teachers employed in the public schools were females as early as 1858. Statistics of the two coeducating normal schools of this State confirm the tendency of the teaching corps to become femininized, as is shown by the following statistics. Women in the two Massachusetts Normal Schools admitting doth sexes. Year. Bridge- water. West- field. 1858 . Per cent. 64 Per cent. 73 1859 . 62 73 I860 . . 51 77 1861 . 52 75 1862 . . 56 77 1863 . . 67 85 1864 . 74 76 84 1865 . 87 1866 . 73 92 1867 . . . . . 72 89 1868 . 76 90 And the following table will show how Massachusetts stands in this respect with her sister States. Tabulation K. — Showing the ratio of women enrolled in New England Normal Schools * ' to whole enrollment.^ Maine. New Hamp¬ shire. Ycrmont Massa¬ chusetts. Connecti¬ cut. Ehode Island. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 1874 . 63 70 91 87 95 1875 . 68 72 63 87 86 94 1876 . 64 74 63 83 89 92 1877 . 71 86 58 91 89 92 1878 . 68 58 92 87 91 1879 . . . 67 73 65 91 90 94 1880 . 70 66 91 1881 . 65 94 73 87 90 93 1882 . 73 96 66 98 92 1884 . 80 95 95 1885 . 82 76 90 97 95 1886 . . . 74 92 76 93 98 96 1887 . 74 99 76 93 99 95 1888 . 78 ICO 79 93 99 1 Based on annual reports to the Bureau of Education. When it is remembered what a determined advocate of women for teachers the first secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education was, and that^in all proba¬ bility it was through his determined attitude that the first normal school — that orig¬ inally at Lexington — was devoted to the training of women for teaching, comment on the large percentage of women in the teaching corps of Massachusetts would seem to be unnecessary, provided always that the figures obtained by lumping the statis¬ tics of the winter and summer sessions may be trusted. The secretary of the Massa¬ chusetts Board of Education, however, while corroborating the high percentage of women in the teaching corps, claims in 1875 that it is an increase that is due to the civil war, the cause assigned by the French commission to the Centennial in their re¬ port to the minister of public instruction. The secretary says : “ The demand for young men during the war of the rebellion and the higher re¬ wards for labor of all kinds after it, did much to change the old custom [of change of teachers for winter and summer]. * * * The school committees of some of the towns, from motives of economy, and on account of the difficulty of procnring male 328 EDUCATION REPORT, 1S88-89. teachers as well, cautiously entered upon the plan of hiring teachers for longer periods. The results were, unexpectedly to many, satisfactory, and other towns followed the lead, until the custom hid fair to become universal.” In an earlier report (the thirty-second) he says : “It is probably true that the willingness of women to accept lower wages has in¬ duced school committees to engage their services more exclusively, but it by no means follows that the standard of true education is not as high now as in former times.” The apology for employing women would not be necessary nowadays, but the “willingness of women to accept lower wages” brings us to the very important question of SALARIES. In whatever way the synchroneity of increase in the number of women employed to teach in the public schools and the permanence of their personnel may be related it is improbable that the relation is one of cause and effect. We believe that in no State are married women employed as teachers, nor have we any statistics that go to show that female teachers have ceased to marry. In their forty-seventh report, the Massachusetts Board of Education touch upon this subject in the following terms: “ In our public schools the corps of teachers is subject to rapid changes. A very large per cent, of our teachers are young women, and many of these after a fair time of service leave school to become heads of families.” And yet it is in Massachusetts that the propaganda for female teachers was first begun and whose force was the most rapidly changed. If it be contended that between the ages of beginning school teaching and married life there elapses a period which, in comparison with the temporary character of the service of men who engage in teaching, may be called long, it must be admitted that there may be truth in the contention; but it will be observed that the board speak of the “ rapid changes ” that take place in the teaching corps. How far the law, if demanding mental ma¬ turity and more years on the part of the teacher, would abridge this period of service, must be left to a future occasion, how far a fairer salary might induce the teacher to postpone her wedding day is a complicated problem, to solve which we find ourselves unequal. . But it is quite possible, indeed, that the pay which is too meager to hold men may be, in the case of women, an inducement to remain. Assuming such to be the case, as the Massachusetts authorities just quoted have, we are then obliged to look to the small pay as the real cause of the increase of the female element of the teaching corps. In the following table the average salaries paid by the New England States since 1866 are laid before the reader. Tabulation Lt.— The average monthly salary of teachers in New England. Maine. New Hampshire. Vermont. Tear. Dura¬ tion of Dura¬ Dura¬ Males. Females. wintor Males. Females. tion of Males. Females. tion of session. session. session. Boc ird. Days. Days. Days. 1866 . $28. 20 $10. 16 50 $32. 88 $17. 62 93 1867 .... 28. 78 10.84 50 33. 09 18. 44 94 1868 .... 29. 50 11. 76 52 34. 64 19. 78 84 1869 ... . 30.44 12. 16 52 36. 09 20. 71 91 1870 . ^ 32. 26 12. 84 56 36. 59 21.62 85 C$38. 80 a$2L 40 106 1871 . 32. 44 13. 72 55 36. 95 22. 03 70 a36. 30 a22. 90 116 1872 . 33. 17 14. 40 55 37. 56 24. 33 99 a38. 40 c24. 20 119 1873 . 34.28 15.16 58 40. 78 23.84 106 a37. 20 023. 40 118 1874 . 36. 17 16. 20 58 44.87 24. 90 100 041.10 o25. 90 112 1875 ... . 36. 96 17. 16 59 42.61 25. 54 100 c39. 00 o24. 60 122 1876 . 35. 45 17. 04 61 41.93 25. 72 94 37. 24 22. 48 121 1877 . 32. 76 16. 56 61 38. 37 24.71 92 34. 52 21.56 122 1878 . 32. 63 15. 92 61 37.12 24. 26 97 30. 44 20. 00 124 1879 . 29. 55 15. 32 64 34. 09 22. 83 102 29. 12 19.04 126 1880 . 25. 67 14. 28 63 34. 12 22. 23 105 27. 84 17. 44 126 1881 . 28.23 14. 52 61 32. 03 21. 77 97 29. 76 16. 84 124 1882 . 29. 59 14. 60 62 36. 45 22. 36 96 30. 52 18. 24 127 1883 . 31.87 15. 36 61 38. 27 22. 67 98 32. 48 19. 32 131 1884 . 32. 59 16. 28 59 38.41 23.14 100 34. 32 20. 04 127 1885 . 32. 07 15. 84 59 39.21 23. 20 100 31. 56 21. 28 126 1886 . 34. 15 16. 68 59 40. 22 23.56 102 34. 00 22. 00 136 1887 _ 33. 82 16. 56 62 41.03 24. 46 112 33. 80 20.88 139 1888 . 34. 36 16. 92 44. 32 24. 93 115 37. 20 20. 92 137 a Computed by the statistician in charge of State systems. THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 329 Tabulation L. — The average monthly salary of teachers in New England — Continued. Massachusetts. Connecticut. Ehode Island. Year. Dura- Dura¬ 1 Dura¬ Males. Females. tion of Males. Females. tion of Males. Females. tion of session. session. session. Days. Days. 1 1 Days. ISSfi $69 63 $24. 36 159 $45. 21 $23.14 165 18fi7 162 52 05 24. 91 165 isr>s 7t> 93 27 84 163 56. 64 i 26. 93 163 1869 72. 04 28. 81 164 .58.74 29.16 162 1870 . 77. 44 30.92 166 63.10 31. 29 169 $73.60 $38. 60 170 1871 . 76. 44 31.67 169 66.56 1 32. 69 172 64. 70 ! ! 3 4. 00 170 1872 . 85. 09 32. 39 168 67.01 ! 34. 09 173 77.80 ! 1 40. 80 172 1873 . 93. 65 34. 13 168 69.03 I 36. 05 174 75. 72 41. .97 179 1S74 . 94.33 34. 34 168 71.48 36. 67 176 83.65 43. 86 179 1876 . 88.37 35. 35 177 70. 05 I 37. 35 176 85.18 46. 17 178 1876 . 84.78 35. 25 176 67.43 i 37. 16 178 81. 49 46. 73 ISO 1877 . 82. 22 34. 20 175 64.55 I 1 36. 20 178 80. 69 45.91 181 1878.... 75. 64 33. 04 176 61.03 I 36. 50 179 75. 00 45. 85 182 1879 . 67. 44 33. 50 175 57. 19 35. 27 179 73. 84 42. 37 182 1880 . 67. 54 30. 59 177 56.43 35.42 179 70. 24 42. 99 184 1881 . 85. 54 38. 49 178 60. 69 35. 37 180 76. 00 41. 89 186 1882 . 102. 90 34. 32 178 63. 44 35. 94 180 77. 44 43.53 184 1883 . 103.33 41.90 179 67. 36 36. 52 179 77. 93 43.30 184 1884 . 108. 02 44. 18 180 69. 17 37.21 180 79. 95 43. 33 184 1885 _ 120. 72 43. 85 184 69.16 37. 64 179 80. 21 43. 71 186 1886 . 111.23 43.97 172 69. 89 37. 97 180 79. 85 43. 85 190 1887 . 116. 85 44. 93 178 68. 82 38. 50 180 82. 67 44. 38 190 1888 . 119. 34 44.48 169 73. 50 38. 52 179 85. 99 44. 40 191 Of tlie 365 days of which the year is composed, 180 to 200 are, or ought to he, scho¬ lastic facts to the pupil; while 365 are economical facts to the professional teacher. It is somewhat difficult to compute with exactness the salary annually received by the teacher when the average salary is given for a “month” and the average dura¬ tion of session is given in “ days.” Assuming, however, that the term “ days” means school days, of which there are five to the week, and that a “month” means four weeks of five school days each, it is evident that the average teacher receives his monthly salary for an actual service in school of twenty days, and for one day one- twentieth of the same. Applying this hypothesis to the figures as given for Maine it will be found that in 1866 the amount of money earned daily during thfe 100 days of session, winter and summer, would, if distributed among 365 days, be equivalent to 39 cents, in the case of men, for each day of the calendar year, and in the case of women 14 cents ; exclud¬ ing board in both cases for the period the schools were in session and the board or the two weekly holidays of Saturday and Sunday. In Massachusetts, the best pay¬ master the teacher has, the teacher in 1866 received on au average $1.30 in the case of men, for each of 365 days, and in the case of women 53 cents, but in 1888 $2.76 in the case of men, and $1.01 in the case of women. The following tabulation will bring this out strongly : Tabulation M. — Average annual salary'^ of New England teachers reduced to a per diem on the basis of 365 days to the year. 1870. 1874. 1880. 1885. 1888. Men. Wo¬ men. Men. Wo¬ men. Men. Wo¬ men. Men. Wo¬ men. Men. Wo¬ men. Group I : Maine . $0.44 $0.17 $0. 51 $0. 23 $0.38 $0.21 $0. 47 $0. 23 $0.53 $0.26 New Hampshire . .43 .25 .61 .34 .49 .32 .54 .32 70 .39 Vermont . .56 .35 63 39 .48 .30 .54 .37 70 .39 Group II : Massachusetts . 1. 76 .70 2.17 .79 1.64 .74 3. 04 1.11 2. 76 1. 03 Connecticut . 1.46 .72 1.72 . 88 1.38 .87 1.70 .92 1. 80 .94 Ehode Island . 1. 71 .90 2. 05 1. 08 1. 77 1. 08 2. 04 1. 11 2. 25 1. 16 Now salaries, of the kind shown in the table, render teaching as a profession impossi¬ ble. A profession that is not continuous or that does not afford its practitioners large profit for occasional service, is scarcely to be looked upon as a profession. It 330 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. is true these “average monthly salaries’’ are means between wide extremes, but it is equally true that the mean or average salary is above that actually received by the majority of teachers. If it be urged that the teacher has much of the year to work at something else such a proposition would seem to say that the teacher should have either two vocations or a vocation and an avocation. As the women in the teaching corps are steadily gaining on the men in States where they have not long formed 80 to 90 per cent, of the teaching force, and as married women are disqualified in practice as teachers, the question arises whether the female teacher follows her calling as a vocation or as a means of support until her domestic engagements relieve her of the necessity of working for herself. The probability, of course, is that teaching in the great majority of cases is engaged in. as a temporary expedient. Were the age of the teacher and the duration of her service recorded and published this probability might become a mathematical certainty. Comparing the figures of tabulation M with the salaries given in manufacturing establishments up to the date of the last United States census, we find in the case of women that the teachers of Rhode Island and the women weavers of Fitchburg, Mass., and Dover, Me., receive about the same, and it will be noted that Rhode Island has stood in the past ahead even of Massachusetts, in respect to the pay of women teachers. Common laborers of cotton and woolen mills receive from ^1 to $1.25 or more for each of 6 days of work, which when reduced to the basis of 365 days of existence in the year would be 86 cents to $1.07. It must be remembered that we are not considering the amount of work done to earn the means of living, the object of a profession, but the remuneration derived from the discharge of pro¬ fessional duties, in order to support life during 365 days. Though the work of the woolen mill is neither heavy or hard, so say their superintendents, the operatives work 10 hours. We are not sure but the professional teacher works quite as long during the day, if not for so many days. In bringing this statistical analysis to an end, we can not forbear to still further ask the attention of the reader to one of its indications. Beginning with 1876 or 1877 a decline in the average salary of both men and women began reaching its ultimate in 1880. This is shown far better by Tabulation L than by Tabulation M, in which the longer duration of the session in 1880 compensates in some cases for the decrease in the average monthly pay. Although convinced that this is an excellent illustration of the remark made on a previous page that school affairs ebb and flow with public economy we doubted the advisability of discussing the point with the statistics of only a single section of the Union before us, to say nothing of the intrinsic difiSculties of the attempt. In examining the records of the Peabody education fund for the matter used in compil¬ ing the work presented in Chapter XIII, we were fortunate enough to find the agent of the Peabody fund saying for the Southern States and Superintendent Dickinson for Massachusetts just What we should have liked to have said for New England. It almost seems as if Dr. Sears had written a commentary on this indica¬ tion of our table. In his twelfth rej)ort (October 2*, 1878) he observes: “ The year just brought to a close has been one of unusual pecuniary embarrassment to all the schools of the South. While every branch of the department of education has been afiected by it, that relating to the employment of teachers and public officers has suffered most. Cheapening the labors of the men on whom the vitality of the system depends is a more dangerous experiment than is generally supposed. With¬ out calling in question the necessity of reducing public expenses, our most consider¬ ate educators have sometimes felt that, in discriminating against the schools, the public authorities have seemed to prefer immediate material prosperity to the future well-being of society.” In his report dated January, 1879, Secretary Dickinson, of Massachusetts, ex¬ presses himself thus on this topic: “ The economical spirit that has taken possession of the people has led them to reduce appropriations for the schools, and in some cases to their great injury. Not only has the time of the schools, in many towns, been shortened and the salaries of the teachers been cut down, but in many cases new and cheaper teachers have been substituted for those of experience and skill. This change will be likely to inflict an immediate injury upon the schools by the employment of inferior teachers, and it will have a tendency to produce a permanent one by discour¬ aging the best talent from ever entering the profession.” An examination of Tabulation I, shows a change that appears to follow, that is as far as the dates and statistics show, closely on the increase in pay that began after the depression in 1880. Although hardly noticeable in Massachusetts, the increase in the percentage of women in the teaching corps of New England is decided after 1881 or 1882, and continuous. It is not the province of this chapter to explain these facts; our purpose here has been to exhibit conditions rather than to explain them, and we now turn to our sphere — the training of persons for teachers and the training of teachers. THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 331 III. — Supply and Demand. BEGINNERS. In tlie foregoing we have attempted to show, after briefly noting several social characteristics of the New England States, the condition of their teaching force since 1866 or 1870 as to the change that has annually occurred in the personnel, its “ average salary,” and the proportion of women in it. We have made no attemptto disguise the incompleteness of our figures and have refrained from argument, con¬ tenting ourselves with collating and analyzing. In brief, our object has been to place before the reader as best we can, the change that has annually occurred in the teaching force and two phenomena that may be supposed to influence it. But a new teacher is not necessarily a person unexperienced in the art of teaching and thus “changes in the teaching force” and “beginners in teaching” do not mean the same thing exactly. Agent Northrop, of Massachusetts, and other high educational officials complain of the evils resulting from annually or semiannually placing a new teacher over the same school, although this new teacher may have gained experience in other schools. But if the new teacher be not only new to the particular school she is about to teach, but also new to her business, the evils of beginning are intensified for she is in every sense a beginner. It is the purpose of the normal school to minimize the evil by training persons in the theory and practice of teaching who shall fill the vacancies in the corps, which, from an ideal point of view, are caused by the natural increase of schools or of the departments of schools, and by death, superannuation, or dismissal. The question arises whether a graduate of a normal school should be considered a beginner. This question is answered in the affirmative by the State school com¬ missioner of Rhode Island. And we shall follow him in his classification ; for in his reports since 1881 the character of the teaching force has been most thoroughly pre¬ sented. Tabulation N. — The proportion of inexperienced persons annually talcen into the teaching corps. Tear. Eatio of begiuDers to diiferent teachers in — Maine. New Hamp¬ shire. Vermont. Connecti¬ cut. Rhode Island. 1866 . Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 21 20 22 20 19 18 17 18 16 16 15 14 14 14 12 13 14 14 14 11 12 11 11 Per cent. 1867 . 33 34 31 32 22 21 19 19 1868 . 1869 . 16 16 17 16 17 17 18 18 17 17 16 17 15 16 16 15 16 15 16 14 1870 . 1871 . 1872 . 1873 . 1874 . 1875 . 1876 . . . 1877 . 1878 . . . 1879 . 1880 . 1881 . . . 7 10 10 11 9 9 10 9 1882 . 20 16 14 15 15 15 16 1883 . 1884 . 1885 . 1886 . 1887 . 1888 . . Outside of New England, four States present the number of beginners, but their statistics have not been included in the tabulation as the discussion of their statistics must be postponed to another occasion. Regarding Vermont, it may be said that the percentages from 1867 to and including 1870 seem due to some process of enum¬ erating teachers or beginners different from that used after 1870. In Connecticut down to 1877 the percentages shrink rapidly, but after that down to 1885 they fluctuate, indeed, yet within narrow limits. With 1865 the lowest per¬ centage is reached and is maintained in the following years. The decrease in Maine, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island has been small. 332 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Horace Maun says in one of his educational addresses, “I have heard that distin¬ guished surgeon, Dr. J. C. Warren of Boston, relate the foLov\^iug anecdote which happened to him in London. Being invited to witness a very difScult operation upon the human eye, by a celebrated English oculist, he was so struck by the skill and science which were exhibited by the operator, that he sought a private interview with him to inquire by what means he had become so accomplished a master of his art. ‘ Sir, ’ said the oculist, ‘ I spoiled a hatful of eyes to learn it. ’ ” It might be readily assumed that the public, which exhibits such apprehension when children are instructed in a “ practice school” by a novice of the normal school proper, though working under skilled direction, wmuld be still more apprehensive as to the results of the activity of a novice with no supervision at all, and that public authorities would, in view of public sentiment, provide for the training of efficient teachers to supply the annual vacancies. In point of fact, whether due to public senti¬ ment or to common sense, training schools for this purpose have been established in every State with but few exceptions. But the supply of normal graduates even if equal to the demand for them is certainly not equal to the number of beginners. Before showing this by the tabulation which follows, we beg to quote as to this subject of supply and demand from an address read before the State Teachers’ Asso¬ ciation of New Hampshire which though not written by the State superintendent of that State was printed by that officer as a part of his “ official” report for 1880. Tes¬ timony from other New England and outside of New England States could be found to substantiate the author’s observation. “I once knew a prudential committee of good standing in the community to com¬ mence their duties with substantially the following resolutions: “ ‘ Whereas, the previous comnnttee ran the school so many weeks for so many dollars ; and whereas we are smarter than they — “ ‘ Resolved, That we will have more weeks of school for less money. “ ^Resolved, Secondly, that the wages of the teachers be reduced ; thirdly, that the former experienced teachers may retain their situations if they choose, at the reduced prices ; but if they leave, we can find enough more who will be glad to occupy their places.’ “ Some of the teachers remained, others * * * * left, and at the close of the year the committee reported a handsome surplus in the treasury and were triumphantly I reelected. * * * i “ We are told that we must learn that the law of supply and demand applies to teachers as well as to other commodities. AVe do not object, if quality is to be duly regarded. * * * ^ good article of commerce, unappreciated, is withdrawn from market, and its manufacture stopped. May the public complain if a similar result ] obtain with teachers ? We do complain of that condition of things which compels the teacher, who has j spent years of time and hundreds of dollars at college or normal school, to give his i or her services for one-half or two-thirds of a just equivalent because some inexperi- j enced and uneducated boy or girl can afford, and is willing, to keep the school at j even a less price. There are undoubtedly more persons who would like to replenish ^ their scanty purses by a brief reigu in the district schoolhouse the ensuing winter i than there will be schools in the State ; but were none but well qualified instructors ! to be engaged for our schools this coming winter, many a pile of wood would be un¬ burned, many a schoolhouse unoccupied save by the wind and snows that sweep over ■ our hills, many a district treasury unexhausted, and many a committee reelected.” f “The State,” says the State superintendent of Maine, from a somewhat different ' if not antagonistic point of view, “ has established a public school system, ^ * * imposes taxation for school purposes, requires the expenditure aumrally of the moneys ii. thus raised, but has signally neglected to provide for any sufficient agency in secur¬ ing that body of school-room workers by whom alone the results aimed for can be , fully attained.” Though in a subsequent report, which discusses things as they ' were over ten years ago, not as they are now, it will be remembered, he continues i thus: “Nearly 100 pupils graduated from the two normal schools of the State dur¬ ing the past year. Why, then, no greater increase in the number in the schools? ^ Some of the recent graduates can not find positions since the great reduction in wages i made by some [school] agents during the past season. Agents have in many cases ii refused to give these graduates four dollars per week, and have hired girls of six¬ teen for three dollars, who were incompetent and whose influence on the pupils was f- bad so far as intellectual growth is concerned. ^ Thirty-four of the graduates of our ^ normal schools have gone out of the State to take positions as teachers in other ; States. They have each taught more than two years in the schools of the State, ; * * * but the schools will feel their loss.” ; The board of trustees of the State normal school of Rhode Island, consulting their V' * Teaching as a profession, by E. E. Westgate, principal of high school, Lebanon. * “ Too much disposition to save 12J cents, ” says a Massachusetts school committeeman, sarcastically. THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 333 experience as to the obstacles opposed to the progress of their school professional institution, claim that — “A more particular and very influential reason for this indifference of high-school graduates to the advantages of professional training, is that school authorities of towns having high schools have not seen it to be worth their while to give any decided preference in their selection of teachers to normal school graduates, but have been content to take candidates immediately from the high school.” Tabulation O. — ^^Beginners ” and normal school graduates compared, as related to the number of different teachers taken as a common basis. Year. Maine. New Hampshire. Connecticut. Khode Island. Begin¬ ners. Gradu¬ ates.® Begin¬ ners. Gradu¬ ates. 6 Begin¬ ners. Gradu- ates.c Begin¬ ners. Gradu¬ ates. Per cent, j Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 1 21 - _ ^ QG7 . _ _ 20 22 . 16 20 _ 1Q7G . .1 16 19 17 18 _ 1 fi79 . . i 16 17 1 a7Q I . i i 17 18 1 ] ayd . . 1 t 17 1 16 1 3 jgy;; _ . _ _ 18 1 16 1 3 18 1 15 1 2 _ _ IR77 . 17 1 14 1 Igyg _ _ _ 17 14 1 2 layo . 16 1 14 1 2 1 Rsn . 17 12 1 2 1881 . 15 (d) 13 1 7 2 1882 . 20 1 16 .3 14 1 10 2 1883 . 16 16 14 1 10 1884 . 14 1 15 14 1 11 2 188?; . . 15 j 16 11 i 9 2 1886 . 15 1 15 12 1 9 2 1887 . 15 2 16 1 11 2 10 3 1888 . . 16 2 14 .5 11 2 9 2 a Does not include two city schools nor the Madawaska institute. The graduates of the Portland city school nuraber 87 since its orsranization in 1878. h Does not include graduates of Manchester school, numbering 82 since organization in 1869. c This column does not include the graduates of the Welch training school of New Haven, number¬ ing 121 since organization in 1869. d Keorgauization. In considering the above table (O) the intelligence of the reader is immediately challenged by the word graduate,” which is the title of one of Ihe two columns for each State. It will immediately occur to him that the normal course of two or three years, like courses of several years in other institutions, is subject to a diminishing process that leaves about half of the pupils who entered three years before to gradu¬ ate. And from this he will be led to consider whether it is quite accurate to place the two columns of the table in juxtaposition, since the graduates do not represent the number having received some training for teaching. To such doubts it may be replied that the couri-*3 of three years would not have been organized had it not been deemed essential for the preparation of the pupil for his vocation, and that any pupil possessing before entering the school a portion of the knowledge taught in it would infallibly possess what was taught in the first two years rather than the knowledge inculcated in the last and graduating year. Indeed, it is very obvious that more may be said against the column of graduates from the other side. All the graduates do not teach. The increase in the percentage of graduates in the case of Maine and of Connecticut is to be ascribed more to the diminution in the number of different teachers em¬ ployed than to any extra efforts to supply the vacancies that annually occur with trained persons; it being understood, of course, that the number of different persons employed as teachers is used as the divisor and the number of graduate as the divi¬ dend in obtaining the percentages of the table. In England, where the vast majority of teachers are men, the “waste” in the teaching force is computed to be about 6 per cent. ; if the beginners be taken as in¬ dicating the “waste” in the New England corps it will almost double and treble the annual loss in England. It is but too apparent how inadequate the present num¬ ber of normal schools are to meet the demands — from a theoretical standpoint — upon them. So important is the relation between the number of beginners and the number of graduates from the normal schools, that we present the matter in another form. In 334 EDUCATION REPOET, 1S88-89. 1888 the normal schools, in response to an inquiry as to the whole number of their graduates, furnished this Bureau with the information which appears in part in the third column of the following table : 1 state. Beginners in the teach¬ ing force from 1884 to 1888. Graduates of State and city normal schools since open¬ ing. Ratio of all the grad¬ uates to the beginners during 5 years. Maine . . . . . . . . . 5, 693 2, 514 1,582 417 Per cent. 28 NewHampsliire . . . . . . . . 17 Vermont . . . , . 1, 970 8, 198 869 Maasachnsetta . . . . . . Connecticut. . . . . . 2.075 613 42 "R.hndft Talnud . . . . . . . . . . 430 70 Thus it appears that for every one hundred graduates the normal schools had sent forth from their halls since they were opened to students down to 1883 there were during the five years 1884 to 1888 thirty beginners employed. Speaking on the subject of the annual need of trained persons to teach the schools the superintendent of Maine observes in his 1877 report : ‘‘ The schools of Maine need to-day qualified trained teachers. This is the greatest want. * * * There are 6,000 teachers in the schools of the State. The average time of service is four years. ' Fifteen hundred teachers are needed each year. More than 1,000 were employed for the first time last year. They were in part young girls from fourteen to seventeen, but with little knowledge of elementary studies ; with absolutely no knowledge of the principles or methods of good teaching. Another part of the thousand were young men or boys in preparation for college or a profes¬ sion, with some slight smattering of Latin, but with no real knowledge of the ele¬ mentary studies and not the shadow of knowledge, of either the nature of the sub¬ jects on which they were supposed to work, or the proper methods of such work. A third class is composed of young men or boys, who unable to succeed in any other business have sought refuge from starvation in the schools. A few of the thousands are trained teachers, young men and young women, who with an appreciation of the responsibility and imx^ortance of the work have sought by reading, by study, in the professional school or elsewhere, to fit themselves for their work.” Dr. Sears, ex-superintendent of Massachusetts and ex-president of Brown Uni¬ versity, in his twelfth report to the trustees of the Peabody Education fund speaks quite pointedly as to the necessity of professional training, saying : “The objection has been made to normal schools, that knowledge is what the teacher needs, and that our literary institutions furnish it best. This is only half of what the teacher needs, and much the easier half. You will find twenty who have this qualification, where you find one who knows how to teach and govern. This assertion is made not from a theoretical point of view, but from experience and obser¬ vation. I was for some years connected with the public schools of Massachusetts. School boards who had formerly employed college graduates, but more recently grad¬ uates of the State normal schools, could not be induced to appoint as a teacher a young man just from college, without a normal training. This is the more remark¬ able as the members of the board were themselves generally college graduates. It was found by trial that a knowledge of what is commonly taught in learned schools is not all that the teacher needs. He must know how to enter into the hidden re¬ cesses of the youthful mind, and from that point work outward and upward.” “ The more I visit schools and observe their methods and results,” says Ex-Super¬ intendent Northrop, of Connecticut, while State agent of Massachusetts, “the stronger is my conviction of the necessity and usefulness of normal schools. My observations in the schools and among the people assure me that our Massachusetts normal schools have widely diffused better ideas of education and awakened in¬ creased popular interest in the cause of public instruction. They have greatly ele¬ vated the standard of qualification for teaching, both among teachers and in the popular estimate. The normal graduates as a general fact have shown greater thor¬ oughness and skill in teaching, more system in arrangement of studies and in the programme of daily duties, more enthusiasm in their work and devotion to the pro¬ fession.” (As quoted by the State superintendent of Maine in 1867.) “ The good influence of the normal schools,” says the Forty-seventh Massachusetts Report, “ in creating a correct public sentiment with reference to popular education, and to the administration of the schools in all their forms of work, can hardly be overestimated. The revival of the school spirit and the reform of our methods of school teaching both owe their origin to influences produced by the normal school. “ Great pains have been taken to collect information concerning the success of THE TEACHTNG FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 335 normal teacliers. Tho returns prove what reason would predict, that there is the same difference between trained and untrained teachers as there is between the trained and untrained in all other occupations and professions.’’ DO THE GRADUATES TEACH? The number of graduates from the normal schools falling so far short of the (the¬ oretically speaking) demand for them we are brought to a difficult inquiry which has on several occasions caused legislative investigations, that is to say, Do the grad¬ uates teach? Beginning with the year 1874 the forms of inquiry sent out by this Office contained the following requests : Number of graduates for the year” and Number of these teaching. ” In Tabulation P we have compiled the answers made by the principals of State and city normal schools to these inquiries. We will not trouble the reader with the pre¬ cautions taken to prevent error except so far as to assure him that, in the case of Maine for example, the 93 per cent, wffio engaged in teaching in 1874 are 93 per cent, of the persons who were in institutions which are represented in both columns. For suppose a school reports its graduates and neglects to rej)ort the number of them who engage in teaching, as frequently happens, the per cent, of persons teaching would then be 0. The absence of statistics for 1883 is caused by a change in the date of our report. A woid, however, as to the propriety of finding what per cent, the graduates are of the whole enrolment at the school. It may be said that the attendance from year to year of several schools of different kinds and sizes is not a constant quantity; and this being admitted it may be farther claimed that the averages are meaningless. If, however, it be considered that the expression “ 65 per cent, enrolled as applied to a system of schools ” is the usual way of telling that 35 per cent, of the school popu¬ lation were not enrolled it Avill be readily recognized that when we say in the table that 9 per cent, have graduated, we imply that 91 per cent, have not, presuma¬ bly, finished their studies, and if in the next year only 6 per cent, graduate and the next 10 and so on, we may arrive at an approximately close idea of the per cent, that graduates by running the eye down the column. Connecticut had one State normal school from 1850 to 1838. Confining our attention to the series of years embraced by the table we find that 22 per cent, of the enrol¬ ment of this school from 1874 to 1888 were graduated, accordiug to the figures given in the State superintendent’s report for 1688-’89. Perhaps the best way to show that about a fifth of those who enter upon a course at a normal school remain to graduate, as Tabulation P seems to show, is to quote from the results of the very elaborate in¬ vestigation prosecuted by President Gray of tlie St. Cloud Normal School, acting for the committee appointed by the National Educational xissociation, a report that has arrived too recently to enable its results to be u»ed here except incidentally. The question asked of forty-nine normal schools, eight of which are city schools, was “What per cent, of your students enrolled in the pedagogical course graduates ? ” “In eighteen [State] schools which seemed to have understood the question alike the answers average 20 per cent. In addition to these, city training schools give an average of 95 per cent., though in these schools the enrolment is sometimes as low as six pupils.” Tabulation P. — Eatio of graduates of New England normal schools to whole enrolment and the percentages of these graduates that engaged in teaching. Maine. New Hampshire. Vermont. Massachu¬ setts. Connecticut. Rhode Island. Grad¬ uates. Num¬ ber of these teach¬ ing. Grad¬ uates. Num¬ ber of these teach¬ ing. Grad¬ uates - Num¬ ber of these teach¬ ing. Grad¬ uates. Num¬ ber of these teach¬ ing. Grad¬ uates. Num¬ ber of these teach¬ ing. Grad¬ uates. Num¬ ber of these teach¬ ing. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 1874 . 9 93 24 86 22 81 22 90 24 93 28 90 1875 . 6 94 21 91 20 53 21 97 29 80 21 82 1876 . 10 91 21 21 75 20 78 29 7^ 15 1877 . 14 90 44 86 24 75 26 85 28 72 15 70 1878 . 15 V4 31 27 85 18 92 13 95 1879 . 20 87 70 21 75 25 88 28 81 16 84 1880 . 29 93 24 70 19 89 19 13 1881 . 26 84 6 100 14 94 20 60 30 93 13 90 1882 . 18 93 20 100 16 90 26 24 56 14 91 1884 . 21 95 20 96 22 63 32 14 1885 . 19 84 26 90 24 14 100 11 33 1886 . 15 16 20 26 16 16 1887 . 20 34 22 22 16 26 1888 . 19 17 19 25 17 336 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. The figures of the table would appear to verify the claim that about 95 per cent, of the pupils who graduate teach, especially if it be remembered that the information was given by the principals of the schools represented in the table six or eight months after the day of graduation. But how long do they teach ? “ In France,” says the French education commission to the Centennial Exposition, ^ ‘‘a person enters upon the career of teaching with the view of creating for himself a stable and permanent position. Those who abandon it before obtaining their retiring pension are the exception. ^ * It is altogether different in the United States. The profession of teaching seems to be a sort of stop¬ ping place where the young woman waits for an establishment suited to her tastes, and the young man for a more lucrative position. For many young people, this transi¬ tory profession simply furnishes the means of continuing their studies. Few male teachers remain more than five years in the service ; and if the lady teachers remain longer, it is not to be forgotten that marriage is usually the end of their desires, and that, once married, they almost always resign their positions.” “ The whole number of graduates from the opening in 1871 to the present writing, December, 1878, is 2Ul,” says the superintendent of Khode Island. “ Upwards of 95 per cent, of these have taught since graduation. One hundred and thirty of the num¬ ber graduated are noiv teaching and have been teaching, many of them continuously, since their separation from the school on having completed their course. Though it has been the policy of Providence and Newport to employ as teachers the graduates of their respective high schools, and though vacancies occur in less porportion in cities than elsewhere, yet twenty graduates of this school have received permanent appointments in the city of Providence ; six have received appointments in the schools of Newport ; ten have taught or are now teaching in high schools, and eight have been employed as teachers in normal schools.” In New Hampshire it was found that “ the students have the character of teachers before entering the school, that they continue to teach with increased interest in the work after leaving it, that the graduates have already returned to the State (third year of school’s existence) one week of teaching to one and one-third weeks’ instruc¬ tion received in the school, and from their present address we are assured that the school has already sent nearly one hundred active and educated teachers into differ¬ ent parts of the State, and that at least 100 more students not graduated are occa¬ sionally thus employed within the limits of New Hampshire.” “About 95 per cent, of normal graduates teach after leaving the normal schools, and on the average about five years,” says the secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. Over 90 per cent, teach in Massachusetts. These teachers scattered over the Commonwealth have done much towards introducing improved methods of teaching and towards recommending the public schools to public favor. The quality of primary teaching has rapidly improved during the last few years. There is now a growing inclination to place the best trained teachers over the primary schools. These things are largely due to the eftect normal schools have produced through their graduates in leading superintendents and school committees to magnify the importance of primary instruction.” THE NON-GRADUATES. The question as to what becomes of the pupils at the normal schools, that do not graduate is an important one in a double sense ; for it may be asked, since they form by far the largest part of the attendance during a series of years, what return do they render the State by teaching in its schools, while, if they do engage in teaching, what is the value of their services for the advancement of the schools they teach, and, indirectly, for the advancement of the reputation of the normal schools from which they came. As to the value of the performances in the public schools of the non-graduates to the reputation of the normal schools they have attended, several very plain state¬ ments are to be found in the State reports of the New England States, several of which are now reproduced. In 1877 the board of trustees of the Rhode Island Normal School say: “In the interests both of the normal school and of the town schools of the State, the trustees would call attention to the fact that to have been for a time a pupil of the normal school is not necessarily to have received its diploma, or to have become qualified as a teacher. When school authorities are asked to engage the services of persons com¬ mending themselves on the ground of having been for a time a pupil of the normal school, but who have not received its diploma, it would bo well to bear in mind that such a profession maybe, in fact, a confession of incompetency. * * * As a result of the severe wdnuowiug process to which the school is subjected, preparatory to the * "VVe find that Ex-Snperintendent Northrop has quoted this extract in his report for 1879, p. 58. THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 337 entrance of classes upon the senior year, a considerable number of pupils fail to complete the school course.” In a report several years later the principal of the normal schools says that, while making a tour of the State, he found many of these non-graduates teaching in rural schools. We find complaint made of the injury the poor work of the non-graduate was doing to the school both in Maine and Massachusetts. In the twenty-sixth annual report of the board of education of the latter State occurs the following : “The board desire to make two observations to school committees. First, to those whose duty it is to employ teachers for their schools. Not infrequently individuals present themselves claiming to be qualified for the business of teaching, and, to strengthen the claim, state that they have been members of a normal school. They are employed and miserably fail in their work. The truth in many cases is that the individuals may have been connected with a normal school for a brief period, and have been found so unpromising as candidates for the vocation of teacher that they have been advised to break off their connection with the institution ; or they may have left voluntarily after so brief a connection that the school has not had time to develop the capacity or fitness of the person for teaching. In either case the reputa¬ tion of the school suffers. Judged by such results the normal school is condemned.” IV. — Profession A LIT Y. We have now in turn inquired into (1) the social conditions of the people from whom the New England teacher comes, and who are the raison d’etre of the wealth by which he is supported ; (2) the conditions under which the New England teaching body as a professional corps labors as to change, sex, and pay; and (3) the annual demand for persons training for the business of teaching and the attempts made to meet that demand by the establishment of normal schools. We now enter upon the very delicate and immensely more difficult task of inquiring hurriedly as to the amount of information and mental training the New England teacher brings to his task. In quoting from the reports of the New England superintendents, as we shall in the sequel, we incur one danger especially. Froude, in his Life of Carlyle, tells us that that idealist, though a severe critic of the poet Byron, was very a])t to fall into a Carlylean mood when others less gifted than himself took the same liberty. The State superintendent may be perfectly unconcerned about his constituents knowing how things as they aie differ from what they ought to be, but he may also bo extremely unwilling that his statements be compared with statements made by others who have not his idea of what things ought to be. If any section of this country can sustain with credit an examination of its school affairs that section is the one under review, and if in any section there has been less of that fatal optimism which, without making the worse appear the better reason, makes what is bad far less bad than it really is, that section is Now England. If, then, in the following excerpts the reader should find statements which he has not seen in the reports of his own section he will be good enough not to draw a comparison until an investigation of his own geographical division of the country, carried on in the spirit of the New England superintendent, has convinced him that such a compari¬ son will not turn out to be odious. Against trusting the statements contained in the quotations it may be urged that the fury of propaganda not infrequently causes the writer to say “ more than ne really meant.” To rectify this amiable weakness requires that qualitative analysis called “ reading between the lines, ’’which it would be presumption in us to make. Any theory of an educational nature or any criticism of such a theory that a superintendent may favor the public with we might venture to criticise, but his statements as to facts connected with the administration of his system must indeed be facts for us. LITERARY ATTAINMENTS OF THE TEACHING CORPS OF THE NEW ENGLAND STATES, AS GIVEN IN THE STATE REPORTS, 1865-85. In the state report of Maine for 1875, the superintendent remarks that : “ Public school teaching is not sufficiently attractive, nor, as a general thing, sufifi- ciently rewarded, to induce the best talent to spend time and money in obtaining a professional training for the service. Indeed, that class of young people who are willing to become common school teachers are, as a rule, unable to provide for them¬ selves such training. It is clear that the State supports its normal schools and its public schools for the accomplishment of the same ends. “The normal schools of this, as the normal schools of other New England States, have a more direct effect upon the country schools than upon the schools of the cities. Having gained what they can from schools in their own vicinity, young men and women possessing physical vigor and mental force and courage, and intent upon teaching, find their way, ofteii in spite of serious obstacles, to the normal schools * * * Soon after graduation most of them find it for their advantage to teach near ED 89 - 22 338 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. their homes. The country school, though small and its work often very laborious, because necessarily ungraded, gives a freer field for the application of principles than the city school. ‘‘ The majority of those persons who wish to avail themselves of the advantages of normal instruction, that they may become teachers, are of a class that can not afford to do so unless the opportunities for it are easy of access and convenient to their homes. The number of pupils that attend the schools at Farmington and Castine from the counties where they are located, and the large proportion of that number coming from the towns where the schools are located, attest to this fact.’' In the report of the general agent of the Massachusetts Board of Education, for 1873-74, that officer speaks of “ teachers’ need of improvement,” in the following con¬ vincing fashion : ‘‘In a recent visit to one of the wealthy towns in Essex County, I asked the chair¬ man of the school committee, who for more than 30 years has taken an active intel¬ ligent interest in its schools, wherein the present schools of his town differed from those of 30 years ago. ‘In almost every respect,’ he said, ‘ there' has been an im¬ provement . * * * and we pay our teachers better wages.’ ‘ And has there been,’ I asked, ‘ a corresponding improvement in the teachers ; are they better qualified for their work now than in former years, and are the results of their teaching more satisfactory?’ ‘We have had,’ he replied, ‘for many years quite a number of very excellent teachers,, who have come to us with all the preparation for their work which the normal and high schools and academies could give them, though in some instances, even the normal graduates have utterly failed of success ; but we have had many poor teachers, who just from the grammar or district school, could pass a tol¬ erably good examination in the common branches of study, yet bad no idea of any methods of teaching or of the proper work of the school room. On the whole, I do not think there has been a corresponding improvement in this respect.’ “ What is true of this school is equally true of numerous other towns similarly situated. Excellent and often very costly school buildings have been erected and thoroughly equipped ; schools have been graded ; courses of study, carefully and wisely matured, have been prepared, and not infrequently all this has been of little avail through lack of that which is more important than either, or ail of them com¬ bined, thoroughly qualified teachers. And if this is so in such towns as these, pre¬ senting so many inducements to attract the best teachers, and yet finding so many not properly qualified for their work, how must it be with numerous other towns iji the State which can offer only greatly inferior wages and so get greatly inferior teachers ? Quoting the Maine report for 1880, it appears that — “ There are few, I think, at all familiar with the condition and wants of our schools who will not agree to the assertion that the great need of all of them, and of the pri¬ mary and ungraded schools especially, is better teaching. Few, if any, will enter a demurrer to the stronger assertion, that the great majority of our teachers do not know enough of what they teach, nor know definitely enough what they do know. Fewer still will refuse to subscribe to the statement that full three-fourths of the six to seven thousand common school teachers of the State are wholly or largely without that professional knowledge, gained from systematic professional training or from professional study and experiment guided thereby, which is essential to anything like the work we have a right to expect and demand in our schools. They are, the great mass of them, blind experimenters or servile imitators of others, mechanically plodding in old and time-worn ruts.” “The majority of rural and ungraded schools are a failure when judged by a fair standard,” says the committee appointed by the Teachers’ Association of Vermont in 1880. “ Teachers who are graduates from these schools of inexperience only, degrade public instruction, squander public funds, and debauch public opinion. Vermont has had too much of this already ; otherwise there had been no need of this report. Nearly every argument for the existence of the common school is an argument for its improvement. How can this be. better done than by improving its chief factor — its chief officer —its teacher ? Can this be done efficiently in any school that does not hold such work as one of its prominent objects ? ” (Published by the State superintendent as a part of his annual report for 1880, p. 23.) In the State report of New Hampshire for 1882 it is said that — “The scholarship of many of our teachers is too limited and inaccurate, and they lack the power to instruct according to the approved practice of the best educators. There is among them a fatal want of knowledge of the laws of mind growth and the natural order of studies. Not infrequently they confound silence with order, and mistake mental stagnation for mental digestion. With such drawbacks the physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of children can not be so disciplined and informed as to fit them to do their best in the industries and responsibilities of after life.” “A good school without a good teacher is an impossible thing. The most di¬ rect way, therefore, to improve the schools of the State is to improve its teachers.” THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 339 In their annual report for 1885-’86 the Connecticut Board of Education make the following observations regarding the system supervised by them : “ We make our statement with a full sense of its gravity and of the concern which it will excite in all thoughtful minds, but we find the fact to be, and we must state it as we find it, that the common-school system of this State is in a most unsatisfac¬ tory condition. ^ ^ “ III. There is too little really first-rate teaching in our schools, and too much that is very, very poor. “1. The teachers do not know enough. — It is a ^reat mistake to suppose that a com¬ mon-school teacher does not need to know much. It is impossible for any teacher to have too large a reserve fund of general information and of well ordered knowledge. * * * But many teachers have no general information at all. They are not famil¬ iar even with the common-school branches they are undertaking to teach. This is manifested by an inspection of schools, and also by the results of the State examina¬ tions of teachers. The answers given to questions about common-school studies by some persons who are at present teaching in the schools of Connecticut reveal an ignorance which in a teacher is appalling to contemplate. * * * Of the 406, who have so far undertaken the examination, only 70 have passed well enough to receive a certificate.' “2. These teachers have not sufficiently ivell-trained and disciplined ininds. — There is much education of faculty which can only come to scholars through daily contact with a clear orderly mind. The loss to the children of the State in missing the in¬ fluences, which fairly lucid and logical ways of thought and expression in the teachers would exert upon the scholars, is greater than most yieople realize. Not a few teachers are too young and unmature. Some are not over sixteen years old. Many others are not well educated. * * The trouble with many teachers is that they never had any education at all, except what they have picked up in their own poor district school, where bad methods are perpetuated from generation to generation. 3. The teachers do not know how to teach, nor (4) what to teach, nor (5) how to organize and manage a school.” Secretary Hine, of Connecticut, in his report on the results obtained by the exam¬ ination of the schools of New London County, 1889, speaks of the condition of the teaching force in the following terms : “ Many of the teachers are very young. Presumably boys and girls at sixteen are not old enough to be intrusted with the training and discipline of children. * Their education is often entirely inadequate. They advance from the highest class of the district school to the teachers’ desk. They may have attended an academy for a term or two in the winter, but the astonishing ignorance which can exist after attendance upon a high school does not make such attendance satisfactory evidence of education sufficient for a teacher.” Observe how these gentlemen emphasize the fact that the ^reat majority of the teachers of the schools come immediately from the very schools whoso elevation is the purpose of the State normal school. It is frequently affirmed that to have been well taught is the best way of learning to teach others. Assuming that there is a certain force in this claim still it rests wholly on the ground that the teacher who has completed his education in the public schools has been well taught, a proposition that is belied by the experience of the normal sehools, as has been shown in the preceding chapter. For oven in Massachusetts, where every township of 500 inhabitants must maintain a high school, and many with fewer inhabitants do maintain one, and where population is denser than in any other State of the Union, with the exception of Rhode Island, only about 50 per cent, of the pupils admitted to the normal schools have graduated from a high school. In States less favorable to secondary education the percentage must be much lower. Twenty-eight State schools that reported to the committee of the National Educational Association put the per cent, at the city schools replying 100 per cent., as might be expected. Even in Massachusetts and Rhode Island about one-fourth of the pupils are the children of farmers; in agri¬ cultural States the per cent, is much larger. But this has been touched on in the preceding chapter. However the difficulty noted in that chapter is not one that has been peculiar to America. “The problem which has had to be solved in modern times,” says Mr. C. C. Perry, in a recent report on German training colleges, “ is how to graft the specific training of schoolmasters, such as is provided by training colleges (normal schools) on the general elementary school course so as to form one connected whole. The question as to the best means of efl’ecting this particular object has been discussed in Germany during the last fifty or sixty years. ” ^ At first, continues Mr. Perry in substance, intending normal pupils — a considerable portion of whom come from the elementary country schools — received private in¬ struction from schoolmasters to whom they were assistants. This, of course, not an- 1 German Training Schools and Colleges in the work bearing the title “ German Elementary Educa¬ tion,” by C. C. Perry. 340 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1888-89. swering, preparatory schools (Praparenden-Schulen) were instituted in Prussia and other states. Though they were private schools they were usually connected with the normal school. In Bavaria in 1857, however, the Government divided each ad¬ ministrative district into eight or twelve school districts in each of which a school¬ master or clergyman was especially commissioned to prepare pupils for the normal schools. Prussia, on the other hand, placed the preparatory training of such pupils in the hands of private instructors especially appointed by the Government, the num¬ ber of pupils for each being limited to three. This very much resembles the pupil- teacher system that obtains in England to-day. But tbe folly of permitting inexperi¬ enced boys fourteen or fifteen years old to teach and of supposing that alter having done his own day’s work Ihe master would devote himself with “geistiger Euergie” to the instruction of his assistants for two hours more was soon recognized, and in 1872 the systematic organization of preparatory training schools iu Prussia began. But ‘‘the question whether the instruction which intervenes between the elementary school and a normal school ought to be more of a special or general nature is one of those about which there has been most doubt. ” The programme of the Prussian course has been given on p. 304 and that of Bavaria on p. 305. Mr. Perry gives the statistics — which it appears are somewhat difi&cult to obtain for Prussia — of nine schools, as follows : Location. Day or boarding. Teachers. Aver¬ age number of pu¬ pils last tjiree years. No. of classes. State aid to poor scholars. School fees. Tear of founda¬ tion. Anrioh . . Day . 3 60 2 60 pupils, each $38 . $15. 00 1874 T)Alit,7,.m’.h _ _ _ Boarding ... 13 100 3 Tn all, about $300.. . 18. 00 1875 SimmRrn _ Day _ 5 42 2 .^,32 each . . 9. 00 1875 Frf'iaiTip' _ _ _ rtfi _ _ _ _ 5 75 3 In all, $1,250 . Free. 1866 Marksteft ......... _ _ do . 5 60 3 35 pupils, each $18 . Free. 1866 Knlmbach . .-.-do . 5 71 3 In all, $1.000 . Free. 1866 R.ftpftnshnrp' . _ _ do _ 4 45 3 In all, $365................. Free. 1886 Strasbarg-Neudorf - Boarding ... 3 48 2 20 to 25 pupils, $80 . Free. 1872 MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS GOING TO SHOW THE PROFESSIONAL CHARACTER OF THE NEW ENGLAND TEACHING FORCE. We hear a good deal about the difficulties that heredity places in the way of edu¬ cating the child as furnished by its parents to the educator ; the same fatality accom¬ panies educational reports ; the type once fixed is handed down from superintendent to superintendent modified, but scarcely to the extent of being called a change. In the New England States several items of interest in connection with the service or professional character of the teaching force appear which it is proposed to give by States : MAINE. Year. Graduates of normal schools employed. Tear. Graduates of luirmal schools employed. 1869 . 136 1879 . 385 1870 . . 193 1880 . 415 1871 . 261 18hl . 457 1872 . 270 1882 . .532 1 873 . . 284 1883 . 601 1871 . 294 1884 . r.87 1875 . 297 1885 . 579 1876 . 290 1886 . .567 1877 . 314 1887 . 657 1878 . - . 334 1888 . 658 THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 341 NEW HAMPSHIKE. Year. Teachers from nortnal schools. Teach¬ ing same school two or more succes¬ sive terms. Town [sbip.s] employ¬ ing teachers from normal schools.’ Year. Teachers from nortnal schools. Teach¬ ing same school two or more succes¬ sive terms. Town [ships] employ¬ ing” teachers from normal schools. 18fi8 . . 623 1879 . 376 1, 220 151 18G9 . . 965 1 880 . 377 1, 378 1.53 1870 . 9:ji 1881 . 345 1, 483 147 1871 . a 862 1882 . 378 1, 436 153 1872 . 1, 108 1 883 - . 318 1. 421 136 1873 . 1, 135 1884 . 342 1, 539 148 1871 . 1, 262 1885 . 346 1, 558 146 1875 . 6 237 1, 189 18'=6 . 365 1,609 142 1876 . . 236 1, 125 115 1887 . 029 1, 425 1.54 1877 . 2!)5 1, T27 126 1888 . 363 1, 582 150 1878 . 3D6 1,279 153 a Computed liy this office from (probably) incomplete returns. h In 1875 tliis number represented those who " had attended a normal school; ” in 187C in one place the 23G is given as those ‘‘Iroin a normal school ” and in another as those who “ had attended a noianal school.” VERMONT. Year. Teachers who had graduated from a norm.al school. Teachers having at¬ tended a Vermont normal school. Year. Teachers who had graduated from a normal school. Teachers haying at¬ tended a Vermont normal school. 1872 . 46 1881 . 576 1873 . 375 1882 . 593 1874 . 393 1883 . . 598 1875 . 1884 . 521 1876 . 1885 . 369 556 1877 . 434 1886 . 407 554 1878 . 461 1887 . 380 587 1879 . 446 1888 . 404 554 1880 . 542 MASSACHUSETTS. Year. Number of teach¬ ers who have graduated from normal schools. Number of teach¬ ers who h.ave at¬ tended a normal school. Year. Number of teach¬ ers who have graduated ftom normal .schools. Number of teach¬ ers who have at¬ tended a normal school. 1 873 1,634 1,674 1,792 1,280 1, 898 3, 060 a 3, 198 2, 228 1881 . 1874 . 1882 . 2, 037 2, 155 2, 240 2, 392 2, 420 2, 533 2, 416 2, 581 2, 744 2, 866 3, 003 3. 134 lH7ri 1883 . 1876 . 1884 . 1877 . 1885 . 1878 . 1886 . 1879 . 1887 . 1880 . 1,911 a The language to which these answers were made runs “ Number of teachers who have attended the (Massachusetts?] normal schools. 342 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. EHODE ISLAND. Year. Ratio of normal graduates tn different teachers. Ratio of number ed¬ ucated at common school to diflerent teachers. Ratio of number ed¬ ucated at college or university to different teachers. Ratio of number ed¬ ucated at academy or high school to different teachers. 1881 . 1 . Per cent. 21. 4 Per cent. 13.0 Per cent. 3. 8 Per cent. 61.7 57.6 57.0 56.2 55.7 56. 9 1882 . 23. 7 14. 2 4. 5 1883 . 25. 2 13. 7 4. 1 1884 . . 25. 4 13. 9 4. 5 1885 . 27.7 25. C 13. 7 4. 9 1886 . 13. 1 4.4 1887 . 26.3 12.4 5.4 55,9 1888 . 28.2 10.8 5.3 55.7 The Teachers’ Salary in Eurore. In “ a preliminary note ” to the work from which we have taken the matter here given as to the pay of teachers in foreign parts, Mr. Ernest Pelletier, assistant chief of the bureau immediately attached to the French ministry of public instruction and flue arts, speaks as follows of the sources from which his information had been obtained: “ The present compilation has been formed by the courtesy of the representatives of France abroad and her diplomatic and consular agents, through whom the origi¬ nal documents have been obtained. Many heads of departments, notably Monsieur Germain, director of primary instruction in Belgium ; Signor Rivera, chief of primary instruction in Italy, and others, have had the courtesy to lend their assistance in consummating the work.” GERMANY. In Germany the condition of affairs is very similar to that in the United States j each state of the Empire, as each of our States, fixes the pay of its teachers and the manner of appointing them. The order given in the work from which we have obtained our information is that followed here in presenting it in the form of an abstract. PEUSSIA. The average salary of a position held by a man or woman teacher (high schools for boys and girls excepted) is 874 marks ($213.50) in the country and 1,365 marks ($341.25) in the city, giving an average for the whole country of 1,032 ($258). If to this average salary the average appropriation allowed by the state, according to length of service, rank, etc., be added, the total average amount received by the school mas¬ ter or mistress will be found to be 954 marks ($238.50) for a position in a country school and 1,398 marks ($349.50) in the cities ; an average of 1,098 marks ($294.50) for the kingdom. There is a pension system. BAVARIA. The minimum salary of the teacher is as follows : In communes of more than 10,000 inhabitants 500 florins ($215) ; of 2,500 to 10,000, 450 florins ($130) ; below 2,500, 350 florins ($150.50). In 1874 the poor pay of the teachers of the smaller communes was betterech In tlie communes having fewer than 2,500 inhabitants the minimum salary was fixed at 450 florins ($193.50), and, in communes having 2,500 to 10,000 inhabitants, 500 florins ($215). This increase is to be made at the expense of the State. After ten years of service the teacher becomes entitled to an increase of $22.50, which is doubled for every additional five years he teaches. It is the rule that the teacher in communes of fewer than 2,500 inhabitants has the use of a hoiise adapred to the needs of a family, in addition to his salary. These minimum figures are always exceeded, either through grants by the commune or by the district fund (Kreisfond) or by grants by the State. In the greater number of the cities the actual pay of the teachers is double that given above. There is a pension system. THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 343 SAXONY. The miriimain pay of teacliers of the elementary schools is as follows : Places of 10;000 or few inhabitants, 280 thalers ($210); of more than 10,000, 300 thalers ($225). In addition the teacher is lodged, and encouraged by an expectation of increased remuneration, which moves on the following scale ; Districts of- Years of service. Fewer than 5,000. 5,000 to 10,000. More than 10,000. After five years . . . $232 255 $247 i 285 323 $278 i 315 After ten years . After fifteen years . 278 353 After twenty years . 300 3G0 1 390 After twenty-five years . 323 398 1 428 Teachers of schools, of which the average attendance (effectif moyen) does not exceed 40 students, receive at each period an augmentation of $7.50. When the commune lacks the means to meet these charges, the State assumes them. There is a pension. AUSTRIA-IIUNGAUY. Without stopi)ing to give the pay of the other and smaller members of the German Empire, we turn to the great Austro-Hungarian Empire, noted for its heterogenious population. Wo will content ourselves with giving the figures for Lower Austria (German), for Bohemia (Czech), and for Hungary (Maygar). LOWER AUSTRIA. All regular teachers are paid the following salary as a minimum : In schools of the — First class . . $3G0 Second class...: . . 315 Third class . . . . . , 270 When the school is taught by several teachers, the head of the school receives a supplementary amount of: In schools of the — First class . $90 Second class . 45 Third class . 23 The women are placed iifion an equality with men in regard to salary. There is an increase of $23 every five years until the conclusion of the twentieth year of serv¬ ice. There is a fiension. BOHEMIA. The pay of regular teachers is : In scliools of the — First class . $315 Second class . : . . 270 Third class . 225 Fourth class . ISO The head of a school taught by several teachers receives a supplementary sum as in Lower Austria. There is no discrimination as to pay between the sexes. The five-years increase is 10 per cent, of the pay. HUNGARY. The pay of a regular teacher of an elementary school is $135 ; in addition to this a house aud garden are provided. When local financial affairs demand it, a part of the salary is paid in produce. The alimentation for continuity of service is 10 per cent, of the pay. There is a pension. BELGIUM. The salary of the teaclier is fixed by the communal council, with the approbation of the permanent committee (deputation) but may be appealed to the King. This salary must not be lower tlian $200 for assistant teachers and $240 for teachers. The teacher is entitled in addition to a habitation. Every teacher who has not been disciplined has a right to an increase of pay as follows : At the end of— Five years . $20 Tenyears . 40 Fifteen years . 80 Twenty years . . . . . ^ .!!!!!. 120 344 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. The expenses of primary instruction are borne by the communes, assisted under certain circumstances by the province and the State. There is a pension. The fol¬ lowing table is fully explained by the heading: Salaries of elementary school teacJurs in Belgium during 1881.' Classification by salary. Teachers (not inc toad Male. luding “ assistant lers.” Female. Ratio to whole body. Average salary. Ratio to whole body. Average salar3'. Per cent. Per cent. *200 to S220 _ _ _ _ _ _ . 25 $219 220 240 . 15. 56 240 17. 05 $240 240 260 . 9.20 253 8. 67 253 260 280 . . . 8. 09 271 10.36 273 280 300 . 8. 74 292 9. 72 293 800 320 . 8.89 311 10. 08 312 320 310 . 8.43 330 8. 39 331 340 360 . 7. 87 352 7. 89 353 360 380 . 6. 41 369 5. 78 371 380 400 . 4. 39 890 4.86 394 400 450 . 14. 97 442 11. 84 450 450 600 . 4.45 544 4. 09 549 600 and over . 2. 75 726 1.27 714 Averacre . . . . . . . 344 332 SWITZERLAND. The heads of the following columns explain sufficiently well the figures of the table. An attempt to give an account of Switzerland as one whole is met by the diffi¬ culty we have in presenting a similar account of the United States; it is impossible to place the information before the reader in a few words. We, therefore, present the table of salaries only. Salary of teachers. Cantons. Teachers. Average salary in— Cash. Money and advantages. Men. Women. Men. Women. Men. j Women. Both. Zurich . 577 53 $407 $338 $445 $361 $438 Bern . 1,168 733 250 186 277 206 249 Lucerne . . . . 263 42 250 240 257 245 255 Uri . 26 26 99 62 105 71 90 Scbwyz . 54 66 197 92 205 107 151 Unterwalden : Upner . 10 28 164 82 178 98 139 Lower . . 10 26 130 61 130 74 89 filnris _ _ _ _ 80 317 322 322 Zus . 32 31 221 77 2U 83 155 Ih-eybure . 242 159 181 114 206 138 179 Soleure . 211 10 239 230 257 233 256 Basel: City . 57 22 611 307 622 307 555 Countrj^ . 131 1 233 280 289 290 289 Schatf hausen . 109 10 326 233 332 234 324 Appenzell: Outer Rhodes . . . 101 1 317 360 364 370 364 Inner Rhodes . 17 7 170 121 195 127 176 St. Galle . . . . 452 16 291 234 316 239 310 Orisons . . 396 55 131 85 138 96 133 Aargau . 479 75 200 217 244 219 241 Tburgau . 253 7 259 251 312 251 310 Ticino . 194 285 125 92 133 121 154 Vauri . . 498 300 301 206 348 233 302 Valai.s . 257 2U 77 61 85 68 77 Neuch4tcl . 131 247 385 208 887 209 271 Geneva . 86 111 407 263 437 245 329 For the whole country . 5,840 2, 525 261 164 284 180 • 253 THE TEACHING FORCE OF NEW ENGLAND. 345 ITALY. As to the salary of the teachers the schools are divided into urban and rural, each class being subdivided into three. The minimum salaries were as follows: First class. Second class. Third class. Urban schools: Hi^lier . . . . . . . . $240 180 $200 $180 Lower . . . . . . . . . 160 140 Rural schools : Hijrher . . 160 140 120 Lower . . . . . . . . . 130 110 100 The above figures were reduced a third for women, and a half for the under¬ teachers, male and female, while in 1876 all grades of salaries were increased one- tenth. There is a pension. SPAIN. There is no discrimination between the sexes. The salaries are : Id communes of— 500 to 1,000 inbabitanta ... 1,000 to 3,000 inhabitants.. 3,000 to 10,000 iiiliabitants. 10,000 to 20,000 iiiliabitants 20,000 to 40,0u0 inhabitants 40,000 inhabitants . Madrid . $125 165 225 275 330 400 In addition to the above, the teacher receives from each pupil who is able to pay it, an amount whose montlily average is in — Elementary schools for — Cents. Boys . 17 Girls . 14 Mixed schools . 8 The teacher is furnished with a suitable lodging for himself or herself and family. There is an arrangement by which the salary of the teacher is augmented. rOKTUGAL. The minimum salary for teachers of elementary schools is, in the country, $U2 ; in cities, $134 ; and in the large cities, $168. In addition to this the teacher is provided with a lodging. There is a jiension. HOLLAND. Every male teacher receives a fixed salary which may not be less than $294 for the head of a school ; $252 for masters having the rank of “ chief teacher,’^ who must pre¬ side over a school having more than 4 instructors; and $168 for the other masters. In addition the liead of a school is lodged and, if possible, provided with a garden. There is a pension. DENMARK. At Copenhagen the salary of the teacher is for the first year about $284 ; at the end of four years of service this pay is raised to $364 ; and at the end of tour years more, to $446. In the other cities and in the country the law of March 8, 1856, has con¬ siderably bettered the pecuniary condition of the teacher. Their pay is made up of a fixed annual sum, a certain number of bushels of wheat, the value of which they receive in money according to the current price, a lodging, and in the country a field and a determined quantity of forage and fuel. The sum total of these constitutes a revenue that is rarely less than $224, and sometimes exceeds $448 or $504 ; in the aver¬ age, however, it is between $284 and $392. It should be added that the annual ‘‘ supplements ” to the salary vary from $14 to $28. The salary of the women teachers 18 in general almost a third less than that of the men. There is a pension. 346 'EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1888-89. NOR^YAY. The law of July 12, 1848, fixes the minimum salary in cities at $163, besides lodg¬ ing and fire for teacher and family. The law' of May 22, 1869, has modified this but little. In the cities of the six dioceses of the country the following figures show the average pay for 1378 for men and women : Citie.s. Men. Women. Cliristiania . . . . . $481 280 $211 168 Haraar. . . . . Tromlhjera . . . . . 3H2 176 Eergeii . . 392 224 Christiansaud . . . . . 483 232 Tromso . . . . . 336 252 In the country every school district should provide the teacher with a house, with a garden and other land sufficient to support two cows. The salary of the teachers, whether men or women, as well as the under teacher, is “ supplemented by a grant of 56 cents a week from the public treasure. If the minimum salary fixed for each week by the district is $2.24 for men and $1.40 for women, they receive weekly about 56 cents more [in addition to the 56 cents named above] from public funds, and after five years of service, 84 cents for men and 56 cents for women. SWEDEN. The teacher of an elementary school, whether in city or country, should receive annually not less than $140, besides lodging, fire, a garden, and food for a cow. There is a pension. GREECE. Teachers of the first class (in towns) received $28 a month ; of the second class, $20, and of the third class, $16. The directors of the elementary schools of Athens, of Syra, of Patras, and of Corfu receive $36 a month. There is a pension. CHAPTER XIII. PEOFESSIONAL WORK IK THE KORMAL SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES. ' THE RELATION OF THE OBJECT OF EDUCATION TO THE NORMAL-SCHOOL CURRICULUM. It is frequently asserted that as law schools teach law and medical schools medi¬ cine, normal schools should teach pedagogy. But the lawyer — the graduate of the law school — does not carefully instruct his client as to the mysteries of a contract or a tort, nor the physician his patient in therapeutics or symptomatology ; for the object of the one is to present his case in its most favorable light and of the other to restore his patient to health. Thus both use their art to effect its object; that ob¬ ject becoming more generally etfected, certainly so in the case of medicine, as a science is developed from the practice of the art. Now, if an inquiring mind were to ask, “ What object does the science and art of teaching propose to itself?” it may be that different ages and different nations would give different answers. Because it is a “chief project of that old deluder Satan to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures,” said the Puritans, adding, “ to the end that learning may not be buried in the grave of our forefathers.” ^ Be¬ cause “the very life-spring of the Reformation was reading the Bible by the laity,” ^ said Luther and his brother reformers in Germany. Because a boy knowing howto read “might read his Bible and learn to fear God and be ashamed and afraid to do wrong,” said Knox and others who established the parish schools of Scotland. ^ Because it is necessary to make “ little boys and girls into free men,” says the French Re¬ public in its year III (1794).^ Because it is necessary to develop the threefold na¬ ture of the child, says the Nineteenth Century, etc. It is quite fair to conclude from the foregoing that illiteracy was, in the days of the Reformation, the evil that was to be guarded against, and that then the production of free men or the harmonious development of the threefold nature of the child would take care of itself. Under such circumstances the science and .art of teaching was a very simple matter indeed, though somewhat above the capacity of a modern grave¬ digger or bell ringer. But this simplicity is turned into the highest complexity when, in order to effect the pupil’s harmonious development, it has become the teacher’s duty not only to teach the child to read, but in addition to contend with heredity, with bad home influences, and insufficient food and clothing, for it necessitates the teacher’s own harmonious development as a many-sided genius in the first jdace. To give the requisite pedagogical training, certain studies have been introduced in our schools for training teachers which go by the generic name of PROFESSIOXAL STUDIES. The conditions as to time and place under which these studies are pursued is set forth in the tables and analyses that immediately follow, but as an introduction tu them it is advisable to dwell briefly on the study of psychology, since it is claimed that psychology is the basis of the science of education. We all know of Monsieur Compayr6, whose History of Pedagogy has been trans¬ lated and annotated for us by Professor Payne. In a late work on “Psychology 1 xiol© 2T 5 2 Massachusetts School Code of 1647. See also act of 1642. 3 National Education by Max Muller. By the Saxon code of 1580 the gravedigyer or the bell ringer had in addition to his duty of teaching the children in a Sunday school, the daily duty of instructing, them to read. The text-books were the Lutheran Catechisin, alittlebook of Psalms, Solomon’s Proverbs, and the New Testament. “Education : An address delivered to the students at St. Andrew’s College, March 19, 1869, by James Anthony Eroude. 6 D6cret relatif A la constitution des 6coles primairos, by the National Convention, Chap. I, art. 1, 347 348 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1888-89. applied to Education,” M. Compayr6 opens liis treatise, a schoolbook, in the follow¬ ing terms : “ Why should the study of psychology, formerly the privilege of classical second¬ ary institutions, have been recently introduced into our elementary instruction — into the programmes of our normal schools ? Why, also, has it been even more recently inscribed to some degree upon the programme of special instruction ? ” and he proceeds to answer his inquiry in this fashion,: “ The first and the most useful of all the sciences is that which is condensed in this simple maxim, ‘ Know yourself.^ To know yourself is truly the key to all the moral sciences. To know yourself is to know all men. It is to grasp the principles upon which rest all the knowledge that relates to moral nature and humanity. History would be only a succession of incoherent facts, an enigmatic procession of uncompre¬ hended personages for him who has not learned in the school of psychology to unravel the interior motives, ideas, feelings, and passions which set man in motion. How may one pretend to direct forces of whose nature one is ignorant ? ” Two questions seem to offer in connection with psychology as a study capable of giving the ability mentioned in the foregoing quotation. In the first place, will text¬ book psychology suffice ? and in the second place, what is the connection between the practical psychology or experience of the practice or model school and the theoretical psychology of the class room ? On the first of these doubts M. Compayrd speaks as follows : ‘‘It is too frequently forgotten that adifference exists between the scientific study of psychology and the teaching of its elements. Psychology, properly so called, con¬ sidered as a science, the object of profound research of philosophy, is one thing ; quite another school psychology — the psychology of the class room. Long ago this dis¬ tinction was made for easier sciences ; history, for example. We do not confound an historian and a professor of history ; a book of profound erudition, as Henri Martinis Histoire de France, and the manuals that are usually placed in the hands of students. Authors of treatises on psychology are not always conscious of the wisdom of making this distinction. Their works are pretentious, even to the extent of being scientific, rather than works of a popular nature and for general education. The professor of psychology especially considers, then, that a choice is to be made between useless facts and encumbering details and those truly useful which offer a practical interest while their simplicity and their clearness make them accessible to immature minds.” But should the practical exercises of the practice school wholly precede the study of psychology of the class room, or wholly follow it, or go hand in hand with it ? If, in conformity with the usage in American normal schools, we conclude that the last is the best method, can a text-book, such as M. Compayrd advocates, be made subservient to such method? It would seem that much depends upon the teacher, who should be, it seems to us, a passed master in the scientific — the real — psychology that M. Compayr^ claims is inappropriate in the class room. Without pursuing the idea further it may again be said that it has been remarked by another learned ped¬ agogue and Frenchman, M. Gr^ard, that the application of psychology to education becomes more delicate the more ignorant the elementary pupil who is under instruc¬ tion ; from which it follows that the normal student should be well grounded in psy¬ chology before attempting to teach in the practice school. By the side of psychology stand the “ science of education,” “methods,” “school management,” and, most favored of, all the so-called “history of education,” which, however, is usually nothing more than a chronologically arranged r^sum^ of the theories of education held by practical or unpractical thinkers. The historical facts that Germany has a professional corps of teachers and that we have not, may be ascribable to the influence of the theories of a Pestalozzi or a Basedow in Germany and of the monitorial system in America ; but these theories are not the history of education, but a possible explanation of these historical facts. It is not so easy to define sharply the difference between the “science of educa¬ tion^’ and psychology, especially “educational psychology.” It was not at all sur¬ prising to have a principal of a Wisconsin normal school say that the first four heads of the qualitative tables that follow w'ere ambiguous. It is because they are so ambiguous, and yet so much talked about as though they were not, that has caused us to compile the tables. Other than their completeness they contain nothing new. PROFESSIONAL WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 349 aTududod in column 7 b History of education, science of education and school management and metliods taught as “pedagogy.” Statistics given in columns 2-4. c Principal Palmer returns this as 25. Hot wishing to t^ouhh^ him a second time, we have taken the precaution to give the answer in a foot-note, though it is not improb¬ able that tlie question did not convey to him the meaning intended. d “Psychology equals science of education." NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION— Continued. 350 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Psychology. Pupils. W H o csooor-ot^co t- O O 05 (N Weeks in course. CO CO 00 00 o 00 CO 00 CO CM 04 CO tH C- r- iC CO lO O Weeks in course. 00 Cl CO CO CM CM T-1 rr CM CM rr CM TJ1 Hours during Aveek. lO t- ic lO liO lO CO CO CO History of education. Pupils. C5OC0r>^h-00 t-4 l.0 CO O C5 CM Weeks in course. O Tff O CM O <0 (N T?’ r-* ^rHr-iCOrH'^rH Hours during week. IC i-O. KO I> iC UO LO CO «0 CO* CO 4 Name of school. 1 ^ New Jersey: State Normal School . Pennsylvania : State Normal School, Bloomshurg . State Normal Schooj, California . •. . . State Normal School, Clarion . - . State Normal School, Kutztown . State Normal School, Lock Haven . State Normal School, Mansfield . ■i ? Q J 3 ) Q 5 :> 3 ;> 2 3 3 0 0 3 1 i Table 1.— Theoretical and ^practical professional work in the public normal schools of the FAiste^n and Middle States —Continued. NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION— Continued. PROFESSIONAL WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 351 . o ^ d, O O o o a o o fqpqMp;^^ pq: .r« ; C3 O o' H OOlOlCO ooo r-. <=> ®.a s fe .9 o o o o o o ca 'U' r). 00 ■«)( 0'S £ o £ ^ o o w S £ Pi Pi H 03 03 O O © O 3 t>i t>iOHO X M h 03 03 0 O 03 o !>h M Zw. a go . £ ;-i o t« ts fcjo 3 0 o -p ® a o o X a'r iH M Kei rH .9 ® o « g -e-a D o'r:i rt 'M (M (N O O CO to o o r-i rH (M t-i (N iH 'o«^ o bn p p ^'.5 S p H o'g ■g 'rt ® ”3 p p ^ O d a p 'So © o PP5 o o MM d ei bC :2 Pa ■ ® ® .P _ cc bt g £ ^ o o o o O O O o p3PPpa o o o o mui'Jiui Eli'gsi§ O O -P o o o o > ^ ® ^ O)^ C3 CD a c<^ PHM'\.M Emm ,^iMMMM -PISP ® '§S£§ "o "o 'o p 2 2 'o'o’o o P.M K.M M S be bt bt be ^ a _o g _p ^ g g g P 2 2 S S cHHHH PP-PP-P « p p g p M g rt g cS :m 9 be ^ ® 2 4) . ® ■p Pi 1^ =ai!W « c. rt ’S re « g £ lag ooooo '©•^ng®*®®®® ;M p!^ ^MMMMM 1 o ^ a a s a a a ' ' ' • C 2 G o o o ® ® ® re re re MMM MM P re M a Besides “ exercises before tlie class.” b Alternately. Table 1. — Theoretical and practical professional woi'Tc in the public normal schools of the Eastern and Middle States — Continued. NOETH ATLANTIC DIVISION— Continued. 352 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Topical or cate¬ chetical method used. Both. Both. Both. Both. Both. Both. Mainly topical. ' i Length of ex¬ ercise in teaching. lO lO 3 irt in o o os TJ. CO Pupils teach under direction — Weeks in course. CQ ^ 1-1 1-^ o CC lft Hours during week. ^ lO 10»0 lO *^4C40i0 -^10»0 lO 4OC0 coco lO History of education. Pupils. « Ol lO tJ4 CM CO O O lO -1 4-( tH 1-4 ©1 CM 1-4 iH r-l CM r4 ,-4 Weeks in course. © 10 o o o i'0> p: cjc o 5 irt o m lO lA ic irt M lA lo in H tx H te ro m m ®®®H >H>-I >H t>l cg;2i TO m o o o © o © o o c3 j| i: 5^ r- a ® ® A? 5 Pm. 3 "o c * =- P-S ® 3 CC P -i^ U ; ® o ® £ i-p: « ® ® §11-” t>H tH ^Am © o o o o s s ^ O a ® a ® i = § a -p ® r ® >1 2 2 a --2 8 ® c3 ® -l-l> i-r a a ® * fc o 2 'S o o ® a s ®P3 Hh 53,0 .a o ® ■£ pa w a o . ® ® a ^ ^ fci a “.a-c ® a © ?j o fl _ 'CO CC C a. • > 'S'S > 'a P >1 ^ ® co_> ®'a ■|P Pa'S ■« P 'H'ci’rt P w So o ® a"- a 2 « o a aO a ”« a ' p a drO tA m o ® o t: p,ce x: pa ®.2 03 72 45 §. r^lM c o o o papa o o CCCZ2 ■rtrt a c3 -2 ® a i? ..52 §-2«5®2 .2 § 2 ^ 2x«2' • - :e CS £ 2 O o o .2 ^ ^ ; a 3 a a ..!^p ® ® a ..j +j ^ 4j +j .lii JW.U4- ..^.3 ^25-a24^ d acOCCM C3X ®Co3q acCK a : fe 3! P! M § P ^ (25 -s 202 357 c Includes academy students. Table 2 — Theoretical and practical professional work in thepuhlic normal schools of the Western States — Continued, 358 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. ® a bcg-g S' PM w m ^ b O S3 <© o ho o ' DC ® S 0 “2 So'S ; fl ® ® ® 0+3 ^ S § I iE ® 2 ! S m; o ■ •j. ® o ® 02 PM ®- •So®^ii £ ® g o I bi) cs o r2 p « bi "oOtS ® p p « g;^ “ “ o pqo kft lO lO lO o ^!>h 0? <© CQ 03 W S ® fl'i ir» in ^ fl*! t>^h HccH o: ® a> c:) hh CO CO r-< CO p • CS P — 'P o § lA CO !>• CM 10 11 100 32 SS 11 1 0 200 Weeks in course. fH • 0 • CM CO 0 to LCiO Cl uO uo la ■ o CM to J School manageraent aud methods. Pupils. io C 0 CM 00 12 11 o o c? o o O O t- CO w O') t-( 8 11 270 45 W eeks in course. 0 i ^ b ^ : 6 g_ ^2 1 (Yes.) 14 40 36 40 52 (Yes.) 13 19 28 20 52 Hours during week. (D CO CM CM la M (^ la ;d la la 3 «> M J “* Science of education. Pupils. i* C5 0 CM 00 II 01 14 32 67 11 200 45 Weeks in course. (Yes.) 20 34 14 CM CO CM * ^ r-< CM rH t rH 20 12 • ^CO • 03 tH • ’~' ^ b 20 12 40 1 (Yes.) 13 10 12 10 1 52 Hours during week. « ca rH 00 kau5 N to la lO to u3 IO ; >5 O <0 cr:3 pj I g al 'g c/> g o 'Ss eS (31; OS !> w >j a u S-g-a “ I a a 5 2 cs j®3ca®‘3ooo3;9 ■3.MWr>o -goiMaiM” ©OOP o o o 5 ©o O 5 o © •• o o ®g C8 ® © a s ^ .2 !=* H <1 hJ O (-C OQ ^5 O P3 i^i 52; ^ ^il 03acC«S © H '>1 a Sot yet introduced. Table 3. — Theoretical and practical prof essional worJc in the public normal schools of the Southern States. PROFESSIONAL WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 361 g j5 pi oooiS-^o-soo HWpqS PQOOifq m « ^ p Pi I® >o Tjt M eq T}i irt a S o I i £ S rt'o W O fz) m tc ro I JZi .5^ 0 H $ S S S S ^ o ^ c/qIz; N tH t>i CQ 00 ^ ® O «> cj ® a; o ® » <6 j ® '^9 • o fl .9 ■' £ ® 3 2 © .2^ S‘3 o 6= & ® 5 ® 3 o <0 c5 CP a* o « ® o oj ® o • • • • • ® ll ^ tz? .9 o « 9.2 S ® S « N g « ^‘S iM IM IN .9 ® 4=^ :2a«§5i &.2'x3 ® g Ph <” « o Cl ’■3+= & PI P5 ® .9 ® 9 ® .Q.lPrdPP o o c o mmmvi 03 'rf

^ 91 3 i a a a ^ O 0.5 a I a a p p P( PI p 5 cc - a O O O 0;pj o - c §,Tt^^!z;lzi 9’rf.®.9 ® ® ® ® cS4f a : lO CO lO lO liO irt ^ ^ cy (£) (£) ® ® ® txtxlx cchf>H rt txfxfi ^ (h ^ -- W * oo ® c:) 0? ac © ® © o®® tx!2i!z;(xh [x >H o^>^t>^ txtxitHfx^x tx M ^ fxfxoj § o ® a rj §1 ® o o +3 00 'B o ® ® ® o o 05 05 ® ® ® CO ® o ® ® © © © o O © h>^No(x>^ ©a- 1 rn ® ;r ! a 2-fe : « oPh • 0,5 a 9 o P --a: -a ^ C5 h5 S cb'^ a'Q SQ'^^b-S i'r 05*25 5 « fe E 2 2'-S' far'd sx 2 'Efi S ^ S ft a" ft - _ ->50® ®g^Ss5g^g rt c? ® ®a= g ,© & PROFESSIONAL WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 365 ANALYSIS OF THE FOREGOING TABLE. If any schools for the training of teachers in this country ought to deserve the name of professional it is the class known as city normal schools. A system of city schools is an educational unit, having its own chief, board, and system of government. Nat¬ urally when the need of trained teachers for its schools begins to be felt as retarding the growth of the schools such a system exerts its authority to supply the need, and it is equally natural that the upper class of the high school should be looked to for the material of which to make teachers, and that, finally, a normal school should be the result of the attempt to train high school pupils for teaching. In the main, one of two reasons has been specially urged as validating the estab¬ lishment of city training schools or classes, one based on the inadequacy of the State normal schools to supply the city’s wants, the other on the assertion that there is something sui generis in each city system of schools that makes it necessary for each to provide its teachers in its own way ; for, to quote a western superintendent, “ Who can teach a system better than one who has been taught by it The last reason seeming to indicate either that each city had a science and art of education of its own, or that the administration of its school affairs was so complex as to seriously interfere with the activity of the uninitiated teacher when she became a part of its educational machinery. However legitimate the claim may be that each city has an educational individu¬ ality of its own, there can be no doubt that considerable individuality is shown in the manner in which the practical part of the training of the intending teacher is done. This individuality as to methods of practical instruction embarrasses this Office somewhat in treating of the class. To illustrate, let us take the course at Rochester, N. Y., as described on page 399 of our'report for 1886-’87 ; the course is of 40 weeks, but “ the class meets for one hour each week to discuss the topic assigned the previous week,” while for practice “all substitutes and temporary assistants are taken from the training class.” Turning now to page 417 of our 1887- ’88 report we find under the caption “ Georgia ” that Superintendent Slatou, of Atlanta, has assured us that “there are, strictly speaking, no normal schools in Atlanta or in the State of Georgia. We have a meeting every week to discuss methods, etc., and this is known as a ‘ teachers normal class.’ ” Now, the only practical difference that exists between the Rochester and the Atlanta school or class seems to be that at the Northern city persons who are not yet teachers are trained for the duties of a teacher and at the Southern city persons who are teachers are trained for their duties ; a distinction that approaches the vanishing point when it is remembered that the practice that Rochester girl receives is when she acts as a substitute or assistant teacher and that the Atlanta girl is employed in' the same duties, only in her own right. Again, take the Welch school, of New Haven, where one-half of the year “the training class forms no part of the teaching force, but during the latter half the young ladies in training go into the class rooms to take their share in the actual work of the school.” How to ascertain, without a very voluminous correspondence, the distinctions that exist among city normal schools or classes and the number, character, length, and at¬ tendance of teachers’ institutes are questions that are as difficult to solve as their solution is necessary to the accuracy and completeness of the portion of the Commis¬ sioner’s report that deals with the training of teachers. We have 25 city normal schools in Table 4. With two exceptions they all present statistics. Of the 16 giving the hours during the week devoted to the history of education, 9 devote 5 hours and 2 devote 4 hours to the subject. Of these 16, 5 re¬ port a course of 20 weeks, 5 a course of 10 to 12 weeks, 3 a course of about 40 weeks, 2 a course as low as 8 weeks. Seventeen schools report the hours a week given to the science of education; in 9 instances 5 hours, in 2 instances 4 hours, and in 3 instances 3 hours. Sixteen of these schools report the times a week and the weeks in course ; in 3 instances 20 weeks, in 3 iustances 10 to 12 weeks, 3 instances 8 weeks, and in 5 instances about 40 weeks. Nineteen schools report the hours a week devoted to school management and methods; in 6 instances 5 hours, in 4 instances 4 hours, the other iustances being mostly above these “centers.” Of these same 19 schools 18 report the weeks in the course; in 4 instances 20 weeks, in 3 instances 10 to 12 weeks, in 9 instances about 40 weeks, in 2 instances about 28 or 32 weeks. Eighteen schools report the time given to psychology; in 11 instances 5 hours a week, in 2 instances 4 hours, in 3 instances 3 hours. Seventeen of these schools re¬ port the weeks in course ; 5 schools report 20 weeks, 4 schools 10 to 12 weeks, 2, 14 or 15 weeks, 4 schools about 40 weeks, 1 school 80 weeks, and 1 school 24 weeks. Comparing the contents of column 4 with that of column 14 (excluding schools not reporting in both), 83 percent, of the students of 16 schools or professional departments of schools are in the study of history of education, 87 per cent, of 19 schools are in the science of education, 98 per cent, in school management and methods, and 89 per cent, of 20 schools are in psychology. Every school has practice teaching and, with but several exceptions, teaching to their fellow-pupils. The first, of course, was to be expected, the latter not. The 366 EDUCATION HEPORT, 1888-89. character and relation of the teaching of the pupil in his own class room to that he does in the practice school is not indicated by the table ; yet the method seems to be no favorite with the principals as far as the replies received by President Gray go to show. Of the 18 schools reporting the number of times a week the exercise occurs only 4 report less than 5 times, and 1 of the 4 has the exercise 4 times. SYNOPSIS OF THE FOREGOING ANALYSES. Conhning our attention to colamns 4, 7, 10, 13, and 14 of this series of tables and to the institutions that report, either negatively or affirmatively, in all these columns, and comparing the aggregate of column 14 with each of the others, we find that of the pupils in the science and art of teaching (column 14) there are: In the course of— East. West. South. Cities. History of education (column 4) . . 18 11 20 70 Science of education (column 7) . . 23 17 39 77 Methods and school management (column 10) . . do.... 37 31 66 87 Psychology (column VS)... . 23 17 41 87 Number of schools reporting . IG 18 11 20 In attempting to give an idea of the difference between the sections of the Union as to the hours a week devoted to these four subjects, and the length of the course, we experience more difficulty. We shall assume that for the length of course there are three typical centers, as it were, about which the number of weeks in the course seem to coiicentrate. These centers are 10 to 14 wmeks, 18 to 20 weeks, from 36 to 40 weeks. For the time given to each subject during the week we shall adopt two centers, 2 to 3 and 4 to 5. Numler of Schools that give in the — East. West. Hours a week. Weeks. Hours a week. Weeks. 2 to 3. 4 to 5. 10 to 14. 18 to 20. 36 to 40. 2 to 3. 4 to 5. 10 to 14. 18 to 20. 36 to 40. To history of education . 4 19 8 10 1 3 19 7 a6 0 To science of education . . 4 19 4 11 5 2 20 9 8 1 To methods and school management.. 5 16 5 10 7 2 20 4 4 5 To psychology . 2 23 5 11 1 1 22 6 6 2 17umhor of Schools that give in the— South. Cities. Hours a week. Weeks. Hours a week. Weeks. 2 to 3. 4 to 5. O o O 00 36 to 40. 2 to 3. 4 to 5. O O 18 to 20.' 1 36 to 40. To history of education . . 3 9 8 2 2 2 11 6 5 3 To science of education . 4 8 6 2 2 4 11 &6 3 5 To methods and school management.. 5 6 4 2 5 1 10 3 4 9 To psychology . 4 10 6 1 3 3 13 6 5 4 a Not including six instances of from 15 to 17 weeks. b Eight weeks in 3 instances included. THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL TRAINING OP TEACHERS IN GERMANY, It is generally known, we believe, that the several European Governments, espe¬ cially the French, from time to time send representatives abroad to study the educa¬ tional systems of other nations and even to dwell at their places of instruction in order to gain a more accurate knowledge of foreign manners and customs, a process which a brilliant French educational writer has compared to trying to see in the dark. We Americans and our relatives on the other side of the Atlantic are less actiye in this way, the matter being left almost entirely to private enterprise. PROFESSIONAL WORK IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 367 We are unable to say that Mr. Perry, an assistant master at Eton College, was in tbe employ of the British Government while residing at the German training col¬ lege at Weimar, or that he resided at Weimar and traveled through Germany for the purpose of making the report which he presented to the Royal (English) Commis¬ sion on the Education Acts.” Nevertheless, in looking around for statistics of Ger¬ man schools to compare with those we have presented, it was with some pleasure that we found in Mr. Perry’s recent work on German training schools and colleges those which follow. It will ho remembered that in Germany school xirogrammes are made by the Government. Table 5. — Theoretical training of students in the training colleges of six states of the German Empire. State. Class I. Class II, Class III. rrassia . Bavaria, Saxony Baden Hesse-Darmstadt. Weimar History of education and instruction; principal works in education. Elements of psychol- ai ogy and logic; spe¬ cial method. Rudiments and theory of education; gen¬ eral history of in¬ struction and edu¬ cation ; literature of education. Psychology. General theory of ed¬ ucation and instruc¬ tion ; elements of psychology and logic. General theory of ed- a4 ucatiou and instruc¬ tion ; physiidogy, psychology, and dis¬ cipline. Continuation of fore- ao going; the theory of instruction. General theory of in¬ struction ; anthro¬ pology; biography j of educationists. General theory of ed¬ ucation and instruc¬ tion ; elements of physiology and psy¬ chology. ’ General theory of in¬ struction ; special method and trial lessons. Special method History of education and method; special method. General tJieory of ed- Tication; history of education. General theory of ed¬ ucation ; elements of psychology and logic ; history and literature of educa¬ tion; special method by teacher of each subject. Repetition of previous matter; illustra¬ tion of difficult questions through psychology; logic and moral philoso- phy; special methods. General theory ajid history of educa¬ tion. a5 a Combined with trial lessons in practice school. Table 6.— The practical training of students in fourteen German training colleges. Location. Humber of students. Practice school instruction. Humber of prepara¬ tion lessons weekly. Trial lessons. Teachers who visit. Hours in which they visit. Humber of hours in which students visit teachers’ lessons. | Scripture trial lessons. Hum¬ ber weekly. Dura¬ tion of each lesson. Weekly total of hours. Hours per stu¬ dent. Hum¬ ber weekly. Dura¬ tion of each. Minutes Minutes Weimar . 18 4-6 3 2 30 3 10-12 5-6 1 60 Eisenach ........ 20 84 4-7 1,2 2 45 Hanover . 30 4-7 2 60 all 2 each Warendorf . 30 6-10 1 14 5 2 60 Berlin . . fLl2 1 all^ 4 each Braunsberg . 19 6-ip all 6-11 Eckernforde .... 26 6-8 4 5 all 2 each Dresden. . . . 20-24 10-12 5-6 2 45 Lobau . 20 64 2-4 1 60 Esslingen . 27 78 3 2 a4 15-30 2 26 3 Kiirtingen . 28 2-6 1 d>) 3, 4 3-4 Gotha . 17 104 5-7 3 2 25-30 3 83 3 1 30 Hildburghausen . 26 6-10 2-3 30—45 2-4 15-30 Altenburg . 16 3-6 a In winter. & Occasionally. 368 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. Table 7. — Practice schools of thirteen German training colleges {normal schools). Location. Number of prac¬ tice schools. Number of children. Number of classes. Number of teachers. Situation of practice school. Tear of foundar tion. Total. Boys. Girls. Weimar _ 2 100 64 36 C al 2 ordinarii a College _ 1871-’72 Eisenach . . 1 87 36 51 \ 64 4 1 ordinarius. ...... _ .do . 1851 Hanover ............... 1 220 97 123 6 ....do . . _ .do . Warendorf . . 1 151 151 3 _ do . . ....do . 1882 Bratinsberg . . 2 116 116 3 2 college teachers. ....do _ 1879 Eckeruforde . . 1 172 130 42 4 1 ordinarius . ....do . 1874 Dresden _ _ _ _ cl 137 105 32 5 10 college teachers. _ do . 1874 T,nhnn .. _ 1 95 46 49 4 College teachers ....do . 1875 Esslingen _ _ 1 104 104 3 1 ordinarius d . _ do . 1868 "N^iirtingen _ 1 94 94 3 . . .do . . _ _.dn _ 1784 rint.ha.. _ _ 1 206 206 4 2 ordinarii . .. _ do _ 1784 TTildimrgha.TiaeTi _ _ 1 117 49 68 3 1 ordinarius . . _ do _ 1836 A Ifenhiirg _ _ _ 1 120 60 60 3 _ do _ _ do _ 1806 a Girls. c This is a middle or secondary school. b Boys. d And an assistant. Table 8. — Parents of students and their social status in fourteen German training colleges. College at. Vocation of parents. Weimar . . Eisenach . Hanover . Warendorf . Braunsberg . EckernfSrde . Dresden . Lobau . Altdorf . Esslingen . . Niirtingen . Gotha . Hildburghansen . . . Alteixburg . Clergyman, teacher, artisan, farmer. Four farmers, 9 artisans, 1 chemist, 2 teachers, 1 day laborer, etc. Mason, carpenter, tailor, telegraph messenger, blacksmith, workman, pointsman, pipemaker. Three teachers, 3 day laborers, 14 small farmers, 8 artisans, 2 shopkeepers. Small farmers, artisans, teachers, and small officials. Teachers, officials, artisans, peasants. Shopkeepers and mercantile class, teachers, official, most of them resident in Dresden. Five weavers, 9 artisans, 3 officials, 1 teacher, 2 farmers. Mason, tailor, peasant, butcher, farmer, shoemaker, ropemaker, teacher, day laborer. Peasants, vine-dresser, artisans, teachers, noncommissioned officer. Seven teachers, 4 bootmakers, 3 peasants, 2 manufactory inspectors, 1 baker, 1 innkeeper, 1 shopkeeper, 1 tailor, and 1 missionary. Two teachers, 2 small officials, 8 artisans, 5 farmers. 1 eachers, artisans, peasants. Clergyman, teachers, small officials, peasants, day laborer. CHAPTER XIV. THE “NEW PLAN” OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE PEABODY FUND, IN 1878.' In following tlierise and developmeDt of the normal-school curriculum in Chapter X we neither spoke of the course of study in the South nor went hejmnd 1880, when it was said that “ the conception” was gaining ground, that teaching should cease to be an empirical art and should become a rational art ; that the teacher should not only be instructed in processes, but should also be taught the body of doctrine that under¬ lies them and assures their xalidity.” To-day we find one of the pioneers of that movement, the author of the remark we have just quoted, at the head of an institu¬ tion which is “ a normal college for all the Southern States,” and from which teachers have been and will continue to be returned to their native States to carry out the benevolent purpose for which Mr. Peabody founded the education fund known by his name. Yet it is not to show the condition of normal training in the South, either before or after 1880, that attention is called to the inception of the idea that the purpose of the Peabody Fund could best be carried out by training teachers. Our object is to bring out the manner in which a body of gentlemen, selected from among the most distinguished men in the country, with, perhaps by, the advice of an eminent educator, abandoned their original method of advancing the purpose of their trust and devoted their otherwise insignificant resources to the preparation of teachers to supply the schools rather than assisting to supply schools to the people. Not that that original method was at all faulty or should originally have been subordinate to the other, but because the determination to use the income of the fund for the preparation of teachers, a determination arrived at after twelve years of pioneer experience, shows that the eminent men composing the board of trustees were convinced that the cheapest and surest way to advance a system of public schools as soon as it has arrived at a certain rudimentary stage of development, is to provide it with qualified teachers. We have endeavored to show how this was the idea of Mr. Dix and the New York Univer¬ sity board of regents, of Mr. Mann and his colleagues of the newly created State board of Massachusetts; and to emphasize and illustrate it we shall briefly follow ‘‘the new departure,” in 1878, of the Peabody Fund trustees. The herculean work of establishing, we are tempted to say introducing, public schools into the war- devastated States during the first twelve years of the trustees’ activity does not per¬ tain to the subject-matter of this section of the Report. Under date of February 7, 1867, Mr. Peabody addressed a letter, creating a trust, to the Hon. Robert C. Winthrop, of Massachusetts, and others, of which the quoted matter that immediately follows is a material part : “ With my advancing years my attachment to my native land has but become more devoted. My hope and faith in its successful and glorious future have grown brighter and stronger ; and now, looking forward beyond my stay on earth, as may be per¬ mitted to one who has passed the limit of three-score and ten years, I see our country, united and prosperous, emerging from the clouds which still surround her, taking a higher rank among the nations, and becoming richer and more powerful than ever before. “But to make her prosperity more than superficial, her moral and intellectual de¬ velopment should keep pace with her material growth, and in those portions of our nation to which I have referred [those which had sutfered from the destructive rav¬ ages, and the not less disastrous consequences of civil war] the urgent and pressing physical needs of an almost impoverished people must for some years preclude them from making, by unaided effort, such advances in education, and such progress in the diffusion of knowledge among all classes as every lover of his country must earnestly desire.” _ On March 15, 1867, Mr. Winthrop received from President Sears, of Brown Univer¬ sity, whom Mr. Winthrop had consulted as he himself had been consulted by Mr. Peabody as early as 1866, a letter of advice as to the manner of organizing the work incident to the application of the income of the fund. In this letter the following paragraphs occur, marked respectively 2 and 5. ED 89 - 24 See page 275. 369 370 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89, “ 2. As to i)lans and methods much is to he created. We have nothing exactly like what is to he undertaken. There are no examples before you. There has been no experience directly in this line of action. Much must come by time and actual trial. Principles may be laid down, but there must be room for variation in details. ‘‘5. Of Gourso efective schools, that shall be permanent, is the great desideratum. This is not only the best thing for the young, but they furnish to the people at large the strongest argument in favor of popular education. Let good schools, springing up on the soil, growing out of the wants of the people, and meeting those wants, be sprinkled all over the South, as examples, and be made the nuclei for others, and let them be established and controlled as far as possible by the people themselves, and they will in time grow into State systems. Besides the direct aid in the support of such schools, which would no doubt bo the first work to be done, there are various indirect ways of reaching the same end. Normal schools, especially for training fe¬ male teachers for the primary schools ; higher education given in the form of scholar¬ ships to a limited number of young men who would obligate themselves to teach for as long a period, at least, as that during which they received aid, or to refund the money ; encouragement to teachers’ associations by giving them |50 or $100 to pay for the lectures at their meetings; aid to the editors or publishers of journals of edu¬ cation for the benefit of teachers, these might be some of the indirect methods to be used.” At the first business meeting, March 20, 1867, Mr. Peabody having expressed the wish that the fund be used in such a way “ as would, for the present, give an educa¬ tion to the greatest number of young children,” Bishop Mcllvaine, for the committee of investigation and inquiry, reported that “for the present the promotion of pri¬ mary or common-school education, by such means or agencies as now exist or may need to be created, be the leading object of the board in the use of the fund placed at its disposal. “That in aid of the above design, and as promotive of the same, the board will have in view the furtherance of normal-school education for the preparation of teachers, as well by the endowment of scholarships in existing Southern institutions as by the establishing of normal schools and the aiding of such normal schools as may now be in operation in the Southern and Southwestern States, including such measures as may be feasible, and as experience shall dictate to bo expedient, for the promotion of education in the application of science to the industrial imrsuits of human life.” One would think from the tenor of this report, which was adopted unanimously, that normal training was the great object of the trustees from the very beginning. The test of this will be a comparison of the sums devoted to the training of teachers and to fostering public schools. In making this comparison, the form in which the agent of the fund made his financial statements until 1873 obliges us to consult our convenience and to begin with the distribution for that year, the date at which the amount distributed was larger than it had been before or has been since. Of the amount distributed there went to— For the year ending in— Normal schools and insti¬ tutes. Public schools. Institu¬ tions desig¬ nated as “semi¬ nary," “acade- mj^,” or “school." _ Educa¬ tional jour¬ nals and other minor aids. Amount dis¬ tributed. 1873 . . Per cent. 6 Per cent. 89 Per cent. 4 Per cent. 1 $135, 840 1874 . 6 85 8 1 152, 825 1875 . 9 77 9 5 97, 650 1876 . 13 80 3 4 99, 150 1877 . . 18 74 3 5 82, 940 1878 . 27 68 2 4- 77, 250 1879 . 35 60 1 5 74, 850 1880 . 73 18 0 9 .5.5, 150 1881 . 86 10 1 3 a 50, 375 1882 . 72 25 2 1 80, 334 1883 . 71 27 1 1 71,175 1884 . . . 87 12 0 0.5 59, 995 1885 . 91 9 0 0 57, 705 1886 . 8C 14 0 0.3 62, 365 1887 . 81 619 0 0 70, 000 1888 . 85 15 0 0 67,.600 Aggregate . 44 51 3 2 1, 295, 204 a From February 1 to October 1. b Nearly 8 per cent, of this a special appropriation for earthquake shaken Charlestoik PLAN OF THE PEABODY FUND TEUSTEES. 371 Comparing the columns of the foregoing table with those of Tabulation L, page 328, a difference is at once observed. The changes of the table under review want the rhythm that distinguish those of Tabulation L. We would attribute this to the differ¬ ence between a system organized and in motion and the organizing and putting a sys¬ tem in motion by bearing help where it would do the most good. Another phenomenon is the fluctuation of the percentages for the amounts appro¬ priated to public schools. Even without the percentages of the next following col¬ umn, which properly should be added to it, this column for public schools is extremely large at the date of 1873, being 89 (really 93) per cent, of the whole amount distrib¬ uted. But by October, 1881, it has fallen to 10 per cent., only to jump to 25 per cent, the following year, and again to sink, in a year or two, to 9 per cent., and again to jump to 14 per cent, in the following year. Strange to say, each epoch of large or enlarged appropriation to foster schools is marked by the advent of a new agent. As Dr. Sears observes, “Much [i. e., the better methods of distributing the income] must come by actual trial ; and we And him constantly increasing the proportion of the income of the trust to normal schools and institutes until his death in Jnly, 1880. Dr. Curry assumed charge on February 1, 1881, and in his report covering the year ending September 30, 1882, we chronicled an enlarged appropriation for the public schools and a diminished appropriation for the training of teachers. In the report for the year ending September 30, 1885, made by Dr. Curry just before leaving the country to assume the duties of our minister to S[taiu, the appropriation for normal schools had risen to the extraordinary height of 91 per cent, of the amount distributed, and the appropriation for the public schools hail sunk to 9 per cent. Under Dr. Green a rise again occurred in the colnmn containing the percentages of the amount appro¬ priated to public schools and a corresponding fall in the percentage granted for train¬ ing of teachers. With one exception, however, we note also, that an increase in the percentage granted to public schools is also accompanied by an increase in the amount distributed. Whether these facts show that each agent in turn as he became personally ex¬ perienced in the administration of his duties saw the advantage and necessity of training teachers in preference to fostering schools, or whether the facts be mere coincidences, is a question best solved by the distinguished gentlemen themselves, but that the table shows that a very decided departure was begun in 1876 and cul¬ minated in 1880, there can be no doubt. The table speaks for itself in its domain of figures. We will let the chairman of the board of trustees, their general agent, and the president of their normal college, explain this phenomenon shown by the statistics, and first as to the reality of the fact shown by the table. In his address at the seventeenth meeting of the board of trustees of the Peabody fund, Mr. Winthrop said: “Having employed our means mainly during the last twelve years since our organi¬ zation in the more general interest of common school education and having thus accomplished our primary purpose, in awakening the attention of the Southern States to that subject, and in exhibiting model schools in many of their cities and towns, as examples and incentives, we may feel safe, as Dr. Sears suggests, in leaving that part of our work in-the hands of the people to whom it is a matter of such imuTediate and vital concern.’’ In a letter dated April 28 1879, Dr. Sears observes, “ On the whole it now looks as if we should carry out our new plan — the improvement of teacher's as successfully as we did our first — the establishment of schools.” “The trustees * * * haviuo- for some twelve years devoted their income to the establishing and fostering public schools in the Southern States,” says Dr. Stearns, president of the Peabody Normal College, “in the year 1876 [8?] determined upon a new departure, which should con¬ template the gradual withdrawal of aid from the schools, now generally able to sus¬ tain themselves, and the application of a much larger proportion of their income to encourage and assist in the education and training of persons to take the charge and instruction of them.” As experience has thus corroborated our statistics wo turn to consider the reason for this “new departure.” “ Of the two grand objects,” says Dr. Sears in his thirteenth report (1879')b “which this board has from the beginning had in view * * * the primary one, has been so far attained that it may, in great part be safely left in the hands of the people, and our chief attention henceforth be given to the latter [the training of teachers]. * * * The existence of the school system being established as a part of the policy * Dr. Soars is quoted by the convention of the Yermont Teachers’ Association, appointed to investi¬ gate normal schools, as saying: “If there is any one thing established by experiment, it is that in all great enterprises, surpassing the power of one man, combination of effort, strict organization, .superintendence, and the employ¬ ment of specialists to do special work, constitute the great law of economr. * * * "Ye venture the assertion that in the opinion of competent judges, no school raonev in Europe or America has been more advantageously expended than that paid for normal schools.”' 372 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. of every State, its active supporters are now considering by wliat means they can best elevate tbe tone of iustr action. It is a pleasing fact that, at the very time that this board turns its attention to the improvement of the education given in the public schools, a widespead opinion is simultaneously springing up that the greatest want now existing in the several States is that of well-trained teachers.” One would infer from the language used by Dr. Sears that the public and the board had independently arrived at the same conclusion. Says Mr. Winthrop in October, 1883: “Through the wise and efficient exertions of Dr. Sears we had succeeded, even be¬ yond our expectations, in awakening an intelligent and earnest interest in education in almost all those States for V hose benefit the trust is administered. * * * But here we were met also by the ascertainment of a great want which our work had de¬ veloped and without the supply of which all further efforts would have been compar¬ atively fruitless. That want was the want of accomplished and capable teachers.” “Then was felt,” says Dr. Stearns, president of the Nashville (now Peabody) Nor¬ mal College, “as never before, the necessity for well-instructed, carefully-trained, earnest, and faithful persons to manage and to take the charge of them [the public schools]. It was accordingly pro^iosed by the Peabody trustees after a few years to devote henceforth a considerable portion of the money at their disposal to assist in the establishment of one or more normal or training schools.” “The instruction of the board,” says Dr. Curry in his first report (1881), “to apply the greater portion of the income of the fund hereafter to the education of teachers for the public schools has met with general and decided approval. Our chief educa¬ tional want is better teaching.” As any effect may be looked upon as the result of an indefinite series of causes, so may it be viewed as a cause of an indefinite series of effects. We can trace the series of events that lead the trustees to devote their income to the training of teachers back to the ideas, not less patriotic than philanthropic, of Mr. Peabody which caused him to create his “trust.” But the effects of the “new plan” of the trustees have only completed their first stage, and yet a great normal college, ultimately in all probability to be magnificently endowed as “a special permanent monument of Mr. Peabody’s bounty,” has arisen — “ The Nornial .School for the whole South.” “There are but few,” says Burke in his Present Discontents, “who are capable of comparing and digesting what passes before their eyes at different limes and occa- , sions, so as to form the whole into a distinct system. But in books everything is settled for them without the exertion of any considerable diligence or sagacity.” Thus admonished of the difficulties of foretelling the greatness of the Peabody College, we take leave of the throe volumes of printed reports from which we have drawn the figures and upon which we have based the foregoing remarks. CHAPTER XV. GOCTESB OF STUDY IN PUBLIC BLEMENTAEY SCHOOLS OP CITIES.' 'What the Elementary School Is— The Quantity of Elementary Instruction— Character of Elementary Training— General Remarks— Reading— Arithmetic— Gram7nar— Geography and History— Subjects Comparatively Neio to the Course— Natural Science— General History— Geometry — Algebra— Civil Gov¬ ernment — Amount of Iiistruction and Number of Hours Devotedto the Several Branches {Table 1) — Per¬ centage of Total Tbrie Occupied by Each Branch of Instruction (Table 2)— Time Allotted to Reading in the Several Grades (Table '.i)— To Spelling (Table 4:)— To Writing (Table 5)— To Drawing (Table 6)— To Music (Tablel) — To "Language Lessons" and to "English Grammar" (Table 8)— To History (Tabled) — To Geography (Table 10)— To Arithmetic (Table 11)— To Physical Culture (Table 12;— To Instruction, Principally Oral, in Morals and Manners, in Civil Governmerit, and in Natural Science, including Physiology (Table 13). Introduction. What the elementary school is. — In reviewing the entire course of man’s existence, differences in his powers at successive periods become apparent. These differences are so great that it is customary to divide the term of life into epochs or stages. The lines of demarkation between these epochs are variously placed by different writers, but all agree in assigning to the beginuingof the period of puberty a peculiar signifi¬ cance as marking a new era in life. P.sy chologists also recognize this point and indicate it as the beginning of a new iieriod of mental activity — i.e., the stage of judging or reasoning. Now, since it is essential that the studies pursued at any particular time shall be suited to the mental advancement of the student, the course of study should be so constructed that, when the pupil begins to think as a man, and to reason as a man, he shall be led into fields of effort different from those with which he has previously been familiar. New subjects should be introduced which require, in a greater degree, the exercise of his reasoning faculties. A new order of proceeding and exposition should be adopted in instructing him. To accomplish this most satisfactorily, the pupil is at this point transferred from the elementary school, which he has hitherto attended, to another department of the school system, called the high school, whose organization is especially adapted to the new methods of instruction, and whose discipline is suited to his increased capacity for self-command. The question of convenience in school management also enters into the separation of the higher department from the lower, just as in the division of elementary schools into primary, intermediate, and grammar schools in many of the larger cities ; but the difference between the elementary school and the high school IS a real one, based upon psychological causes that are recognized, or are sup¬ posed to be recognized, in the arrangement of every course of study. If it be required, therefore, to give a definition of the place of the American elemen¬ tary school iu the scheme of education, it may be said that in it is given that instruc¬ tion which precedes the assumption of the studies proper for the stage of reasoning. In practice the studies first taken up when this stage is supposed to be reached are chosen frcm the following : Algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, general history, and a foreign language, ancient or modern. The quantity of elementary instruction. — It is a well-established fact that the mind grows by the proper exercise of its faculties. Without such exercise those faculties do not develop as rapidly as they might, and the probability of aqtainiug the highest mental development is lessened in proportion to the time and opportunities lost. On the other hand, even greater danger may be apprehended from unwisely over¬ crowding the youthful mind and subjecting it to tasks too great for its strength. Hence it is important that careful attention should be given to the quantity of study of each kind which a child is required to do. He should not be kept upon the * This paper was prepared by Mr. J. C. Boykin, specialist of the Bureau in city school systems. 373 374 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. simpler studies of the elementary school longer than is necessary to prepare him for those of the high school, nor should his mind ho taxed with the severer studies before his capacity is fully equal to the task. It is still an open question as to what is the quantity of elementary study which will furnish the proper training without loss of time, and yet without overcrowding. Eight years is the time indicated in a majority of cases, but an examination of the tables presented herewith discloses wide divergences from this time. Without de¬ scending further into details than to note the number of years, it appears that there are courses which cover 5, 6, 7, 7^, 8, 9, and 10 years respectively. These courses all have a common object in view, i. e., the high school, with its characteristic methods and studies. Now, the study of algebra, which is the best test of high school instruc¬ tion, requires the exercise of the same faculties, whether it is taken up in the sixth school year or in the eleventh. Then, if the opinion be correct that this branch with the others previously named represents the proper studies for a certain stage of men¬ tal advancement, it follows either that the pupils are prematurely forced in one case, or else that they lose several valuable years in the other. It is not within the purpose of these remarks to set forth the advantages of either a long or a short elementary course, but they are intended principally to indicate the purpose and value of the subjoined tables, and to direct attention to many other varia¬ tions, equally as radical, which are disclosed, in the hope that a general discussion of the points of difference may be productive of mutual benefit. Character of Elementary Training. In the previous paragraphs elementary instruction has been mentioned only in connection with its function of aiding in the development of the mind to the point at which a new epoch begins. But this is only a part of what the training given during this period must accomplish; for in common with all instruction it must also have in view the equipment of the pupil with facts useful for the present and profit¬ able in the future years of his life. American writers on education have generally been inclined in the past to take the view of instruction, including of course that given in the elementary schools, which subordinates the acquisition of knowledge for its own sake to the discipline of the mind. The position taken by .James Currie in his “Principles and Practice of Common School Education’’ coincides with the opinions which a few years ago almost univer¬ sally prevailed in this country, and as an excellent presentation of this view one paragraph in this book is worthy of reproduction in full. His belief is that “On its intellectual side the school should seek to develop the powers of mind, so that the pupil may have the full use of them in after life. This consideration should deter¬ mine the whole work of the school. Present knowledge is not given for its own sake, or with a view to future professional occupation, but that the pupil who has gone through the process of acquiring it, may gain therefrom the power of acquiring for himself as much more as he needs and the disposition to do so. And according to the degree in which it tends to give this power is any branch of knowledge a suitable or an unsuitable instrument for school purposes. The school has a general, not a special, design; it does not consider how much of this subject or of that will be required to fit the pupil for such and such a position, but how it can best discipline his mind. The elevation of character implied in the attainment of this end will better prepare him for the position he may be called on to occupy than any accumu¬ lation of knowledge presented to him from its apparent exclusive adaptation to its requirements.” But recent years have given evidences of a departure from this position, and the Spencerian doctrine “ that the acquirement of those classes of facts which are most useful for regulating conduct involves a mental exercise best fitted for strengthening the faculties,” is now widely accepted as true so far as it relates to elementary study, both in its direct and inverse application. Consequently, the writers of to-day mani¬ fest a strong desire to bring the subjects of school instruction more nearly in a line with the immediate demands of actual life. Evidences are numerous thaf these utterances and beliefs have had their effect upon the courses of instruction. Such evidences may be found in the abbreviation of the study of arithmetic ; in the rele¬ gation of the science of grammar to the highest grades ; in the popularity of manual training; in the introduction of supplementary reading with information as its pri¬ mary object; in the legal requirements relating to the study of physiology and hygiene; in the appearance in many courses of study of “.civics,” bookkeeping, and other sulDjects supposed to have a direct bearing upon the pupil’s life and conduct. The disproportionate growth of the lower stratum of our educational system and the necessity it brought for a more rounded elementary training had much to do with this change of belief, if it was not the direct cause. Course of study in city schools. 375 WLen tlie number of those who attended school was limited in a large measure to persons who anticipated a full course of study extending through the elementary and secondary school, the college, and the university, each clepartment was practically a preparation for that which followed. The elementary school had for its chief object the development of the faculties to the point of ability to pursue the studies of the secondary school. The secondary school was simply a preparatory department for the college, while the college merely continued the work of culture, and it was not until the university w^as reached that a beginning was made toward direct and avowed preparation for the work of life. For those who are destined to pursue the entire curriculum this is still the approved regimen. It would be a needless waste of time to give any attention to the elements of alge¬ bra, geometry, civil government, and general history, or more than a modicum of in¬ struction in natural science in the elementary schools if all the pupils are expected to study these things in a thorough, scientific manner in a higher institution. But this is not now the case. The public schools are filled with those whose attendance is to cease at an early period, and the pupils who complete the entire course of instruction are too few to influence the shaping of that portion of the course w’hich all pursue. About 84 per cent, of the children receive no formal instruction save what is given them in the elementary schools ; they must be informed of facts necessary to right living while there is yet an opportunity. Even if it be granted that the acquisition of such information is not “best fitted for strengthening the faculties,” aud that it would not “ be utterly contrary to the beautiful economy of nature if one kind of culture were needed for the gaining of in¬ formation and another kind for a mental gymnastic,” the time w’hich the great majority give to school work is too short to dwell upon the recognized disciplinary studies to the exclusion or neglect of the information-giving subjects. Social science, natural science, general history, algebra, and geometry are not, it is true, properly “ information subjects ” as they are taught in the higher schools, for the mental drill they give is such that their disciplinary value is even greater than their value in imparting knowledge. But the pupils in elementary grades are not ready for the deeper processes of thought involved in the iiroper study of these subjects, although a knowledge of their practical teachings is essential. Therefore it becomes necessary to divest these subjects of higher study of their dense garb of intricate reasoning, and to present the useful facts they teach clothed only in a thin garment of explanation which may be easily penetrated by the understanding of the elemen¬ tary pupil. Thus it is intended that the practical lessons of the advanced and highly discip¬ linary studies shall be learned by the child who proceeds no further in the curric¬ ulum than the grammar school, and that his training, though less thorough, shall be nearly as well rounded as that received by the high school or the college graduate. Mr. J. G. Fitch admirably expresses this principle in his “Lectures on Teaching” thus: “The course should bo rounded and comx)lete as far as it goes, on the supposition that, except in the case of schools which are preparing for the university, there is little or no chance that the time of formal school instruction will be prolonged. It is by losing sight of. this that we often commit the grave mistake of conducting the school education of a boy on too pretentious a plan and on the assumption that he is to make a long stay at school. And the incomplete frustum of a higher course is not of the same value as the whole of a scheme of instruction which from the first has a less ambitious aim.” -With so much in regard to the general x>lan of the present elementary course we may proceed to the consideration of the eft'ects of the changed purposes upon its de¬ tails. In this connection it is better to treat the several subjects according to the relative importance assigned to them rather than by considering the actual time de¬ voted to each. In this way we may more satisfactorily judge the character of each course, both specifically and comparatively. For this purpose twenty-nine courses have been selected, representing all the sec¬ tions of the country and all the different periods of time covered, and the relative amount of time devoted to every subject in each course has been determined. In Table 2 may be found the result. Let us here remind the student of this table, in a parenthetical way, that the time which it is necessary to give to a subject is not al¬ ways commensurate with its importance. For example, an important truth in phys¬ iology, giving the pupils a knowledge of his duty to himself, or in sociology, show¬ ing him his relations to society, may be inculcated in a very short time compared with that needed to instill a iiriuciple no more essential in mathematics or gram¬ mar. Such a table as this is most valuable in showing changes or difierences in the several courses. 376 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Reading.^ Prominent among the changes that recent years have brought in the educational field is the development of reading. From the partly mechanical exercise of involv¬ ing only the oral interpretation of the written or printed word, the subject has grown until it embraces instruction in almost every subject within the range of the child’s understanding. To the design of teaching merely how to read is now added the broad purpose of teaching what to read and how to utilize the fruits of reading. Thus the pupil is not only led into the domain of literature, but geography, history, and natural science all contribute to the store of facts acquired through reading.” With a few exceptions, like Macon, Ga., where the statement is made that “ the aver¬ age teacher can not do more than teach the children to get the thought from the printed page,” and where a special teacher is wanted to teach pupils to “read enter¬ tainingly,” the oratorical feature of the subject is considered of secondary impor¬ tance at most. Mr. George Howland, in his report for 1887-88 as superintendent of the Chicago schools, says : “Above the primary grades the supplemental reading should be of such a character, I think, as to make reading a means and not an end. Reading should now be for cul¬ ture, for information, for broadening and deepening the knowledge and thought of the pupil rather than for cultivating oratory, so called, one of the most useless, if not the most pernicious, exercises of the schoolroom.” And this is the view which generally prevails. The Chicago course of study assigns 30.9 per cent, of the whole time in school to reading. In addition to Appleton’s series of five readers, Longfellow’s Evangeline, Hawthorne’s Wonder Book, Part II, and Whittier’s Snow Bound, which are regular text-books, the following are furnished by the Board of Education as supplementary reading : FOE PRIMAKY GRADES. First grade. — Sheldon’s First Reader, Barnes’ First Reader, Swinton’s First Reader, Harpers’ First Reader, First Reader of Students’ Series. Second grade. — Stickney’s First Reader, Harper’s Second Reader, Seaside and Way- side, No. 1, Cats and Dogs (Johonnot), The Book of Folk Stories. Third grade. — Stickney’s Second Reader, Harper’s Third Reader, Feathers and Fur (Johonnot), The Book of Fables, Fourth grade. — Andersen’s Fairy Tales, First Series, Hooker’s Book of Nature, Part I, Scribners’ Geographical Reader, Dodge’s Stories of American History. The books of the first, second, and third grades are supplied in sets of twenty copies, and for the fourth grade in sets of thirty copies. FOR GRAMMAR GRADES. Fifth grade. — Hooker’s Book of Nature, Part II, Monroe’s Stories of American His¬ tory. Sixth grade — Hooker’s Book of Nature, Part III, Heroic Deeds (Johonnot). Seventh grade. — Scudder’s History of the United States, Eggleston’s History of the United States, Boys of ’76. Eighth Stone’s History of England, Montgomery’s Leading Facts of English History (Ginn & Co.), Building the Nation (Coffin). “The books for the fifth and sixth grades are furnished in sets of thirty copies ; those for the seventh grade in sets of ten copies ; those for the eighth grade in sets of fifteen copies, except Building of the Nation, of which five copies are furnished.” In New York City the plan of instruction in reading has recently^ been modified, so that it now covers almost as wide a range as in Chicago. Suitable books on his¬ tory, biography, travel, descriptive geography, fiction, and poetry have largely taken the place of the old reading book, which, according to Mr. John Jasper, the superin¬ tendent, “ is usually a miscellaneous collection of short and unrelated fragments, many of which awaken no interest on the part of pupils in these days of an abun¬ dance of interesting books for the young.” To further emphasize the use of reading as a developer of the faculties and a means of imparting useful knowledge “silent reading by the pupils and the reproduction of the thoughts read, in their own words, have been practiced with very creditable results” in New York and in many other cities of the country. In Boston the time devoted to the entire subject of language, including reading, spelling, writing, language lessons, and grammar, is 47.7 per cent, of the whole. Reading occupies a large part of this, but its proportion to the total time is less than ‘ See Tables I, 2, aud 3. »In 1887. COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS. 377 in either Chicago or New York. The list of books read, however, is even larger^ and is less supplemented by what is called the ‘‘circulating-library plan.’’ This idea is peculiar to Boston and is worthy of particular notice. It can not be better described than by quoting the following from School Document No. ‘20, 1888: “The object of the plan is not only to aid pupils to cultivate a taste for good and wholesome reading, but by furnishing them with good books for home reading to provide additional material for their work in composition and the study of English literature. “ Sets of suitable books will be purchased, each set consisting of sixty books. “ Each set will be put up in a strong, well-made box with handles ; the boxes to be made for the purpose, each set exactly fitting its box ; the division to which it belongs and the kind of books it contains to be marked upon each box. “ A report card, upon which the principal shall note the condition of book when received, will accompany each set. The principal of the school shall receive the books, note on the report their condition, and see to the distribution in the classes. “The sets of books in each division will form a circulating library for that division, to be moved from school to school at stated periods by the regular supply team. The transfer of boxes will take place during the months of December and March.” ^ The following are the titles of the books supplied : Zigzag Journeys in Europe, Zigzag Journeys in the Orient, Scudder’s Boston Town, Drake’s The Making of New England, Towle’s Pizarro, Towle’s Vasco da Gama, Towle’s Magellan, ikairy Land of Science, Hawthorne’s True Stories, Higginson’s Young Folks, Book of Explorers, Scott’s Ivanhoe, Longfellow’s Evangeline, Little Folks in Feathers and Fur, What Mr. Darwin Saw in his Voyage around the World in the Ship Beagle, Muloch’s A Noble Life, M. E. Dodge’s Hans Brinker, Lambert’s Rob¬ inson Crusoe, Lamb’s Tales from Shakespeare, Abbott’s Jonas on a Farm in Summer, Smile’s Robert Dick, Geologist and Botanist, Eyes Right, Alcott’s Little Men, Alcott’s Little Women, Stoddard’s IJab Kinzer, Scott’s Kenilworth, Tom Brown’s School Days at Rugby, Abbott’s Mary Queen of Scots, Abbott’s Charles I, Taylor’s Boys of Other Countries, How Marjory Helped, Little People in Asia, Gilman’s Magna Charta Stories, Overhead, Yonge’s Lances of Linwood, Memory Gems, Geographical Plays, Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road from Long Ago till Now, Scott’s Tales of a Grandfather, Hayes’s Cast Away in the Cold, Sharp Eyes and other Papers, Lessons on Practical Subjects, Stories of Mother Nature, Play Days, Jackanapes, Children’s Stories of American Progress, Little Lord Fauntleroy. This list is for the grammar schools only. For the primaries and ungraded schools the books supplied are principally first and second readers of other series than those adopted as regular text books and as “ permanent supplementary reading ” books. The New Haven, Conn., Indianapolis, Ind., Baltimore, Md., St. Louis, Mo., and Brook¬ lyn, N. ¥., courses also assign a large proportion of the time to reading, and in all of them the purpose of obtaining information is no less conspicuous th an that of culti¬ vating a good literary taste, and entirely overshadows the aim of securing distinct¬ ness of articulation and accuracy of oral reading, which is for the most part the work of the lowest grades. * The list of “permanent supplementary reading" books is as follows : PamARY SCHOOLS. Easy Steps for Little Feet ; Popular Tales (first and second series); Parker and Marvel’s Supple¬ mentary Reading (first book); Tweed’s Graded Supplementary Reading; Modern Series Primary Reading, Part I; An Illustrated Primer (D. C. Heath &. Co.). GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. Class YI. — Seven Little Sisters, Each and All, Hooker’s Child’s Book of Nature, Our World, No. 1, Poetry for Cliildren. Class V. — Stories of American History, Guyot’s Introduction to Geography, Hooker’s Child’s Book of Nature, Poetry Ibr Children, Robinson Crusoe. Glass IV. — The Wonder Book, Tanglewood Tales, Stories in Mythology, Hooker’s Child’s Book of Nature, JPoetry for Children, Nature’s Book, Robinson Crusoe. Otass Jil.— Hooker's Child’s Book of Nature, American Poems, with Biographical Sketches and Notes. Class II. — Selections from American Authors, American Poems. Class I. — Selections from American Authors, Early England, Harper’s Half-hour Series (Nos. 6 and 14), American Poems, Green’s Readings from English History, Phillips’ Historical Readers (Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4). Any class. — Six Stories from the Arabian Nights, Holmes’s and Longfellow’s Leaflets, Book of Golden Deeds. These books are supplied in sets of sixty copies each, one set being sufficient for these class-rooms. ^ It is intended to discuss the subject of school libraries with considerable fullness in the next Edu¬ cational Report, and for that reason no mention is made here of the uses in connection with the study of reading to which school libraries are put in many other cities. 378 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Arithmetic.^ Next to tlie development of reading, tlie changes in the study of arithmetic are most significant in indicating the tendency of the time. Arithmetic has long been considered the ideal, if not the principal, disciplinary study. Its place in the old course was second to none. Its exercises were designed less to directly assist the pupil in the avocations of life than to call out his reasoning faculties, to cultivate habits of accurate thought, and to train his powers of analysis. These conditions are gradually changing. The lielief is gaining ground that prob¬ lems having more or less adaptability to the business of life, furnish as much insight into arithmetical logic as the elementary pupil has time to gain ; that the discipline and information furnished by other subjects are more valuable than the discipline of those portions of arithmetic which convey no information likely to be profitable in the daily affairs of the average man. Less time proportionally is given to arithmetic in Chicago than in any other city in the country, only 9.3 per cent, being there devoted to that study ; while in Boston, notwithstanding the wide attention attracted to the “simplification of the subject and the reduction of the time devoted to it, it still apparently occupies one-sixth of the whole time. The school committee of Boston did not take as advanced a posi-. tion in 1887 w^hen they struck from the required course “the mensuration of the trapezoid and of the trapezium, of the jirism, pyramid, cone, and sphere; compound interest, cube root and its applications ; equation of payments, exchanges, similar surfaces, metric system, compound proportion, and compound partnership,” as did Superintendent Howland in 1886, when he made the following a part of his annual report : “ In the higher grades, too, many subjects have been introduced that are no part of arithmetic, in any true sense, as gold investments, United States bonds, insurance, banking, etc., which no child or man but the specialist will ever need. What busi¬ ness man ever resorts to the least common multiple or the greatest common divisor, topics upon which our pupils spend so much time which should he given to the use and the logic of numbers f * * ^ “ We are surely but slowly getting away from the so-called arithmetical analysis, which consists of a mere riddle of wmrds to the young pupils, giving no knowledge, no intelligence, no reasoning power. “Much of this old acalysis and definition had no other result than that of confus¬ ing and confounding the pupil, and deadening his interest in the study and practical application of numbers.” Mr. Howland is not yet satisfied that arithmetic has found its proper place in the Chicago course, and he would evidently be content to see the time even further re¬ duced, for in his report for 1887-88 he says : “It has long seemed to me that in the city the eager heart must grow hungry over the dry fruits of 3 or 4 years in geography, a year and a half in United States history, and 8 years in arithmetic, with so little that interests or concerns them in their daily life or contributes to success or real intelligence. “ Why could not a course be provided in addition to the usual branches of the gram¬ mar grades to vitalize their work and awaken their observing and thinking powers ? For instance, in the fifth grade once or twice a week place physics — matter, gravitation, weight, friction, force, power, inertia ; in the sixth, light, heat, sound ; in the seventh, electricity and magnetism, with chemistry and geology in the eighth. ^ ^ * “ Perhaps better than twice a week would be to omit arithmetic or geograiihy for a term.” Taking into consideration the small proportion of time already allotted to arith¬ metic in Chicago, Mr. Howland goes much further than the great majority of the profession generally— certainly no other superintendent has expressed such radical views as those quoted. But, nevertheless, changes appear everywhere in the general direction of emphasizing the “little that interests or concerns the pupils in their daily life,” and of eliminating all those parts which “no child or man but the specialist will ever need.” Grammar.® Grammar also shows the effects of the demand for a closer application of school studies to the duties of life. Many w^hose school attendance has not yet ended began the formal study of the structure of language in the earliest years of their school life. Parsing, analysis, declension, conjugation, etc., or what is frequently alluded to in late reports as “ technical grammar,” but a few years ago were encountered by the pupil after 2 or 3 years of study at most. Statements recently received by this office show that at the present time, out of 69 of the principal cities, in but 2 (Mobile, » See Tables 1, 2, and 11. * See Tables 1, 2, and 8. COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS. 379 Ala., and Utica, N. Y.) is the study of grammar begun as early as the third year, and in 1 of them, Mobile, the entire elememtary course covers but 5 years. In only 2 cities (San Francisco, Cal., and Baltimore, Md.lis it begun as early as the fourth year. In 14 cities it is began in the fifth year, in 27 in the sixth year, in 20 in the seventh, in 6 in the eighth, and in 1 city, Burlington, Vt., not until the ninth year. Table 8 shows these facts so far as 29 of the most important cities are concerned, it having been found impracticable to include all the cities in the more detailed table. This i^ostponement of the study of grammar as a science does not imply the aban¬ donment for that time of all study of language, but rather a change which brings the art of grammar into greater prominence, for, as parsing, declensiou, conjugation, analysis, etc,, are pushed further up in the course, their place Js taken by “conver¬ sation exercises” and “ language lessons.” In making such changes the reasons as¬ signed never refer to the general value of “ technical” grammar as a discii)linary study, and rarely to the inability of young children to study it with mental profit. It is conceded that the science of grammar as a means of culture has a value pecul¬ iarly its own, since it is the only study of the elementary school that deals not with the subject-matter, but with the form of thought, and hence the only subject that takes the pupil into the 8i)hero of abstract thought. But in the admitted fact that the formation of habits of correct speech is not dependent upon a knowledge of rules and definitions relative to the constructions of language and their mutual depend¬ ence is fouhd the justification for the lessened weight attached to such study. As Fitch expresses it : “The practical art of using the language in speech or writing with good taste and correctness * * * is probably best to be attained by talking to the pupil, by tak¬ ing care he hears little but good English, by correcting him when he is wrong, by making him read the best authors, by practicing him much in writing, and when he makes a mistake by requiring him to write the sentence again without one. It will certainly not be attained by setting him to learn Murray’s, or, indeed, any other grammar.” '■ The art is the thing directly useful; the science has no obvious relation to practical affairs. The ability to speak and write correctly is not only desirable but essential in every walk of life ; the technical rules of etymology and syntax are almost valu- lessper se. Therefore, in accordance with the movement whose progress is here re¬ corded, the art, i. e., the practical, increases in importance in the course of study, while the science, i. e., the disciplinary, decreases in the same proportion. Geogr.vpiiy and History.^ lu relation to geography and history it may bo said that while in their treatment they have undergone important changes, those changes have resulted from the adop¬ tion of more intelligent methods of teaching rather than from any change in the gen¬ eral purposes of instructions. Essentially “information subjects,” they have always been taught with that end principally in view. That they were encumbered with useless details that drew the mind of the pupil from importaui; general facts and ruling principles was due, not to a belief that such teaching was the more effective discipline of the mind, but to a less intelligent comprehension of what information best serves the X)upil. Such changes being the result of greater efficiency on the part of the teachers are naturally followed by a clearer understanding and a more rational knowledge of the subjects on the part of the pupils. They further save the time previously frittered away for the acquire¬ ment of more advanced knowledge and, consequently, if no diminution of time ac¬ companies the adoption of better methods, a wider acquaintance with the subject taught may be expected. In the case of geography aud history no tendency is appar¬ ent to materially alter the time apportioned and there seems to be nothing to justify a belief that the time now devoted to these subjects is either considerably more or considerably less than at any recent period. The inference, therefore, is that at the end of the elementary course the pupil of to-day knows more that is worth knowing of geography and history than did the pupil of any past period. But whether the increased efficiency of the instruction in these branches changes the direction of the resultant of all the forces brought to bear upon the pupil’s mind is a question which depends upon whether the improve¬ ment in the teaching of the other subjects has progressed in the same ratio. Speak¬ ing generally, it is safe to say that the ability to distinguish between the essentials and the non-essentials in the accomplishment of a definite aim is displayed in no one particular branch more than in another and that in this respect the improvement in teaching has been uniform in all subjects. Fitch’a Lectures on Teaching. 2 See Table 1. 2, 9, aud 10. 380 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89, Hence tlie conclusion follows that the effects of the instruction in geography and history are relatively not greater in the course of to-day than in the old course, and that the general bent of the mind is not influenced by either of these subjects any more in the new education than it was in the old. The same applies equally to spelling and to writing, which are purely instrumentary branches, and in nearly as great a degree to drawing and music, the representatives of esthetics in elementary schools. The ends in view in the teaching of all these branches remain w^hat they have been since they were brought into the curriculum. More time, however, is given to drawing than formerly and somewhat more to music, but there has been no material change in this respect in the other subjects.^ Subjects Comparatively New to the Course. Having described the effects of changed conditions and beliefs upon the older brauches of instruction it is now in order to consider the new subjects which these conditions have caused to be brought into the elementary ‘course. Of these the nat¬ ural sciences and civil government are now most generally taught. General history, algebra, geometry, and the several branches of manual training have not yet been extensively introduced, although each of them finds favor in the eyes of many of the foremost American educators, and it is probable that neither subject has attained its full degree of popularity. German, French, and Spanish appear in some of the elementary courses, but they do not belong to the same category with the studies just named, for it can not be said that the object of such instruction is to give roundness and conipleteness to the char¬ acter of the training. This teaching is given only in those cities in which there is a considerable foreign element who demand instruction in their own language, and is based on local and administrative rather than on general and pedagogical grounds, for reasons of the latter class apply to immigrants only, and not to the great body of the pupils. Manual training represents the extreme application of the principle which demands that each course shall be complete in itself as far as it goes and shall impart knowl¬ edge capable of being applied in everyday life. While instruction in natural science, civil government, etc., seeks to add symmetry to the attainments and to make the pupil a more complete man by anticipating the high school and the college, manual training goes further, and by anticipating the apprenticeship or the technical school would contribute to the acquirements necessary to the complete workman. This sub¬ ject, however, was fully discussed in the Report of 1887-8b, and further reference to it here is unnecessary. NATURAL SCIENCE. The time shown by Tables 1, 2, and 13 to be devoted to natural science does not con¬ vey a correct idea of the importance of that branch of instruction in the course of study. The figures represent in the main only the time occupied by those oral lessons giveu with the sole object of imparting such information, but equally as important as these are the reading lessons and the conversation exercises in which the subjects read or discussed are taken from the sciences. These exercises have not the study of science for their direct object, and the acquisition of scientific facts is an incidental aim only. In classifying them, therefore, they are considered as belonging to the in¬ struction in those subjects that furnish the primary reason for their existence. A pupil can not be taught to read understandingly unless something is provided which is worthy of being understood ; nor can a profitable language lesson be conducted without a subject of conversation worthy of the dress of lauguage with which it is clothed. In reading the subjects are largely scientific through design, as already explained, but in the conversation exercises or language lessons by a sort of natural selection, the matters which are most likely to suggest lliemselves are those which are inciden¬ tally valuable in conveying information in the domain of the sciences. What better means, e. g., could a teacher adopt to draw her pupils into an unrestrained conver¬ sation in which she may have a favorable opportunity for criticising their forms of expression, than an informal talk upon some familiar animal, bird, or flower ? No satisfactory estimate can be made of the extent of the instruction given in ele¬ mentary science in this indirect way, but it undoubtedly plays an important part in the sum total of knowledge which the pupil receives during the course. We may, however, more accurately judge the amount of instruction which is gh^en by means of the regular “oral lessons^’ for w'hich nearly all the courses provide. In Washington, D. C., science-teaching occupies a larger proportion of time than in any other of the twenty-nine cities selected, nearly one-tenth the time being so filled. ^tSee Tables 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7, COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS. 381 In the two lowest grades the time for science is equally divided between the observa¬ tion of plants, the observation of animals, and physiology. The last named branch is studied continuously throughout the course, especial attention being paid to the conditions of health. “ The phenomena of vapor in its ditferent forms and effects” are studied in connection with geography in the third year, and in the fourth the same subject includes a study of “ the phenomena of contour, its causes and effects, or elementary physical geography and geology.” Physics is taken up more formally in the seventh year, its study embracing the following: “ 1. Matter and its properties: (a) Divisibility of matter — molecule. (&) Porosity, (c) Density, (d) Phenomena of attraction — gravitation, cohesion, adhesion; Consti¬ tution of matter; three states of matter — solid, liquid, and gaseous. “2. Heat: (a) Ways of producing heat — by mechanical force, by chemical force. (6) Effects of heat in matter — expansion, solids, liquids, and gases ; change of state — liquefaction, evaporation, (c) Communication of heat — conduction, solids; convec¬ tion — liquids and gases ; radiation, (d) Effects of heat in nature — dew, fogs and mists, clouds, rains, and winds. “3. Sounds: (a) Nature of sound — vibration; a vibrating body always the origin of sound; sound waves, (b) Transmission of sound — through solids, liquids, and gases ; velocity of transmission, (c) Pitch of sounds, (d) Intensity of sounds.” The San Francisco course also devotes considerable time to elementary science, physiology and hygiene receiving particular attention. In the schools of California practical entomology, a branch of science having a peculiar bearing upon the indus¬ tries of that State, is taught in accordance with the provisions of a State law. Espe¬ cial reference is had to insects injurious to crops and fruits. In Boston^ too, natural science receives its clue share of attention. In the first three years of the course simple conversational exercises are provided for, in which lessons are given on the human body, familiar plants, animals, and the phenomena of nature. In the grammar schools, these exercises are continued with a wider scope for the first two years ; in the next or sixth year of school, hygiene and the common metals, min¬ erals, and rocks receive attention ; in the seventh and eighth the work is confined to physiology and hygiene; in the ninth, the common facts of physics are taught by observation and experiment. In Cincinnati in the first four years of school the oral lessons relate prineipally to the human body and to the color, size, form, action, and uses of familiar objects, includ¬ ing plants, animals, flowers, fruits, grains, etc. In the fifth and sixth years the les¬ sons are more descriptive in their character, and are based upon such well known objects as dew, rain, snow, hail, frost, ice, fog, clouds, the sun, the moon, rivers, mountains, countries, etc. In the sixth year one lesson a week is given in elementary physics. The instruction covers “(«) matter^ its properties, three states; (&) air, its composition, properties, weight, and pressure^; (c) efiects of heat on air, winds, land, and sea breezes, cyclones, etc. ; (d) air rendered impure by breathing, ventilation : (e) water, its composition, properties, specific gravity, floating bodies, pressure; (/) three states of water (solid, liquid, vapor), effects of heat on water, steam, specific gravity of ice ; (<7) formation of vapor in the atmosphere — fog, clouds, rain, hail, snow, dew, and frost.” Physiology is studied more minutely in the seventh year than in the previous grades, especial reference being had as usual to the conditions of health. In Indianapolis the work outlined for the first three years in plants, animals, and physiology is more than usually comprehensive. In the fourth year the work in 00m- posi tiou is closely related to the study of entomology, butterflies and moths being par¬ ticularly the subjects of investigation. Ornithology is the only branch of natural science studied in the fifth and sixth years, and, like entomology in the fourth grade, it is studied in connection with language. Physiology is taken up the eighth and studied from a text-book. In St. Paul, also, the w'ork in science occupies a large place in the course of study, receiving nearly « per cent, of the whole time. All instruction in this line given in the first two years is in connection with language. In the third year herbivorous animals are studied in the first quarter, carnivorous animals are in the second, and other orders of animals in the third; in the last quarter zoology is dropped and botany is taken up, especial attention being given to trees. In the fourth year the study of plants is continued in the first quarter, giving way to ornithology in the second. ; birds and fishes receive attention in the third quarter, and in the fourth botany is again studied, this time more particularly in relation to flowers. Inverte¬ brates, the habits and uses of animals, the distribution ('f herbivora, rodents, birds, reptiles, and fishes by families, and plants useful to man for food, clothing, or shelter, are respectively studies of the several quarters of the fifth year. In the sixth year rocks and minerals, atmospheric phenomena, water, and ethnology are the subjects investigated. The earth, foaus and i)roperti0s of matter^ heat, and the mechanical powers are studied in the seventh. 382 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. The “ spiral course” arrauged for the St. Louis schools by Dr. W. T. Harris during his superiutendeucy should be inentioued. Its plan is thus described: ^ “ The course should be sketched in such a way as to make several complete circuits during the eiglit years of the district school course. The lowest one should seize certain striking features in each department, making a strong impression and silently determining the mind to reflection and observation in the domain of natural science. The second course must travel round in the same path, but more systematically and in detail. The third one, still deepening and generalizing the ideas of the pupil, would make the effects permanent. Three courses were flxed upon for this reason. The 8 years of the district school course thus allowed 3 years each to be given to the first and second course and 2 years for the third. Inas¬ much as the subjects were taken up with a considerable degree of scientific strictness in the high school, the course of study in natural sciences would ngw extend from the commencement in the primary schools to the last year of the high school. A pupil coming into any grade in the schools and remaining 3 years would known something of each of the great departments of nature.”" * From “ Ho-w to Teach Natural Science in the Public Schools,” by William T. Harris, ll. d. 2 The details of the course were as follows : FIEST YEAR OR GRADE. PLANTS, OR OUTLINES OF BOTANY. First quarter. — Flowers, their structure, color, perfume, habit, and shapes. Inasmuch as the pupils of this grade enter school in the early fall or spring, their first ciuarter’s work can be illustrated directly from the garden. Second quarter.— hoaxes, fruit, seeds ; shape, uses, sap, decay. Third quarter. — Buds, roots, their purpose; stalks and trunks, bark of plants, wood. Fourth g-uarter.— Circulation of sap ; what is made from sap ; sleep of plants, etc. ; review of topics of the year. SECOND GRADE OR YEAR. ANIMALS, OR OUTLINES OF ZOOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. First quarter.— 'Slood, what it makes ; how it is made; the ground, what comes from it as food for animals; stomach and teeth; circulation of the blood. Second quarter. — Breathing; brain and nerves; use of the senses; seeing; protection of the eyes; hearing; smell; taste; touch; the bones ; muscles. Third quarter.— Bvains and nerves in animals compared with those in man; limbs of animals and their uses ; the hand in man, and its substitutes in animals ; what instruments and tools animals pos¬ sess for attack and defense. Fourth gw after. —Wings and fins ; clothing of man and animals ; wherein man is superior to animals ; intelligence of animals ; sleep, its uses ; death, what it is ; review of topics for the j ear. THIRD GRADE OR YEAR. ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL NATURE. First quarter.— Air; wind; flyingand swimming compared; pressure of the air; pumps; barometer; air pumps; pop-guns ; gases distinguished from liquids ; gunpowder. Second quarter. — Balloons; bubbles; heated ait; chimneys; draft and ventilation ; uses of water; water level ; attraction in solids and liquids. Third quarter.— 'Skater in the air, clouds, snow, frost, and ice ; heat and cold; communication or con¬ duction of heat; eflects of heat; steam; light; color; electricity; magnetism. Fourth g warfer.— Gravitation ; motion of the earth ; friction ; review of the year’s work. FOURTH YEAR OR GRADE. BOTANY MORE SYSTEMATICALLY STUDIED. j First gwarfer.— Modes of studying parts of plants ; leaf, stem, inflorescence, flower, root, seed, woody plants, fruit, illustrated by familiar examples. ; Second guancr.— The difference in species of trees, their habits, place of growth, and use to man; j pine, cedar, willow, oak, beech, maple, walnut, hickory, sycamore, ash, poplar, birch (what “ deciduous ” and ‘‘evergreen ” signify), magnolia, live-oak, honey-locust, banyan, laurel, mosses. I Third quarter.— Food plants : (1 ) Wheat, bailey, oats, rye, Indian corn, rice ; (2) potatoes, yams, beets, ! turnips, onions, beans, peas ; (3) apples, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, oranges, bananas, lemons, bread- i fruit, dates, pine-apples, figs, grapes; (4) sago, tapioca, su^r-cane, cocoanut palm (its various uses); | (5) pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, vanilla ; (0) tea, coflee, cocoa, mat6 ; (7) Irish moss. | Fourth quarter. — Plants useful in the arts: (1) Indigo, logwood; (2) olive (oil), flaxseed (oil), pine, I turpentine, rosin, tar ; (3) caoutchouc, gutta percha. Medicinal plants and stimulants: Sarsaparilla, cinchona (quinine), aloe, tobacco, opium, rhubarb. Plants valuable for clothing : Cotton, flax, hemp, FIFTH YEAR OR GRADE. ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. First guarter.— Classification of animals, their differences and resemblances. I. Vertebrates: (A) Mammals— (a) orang-outang, monkey; (b) bear, cat, dog, lion, panther, tiger, cougar, wolf, leopard; (c) kangaroo, opossum; (d) beaver, squirrel, rat, mouse; (e) sloth, ant-eater; COURSE OP STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS. 383 GENERAL HISTORY. ^ General history also receives more attention than the accompanying tables indi¬ cate, since much of the supplementary reading is of an historical nature. No thor¬ oughly systematized course, such as those just descrihedin science, is reported to exist in any of the larger cities, however, and all the instruction given is incidental and fragmentary. Camden, N. J., where Barnes’s General History is used as a text hook in the eighth year, aud Atlanta, Ga., and Wilmington, Del., where the History of Eng¬ land is formally studied in the highest grade, may be considered as exceptions to this statement to the extent of such teaching. (/) elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, horse, hog ; (g) camel, llama, camelopard, deer, goat, os, sheep ; (/i) whale, dolphin, walrus, porpoiste, seal. (B) Birds— (a) vulture, eagle, hawk, owl ; (bj parrot, wood¬ pecker, (juckoo, toucan; (c) lark, robin, swallow, sparrow, mocking-bird ; {d) domestic fowl, quail, pigeon, peacock, turkey, partridge ; (e) ostrich, stork, crane, duck, swan, penguin, goose, pelican. Second quarter.— Classification of animals, continued: (C) Reptiles— (a) lizard, crocodile, alligator; (h) toad, frog, turtle ; (c) rattlesnake, boa-constrictor, python, cobra. (D) Fishes— pike, salmon, cod, mackerel, shad, shark, flyingfish, catfish, trout, herring, sardine. II. Molluscs; Oyster, clam, pearl-oyster, snail. III. Articulates: Lobster, crawfish, worm, spider, insect (honey bee, silk-worm, cochineal, fly, wasp, butterfly, etc.) IV. Radiates: Corals, animalcirles. TAird ?uarter.—Physiology and hygiene: (1) Bones (preservation of the teeth); (2) skin (its mem¬ branes, pores, perspiration, cleanliness); (3) flesh (fat, muscles, tendons); (4) circulation of blood (veins, arteries, the heart) ; (5) breathing (lungs, effect on the blood) ; (8) voluntary and involuntary motion, efiect of exercise; (9) sleep, disease, death; (10) proper and improper hygienic habits (eat¬ ing, drinking, sleeping, exercise, bathing, sitting in a draft of air, tight lacing, cramping the lan<'s breathing pure air, keeping the feet warm and head cool, etc.). SIXTH YEAR OR GRADE. rHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY. First quarter.— Physics (1) Gravitation and pressure (weight, pump, barometer, pendulum) ; (2) cohesion (glue, paste, mortar, cement, etc.) ; (3) capillary attraction (lamp-wick, sap, sponge, sugar etc.) ; (4) mechanical powers (lever, pulley, inclined plane, wedge and screw, friction.) Second quarter.— Physics, continued: (5) Heat (sun, combustion, friction, efiect on bodies, steam, thermometer, conduction, clothing, cooking, etc.); (6) light (sources, reflection, looking-glass, re¬ fraction, spectacles, microscope, prism, telescope, efiect on growing bodies, photograph); (7) elec¬ tricity (lightning, sealing-wax experiments, etc.) ; (8) magnetism (mariner’s compass, horseshoe mao-- net, telegraph). ” Third quarter.— Astronomy : (1) Stars (some idea of size and distance). (2) Solar system: (a) Sun (sources of light and heat, its size, spots) ; lb) planets (their relative distances from the sun)— Venus and Jupiter, morning and evening stars, Saturn and his rings; (c) satellites or moons (number of them). Fourth gwarter.— Astronomy, continued: {d) Comets; (e) orbits or paths (of planets, noons, and comets); (/) eclipses (of sun, of moon); {g) seasons; (h) phases of moon. SEVENTH YEAR OR GRADE. OUTLINES OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. First quarter.— Geology -. Structure of land; form of continents, islands, mountains and valleys plateaus, plains, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Second quarter.— The water: Springs, rivers, lakes, the ocean, tides, waves, winds, currents— rela¬ tion to commerce and climate. TAird guarfer.— Meteorology: The atmosphere; temperature; the winds; moisture of the atmos¬ phere; dew; fogs; rain; snow and hail; climate; electrical and optical phenomena of the atmos¬ phere. Fourth quarter.— Organic life: botany; zoology; ethnography,- relation of plants, animals and men to their place of abode. ’ EIGHTH YEAR OR GRADE. OUTLINES OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY (OR PHYSICS) AS ILLUSTRATED IN FAMILIAR OBJECTS. First quarter.— ALattcr and its properties : Force ; molecular forces; gravitation and weight • specific gravity ; motion ; action and reaction ; compound motion. ’ ^ Second guarfer.— Machinery ; friction; strength of materials; use of materials in construction- hydrostatics aud capillary attraction ; hydraulics; pneumatics; acoustics. ’ Third quarter.— Rcat and its sources ; communication and efiect ; steam engine ; warming and ven¬ tilation ; meteorological instruments — thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, rain gauge, anemometer • classes of clouds ; classes of winds; meteors and aerolites ; aurora’borealis ; halos ; circulation of water through the process of evaporation ; clouds, rain, springs, rivers, oceans, etc. _ Fourth quarter.— Light-. Sources; reflection; prismatic spectrum; structure of the eye; optical mstrumeuts- telescope, microscope, etc.; electricity; magnetism; electromagnetism - telm'^raDh. ' See Tables 1 and 2. = > «= v • 384 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1888-89. GEOMETRY.^ Geometry is tauglit in Baltimore, Md., New York City, Memphis, Tenn., and Belle¬ ville, Ill., forming a part of the instruction of the highest grade in each place. In Baltimore the first, second, and fourth books are studied, but by the boys only. Da¬ vies’s Geometry and Trigonometry is the text-book used, and nothing appears to indi¬ cate that the subject is not taught in the manner usual in high schools. Indeed, it is a question whether the boys in the eighth year of the Baltimore schools may be prop¬ erly considered as elementary pupils, for, in addition to this work in geometry, they study algebra through quadratic equations and physics “to acoustics.” In New York City the instruction is more elementary and less formal in character, only the fundamental theorems and problems being taught. In Memphis, Tenn., the course of study shows that the first book of geometry is taken up in the ninth year, and therefore whatever is taught of the subject in the eighth year must be of a simple and preparatory character. In Belleville, III., the following is prescribed: “(A) Geometrical concepts developed by means of object lessons, description of geometrical bodies, cube, prism, pyramid, cone, globe, tetrahedron, octahedron, dode- kahedron, icosahedron ; plane surfaces bounded by straight and curved lines ; angles and lines; easy constructions ; development of geometrical forms by motion of point, line, and surface. (B) Plane geometry to the theorem of Pythagoras. (C) Plane geometry completed and solid geometry, including the sphere.” ALGEBRA. 1 Algebra is taught more generally than geometry, and finds a place in the course of nine of the cities in our table, namely : San Francisco, Cal. ; Washington, D. C. ; Belleville, Ill.; Peoria, Ill.: Baltimore, Md. ; Camden, N. J. ; Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Utica, N. Y. ; and Memphis, Tenn. It is also an optional study in New York City in the high¬ est grade. In all these cities, except Baltimore, the instruction in algebra is confined to the eighth year, but in Baltimore it is begun in the boys’ schools in the sixth year and continued through the rest of the course. The girls, however, do not begin the study till the eighth year. The boys take up addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division in the sixth year; factoring, greatest common divisor, least common multiple, fractions, and simple equations in the seventh ; involution, evolution, and quadratics in the eighth. The girls are taught the four fundamental rules in the eighth year. In Brooklyn the instruction in algebra embraces a comparison of algebraic notation, with that of arithmetic, the fundamental rules, factoring, greatest common divisor, least common multiple, and fractions in the first half year ; and a review of the same and simple equations through three unknown quantities in the second half. In re¬ gard to the work of the first half year it is said : “The work in algebra prescribed for this grade may be properly termed literal arithmetic. The pupil’s knowledge of arith¬ metic should be utilized in teaching the algebra, and the study of algebra should give him a clearer idea of the principles underlying the operations in arithmetic.” The work in Washington is substantially the same as in Brooklyn, save that the pupil is carried no further than equations involving one unknown quantity. In Belleville the instruction is more comprehensive, covering as much ground as in Balti¬ more, though probably not so thoroughly, for it is given in only one year. Involu¬ tion, evolution, radicals, equations of the second degree, and progressions appear in the course prescribed. The extent and manner of the teaching of algebra in Camden, N. J., does not appear in the course of study. Brook’s Algebra is the text-book used. Clark’s Algebra in the hands of the teacher is used as a book of reference in San Francisco ; one oral lesson per week is given. The i^rinted courses of study for the schools of Utica, N. Y., and of Peoria, III., contain no reference to algebra in the ele¬ mentary grades ; written statements show that it is taught twenty weeks in the former city and twelve in the latter, receiving two and one-half hours per week in each case. CIVIL GOVERNMENT.^ Civil government is a separate branch of instruction in twenty-two of the eighty- two cities in Table 1 ; its principles are taught in many more — nearly all, perhaps — incidentally in connection with history, geography, or like science and general history, as a part of the supplementary reading. The object of such instructions is declared to be better preparation for the duties of citizenship. In its usual applica¬ tion the subject embraces only the nature and forms of government, and the pro- ^ See Tables 1 and 2. ^See Tables 1, 2, and 13. COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS. 385 visions of the Constitution of the United States, and that of the pupils’ own State ; hut the study may be, and sometimes is, so broadened that it not only covers the elements of political science, but also trenches upon the domain of ethics. Several excellent text- books have been prepared but they are not extensively used except as books of reference, the instruction being chiefly oral — frequently in accordance with a general plan or a syllabus prepared by the superintendent. One of the best of these syllabuses is that which appears in the Manual of the Course of Instruction in the grammar department of the Philadelphia public schools.^ The instruction in that city is given in one year only, the eighth, and follows the topical method through¬ out. No text-book is used, but each pupil has constant access to the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution of the United States, and the Articles of the State Constitution. Appended to the syllabus, in addition to the usual instructions relating to the teaching of the subject, are fl) a list of special terms of frequent occurrence, (2) a list of eminent men connected with the history of the Constitution, (3) a chronologi¬ cal table relating to the adoption of the amendments, (4) a table of parallelisms be¬ tween the Constitution and the Articles of Confederation, and (5) a list of books of reference recommended for the use of the teachers of the subject. In the last list appear: Andrew’s Manual of the Constitution of the United States, Stern’s Constitu¬ tional History and Political Development of the United Srates, Miss Dawes’s How We Are Governed, Alton’s Among the Law-Makers, Fiske’s American Political ideas, Scott’s Development of Constitutional Liberty in the English Colonies of America, Frothingham’s Rise of tlie Republic of the United States,Greene’s Historical View of ^ The main points of this syllabus are as follows : NATURE AND FORJIS OF GOVERNMENT. I. Government; What is meant by the term ; social nature of man ; necessity of civil government ; what is meant by the constitution of a nation , what a law is. n. Different forms of govern inent: (1) Monarchical; (2) aristocratic ; (3) democratic; (4) republican; combinations of different forms. COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. I. Political organizations of the colonies: Three forms of colonial government: (1) Provincial (royal) ; (2) proprietary ; (3) charter. II. Ditferences produced by these forms of government; superiority of political institutions result¬ ing from the charter form of government; town system of Kew England a pure democracy; a local legislature, with one branch elected by the people, common to all three forms. FIRST ATTEMRTS OF TUE COLONIES AT UNION. I. Absence of political connection between the colonies. II. The first Continental Congress, 1774; necessity of association; steps taken. III. The second Continental Congres.s, 1775: (1) Duration; (2) measures adopted. IV. . The Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. Its contents and object. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. I. Difficulties of carrying on the Eevolution resulting from the absence of union between the States; necessity for a general government. II. The Articles of Confederation ; principal features. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. I. Circumstances which led to the adoption of the Constitution ; (1) defects of the Articles of Con¬ federation ; (2) functions performed by the Articles of Confederation in accustoming the States to associated aclion, and in leading to “a more perfect union.” II. Convention of delegates for the purpose of ‘‘revising the Articles of Confederation,” etc.; difler- eut plans suggested ; discussion of these ; final completion of the Constitution, m. Constitution of tlie United States of America adopted to go into effect when ratified by nine States; order in rvliich the States acted. IV, Preamble of the Constitution. BRANCHES OF THE UNITED STATES GoyERNMENT.— (1) Legislative ; (2) Executive ; (3) Judicial. Legislative branch. I. Vested in Congress, consisting of (1) House of Representatives. (2) Senate. II. House of Representatives; (1) Composition. (2) Powers: [a) Legislative — concurrent, exclusive; (b) impeachment; (c) elective— officers. President of the United States, m. Senate: (1) Composition. (2) Presiding officer. (3) Powers: (a) Legislative ; (6) executive- appointments, treaties; (c) elective — officeis, Vice President of the United States; (d) judicial. ED 89- - 25 386 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. the American Revolution, Curtis’s History of the Constitution, Bancroft’s, Hildreth’s, and Schouler’s histories of the United States, and Story’s Commentaries on the Con¬ stitution. The use of a syllabus of this kind by an intelligent teacher willing to follow the suggestions that accompany it must result in such effective teaching that text-book instruction would seem dull and insipid by contrast. What good office could a formal text-book perform for a teacher familiar with all the literature named ? Mr. E. W. Stephenson, in his report for 1887-83, as superintendent of public in¬ struction of Columbus, Ohio, very thoroughly discussed the importance of training for citizenship, laying particular stress upon the cultivation of the virtues of obe¬ dience to rightful authority, integrity, industry, and patriotism. He would have in¬ struction also in the forms and methods of government, but he believes that the possession of the virtues named is more necessary to the citizen than a mere knowl¬ edge of any particular system of laws. He therefore urges that the teachers aim particularly at the inculcation of these desirable qualities in order that their pupils may be the better as citizens. In regard to this view, it may be said that the instruction recommended is only what is commonly called “moral training,” with a special and rather limited applica¬ tion, i. e., the good of the state. There is no ditference of opinion in regard to the duty of the school to foster and cul¬ tivate all the virtues, but there is a difference of practice in regard to the incorpora¬ tion of such training with the study of political science. The latter, as it is generally taught, aims merely at giving the puj)il a knowledge of the manner in which the country is governed, how its officers are chosen, and what relation he himself bears to the conduct of public affairs. The cultivation of patriotism is, of course, an end in whose accomplishment the study of our government is expected to aid, but that moral training which leads to habits of obedience and industry and integrity of character is presupposed. The moral man will be moral in the exercise of his privileges and in the discharge of his duties as a citizen ; therefore, in most courses we find that general morality is con¬ stantly inculcated, but that no special attention is paid to political morality as sepa¬ rate from morality in all other walks of life. rV. Lawmaking: Methods; orders; resolutions; votes. Y. Powers granted to Congress. YI. Powers denied to Congress. Yll. Powers denied to the several States. Executive branch. I. In whom executive power is vested; term of oflBce, salary, oath, n. Eligibility. m. How elected: (1) By electors; (2) by House of Kepresentatives. lY. How removable. Y. Powers and duties of President: (1) Military; (2) civil. YI. Yice President: (1) Eligibility, term, oath; (2) how elected; (3) powers and duties. Judicial branch. I. Where vested : (1) Supreme Court. (2) Inferior courts : (a) Circuit; (&) district. II. Judges: (1) How appointed; (2) term of office, salary, oath; (3) how removable. HI. Jurisdiction: (1) Limitation; (2) original; (3) appellate. ItELATIONS BETWEEN THE STATES AND THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. I. Public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of States. U. State citizenship. HI. Fugitives from (1) justice, (2) service. lY. Formation and admission of new States (Territories). Y. Guaranty and protection to the States. MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS. I. Supremacy of the Constitution. II. Guarantee of personal rights. III. Abolition of slavery. lY. Enfranchisement of negro citizens. Y. Yalidity of the public debt. YI. How may the Constitution be amended. CONSTITUTION OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA. I. Historical notes. II. General analysis. LLL Analogies between the Federal and the State government. COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS. 387 As to the time for beginning, we find that in Denver, Washington, Detroit, East Saginaw, Minneapolis, Camden, Brooklyn, Milwaukee, and Philadelphia, only the pupils of the eighth-year class are permitted to pursue the study. In San Francisco, Cal., Atchison, Kans., Lynn, Mass., and Salt Lake City, Utah, two years are given to the subject. In Quincy, Ill., West Des Moines, Iowa, Baltimore, Md., Lawrence, Mass., and Jersey City, N. J., three years. In Wichita, Kans., and New Orleans, La., four years. The time per week varies from a half hour in San Francisco, New Orleans, and Bal¬ timore, to 3|- hours ill Detroit and hours in Milwaukee. As a rule, the time per week is short where the number of weeks is great and vice versa, so that the total time given to the subject is remarkably uniform. 388 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. Table I. — Amount of instruction and number of hours devoted to 10 18 6 a o5 O O 9 o . w t-. o o 91: 2 o s % r“ ^ d' h City. s 0^ c ^ 2§ O a CC O i ■ P c- % .9 bl ti bi 9 bt o Pi T- 6 % o H O W p. w .9 rt P .2 C3 Sc c3 vA 05 'Ft □ P u o XTa ri at O O 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 § 9 lO 11 13 1 ^3 ALABAMA. Mobile . 5 40 5,586 1, 053 920 422 422 533 267 560 ARKANSAS. Little Rock . . 8 36 4. 650 846 594 594 228 ^ Cl iO) > 90 399 \ 306 COj CALIFORNIA. Los Angeles . 8 36 42 40 5, 832 885 1, 260 1, 160 279 498 567 805 320 OO', 360 819 390 630 165 315 240 543 490 580 Oakland . 9 GG5 360 1, 026 320 5^7 8 oi 620 360 840 360 COLORADO. Denver : District No. 1 . 8 38 4,356 4, 789 6, 200 597 448 384 325 367 285 171 481 285 453 318 353 352 434 209 209 103 50 129 310 391 754 District No. 2 . 8 38 760 ],G23 428 District No. 17 . 8 38 640 491 CONNECTICUT. New Haven . 8 40 7,200 1, 743 333 480 380 300 540 333 267 567 DELAWARE. Wilmington . 8 40 7, 700 1, 620 780 460 460 160 560 320 80 580 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Washington . 8 38 1 6, 895 956 391 393 548 386 716 215 333 418 GEORGIA. Atlanta . 8 40 7, 154 980 1, 280 580 947 450 470 40 500 ICO 400 Macon . 6 38 4, 262 475 380 380 598 95 180 285 ILLINOIS. Relleville . . 8 42 8,260 5 (168) X 662 525 546 315 494 n, 4 5605 627 360 360 Lynn . 8 38i 6, 913 841 731 674 404 423 New Bedford . 8 40 7. 034 1, 617 410 320 340 390 Salem . . . 9 41 8, 314 1,620 786 502 431 471 Springfield . 8 40 7, 630 2, 010 750 700 640 320 MICHIGAN. Detroit . 8 40 4, 798 633 537 473 433 453 East Saginaw . 8 40 5, 740 1, 360 587 533 533 533 Grand Eapids . 8 40 7,049 2,116 450 500 480 447 MINNESOTA. Minneapolis . 8 39 5,403 917 390 390 390 390 St. Paul . 8 38 4, 338 735 361 288 526 380 MISSISSIPPI. Vichshurg . 7 38 6,119 1, 216 352 313 86 38 MISSOURI. Kansas City . 7 36 6, 164 (1,9 80) 486 252 252 St. Joseph . 8 40 6, 339 853 1 670 443 443 400 St. Louis . . . 8 40 7, 791 1, 947 800 600 507 407 MONTANA. Butte City . 8 40 8, 009 1,620 797 700 390 10 576 225 504 400 903 288 760 c3, 770 c3, 610 740 707 490 1,110 693 954 800 (560 387 240 553 611 326 503 (846 367 I 320 700 Taught incidentally. In the English-German schools the English branches receive two-thirds of the ti third. rhis refers to the entire subject of language, embracing reading, spelling, writii 5, and OTammar. Includes time devoted to physiology and hygiene. Though the course covers 9 years, the apportionment of time is reported for 8 yea The entire subject is reviewed in the 9th year. COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS. Iranches in the piiilio elementary schools of certain cities — Continued. ;9l Arithmetic. Physical culture. Lessons, principally oral, in — Algebra. Geometry. General history. c « 2 V 0 fci B 0 'b 0 0 Sewing. Cooking. Tour elementary rules. Fractions. Compound quanti¬ ties. Decimal operations. 0 Ph Morals and manners. Fatural science. Civil government. 15 1® 17 IS 10 20 21 22 ^53 24 25 26 27 28 29 ! 30 414 270 216 270 432 306 612 63 108 252 288 240 144 330 183 162 177 414 279 135 30 550 326 (a) (a) 680 80 80 240 120 160 \U,} 180 165 210 1C5 144 144 144 72 680 400 200 280 590 50 250 145 60 390 120 ib) 360 (7680 360 120 720 260 173 693 ”772" 79 524 373 163 224 6 680 180 90 250 250 117 117 117 30 /743 /197 /lOO /400 180 200 geo 1 1 I 539 241 115 115 539 289 154 96 96 i . 833 160 160 320 140 80 40 217 1 233 1, 332 82 82 h328 103 266 281 (710) 360 300 390 200 50 183 173 33 20 507 160 120 120 27 120 (0 100 30 U) 1 87 100 429 97 78 234 260 185 146 144 59 1 78 231 63 76 152 126 342 Ml 8 190 770 551 285 285 67 76 200 38 (1) (w) (?) (?) (?) t 797 280 280 280 160 50 500 300 250 450 267 193 67 30 1, 260 40 90 637 80 50 (i) 14 1, 170 1, 080 852 1,152 1, 134 1. 120 720 1. 500 1,310 1, 380 920 2, 068 1, 180 1, 640 1,010 1, 473 1, 824 1, 030 823 907 1, 383 838 522 1, 512 1,637 1, 500 27 28 44 48 (7Taun:lit whenever proper occasions present themselves. A Bookkeeping is taught 41 hours in the 9th year. This is not included in the time reported above, i Taught incidentally at all times. j German is taught 3*200 hours in about one-fifth of the schools of the city. k German is optional. ZOral lessons and calisthenics occupy 152 hours. m Taught with reading. 392 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. Table I. — Amount of instruction and numher of hours devoted to the several City. 6 7) o h 1 S o CD l-s 1 ® US o g 'S fn CC '3 ct> 1 ” o o a P a i _ ® U a 5 % .0.2 Bo bo © 3 bJO S-l rO o o bfl o Ph 'a “ .2 Ex etl o cc 'o 'u a o H w m t-i P a I-] Q ' w <» o 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 1© 11 12 13 8 40 5, 907 1, 533 523 467 467 400 al,070 (a) 6120 760 9 86 7, 798 (d3. 532) 486 507 324 d522 270 540 8 42 e5, 867 1, 197 756 1,029 672 147 ^ 1C i 210 )5 1 1 252^ 147 462 10 40 /9, G20 1, 840 1.020 940 580 400 540 460 340 500 8 40 7, 235 7, 476 1, 621 389 607 267 280 737 173 161 438 8 42 2, 121 641 798 798 588 126 378 441 9 40 7, 960 1, 340 940 560 360 307 600 680 1.50 640 8 40 6, 384 990 940 370 490 507 160 470 180 437 i8 40 6, 920 1, 440 520 740 320 320 560 340 260 380 8 39 2, 875 ■ 520 358 260 101 95 130 65 127 317 7i 40 3, 873 6, 620 600 180 200 Zl, 620 93 118 100 9 40 1, 000 553 453 .567 63 373 450 650 8 40 8, 360 1, 320 1, 320 1, 080 760 560 560 320 240 680 8 40 7, 011 677 867 580 320 340 467 600 300 1, 000 8 39 4,914 585 565 702 312 312 156 371 78 527 8 40 7, 370 900 900 800 800 780 600 600 160 500 8 36 5, 577 81G 378 435 435 315 222 234 105 279 8 40 9,760 1, 360 980 400 380 320 620 300 . 640 8 38 8, 149 1, 786 517 471 365 365 768 281 5 2 130’ 56 ? 445S 8 40 5, 490 si, 083 mi 600 527 537 420 333 290 8 40 6, 741 957 840 533 487 410 187 333 220 760 8 36 6, 126 1, 584 666 576 342 270 342 180 216 504 8 40 5, 855 933 603 500 320 400 567 200 100 480 9 39 1 6, 285 5 (39 i 780 1 10) ? 3905 760 527 517 C (29 1 58;< 1 156 1 326 50 C5 67 70 71 NEBBASKA. OmaLa . KEW HAMPSHIRE. Mancliester . NEW JERSEY. Camden . Elizabeth . J ersey City . Paterson . NEW YORK. Albany . Auburn . Brooklyn ... Bulialo . Eew York k. Boob ester... Borne . Syracuse.... Troy . Utica . NORTH DAKOTA. Grand Forks . Cincinnati]. Cleveland.. Columbus. . Toledo . Portland . PENNSYLVANIA. Wilkes Barre . RHODE ISLAND. 72 Providence . a Grammar is taught in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, occupying a portion of the time as¬ signed to language lessons. b In addition to this, history is taught all through the cause in reading le3Son^. c A portion of the ‘ ‘ language hour ” each week is given to tliis subject. d In the two lowest grades language is taught chieiiy in connection with reading. Time so occupied is reported in column 2. e Forty-two hours are given to paper folding and clay modelling. / One hundred and sixty hours are given to paper folding and clay modelling. g Two hundred and twenty-seven hours in the eighth year are given to a general review. AFTo set time for instruction ; taught with every exercise. i The course nominally covers 7-^ years, but nearly all the children require 8 years for its completion. j At the option of the principals. COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS. 393 branohcs in the public elementary schools of certain cities — Continued. A: These fifciires represent the minimum time to be devoted to each subject. Principals are at liberty to distribute the remaining time as they see fit. f Thi.s aiso includes reading, spelling, and grammar. mTairght by principals in general lectures to the assembled schools; these lectures are delivered monthly. 71 Taught in connection with the general instruction and discipline. 0 Taught in connection with history. p German is optional. q Two bundled and eighty hours are given to oral instruction during the course, r Children of German parentage receive 289 hours more. « Includes oral spelling, r:-. vy t Written spelling only. ■M. Incidentally taught. nin the first 4 grades of 30 schools instruction is given in reading, writing, and spelling in Ger¬ man for 8 hours a week. 394 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-S9, Table I. — Amount of instruction and number of hours devoted to the several City. 1 Years in elementary course. Weeks in the school year. Total number of hours of in¬ struction reported. bO .9 c5 0) Spelling. Writing. Drawing. Music. Language lessons. English grammar. History of thoTJuited States. Geography. 3 3 4 5 G 7 8 9 lO 11 13 SOUTH CAKOLINA. 73 Charleston . 8 40 7, 840 980 980 990 990 480 960 460 460 380 SOUTH DAKOTA. 74 Deadwood . 8 40 5, 627 600 367 510 503 0 807 80 200. 200 TENNESSEE. 75 Memphis . . . . 8 3G 4, 895 708 330 687 126 336 640 90 351 TEXAS. 76 Austin . . . . . 8 36 6,170 1, 062 534 450 648 (90 0) 120 750 UTAH. 77 Salt Lake City . 8 40 7,040 3,280 680 1,040 620 320 640 200 240 280 VEBMONT. 78 Burlington . . . 9 39 6, 453 1,021 775 442 369 527 270 195 195 768 VIEGINIA. 79 Richmond . 7 36 5, 742 1, 080 630 630 360 324 270 558 WASHINGTON. 80 Seattle . 8 40 5, 668 1, 280 647 580 560 320 533 240 107 607 WISCONSIN. 81 Milwaukee . 8 40 8, 079 1, 168 708 616 604 432 (8e 18) 204 488 WYOMING. 82 Cheyenne . 8 38 4, 312 633 633 443 304 253 507 285 95 348 a Incidental in all grades. h In connection with language. COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS, 395 branches in the public elementary schools of certain cities — Continued. Arithmetic. Physical culture. Lessons, principally oral, in — Algebra. Geometry. General history. German. W ood-working. ti p « 02 j Cooking. Total. Four elementary j rules. Fractions. Compound quantities. Decimal operations. Physiology. Morals and manners. Natural science. CiTil government. 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 20 27 2S 29 30 1 020 650 200 170 140 880 620 100 40 120 600 500 380 815 315 240 160 100 225 80 207 150 150 1,356 126 56 108 620 400 160 320 160 80 1, 285 792 126 273 84 220 130 201 1,890 1, 080 270 270 270 1 . 487 200 167 87 33 207 40 («) (b) 1, 253 488 108 89 61 992 583 253 85 40 205 (c) 127 101 (d) c “ Daily, as often as necessary.” d Tauglit orally, but no definite time is specified. Table 2. — Percentage of the total time occupied by each Branch of Instruction in the public elementary schools of certain cities. 396 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1888-89. ;0O0OO00C5300000CiO0OO0! •s3Tpn:),s aeqijQ •!;n9ai -njOAoS IFATQ •8.i9anBai •AUO •{oieAqd J?ui -piiioai 'gong •IPS pcjngBj^ •9in!; -Itio ^'eoisAqj •0t4.9uiTi!^ij;Y •i!q(i'CjSo99 •sg^u^gpgpuxi 9q!;j^o Aao:^8L|£ MUTn -tobjS qsqSag; a oo CO ^ o o * o Hoi><'x>c^inour5 .a lA 00 ^ iO CM XCML^O o . . . . . , O X t> CO IC CO r}1 CO lO X CO CO X CO CO rH X O X iO CM CO lO r> 05 CO X 05 X lO X X X X X X 1-H rH uo X lO »0 05 X O • lO 05 'H^CMCMCQTjir-I'^'CMTH-^CCCMT^cicoCOiOCOrHCOrHCQCM • CM iO it-ur^XCOrHOCM-’i^THCMCMCM 'OCMOCO rHX< XC50rH(MX rH r*( rH rH rH r-i r-i rH rH r-l CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM o ^ c S O cS:/2 I 5 ® g SrS a yj§® S 2 * i: a ri ® O >1 C tc ® ? ={3 ci O ® ® o Up Hi OT Table 3. — Time allotted to Reading in the several grades of the puhlic elementary schools of certain cities. COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS. 397 Tenth year. jod eiiQOA JO joqranjq; t O • c » • t • • • •qaoAi rod e.inoq jo joqiunjq © Si 1 ^4 • • » 1 • ( Ninth year. •ai39^ J9d e3[99A\. JO aaqtunjq 19 ; : : : :^ o o 1 « Tyi r}4 • I CO I I •q99A4. .19d Bjnoq JO aoquin^ 18 H M i” ! -rtf 04 • • * • • 04 • • 5 C rS 3 ct ■auaA" .rod eqooii JO JoqrauN: O 00 O CO o «r5i CO CO T}< O O -M O O O TjH TT rh CO o oo CO CO O O O O O c: O CO Ci CO o •qooM aad sanoq jo aecininj^i; cs C 04 *-( CO CO 5^04 04 r-1 r-1 ST .a . cc MB9A aad eqoaM. jo joqiuuN; uSi O CO O 00 o CO CO ^ o o 04 '4^ O O O O X a Tt1 CO TT ^ ^ CO Ct5 O' C:0 CO O O O CO ^ O O O O CO o CO -rr so CO ^ •q99Ai aad eanoq jo joq'unKj 14 c04 0J 04 04 04 C4 CO CO Fifth year, j •auaA aad e3[a9Ai JO .loquinjq; 11 O O 00 O 00 o rn CO -ei CO ■.*< OOO'COOOO^SiCCCCOOOOO r^^T^^'T^^CO'rH'^'^COCOCOCOr^1•^J•T^T^^ O c: o o to o 'H' 04 TT CO CO rr •3[99Ai, .rod eanoq jo jaquitijq; © H IC CO rH (M Cni HojT H CC>01COO-4lOU004 0104TrOuOlft-^^ to CO Oi 04 CO CO Fourth year. •juoA .rad eTi99.A JO aoquinjq; Si ooccoccooooocqooooojcoooooooo O 05 O CO CO O -rjf CO CO CO •riaaii .rod ejuoq JO .raqrun sj (X) j uocorH'«^'x^(c^c^<6(M'^c'aic:)ir:ic^cj(M'^C5uoco'*^io m CO CO CO to Tj* Third year. •juoA aad eqaoAV jo aaqurnjq; i* OOCCOOOOCOOOCCQO(NO ?^C O CO Tff C5 CO •qoaAi .rod srnoq jo xaqrun^vj h.*® COiOi-iOTMOCCCOiCliriC^iCO CSC^iOCOiCOrHlf^iOC^ CO lO CO 04 to First year. •.rnoA aod e3i00jS\ JO aoqurujii; M oocooccooooo(Moo Joococoooooo O C5 O CO CO o rr CO CO CO Tjt •qaoav aod e.rnoi[ jo aaquinjij; « eiw W}c« 1*^5 CO to to cT to rC) 6 c3 3 5 San'Franci.sco, Cal . Denver (District No. 1), Colo . . . New Haven, Conn . . . . Wa.shington, D. C . Atlanta. Ga . Macon, Ga . .Chicago, Ill . . Indianapolis, Ind . Louisville, Ky . . . New Orleans, La . . Baltimore, Md . Boston, Mass, b . Detroit, Mich . Minneapoli-s, Minn . St. Paul, Minn . Yicksbnrg, Miss . 3 d s o a St. Louis, Mo . ElDabeth, N. J . Albany, N. Y . Brooklyn, N. T . . . New York, N. Yc . Cincinnati, Ohio . . . . Providence, B. I . Charleston. S. C . Mom])his, Tenn . iliehinond, Va . 1 Milwaukee, Wis.. . | a. All tho time given to reading is included in the table of “language lessons, ” on i? age 402, and the apportiouuieut between the branches of the general subject is not specified in the first three grades. b Includes spelling. c The time to be given to reading is not reported apart from the general subject of language. See “language lessons,” page 402. Table 4. — Time allotted to Spelling in the several grades of the public elementary schools of certain cities. 398 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Tenth year. .red e3[89j«i. JO aaqranjq; H • t • • 1 • o # • t ^ 1 • « 1 • : i : • •5[99Ai a9d eanoq jo aaquin^ © : : Ninth year. •aH9jf J9d 85[99.ii JO Joqraujq; 19 1 1 1 1 t « • loo • • M • • •5199.W. J9d gjuoq JO jgqranjq; 1 HCF I 1 • 1 Eighth year. •aU9,(C jod sqaoAi JO joqmu^ 'N O 00 O CO o rr OQ Tji Ca o o o «.o Tf :o O c: 00 CC CO O O O O O 05 O O CO 'fT CO O •qooA^. J9d sjuoq JO jequinx; 10 W|© rJ''74 r-i tH 1-H cm 1^:1 Htrf CM r-i rH C4 r-t CM tH rH Seventh year. •aBaA J9d B3[99jU. jo aaqmnj^ O 00 o cco •ni CO CO o o o o o Tft TT CO O O OC CO ^ CC CO CO O O O O O O O CO o o TT CO ^ CO CO •3190 iV J9d eauoq jo aoqraujq; rH r-1 CM iHi-lCMCM r-s r-i T— » CM i-l CM ,ri i-( (N r-, (N r-t Sixth year. •anojC jod 8:q99i4i JO aaquiujsi; 13 ocooooocoooooo ^CO’^CO’^CO'^Tjt-^COrt' O C5 00 00 Til CO CO CO o o o o Tjt ^ O C5 O CO CO O rr CO TT CO co^ •3[90jii aod eanoq jo aaqranjii TW‘'i2 H.JI.^CTr+.il MW r-liHi-li-(inr-li-ii-l(N(M rWH!.jM|WH|^ CM CM r-( J^’^J^CM'^^CM^T-lr ^ Fifth year. •jnoi! jod eqoajSi. jo aoquin^ 11 OOOCOOOOODOOOCDO O 0> 00 00 CO CO CO o o o o O 05 O CO CO O CO ^ CO CO •3[a9AV J9d siuoq JO jcequinj^ © HiC4Hir}l Hid C^I rH iH m »-<5F CM ^ CM CM HC« CO rl CM iH CM CM Fourth year. •jroi; aad e3ia9Ai JO aoqraux © ooooooooooooocoo O 00 00 CO CO CO O O o o TT O 05 O CD CO O CO ^ CO CO T#1 •3[99Ai, J9d Biuoq JO aequinjq; e»>erW»»-W r4fitCOTH"^V'COT)i o O 00 00 ca CO CO O O O O •5[aoA4. aad Binoq JO joqxnux « rW- O as S § St. Louis, Mo . Elizabeth, N. J . Albany, N. Y . Brooklyn, N. T . New York. N. Y6 . Cincinnati, Ohio. . Providence, R. I . Charleston, S. C . Memphis, Tenn . Richmond. Va . j Milwaukee, Wis . a Phonics. b The time for spelling is not reported apart from the general subject of language, for which see page 402. c Includes reading. d The, time for spelling is included in that of reading. See page 397. ' Table 5.— Time allotted to Writing in the several grades of tJiepuhlic elementary schools of certain cities. COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS, 399 u a o Seventh year. •j'ca.i Jod sqoaAi. JO reqnin sj O CO O 00 O CO CO ^ o o O O CO O O 00 ^ CO CO oooooooooooo CO’^H 1-4^ e4« c4^3r^ctf-4:i CM^r-ir->COi-tCOrHCMCMi-iCMCMCM(MCM City. :o : : ' • o • • • :o : ; : : o : : i GO ■ O-w n . ■ c '3 O M , • d ■ • 1 1 1 • • • « 1 « • c4 I '^n-1 ^ u 1 Q C i i : : 5 • i-s • - _ o . L . . e, s; ^ : ^ • 05 Mob/le, Ala . San Francis( Denver (Dial New Haven, Washington, A tlanta, Ga Chicago, Ill . Indianapolis, Louisville, E New Orleans Baltimore, A Boston, Mas Detroit, Mic Minneapolis, St. Paul, Mi Vicksburg. 1 Kansas City St. Louis, M Elizabeth, N Albany, N. Brooklyn, N New York, 1 Cincinnati, C Providence, Charleston, Memphis, Tc Kichmond, "V Milwaukee, a Not reported, except as a part of tlie general subject of language, for which see page 402. Table 6.— Time alloiied to drawing in the several grades of the public elementary schools of certain cities. 400 EDUCATION KEPORT-, 1888-89, Tenth ear. •a'BoA red ei{90M. JO aaqian^i ■ •3[99A1 jod sjuoq JO jraqmnx © t ( t 1 1 CM 1 1 • ( 1 1 Ninth year. 'aBaA; .red eqeeii jo aequinx © • 1 I Tfl • o O * • * O I 1 ^ ^ 1 t • CO 1 •ifeeAV aed siuoq JO aeqmnj^ (X) •M : i • Hci 1 • t hM I Eighth year. •rneA red SJ^eeM. JO jaqtimj^ i* O 00 O 00 o CO Tfl CO Tj^ OOC|.-!nlM rHr-llMr-lr-Irtr-lr-IN f-H ?-j i-» r-l iH 1-1 r-i CO iH CM Second year. muoA J9d g3[90Av JO jaqmnj^ ift O O O CO o 00 03?0000000000cc00000c50c0 ^Tj-Tf P it: 05 U la H •aua^ aad sqaa.u. jo .iaqnuiy[ •qaaAi. aad eanoq jo aaquinjq I © ! i Second year. •anoif aad eqaaAA jo aaquinj^ L-? j •qaoAA aad sanoq jo .loquinjq Ih" I Jh 1 1— 1 rH r-^ T-^ r:? First year. •anai: aad eqaaAA jo aaqcuujq M •qaaAi aad eanoq jo aaquinjq « iHr-4T-Hr*ir-trHr-(rH rH ^ i— 3 Mobile, Ala . San Friiucisco, Cal . Denver (District No. 1), Colo . New Haven, Conn . . Washington, D. C . Atlanta, G-a . Chicago, 111 . . . Indianapolis, Ind . Louisville, Ky . New Orleans, La . Baltimore, Md . Boston, Mass . Detroit, Mich . 1 Minneapolis, Minn . St. Paul, Minn . . . Vicksburg, Miss . jxansas uity, mo . St. Louis, Mo . Elizabeth, N.J . Albany, N. Y . Brooklyn, N. Y . New York, N. Y.n . Cincinnati, Ohio . Providence. K. I . Charleston, S. C . Memphis, Tenn . llichmond. Va. . Milwaukee, Wis . ED 89 - 26 a The time hero given is the minimum to bo devoted to the subject. See foot-uote k, page 393. Table 8. — Time allotted to “Language Lessons” and “English Grammar” in the several grades of the public elementary schools of certain cities. [Note. — The time civen to '‘language lessons” is indicated by *; to ‘‘English grammar” (which includes parsing, analysis, declension, conjugation, etc.), by t.] 402 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89, Tenth year. •JEOl JOd JO joquinj^ •5[99Ai J9d sinoq JO Toquinj^ © :Fs2 cj ■2 •anoi! aod e5[90Ai. JO aoquin^ © • 1 1 1 I 1 ■ ( • « t :^5 •5[90Ai. J9d eanoq jo aoquinN; GO • • • 1 • ( ■ • 1 r^SI • • t • • • 1 1 1 • 1 00 00 ■ • » H|CT :r^ Eighth year. 'JB94! jod eqooAi JO J9quinj^ T=^ 5^5 •q99M. Jod gjnoq JO aequniN; © jiH^FFFFF2 ^ Fs’^^F :2rF Seventh year. •juoi! Jod S5[09Ji JO joquin^ vaj •qooAi aod e.inoq jo aoquxn^ ■ * irFFFs^^s’SJ « sij’: Sixth year. •anojC aod eqooAA JO aoqranjq; M *3[99Ai aod eanoq jo aoquinj^ f sr?pSa’.^ra?.%s?5 s r Fifth year. •ano^ aod BqooAA JO aoqmnyj; •qooAA aod Banoq jo aoquinj^ © F rFF ? s F ? ?F‘«r s’ V-,Tv-w Fourth year. •anoX aod BqoojVi. JO aoqtnuN; © S ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ § '5[OOAA aod sanoq jo aoqranj^ QC S’ r ? ? F F s^s’F r ? ?f Third year. •ano^ aod BqooAA JO aoqranj^ S 55S ^^^5 5 •qooAi aod Banoq jo aaquinjj © ^ F ?r F F F ? S’ S’ S’ 5 F F FF- F r Second year. •ano.S aod eqooAi JO aoquinx »«5 ^ o •qooAi aod sanoq jo aoqiunjq; „to s^ F? ^ 5^ I'' „ ^ ^ S^ S’” ?' FF^F r* First year. •aT?a.£ aod sqooAA JO aaqmuj^ f? •qooAi aod sanoq jo aoqinn^ ? FF S’ -H 04 CM Sixth yeai*. ■araA aad S3[99Ai. JO aaquin^ W O 00 o cc o CO CO Tp o o rt! rt» CO o o CO o>'r;ro1 tilrj -4C4 rt T# ^ ■4 r-t rP rr CO CM Third year. MuaA aod sqaoAv JO aoqcauj^ 1 i o o ^ !M 00 CO o CM 0 CO 00 0 0 CO CO CO CO Tft 0 Joe Tp • C^4 T :> i 0 0 0 0 r . TT CO CO ^ •qaoAv aad sauoq JO aaqiuu^ © T-1 *-i e 2? r-l rn CO CO CM ^ I ^ c * S'® >4 • r-t r-1 CO r-i Second year. •auaA aad sa[9aAv JO aoqniu^ o o CO CO 0 * • • f 0 • • * •qaaav .aad sauoq JO aaqrauyt Til : j 1 « ih!M< • • 1 First year. muo .A aofl sqoaM. JO aaqxuux M 1 ^ i i i i i i •q^aaAV aad sauoq JO aoqaiuj;^ « ■4’ i i i 5 t < a 'c C c. • y 3 : S f. P 5 C J C rt ; 1- H ^ 5 s k 3 > 5 H C 3 C 2 c 0 "tr u U : fc i 'o j i ■D~ 3 C 3 "s lA 1 c C H 0 y 3.2 IJ j 5 1 11 n i C f' 5 E 3 2^ 1 ^ 5 ?■ - i 4 U H O' C ? 3| 3 0 t z 3? 3’? H 5C c c: % 1 a 1} ^ e M V- M b 0 a -'i c 3.i 3> 'jj 2^ j ^ a? 3^ 0 0 5 i Z 0 ■; Sc 3t- 3 ^ i'J. 1 £ Albany, N. Y . Brooklyn, N. Y . . . TSTew York, N. Y. d . uincinnati, uuio . Providence, It. t . Charleston, S. C . Menaphis, Teuii . Kichuiond, Ya . . Milv/aukee, AYis . / 406 ■EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. Ten til year. jad JO aao^oin^ • • ’iiaaAi jod sanoq jo aaqnrayi; © ■‘ M M M cl ® •juay jad sqaaAv jo jaqoin^ ei 1 1 I 1 1 CM CM •3[aaA\. rad eanoq jo aaqmnyj; ac H 1 » » I 1 Hjd • • 1 1 • CO o Eighth year. aad eqaaAV jo aaquin^ O ^OOCMOOiO CM Tfi r-l ^ OOCM'OOO O 0500 CO ^ CO CO 40 •qoaAi aad sanoq jo aaquinjj O CO CM CM C'l (Tl O .jj Hd Hid rCd hKO CMCM*^CMMC0 CO CM CM iO» il tO» Hjs His r+SHKS HSt> CJ (n-pimtP hWimim (m cal'- irj CO +-riC0— ' -ii ^ wC>i + +lOi 4- + +-+ •*— -t-n^pn— -f"Tl,0» 1 Fifth year. •auai aad sqaaAi JO aaquin^ o oo^o' o'oc' O 00 o CM r-i OOO-ICOOO O 05 00C0C0O TjlrjiC0'i#< ^ CO cococo ’rH •qaaAi aad sanoq jo aaqoin^ © w( 1=^)0 Hic, M '-*3 His rH|^ ^^e^ hIct (MIM (M •*-* ++t<7» -r-r>-C^ +-+ t— f. •+— ^ -t— •*“ Fourth year. •auaX aad sqaaAi. joaequin^i © ^^00^ OCOO I O OOlOO O O Ci coooo o^o' OOOO CO CO CO Tji 'tH CO co co co cm cm •qaaAA aad sanoq jo aaqiunjq QC rKH Hies r^lrt Hl« H^CO Hlci Hid «(r# H}W wfceHrli t>- rH ^ CM CM ^ ^ CM t— I O IQ -Jc Third year, j ‘auaiC aad sqaaJA. jo aaqninyj; O O OC OOOO I O O (N O O O O 05 00 00 CO o TJ1 TiC CO ■«# CO '>#1 • T7i T3< CO Tjl lil CO CO CO CO ';(< •qaaM. aad sanoq jo aaquinjq © HW Hid Hid _ hIM H[d Hid CilMHirJI CO OJ (M CqCOlClOnl^fOfoMCOCO CO (M.-H|:~COvfO * * ■**— , -K* J:*** * Second year. •a'na^S aad sqaOAA joaaqranij O O 00 OOOO • O O Cl O O O O 05 00 OC CO O "Cfl CO Til CO • > COURSE OF STUDY IN CITY SCHOOLS, 407 ■o Seventh year. *JT?9iC jod sqooAt JO aoqninjq; x-? O 00 O 00 CO 00 X o o o o X ^ X o O O X O •q99AA rad eanoq jo .loqranjq r-lciicio iH ic:» - py^ Sixth year. •JBO.C -I9d 8qo9A4. JO .laqtunyj; O CO O 00 CO O 01 O O O O O CO TJI CO o o o X O Tjt •j^ao.vA .lod s.inoq JO aaqiunyi; « w - Hi* ig Fourth year. •jBOiC aod j e3j99Ai. JO jaqninyi; | *1 o 0X0 ^ co^ (M O o O O O X CO ^ Tj< CO CO O o O CO X X X o Tft •qooAA Jod sjnoq JO jwqron^T ; h;c* Ci\n Aoi - r-Cc) M-^jcia ;;d h;c4 Hici H lOp - r.'in Third year. •JUO.A JOd 83[90Ai. JO joqnin si; i o O X o CM o O O O O X CO X ;o O o O CO Tit X o X O •q99Av .xad 8J.noq JO aaqinnyi •>§ !D man¬ ners, CIVIL government, a natural science, including physiology. Note. — The time fiiven to morals and maiiner.s is indicated, hy *; to civil sovernraent, hy t; to natural science, by b COUESE OF STUDY Ul CITY SCHOOLS. 409 fac® P o o ft) o O « O) kj 02 Mno/C .lad 8J[aaAi JO aoqinnj^ Ct •qaaAi. aad | © s.inoq JO JoquinN; | ^ •JKOX .lod sqooAi JO joqiun^ .lod sjuoq JO Joc[uinN; ■.ino/L J3d sqooAV JO .xoqmnN; •3109 JA. a9d einoq jo .leqauijq -.inol aod ejjooAv JO .i9C[iunN; •qooAv J9d eaiioq JO aactmnyi; •jna.i jod sqoa.vi. JO joqinn^ •3[09AV J9d sjnoq JO aeqenuj^ •auoi! J9d sqooAi. JO joqutnj^ •q99Ai I9d einoq JO aoqninN; MHO^C .19d e3[99.vi JO aoqtnnjq; •qooAi, .i9d 8.inoq JO J9qainy[ •anaii aad 8qo9A\. JO aoqutn^ •qooAV aad sanoq jo aoqiiinvj -.1139;? .T9d eq99Av JO aaquinyi; •qoa.u aod sanoq jo aoqiuuyj; •aB9.t .i9d eiXQsav JO aoqniujq •3[09AA aad eanoq jo aoqinnjq . S'! (M . O O CO o no 2 g o •l ^ .5 a 3 § 1 1 p ^ ^ ^ CO 0:000000 (.0 caro ^ 000 00 o fO Ct3 ^ 00 000 _ >5 0«ZJ- ff ic 3 z mn • * • 1 : : 0 ^ • t>a C3 h3 'Zl I g 2?^ oT ® .2 r2 ® s3 1. 0 J5 ® 0 0 a §■15 0 w 2 y? ® 0 <3^ ^ - g I §5o3.2g 9 ® P o fit) •p O •= =« O =4 §.p-r^ 2 r- ^ p P ® £ § ®I5-| 5 F'*-' *= S ® frH ■9 o p -p — ^ C P ©3 P ^ rt o •" c3 . - p p 33 P .9 O ^ ^ _ ■43 X ® 00 goiii ® o P'S P 1=8 t-X (N CO •.Ji O 2 0 g 03 O c Ui P I< r-' P-i e-OPO'^V'K.Os Table 13. — Time allotted in the several grades of the piihlic elementary schools of cei'tain cities to instruction, principally oral, in morals and man¬ ners, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, and NATURAL SCIENCE, including physiology — Continued. Note. — The time given to morals and manners is indicated by * ; to civil government, by t ; to natural science, by 410 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. fcS O) p. ’rt ^ O I 3HgS.jE SrO CHAPTER XVI. MANUAL AND INDUSTEIAL TRAINING.’ I. A name, says Hobbes, is a word taken at random to serve as a mark, which, being spoken to another, will cause the hearer to know what thought the speaker had in his mind when he spoke. From time to time attempts have been made to define the meaning of the term manual training, but it is not improbable that the definitions proposed are more calculated to provoke than to remove doubt as to what is meant by that term. The New Jersey Council of Education would define “manual training as training in thought expression by other means than gesture and verbal language in such a carefully graded course of study as shall also provide adequate training for the judg¬ ment and the executive faculty.” But this definition would seem to claim that manual training, being a method of expression by other means than gesture and verbal language, is a means of express¬ ing ideas by something analogous to the ancient picture writing of primeval times, from which the discovery of tke phonetic alphabet by the Phoenicians has long freed the civilizations of Europe.^ On the other hand, if manual training be merely drawing disguised under another name, it is difficult to understand either why it should be called new^ or why such a strong protest should be made against it ; certainly drawing has no enemies in peda¬ gogical circles. Drawing, or representation, as it is sometimes called, and “con¬ struction,” — which is merely representation in three dimensions — have wonderful power as a means of communicating the ideas of an originator or inventor to his fel¬ low men. It is in this way that the real artist, the architect, or the discoverer of a mechanical device declares his ideas to the world ; and it may not be too bold to say that the application to industry of the generalizations of the practice of the artist is what is known as industrial drawing so much in vogue now, which is quite distinct, however, from mechanical drawing or drawings for the guidance of the makers of machinery. But painting, architecture, industrial and mechanical drawing are very generally recognized as valuable, which does not happen to be the case with manual training. In the last annual report of this Bureau considerable attention was given to the subject of manual training. The Office found itself in the singular position of having collected quite an array of statistics of a movement the philosophy of which as far as pedagogical features were involved it did not understand. The publications of superintendents of systems by whom statistics had been furnished were examined for light, but in vain, for there seemed nobody of pedagogical principles that was com¬ mon to all or even a majority. There remained no way out of the dilemma but to study the question and to lay the results.and the statistics before the public, con¬ tenting ourselves with stating aud comyiaring rather than discussing what had been said upon the subject. The results of that study, had we ventured to express a per; sonal view on the subject, would have been conceived in the following terms: “Manual training is (claimed to be) training of the judgment and executive faculty in a course of study in which drawing and the essential common school studies have also been very carefully provided for.” In a very luminous description of drawing as an art of expression, in which the * This paper has been prepared by Mr. Wellford Addis, specialist of the Bureau. A more particular treatment of the subject was made by him In last year’s Report. 2 See History of Ancient Art, by Perrot and Chipiez, vol. 2, p. 375 of English edition, for a highly in¬ teresting commentary on the ideographic characters of Egypt, China, and Chaldea. The best sum¬ mary of the results of modern research is Lenormant’s “Introduction ’’ to his “Essai sur la propaga¬ tion de I’alphabet ph6nicien dans I’ancien monde.” ® See note A at end of this chapter. 411 412 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. peculiar conditions under which drawing is an indispensable aid to verbal language is shown, Professor Woodward, of the 1st. Louis Manual Training School, observes: “Next to the ability to think deeply and clearly is the power of giving clear and full expression to our thoughts.” It is, indeed, necessary to have thought before you can clearly and fully express it. But the way, the modus vivendi of thinking deeply, considered purely as a method or abstract quality, is that teachable ? ” The University of Oxford seems to think so ; for we are told by the principal and vice-chancellor of the University of Edinburgh, ^ that the English university during the present century “ has made a renewed study of Aristotle one of its chief instruments of education, and with success, as was testi¬ fied to by the late Dr. Arnold, of Rugby.” But why Aristotle ? Because, as Sir A. Grant says, “Aristotle’s great knowledge of human nature, exhaustive classification, and clear methods of disentangling a question and dealing with what is essential in it, render many of his works an excellent curriculum for training young men, and fitting them for all the superior business of life.” And then our author goes on to account for this by saying that there is “ a certain dynamical impulse to be derived from Aristotle independent of all his results and conclusions” and finally defines the Aristotelian element in thought and knowledge as “analytic insight,” which “arises out of concentration of the mind upon the subject in hand, marshaling together all the facts and opinions upon it and dwelling on these, and scrutinizing and com¬ paring them till a light flashes on the whole subject. Such is the procedure which may be learned from Aristotle.” Is such the procedure that is learned by attendance on a course of manual training? TRAINING OF THE EXECUTIVE FACULTY. Two terms that have been used to characterize the object of manual training chal¬ lenge attention ; these are, “the training of the executive faculty,” and the giving of “ capacities for useful action.” How to distinguish between these objects and how to distinguish both from the object of the course in humanities — the iiterae humani- ores of the Jesuits, — is at once such an intricate, invidious, and important task that it must be left to those who are conscious that they have thoroughly mastered the question in its several features. But as we have not had the fortune to find an exposition of manual training principles which, being made by an opponent, has commanded the respect of the advocates of those principles, nor a statement of those principles which, being made by a friend, has not been thought weak and visionary, if not worse, by the opposite party, it may be permitted us to step a little beyond our sphere of analysis and nar¬ rative and to ofler tentatively a few ideas as to what the expressions training of “ executive faculty ” and training in “capacities for useful action ” really mean. In doing this We shall endeavor to keep constantly before us, not the inquiry “ How does this new theory compare with other and established theories?” but “ Is the work, judged by itself and with regard only to the ideal which the worker had in his mind, good or bad ? ” If we shall avoid any serious errors iu pursuing such an undertaking, the happy fact is to be imputed to the simplicity of our mode of conducting it ; if we are palpably wrong, our errors may serve as a starting point for the many distin¬ guished friends of manual training to leave somewhat vague generalities and to expound their prineiples by telling less what the public schools do not do and more what their principles are good for. It is known that the manual training camp is not made up of homogeneous elements, and that the Hannibal that is holding them together is the widespread dissatisfaction with the curriculum of the public schools in whole or in part. But, first, what is the executive faculty ? In his much-lauded and quoted description of Coleridge, Carlyle says: “His talk, alas! was distinguished like himself by irresolution, it disliked to be troubled with conditions, abstinences, definite fulfilments ; loved to wander at its own sweet will, ^ were bitterly reminded of Hazlitt’s account of it. ‘ Excellent talker, very, if you let him start from no premises and come to no conclu¬ sion.’” This certainly is not what is meant by “executive power,” nor is it in any true sense a “ capacity for useful action.” Indeed, the extract is used by Dr. Carpenter in his Mental Psychology as an illustration of the difference between “ automatic ac¬ tivity and mental direction,” and Monsieur Ribot, in his monograph on the “ Diseases of the Will,” introduces it in the chapter on the “ Impairment of voluntary attention,” to illustrate the condition even of a great mind when it “lacks the power of direc¬ tion.” “ Thus we shall see,” he continues, “ a perfect contrast between thought and will.” Not only has Monsieur Ribot devoted a chapter to the impairment of the attention 1 Essay in last edition of Encyclopedia Britannica on Aristotle, by Sir Alexander Grant, author of * The Ethics of Aristotle, illustrated with notes and essays.” MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 413 in his monopjraph on the will, hut he has devoted another monograph to the subject of attention itself, the work appearing by sections in the Revue Philosophique, of which M. Ribot is editor. The object of the monograph being “ to establish acd to justify the proposition that there are two very distinct forms of attention — one spon¬ taneous or natural, the other voluntary or artihcial. “The voluntary or artiticial attention,’^ he says, “ is a product of art, of education, of force of habit (entrainement), of discipline. It is grafted upon spontaneous or natural attention, in which it finds its conditions of existence, as the graft draws its nourishment from the trunk in which it has been inserted. In spontaneous atten¬ tion the object [attended to] acts by its own intrinsic power; in voluntary atten¬ tion the subject acts through extrinsic, that isjto say, superadded powers [on the ob¬ ject]. In the latter case the end is no more a matter of chance or circumstances, it is willed, chosen, accepted, or at least submitted to, but it still remains for the sub¬ ject to adjust itself to that end ; in a word, to find the proper moans of maintaining the attention. Thus this state of voluntary attention is ever accompanied by some feeling of elibrt,” Now we have heard of this feeling of effort before. In 1880 Prof. William James published an article on the subject which is standard. Within a j ear or two he has also written an article for a popular monthly under the title “What the will effects,” in which he says — “ In the volition of consent the idea which serves as motive or temptation is suffi¬ cient of itself to engender action if no other idea stands in the way. But there remains a volition of effort, which seems a widely different thing. Often the idea which serves as our motive or reason for action seems too weak to produce action unless aided by another force. Of this force we seem conscious in the effort of will which we have to make whenever we do a difficult thing. This seems the act of the y^ill par excellence And a few pages further on he says, when speaking of what hapj)en8 when we exert our will, “We simply fill our mind with an idea, which but for our effort would slip away.” But will our heredity let us do this? Heredity, that Banquo-like ghost, that ever intrudes its repulsive presence at our educational banquets of infinite possibilities for the intellectual development of our own generation — our efforts to hurry up evolu¬ tion by ignoring it. But neither teacher nor preacher cares for heredity, as may be conclusively shown by the celebrated Drei Preussischen Regulative of 1854, “by which,” says Lindner, of the University of Prague, “ the politico-religious party of Prussia, reacting on the agitation of 1848 and not content with restoring the out¬ ward conditions of things, desired to possess themselves of tbe public intellect, and consequently invaded the sphere of the Church and School.” “ In the place of the theoretical,” says he briefly, “the regulations would liave the practical; instead of the abstract, the concrete ; iijstead of the individual, the historical ; instead of relig¬ ious toleration, a creed; instead of empty principles for intellectual development, the facts given in State, Church, and Family.” As the twig is bent so is the tree inclined, said in substance the gentlemen who drew these regulations, which after all is only a way of putting Newton’s first law of motion to use in sociology. If, then, the mind be set in motion in the right direction its vis inertice will keep it movingin that direction, and if the direction is in the way of learning to do by doing, it will not desire to lapse inlo idleness after the idea has been thoroughly inculcated in the school. If the child has learned to apply himself to his school tasks he will be, it may be supposed, better able to overcome the feeling of effort necessary to apply himself to making a place for himself in the world. In all probability this is what the writer of a very recent and complimented book on education and heredity calls “ suggestion. ” “ The well-known effects of nervous suggestion” says this psycliologist, “ operate upon the feelings, the intelligence, and the will. It is possible to suggest sensations, ideas, and volitions ; in fact, as Shakespere says, to enable one without discomfort to ■Wallow naked in December snow, By thinking on fantastic summer’s heat, “ The state of the child immediately after its birth,” our author continues, “is more or less comparable to that of a person hypnotized. There is the same absence of ideas, the same domination of a single passive idea. More than this, all children are hyjmo- tizable and easily bypnotizable. In short, they are particularly open to suggestion and to auto-suggestion. All that the child comes to know is then a suggestion, and this suggestion gives place to habit, which is capable of enduring throughout life, as we see the lasting effects produced by nurses frightening their charges.” Monsieur Guyau would fight hereditary habit (instinct) by suggestion. Perhaps even the pure manual trainingist would fight the repulsi*^ exhibited by youth * Education et ]i6r6dit6, 6tude sociologique par M. Guyau, Bibliotbdquo de Philosopbie Contenj- poraiue. Paris, 1889, 414 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. toward systematic exertion (whether hereditary or acquired under the baleful influ¬ ences of the course of study in the public schools) by teaching them in their very school tasks to exert themselves physically according to a method. Barring the usual extravagance, engendered in all probability by carrying on the propaganda of manual training — booming it, as we Americans say, — the conscientious critic of the new theory for “ training the executive faculty must admit that great stress has been laid by the advocates of manual training on their student’s having a definite and — even to the childish mind — a comprehensible end in view when per¬ forming his manual tasks; and that tangible materials are given him to attain that end in performing the task. .Now, if there is any virtue in the pedagogic maxim from the simple to the complex, and that maxim is convertible into the realization of an idea of a complex whole by the assemblage of simple and tangible parts (a child with his building blocks, for instance), the theory of manual training would have one pedagogic leg to stand upon, at least. If this idea of a whole, — that is to say, the idea to be realized, — is one which requires not too great a call on childish imagina¬ tion (we hear a great deal about ‘‘pussy,” etc., in the first reader), and when com¬ pleted its realization is sufficiently concrete to reward the child by enabling him to recognize the result of his industry, we think that in theory manual training would have another leg to stand on. If this course can be graded, as suggested by Super¬ intendent Draper in the sequel, as school readers are graded, the growing intelligence of the child can be constantly accommodated and his hands occupied in working out his ideas, thereby gaining dexterity and becoming obedient to his will. But what is his will to be made obedient to during this course in which (in theory) he is taught to impress himself on matter and in which he may find out by instruc¬ tion, what many find out for themselves, that he can impress himself on matter and even on his weaker fellow-men (Aristotelized Oxford graduates for instance)? ‘‘We do not neglect the humanities,” say the manual trainingists in response. “Our man¬ ual training (high) schools are good secondary schools,” says Director Woodward of St. Louis. Our using the foregoing quotations like so many chessmen may remind the learned reader of the story told of Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, who after having successively enrolled himself as a disciple of the diflerent philosophers of Athens, but before formulating his own theory, presented himself as a pupil to Polemo, who responded, “I am no stranger to your Phoenician arts, Zeno.” But our purpose must not be misunderstood. It is not that we may cull out a theory for manual training that we have spoken so frequently between quotation marks, but because we desire to represent ])ro tempore on what scientific principles a manual trainiugist might possibly base his theory; and we shall be more than pleased if, in our suppositive argument we have not suggested to him Laocoon’s remark about the Grecian horse at Troy : “Quicquid idest, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes.” CAPACITIES FOR USEFUL ACTION. But does Lord Armstrong’s taking term, “ capacities for useful action,” ^ cover the same thing as the “executive faculty ? ” It would certainly seem so if the attention is confined to the expression wherein, speaking of his commercial republic of 13,000 men and boys, he says, “ I can affirm with confidence that had I acted upon the prin¬ ciple of choosing men for their knowledge rather than their ability, I should have been surrounded by an incomparably less efficient staff than that which now governs the Elswick Works.” Yet he means something more than this, for “ not only should the mind be trained to habits of thought, and in quickness and accuracy of perception, but the hand, the eye, and the ear should all participate in training exercises calculated to make these organs more available as instruments of mind.” He thinks that if the thief-trainer can cause the hand of his pupil to acquire such dexterity as to enable it to empty your pock¬ ets without your knowing it, that honesty should have the benefit of the same acquir¬ able deftness of execution. But Lord Armstrong has no more thought of advocating the teaching of a trade in the public schools when urging the training for capacities for useful action than he would have, under any possible combination of affairs, of advocating a kindergarten like that conducted by the amiable Mr. Fagin, the so- called “Jew” in Mr. Dickens’s novel of Oliver Twist. “If,” he says, “if in cultivating the hand’s mobility, precision, and delicacy of touch, the ability to use simple tools were acquired, it would be advantageous in any line of life that might ultimately be adopted • ^ * but to attempt to teach chil¬ dren special trades and processes of manufacture would, I conceive, be a mistake.” Thus there appears fo be something more palpably utilitarian in this training for capacities for useful action — the training of the hand and eye of the manual train- 1 For all this see pages 833 to 837 of the report of the Bureau’s for 1887-8, chapter XI. MANUAL AND INDUSTEIAL TRAINING. 415 iDgists — than the training of “the executive faculty.” It woiild seem that capacities for useful action stand in the same relation to the main object of manual training as the counting-house value of arithmetic stands to arithmetic as the science of num¬ bers and all that that abstract science implies as an instrument of mental develop¬ ment. In both cases, unfortunately, there is a popular tendency to view the inci¬ dental as the main feature. Such we venture to think is what is meant by the executive faculty which is to be trained and by the training for capacity for useful action or training of the agents of the mind to be the mind’s very obedient and humble servants. ANOTHER DEFINITION OF MANUAL TRAINING. The complaint of Shakespeare’s Richard that, after alibis exertions, there was still another Richmond in the held, must be echoed by him who would keep the run of manual training arguments. In May, 1887, the legislature of Pennsylvania provided for the apiiointment of a commission of hve, who held their hrst meeting in December, 1887, and have within a few days published their very comprehensive report.^ Of this report the third and fourth pages call for the best attention we can give them. The discussion of the meaning of the term manual training on those pages opens thus: “It is, perhaps, desirable to indicate the sense in which the term industrial educa¬ tion is here used. In recent discussions the terms ‘technical education,’ ‘scientific education,’ ‘industrial education,’ ‘manual training,’ etc., frequently occur, and it is doubtful whether a clear distinction as to the field they cover is always held in mind by those using them. It is, perhaps, impossible that such a distinction may be made in a way to meet the approval of all educators, but the view upon which the commission has proceeded, which has given direction and coloring to all its inves¬ tigations, and which has embodied itself in the conclusions presented in this report, may be stated substantially as follows : “Scientific education [the physical, including chemical, and the mathematical sciences and their application to industry?] may be regarded in one view as almost exclusively theoretical ; in another, as almost exclusively practical ; this being the familiar distinction between pure and applied science. But since no branch of science can be elfectively taught, except as to its theory, without the aids of the laboratory and the actual manipulation of materials and apparatus, all scientific instruction comes to have, almost of necessity, a semitechnical cast [such, for instance, as the civil engineering or chemistry course in a college?] If carried one step further and conducted with reference to its general applications to industry [as in the Shef¬ field Scientific School of Yale?], it becomes a general technical instruction; if applied to specific industries [a European weaving or an American agricultural school?], it becomes a special technical or technological instruction.” Technical instruction, then is, say the commission, the teaching of science with specific reference to its industrial applications, and, as a term, is almost universally applied to the higher ranges of such instruction, while industrial instruction “may properly be considered applicable to the lower ranges. Then taking up the term manual training, they discuss it thus: “ Manual training, in the strict sense of the term, would mean simply the training of the hand, but as currently used with reference to education the words indicate such employment of the hand as will at the same time train the eye to accuracy and the mind to attention. The scientific element, or the teaching of science pure and simple, is not necessarily involved in the expression. As, however, pure science can scarcely be taught without looking somewhat towards its applications, so manual training can not be made an eftective educational process, except by constant refer¬ ence to the broad foundation in the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences upon which it rests.” The commission, therefore, deem that the term “industrial education” “involves both the idea of manual training with reference to its industrial applications, and the idea of educational or intellectual training, which, with reference to industries, must be largely on the scientific side ; ” and they understand the term and use it as meaning primarily ed«ca/ioa ; education with reference to practical life, but still education; “ the training of the hand, the eye, and the brain to work in unison ; the training of I The amount of information contained in this report is unprecedented. No other volume has so ex¬ hausted the held of technical instruction. In our last report chap, xv, the propaganda, the curricu¬ lum, and the statistics of manual training as we understand the term, were treated for the first time seriously. But the commission have not attempted to digest but have contented themselves with arranging (by States) the very complete information their diligence procured. If the reader desires to put himself into possession of the facts and theories on the subject of manual and industrial training, he should secure not only the two works already spoken of, but also Consul Schoenhof’s recent report on “ Technical Education in France,” published by the State Department at Washington, and Circular No. 2, 1889, of this Bureau. 416 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. the whole child in such a way that his inward powers may act effectively through fit instruments upon his external surroundings, and receive from them accurate and informing imi)ressions.” The commission does not wish to appear as a critic, much less as an opponent of the public schools, but the widespread introduction of scien¬ tific knowledge and scientific methods into all the industrial processes of the day, niakes it necessary that the great mass of our children who leave the school at the age of fourteen or sixteen, if they are not to be launched unprepared into an unknown world, must acquire such training in the public school as will give them at least some elementary knowledge of the facts and the forces with which they will be brought face to face as soon as the doors of the schoolhouse shall close upon them ; ” for, says one of “our friendliest and most judicious critics; ‘Too large a class of young people in America, of both sexes, are seeking pursuits not requiring manual labor/ ” All this is quite in a line with Mr. Herbert Spencer’s plan of education, and it cer¬ tainly is not “training” as opposed to “knowledge.” And as Lord Armstrong, in his “Cry for Useless Knowledge,” says that workshops and factories where actual business is carried on are the proper schools for the learning of trades and industries, so it may be said that the place for learning the facts and forces of the world with which the child is brought face to face is in the school of the world, not in the public school, though it may be perfectly legitimate to use the public school to give the child the capacities for useful action which go by the name of industry, patience, and determination to meet the facts and forces of the unknown world when he is launched into it — if public or any other school life can. While Professor Woodward and others, therefore, claim that manual training can give these or other equally essential qualities, their arguments and facts will receive an intelligent and a sympathetic consideration that must command their respect, though our neutrality in the propa¬ ganda may not meet with their entire api)roval. Speculating upon these matters we have examined carefullj'^ the information that is annually arriving, to see whether manual training in theory is drifting towards in¬ dustrial or technological education, or is filling an imputed lacuna in the develop¬ ment of the child left by the usual literary course of the schools. The attempt is difficult under any circumstances, but the difficulties are intensified when an attempt is made to balance the record year by year. It requires historical retrospect to strike such a balance. THE MANUAL-TRAINING COURSE SHOULD BE A GRADED COURSE, 4,ND IT IS NECESSARY TO BEGIN AT THE LOWER END OF IT. Under the head of “industrial instruction” the State superintendent of New York remarks that the experiences of all lands are being eagerly inquired after and put forward as aids to a satisfactory conclusion, and that naturally wide differences of opinion, even in the opinion of persons best qualified to judge, are being devel¬ oped. Extravagant assertion and intemperate argument are frequently advanced to sustain criticism and suggestions which lack a more substantial foundation. Yet all this arouses a spirit of inquiry and creates a movement toward a higher plane and in more practical directions. There is a sentiment abroad that insists that the time of the schools shall not be wasted in nonessentials, and that the school course from kindergarten to university shall be an interdependent and well-coordinated whole. “ilesides this there is a most decided and determined movement in the direction of practical affairs and everyday employments. Kindergarten work, molding in clay, modeling in sand, studying the forms of objects and delineating those forms upon paper, the cultivation of the industrial and decorative arts, and the use of mechaucal tools have come to be recognized as things which stand in a progressive relationship to each other, as work which cultivates boys and girls more broadly and completely, which assists rather than interferes with their purely literary and mathematical edu¬ cation, and which consequently has a legitimate place in the curriculum of the school.” It is believed, however, Mr. Draper continues, that this practical course will have a telling influence on the school work of the future more speedily if the futility of commencing at the wrong end is recognized. With characteristic impetuosity there is loo much tendency to jump at conclusions. “To pnt carpenters’ tools even under the direction of a practical carpenter into the hands of a boy who has not had his ob¬ serving and perceptive faculties sharpened, and whose hand has not been trained to dexterity by the earlier processes in the industrial course, is not very unlike trying to teach him history before he can read understandingly. The time will be wasted. It will not make him a carpenter, for time and facilities are not equal to it. It will not promote his intellectual education, for it will haye no foundation to rest upon.” MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 417 NO DISTINCTION POSSIBLE IN NEW YORK CITY BETWEEN PEDAGOGIC BRANCHES AND MANUAL-TRAINING BRANCHES. In our last; Report, at page 859, it was only possible to giye a meager account of tbe introduction of manual training iuto the public schools of the city of New York. The report of the city superintendent had not yet arriYcd, nor did it arrive until October, 1889. Using this report we find the following interesting information which would have added very materially to the remarks of our last Report and supple¬ mented the New York course of study given on pages 853-856 of the same volume. “ This highly interesting method of instruction,” says the city superintendent, has been pursued in twenty schools and departments during the last year [1888]. The total number of pupils in these schools and departments is about 10,000, and steadily, carefully, and encouragingly have these children worked in the course mapped out by the board of education. Owing to the shortness of the period during which the experiment has been tried, it would lie unwise to express a definite opinion in regard to the future of manual training. From present appearances, however, it is certain that the children have a love for it and their parents have a keen appreciation of its advantages. * * ^ All the branches of this course of study are thriving, and there is an important point — all the branches, separation of them l)eing impossible. People who dream oi jJedagogic branches and manual-training branches in the same department as separate and unrelated things have not yet grasped the subject. The manual of this course of study has been so arranged that all the branches of education are inter¬ woven in such a manner as to make a distinction impossible. Manual training does not mean merely the training of the hand; it means the training of our every faculty.” THE COMMUNITY NEEDS TO BE EDUCATED OUT OF THE ABSURD IDEA THAT THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS CAN BE MADE SHOPS FOR TEACHING TRADES. The superintendent of Paterson, N. J., in his last report speaks of the false view of manual training taken by the public. ‘‘The scope of the work proposed in manual training was such as to lead, I think, to an overestimate of the result possible when the conditions under which our schools labor are taken into consideration. Many people supposed that we were to forthwith begin the teaching of trades — carpentering, blacksmithing, brass- working, etc., for the boys, and for the girls dress-making, bread-making, and many other of the accomplishments desirable in the female sex. It should be understood that manual training in its intended application to our schools does not embrace the teaching of a trade, and moreover that a single year is not sufficient to show our elaborate application of the manual-training feature jn public education. Difficul¬ ties are to be met and overcome in adjusting the ordinary work of the school to the new conditions imposed by the incorporation of manual instruction. The community needs to be educated to such an extent in the ethics of the ‘new departure’ as to create a bond of sympathy. Once let it be demonstrated that the boys and girls of our schools not only need not sacrifice the traditional studies of the schools, but that manual training gives a zest to them — is not only manual but also intellectual in its outcome — and we shall be enabled to take further steps in finding time and place for its pursuit. We have accomplished quite as much as ought to have been expected with the means at our command. It may be deemed unfortunate that the heralding of its introduction, to the limited extent that has been possible with us, should excite such exaggerated anticipations. We shall eventually adjust our conditions to meet all reasonable demands of manual instruction. Its incorporation in the work of the schools has enlisted the best thought of eminent educators, and time and experiment will render the verdict. We have merely made a beginning.” A DOUBT ON PECUNIARY GROUNDS. The question as to the good resulting from an education in manual training in ad¬ dition to the present course of study is open to argument, says the president of the Hoboken Board of Education, where manual training has been tried 3 years. One of the principal objections against it seems to be that it will divert attention from a course of study which is developing the child’s natural faculties. The enthusiasm of the pupils for the work he is inclined to attribute to its novelty. He adds, how¬ ever, that the board of trustees of the industrial education of New Jersey report that the system of manual training is working harmoniously and effectively, and claim that it will soon be regarded as an indispensable adjunct of our public-school system. “ This, however, is a matter which, with its costs and relative good, is as yet an unknown quantity.” ED 89 - 27 418 EDUCATION REPORT, 18^-89. ‘‘a mechanic-arts school’' on the ST. LOUIS TA’PE OF A MANUAL-TRAINING SCHOOL. The remarks of the superintendent of Boston in his report for 1889 are interesting, to say the least, though, as far as he has expressed himself, not in accord with the notes struck for manual training as an intellectual discipline. He would specialize the work. On the 14th of February the school committee received a communication from the city council conveying the request that the school committee would “ consider and report on the expediency of establishing a system of manual training in connection with the public schools of the city.” The superintendent urges the committee to respond by declaring it “ expedient, as the best beginning in the establishment of a system of manual training, that one thoroughly equipped mechanic-arts high school be established,” a proposition urged by him in his report for 1883, when the school of mechanic arts in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the St. Louis Man¬ ual Training School were the “ only two schools of the kind in the whole country,” though now “ such schools have been established in Baltimore, Philadelphia, Cleve- land, Toledo, and other cities.” The body of experience, therefore, to which appeal may be made in illustrating the advantages of manual training as a branch of public instruction, being so con¬ siderable, the superintendent confidently refers to it as substantiating the following conclusions which we take the liberty of giving in a summarized form : 1. That a school on the St. Louis plan resnlrs in a high degree of mechanical intel¬ ligence, a good degree of general mechanical skill, “and a well-marked development in the power of independent thinking.” 2. It takes hold on a large class of boj^s who are not touched or not so thoroughly touched by the current methods in the older high schools. 3. That it relieves the pressure on the high school and attracts those that never enter them. 4. That its work is interesting to the boy, its bearing being recognized, and “brings their executive powers into productive activity.” 5. That it is up to a certain point an excellent and improved form of apprenticeship. 6. That it is a preparatory school for technological schools. 7-10. That the instruction is popular, capable of being given to classes in a school, and therefore of being made a part of the public-school system of a large city, and finally that its cost is in keeping with the cost of any other high school. The school should be called a high school to mark its place in the public-school system and its relation to the grammar schools. It should be called a mechanic- arts school to mark its special aim and the characteristic aim of its course of instruction. THE RESULTS OF MANUAL TRAINING NOT TO BE LOOKED FOR IN THE OBJECT MADE, BUT IN THE FORMATION OF CHARACTER. “ That bodily training must be associated closely with mental training in the pro¬ duction of the useful men and women of the future, I am more than ever firmly con¬ vinced,” says the superintendent of Jamestown, N. Y., where manual training was introduced in 1877. “I believe that even in the immature stage in which we are now observing manual work, if we will look for results, not in the objects made by the hand, but in the character of the youthful worker, we shall be able to see signs of the best results. And with this, the only true siiirit and purpose of the industrial education in view, I would earnestly impress upon the board the necessity for the better material support of a department which all have acknowledged to be vitally essential.” HAND WORK, AS A MEANS OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT, A SUCCESS. In 1883, says the school committee of Brookline, Mass., an industrial vocation of carpentry school was established in Brookline, in deference “ to what seemed to be a growing public demand.” It was an experiment to answer the question. Would boys of grammar-school age have the physical and mental maturity to profit by such in¬ struction? Six experimental years convinced the committee “ that the teaching of hand work as a laboratory exercise, and as a means of mental development, had been successful.” An experimental course for girls in sewing and cooking was also success¬ ful. Finally, when the pupils of one school were transferred to a new one in which provision had been made for “industrial education,” a new programme was estab¬ lished by which all pupils twelve years of age and over should have “six hours of hand studies per week,” and to the others four hours a week out of the twenty-five. “The aim in the hand studies has not been to produce the largest manual results, but to determine the best methods for making this work the most effective as an intellec¬ tual discipline.” MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 419 GROUNDS ON WHICH MANUAL TRAINING HAS BEEN INTRODUCED IN INDIANAPOLIS. Speaking of the impoitaut step taken during the year in preparing the way for a course of instruction in manual education, the city superintendent says that much discussfon has been iiad in recent years among those interested directly in educa¬ tional work over the question of the place and value of manual education in the school curriculum, and still the question seems somewhat unsettled, even in the minds of those who have given most time to its consideration. The grounds upon wdiich the superintendent based his recommendation may be briefly stated as follows : 1. It is believed that such study will have a general tendency to give pupils a prac¬ tical turn or habit of thought, and to direct, in a common-sense way, their attention to the possibilities that are always open to intelligent workers in mechanical and industrial pursuits. * * 2. It is believed that such course of instruction will develop the executive power of the pupil and thereby make him a more capable worker in any kind of work in which he may afterwards engage. 3,4. It will serve as physical training and as an outlet for some of the natural sense of power to do which the average boy possesses, and which by ordinary school work is repressed rather than cultivated.” 5. The discipline, though not distinctively’- better than that now given by the schools, is different from it, and stands as its necessary complement. THE CHILD’S EXECUTIVE FACULTY HAS BEEN TRAINED. The superintendent of the schools of Minneapolis, in dismissing the question of raanuai training, observes that the experience of his system in the matter of incor¬ porating manual training into the regular public-school work “ has probably been larger than that of any other large city,” and discusses the value of the work in these terms : “A little piece of work produced by a boy who had been three mouths in the man¬ ual-training department was brought to my desk one day. It consisted of three pieces of hard wood mortised and locked together with great dexterity and exactness. I was told that it would do credit to a skilled workman. Now, what had this youth learned during his three months in the workshop ? [The suiierintendeut then enum¬ erates the knowledge and skill attained.] But far more impmrtant than these vis¬ ible results is the influence upon a boy’s habits of thought and fundamental traits of character. This youth has not substituted manual training for mental {raining, lie has added the education of the hand and at the same time given direction and a new force to his mental activities. His judgment and his executive faculty have found a new field and a new motive for action.” THE EDUCATIVE VALUE OF COOKERY. During the year 1888-89 the board of education of Milwaukee adopted the exper¬ iment until then conducted by the ladies of the Milwaukee Cooking School Associa¬ tion. These ladies had obtained from the board the use of a room in the seventh district school in which to conduct a series of lessons in practical cooking. ‘‘At the beginning of the present school ymar the work was given a new impetus under circumstances still more favorable and encouraging. Sufficient time has elapsed during this term to enable me [the superintendent] to speak emphatically in behalf of this department of education. . . A visit to the public school kitchen during any one of the lessons will convey to the patient observer abundant proof that the work is valuable in two aspects. It is educational as well as useful. It is in fact manual training for girls. As the fundamental part of this art includes all those general phenomena relating to combustion, to the atmosphere, the effects of heat upon water, it may be easily seen that the course of instruction is, in one re¬ spect, good training in scientific demonstration. Of course much of the demonstra¬ tion is empirical and many things have to be taken for granted ; but aside from this there are abundant opportunities for the cultivation of the observing faculties in the application of physics and chemistry in cooking. ONE HUNDRED AND TEN MATERNAL VIEWS ON COOKING AS A PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDY. As cooking is one of the branches of manual training for females, and as it is fre¬ quently urged that manual training should be introduced to satisfy the public demand, it is peculiarly appropriate that (as was recently done in New Haven, Conn., after one course of lessons had been given) a note of inquiry should be sent to the mother of 420 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. each pnijil requesting an opinion as to results. Eeplies were received in the case of New Haven from upwards of one hundred and ten persons, as follows: Question 1.— What degree of interest has your daughter shown in these lessons? One hundred replies indicate a high degree of interest; 7 reply that no interest was taken ; 2 speak doubtfully. The usual answer was, “great interest,” “remarkable interest,” “ unusual interest, ” etc. One answers “ 100 per cent.” Another “an interest that will last a lifetime.” Question 2. — Has she shown a new interest in household duties at home? Hinety-two answered in the affirmative ; 14 answered in the negative; 1 said her daughter was inter¬ ested only in the cooking. Question 3.— What estimate do you place upon such teaching in respect to its educational value? Ninety-eight speak emphatically in its favor; 7 are in doubt. Question 4.— Would you recommend making such a course of lessons a regular part of the common school course ? Ninety-two would favor it— many of these urge it strongly; 4 would make it an optional branch; 11 are not in favor of it. II. In certain countries of tlie East %vhere the sempiternal heat is apt to ripen uncleanli- ness into pestilence daily ablutions have become a part of the religious ceremonies of the people. In colder climates where one-half of the year is spent in preparing for the necessities of the other the value of manual labor iu some form is universally recognized and insisted upon. The English premier recently said that the first neces¬ sity of man is to live and his first duty is to work. The idea that children should be taught to labor is by no means new on this side of the Atlantic. In 1642 the general court of Massachusetts, after ordaining that the children of the colony should be taught to read, further provided “ that all parents and masters do breed and bring up their children and apprentices in some honest lawful calling, labor, or employment, or some other trade profitable for themselves and the commonwealth, if they will not nor can not train them up in learning to fit them for higher employments.’^ By this law the literary and industrial training of the child was imposed on the head of the family. Another law was passed in 1647, however, enjoining the estab¬ lishment of schools, from which it may be inferred, as Mr. Philbrick justly remarks, that the function of schoolmaster was not being performed by the head of the family upon whom the earlier law had imposed it as a duty. In our day the apprenticeship system is said to be a thing of the past, and it seems that there are many who main¬ tain that the parent who has already been relieved by the public of the burden of educating his child should also be relieved of the burden of seeing that the child be taught a vocation now that an age of machinery has taken from him the ancient recourse of “ binding the child out.” Although those who advocate the use of the public schools as apprentice shops are by far the most numerous, there is another party who, observing the effect of tru¬ ant, protective, and even reform schools on waifs and petty rogues, would seem to view the whole body of children in the public schools as such unfortunates and, apply¬ ing the industrial principle of the various classes of institutions we have named to the pu blic schools, would correct the evil effect, as they say, of a course of study in them by teachiug the pupil a trade. There seem to be others still who, seeing how unevenly wealth is divided, would make the matter of educating the poor a sort of compen¬ sating charge on the rich. Among school men there are many who favor industrial training because they think that the teaching of a trade will detain the pupil in the school since the usual motive for leaving has thus been removed. IMANUAL LABOR MOVEMENT OF 1830. By 1830 the noise of Fellenberg’s experiment at Hofwyl had caused quite an active agitation in America for manual labor as an adjunct, a very essential adjunct as was claimed, of literary work in an educational institution. The first notice (as far as we are aware) of the work at Hofwyl was the account published by Professor Griscom of the New York High School, w^ho visited Fellenberg’s institution in 1818 or 1819. But the principal source of information seems to have been a series of letters iu the Annals of Education for 1830 and 1831, written by the editor, W. C. Woodbridge, who had resided at Hofwyl at ditfereut times for “nine months.” Under the circumstances it may be quite appropriate to speak of the Hofwyl ex¬ periment. In doing this we can not attempt to draw from Hamm’s biography of Fellenberg in German, but will simply translate a portion of the article “ Felienberg ” in Buisson’s Dictionnaire de Pddagogie, which is much better and more to the point than the articles we have seen in other pedagogical eucyclopsedias : “1. Fellenberg founded (1804) in the first place a practical school of agriculture and of work for the poor in order to prepare a generation of workmen at once stronger MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 421 and more adroit, more hardened to work, and more disciplined in their conduct than was at that time customary amonj^ day workmeud “2. Three years later, in lbU7, he created the higher institute of agronomy for the scientific training of young persons whose business it would be in after life to direct agricultural operations. The superabundance of students, mostly foreigners and full- grown meu, obliged Fellenberg to restrict the admission to pupils who had been edu¬ cated at HofwyL Almost all the aualogous institutions in Switzerland and Europe owe their origin to Fellenberg’s experiment. “ 3. Ill 1808 he opened at Hofwyl a course for elementary school teachers. “4. A school which completed" the school founded in 1804 and which has been mentioned under 1 above. “5. When his older sons had arrived at an age proper for classical instruction (Tinstructiou classique) he joined with them several young people of wealth (gens d’^lite), chosen from among the students of the institution and confided them all to excellent professors. Thus was formed the celebrated higher school of scieutific edu¬ cation, where subsequently so many princes and grand seignors learned to exchange an easy life and egoism for the pleasures of th© mind, of knowing, and of affectionate liberality. “6. To furnish to the citizen class the intellectual resources proper for an indus¬ trial or commercial career, he organized a Realschule upon which he proposed to graft a normal school. “ 7. An institution for girls. “8. An infant school. “9. An industrial or professional school for agriculture.’’ In crossing the ocean European ideas seem to suffer a sea-change into something if not exactly rich still quite strange. Felleuberg’s idea was seized upon here as the means of preparing ministers for the gospel by the clergy, as a substitute for gym¬ nastics by the hygienists ; as practical by those who believe that “the first duty of man is to worL” “It furnished exercise adapted to interest the mind.” “ Its moral effect would be peculiarly happy.” “ It would promote habits of industry, independ¬ ence of character, and originality.” “It would be adapted to render permanent all the manlier features of character and to afford facilities to the student in acquiring a knowledge of human nature.” “It would increase the wealth of the country and tend to do away with those absurd distinctions in society which make the occupa¬ tion of an individual the standard of his worth and would also render permanent our republican institutions.” ^ As far as we know, and we make no pretetise to have ransacked libraries and odd corners for information, the firstschoolof the literary and manual labor kind was the Maine Wesleyan Seminary located at Readlield.^ About 1820 Mr. Elihu Robinson, together with Mr. Luther Sampson, of Readlield, “formed the design of an institu¬ tion in which manual labor should be united with study. “This plan was communi¬ cated to a few of their friends, and of tlie friends of literature, who soon became deeply interested in the project from the following considerations: That many of our most worthy young meu through poverty were deprived of the advantages of an education; that many of those who were favored with those advantages, for want of proper motives to industry, became the abject subjects of idleness and dissipation ; and that many others, who seemed the special favorites of genius, for want of some regular systematic exercise, were doomed to find an early grave. The system, which had for its object to remedy these evils, became fully matured as early as the year 1824, and went into successful operation in the spring of 1825. With the literary establishment there was connected a farm of 140 acres on which are employed [the principal is writing at the date of 1830] twelve or fifteen students. There was soon erected a mechanical shop in which there are employed about thirty-five students. To furnish the means of labor in both these departments there has already been in¬ vested capital to the amount of about $3,000. The principal branches carried on in our mechanical department are chairmaking, cabinetwork, turning, sashmaking, toolmaking, coopering, and blockinaking. The shoemaking business was pursued till it vsms found to be decidedly unfavorable to the health of those employed.” The next institution — the Oneida Institute of Science and Industry* — was opened in 1827 and incorporated by the board of regents of the University of New York in 1829. “The course of instruction,” says the Rev. Mr. Gale, a teacher in the institution, “given here is the same as that pursued in the best academies and high schools in * See note B to this chapter. ^ First repoi't of the Society for Promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institutions, by Weld, 1833. ^ Letter from the principal given in the pamphlet possessed by the library of this Office, entitled “The importance of uniting manual training labor with intellectual attainmeuts in a preparation for the ministry.” A discourse preached at tlie request of the Episcopal Education Society of Pennsylvania by Stephen H. Tyng, a. m., rector of St. Paul’s Church, Philadelphia, 1830, p. 2(j. “ Proceedings of a meeting held at the Masonic Hall on the subject of manual labor in connection with literary institutions, Juno 15, 1831, p. 5. 422 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-80. our country. A great part of the students are preparing for the higher classes at college, others for a theological seminary. The peculiarity of this institution is the system of exercise adopted. This consists of manual labor 3 hours each day, in the garden, on the farm, or in a mechanic’s shop, working in wood; and the labor is under such supervision and control as to make it at the same time a system of exer¬ cise and a means of support to the student. * * * The system of exercise is popu¬ lar. * * * It was thought by many that young men pursuing study would not labor, and that parents would not be willing to send their sons to such an institution. Experience with us has shown that neither of these is true. Five hundred applica¬ tions more than could be received were make to us last year, and in the same propor¬ tion have they been made the present year, although pains have been taken to in¬ form the public that the institute is full. Many of these have been from the best, families both in the country and city. So strongly are our students attached to this system, that were the offer of gratuitous support at other [that is, by uonmanual labor institutions ?] made few would accept it.” The gentleman then speaks of its effect ‘‘ in reducing expenses,” in “ preserviughealth,” in “securing good habits,” and of how “favorable it is to piety,” but we may not follow his line of argument. At the date of 1832 there were at least 8 schools of this kind in o^ieration in New Eng¬ land, the Middle States, and the West. It is very evident that the ideas of the time were too coarse to have the conception of “manual training” as now advocated. On the other hand, as compared with a trade school whose function is to educate for a special kind of work, the manual labor movement of 1830 was, to a great extent, working to pay the expenses of an education, at least to reduce those expenses. In the West instruction in agriculture was added by the legislatures to their normal universities established during the fifties. But the great impetus was given by the Congressional land grant of 1862 to aid in the establishment of colleges of agricul¬ ture and mechanic arts, all of which has been too well canvassed in the past to need discussion here.^ THE PHILOSOPHY OP MANUAL LABOR IN SCHOOLS FOR THE SPECIAL CLASSES. The first institution — with singular impropriety called an “asylum” — established in the western world for the education of the special class of persons whom nature, disease, or accident has deprived of one of the faculties usually possessed by man, was the “American Asylum at Hartford for the Education and Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb.” In turning over the time-stained leaves of the early reports of the directors of this school we find that the fourth contains so full an account of the motives that in¬ duced them to introduce manual labor into their school, thus establishing a prece¬ dent, that it may not be amiss to dwell upon it. The school was established in 1817, and in 1820 we find the directors saying that from the situation of the school in the heart of the city, “ it has hitherto been des¬ titute of those accommodations for horticultural and mechanical employments which it has always been the wish and intention of the directors to provide. For while they feel the high responsibility which is laid upon them of providing for the im¬ provement of the pupils in useful human knowledge, and above all for their instruc¬ tion in the way of salvation, they are convinced that this knowledge will take the deepest root, and this instruction make the most lasting impression in the minds of those who are preserved, when out of school, from absolute indolence on the one hand and from an excess of recreation on the other, by some manual labor propor¬ tioned always, both in kind and degree, to the ability of the individual who is to perform it and to the wishes of his parents or friends. Such labor should consti¬ tute an essential part of all judicious systems of education for youth, and pre-em¬ inently so when they are assembled together in considerable numbers in large establishments. It forms those habits of energetic industry and that state of sound, bodily health, and that check upon irregularity and idleness which are the foundation of all correct moral instruction and discipline. Besides, labor of the hands, in some form or other, will probably afford to many of the pupils the only means of their future support after leaving the asylum.” With these views the directors purchased seven acres of land and were erecting “ a capacious and convenient building of brick.” “ Here,” continues the report, “ it is the intention of the directors to introduce such horticultural and mechanical employ¬ ments among the pupils, under suitable regulations, adapted to the peculiar situation and prospects of individuals as will furnish all with some useful and healthy exercise out of school hours, and those who are poor with such habits ot industry as will enable them to be in the way of procuring a future livelihood. To what extent ^ See note C to this chapter. MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 423 these employments maybe carried, how mncli they may, at a future time, contribute to the support of indigent pupils at the asylum, and how far the complete knowledge of some useful art or trade maybe imparted, while t\iQ intellectual italics are ours] and religious instruction is going on, are subjects on which the directors do not feel able at present to decide.” In the eighth report we come upon a familiar expression,” “preparation for the active duties of life.” The shops have been com¬ pleted “ at a considerable pecuniary sacrifice on the part of the institution.” This was made, however, “ in hopes that the way might thus be prepared for meeting the tvislies of the public and of the friends of the deaf and dumb [the italics are ours] with regard to this very interesting and important part of their education and preparation for the active duties of life.” Now it would be interesting to know what idea the directors and the public had in those days of a “ preparation for the active duties of life.” This would be shown by the instruction they provided for the pupil. Fortunately for our inquiry the report contains several “ specimens of original composition” by the pupils, one of which is “a description of the workshops of the asylum,” and although this falls between a letter from Marcus Tullius Cicero to a “ friend in Greece,” and another from Napoleon Bonaparte from his retirement at St. Helena to “Maria Louisa, his wife,” the descrip¬ tion of the workshops contains internal evidence of genuineness not possessed by the other two. This original composition runs as follows : “The two workshops, which are northwest of the asylum, are about 200 feet from it. They are built of brick. I think that they are both about forty by sixteen. They have one story and a garret. When strangers and visitors come to those shops, they are, I think, interested to see things which are made by the male pupils. The cabinet¬ maker, who can speak and hear, saw in the newspaper last February that the direct¬ ors of the American Asylum wished to have a suitable person to oversee the work- shojis and to instruct several pupils who wished to be cabinetmakers. He came here this mouth and is employed to overlook and aid in business. Six male pupils in the left shop make now family furniture to sell in the city. A cooper in that same shop makes barrels, pails, tubs, and keelers [a shallow tub]. A deaf and dumb mature gentlemen, who is from Maine, is a very skillful and ingenious blacksmith and cutler in the right-hand shop. Having made a great many new blades from cast steel, he 13uts them in the old handles. One blade costs fifteen cents, and the people are very much astonished to see that it is very cheap. His apprentices are employed to learn the business of a blacksmith and cutler. A deaf and dumb shoemaker, who was from the State of New York, makes elegant shoos for the ladies from morocco, kid, pru- nello, seal, and Denmark satin.” In 1827 we are told that increased attention is being bestowed upon the mechanical department of the institution, most of the pupils having employed four or five hours daily in learning a trade. Experience, however, had by that time fully demonstrated that such work could not be made to pay for its expenses. Turning now to the institutions for the blind we find the trustees of the Perkins Institution in their third annual report (IS.'lo) speaking of the department of “me¬ chanical labor or handicraft work” as follows : “None of the articles have yet been brought into the public market ; nor was it per¬ haps desirable, for the pupils have by no means attained that degree of skill of which they are capable. ^ ^ The advantages to be derived from these occupa¬ tions are not, however, merely in the product of the labor, but in the taet and con¬ fidence which are acquired by the exercise of the physical powers. Indeed, the same may be said of intellectual pursuits ; the learner comes to feel and know his powers, and whether he used them or not, has always the confident feeling of a ‘ well-appointed man.’” In regard to the industrial departments of institutions for the blind it need only be said that the loss of sight has greatly circumscribed the number of mechanical employments in which they can engage with profit. Music is, where there is no positive inaptitude, highly adapted to them as a trade. This instruction was put upon a thoroughly scientific or technological basis in the Perkins Institution about 1859. The present condition of the industrial departments in schools for the special classes has been so fully dealt with on pages 787-790 of our 1886-87 Report, and on pages 912-921 of the Report for 1887-88, that the subject may now be dismissed with this reference, for our object is to show the different phases of the manual-labor theory, not the statistics of the schools having the manual-labor feature. TRADE OR HANDICRAFT SCHOOLS. The trade school pure and simple is not yet an American institution. It is true, as has been already noted, that with the establishment of special schools for the deaf, blind, and juvenile delinquents, trade teaching in a humble way was made a part kof the instruction given in such schools, but beyond this and the manual-labor move- 424 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. ment of tlie third decade of the century, no o-eneral efforts were made to provide technical schools until the great movement inaugurated by the act for the establish¬ ment of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts in 1862, a movement inteusified by the introduction of drawing into the schools of Massachusetts, and the stimulat¬ ing effect of the industrial exhibition at the Centennial by merely showing what had been done in the industrial line in Europe. The act of 1862 reads as follows : “ The leading object shall be * * * to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts in such manner as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical edu¬ cation of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life.” It is not necessary to discuss the manner in which the provisions of this act have been carried out, but it is eminently proper to call attention to the judgments of two investigators who have visited this country in behalf of their respective Govern¬ ments, as to our neglect of lower technical or trade teaching. In 1883, Mr. William Mather, in reporting to the Royal (English) Commission on Technical Education, re¬ marks that the class of young people of each sex who seek employment which does not reciuire manual labor is far too large in America, and thinks that this is especially undesirable in a new and unexplored country where nature is waiting for willing and skilled hands. ^ In his report on “Public Instruction at the World’s Exposition at New Orleans,” Monsieur Buisson observes : , “Notwithstanding her resources, America has not yet developed her system of State schools, elementary, secondary, or higher, so much in the line of technical and manual instruction as in the literary and intellectual way.”^ On the other hand it has been remarked — the writer viewing the matter of un¬ skilled labor in its relations to skilled work rather than the aversion to labor — that “ in America there are entirely too many people living directly off the land — more than a due proportion of agriculturists, considering the producing power of the land and the increased use of machinery. Hence there is a continual pressure of the agri¬ cultural population upon the mechanic and manufacturing trades. * * * This tendency to increase the number of artisans constantly works against the efforts of skilled labor to increase wages.” ^ Now it is a very interesting question to determine whether there is a demand for trade schools for these untrained persons, in which they could be professionally trained as an apprentice was trained to become a journeyman; and also whether establishing trade schools would remove the prejudice against manual labor which is more frequently attributed to public-school education than to an infirmity of human nature or to the American motto of “ Excelsior.” But it is manifest that it is a ques¬ tion that can not be discussed here. We have repeatedly referred, in our reports, to the New York Trade Schools, but beside this institution and that at the Pratt Institute of Brooklyn we know of no other real trade school in the country except it be the weaving school of the Phila¬ delphia School of Design. The lately established Rindge School of Cambridge, Mass., we have not heard from, and the Williamson School has not yet gotten under way, nor the Towne School of Maryland, nor the Drexel School. Tlie Miller Manual Labor School and the McDonogh School, however, classed with the manual-training schools, may be looked upon as trade schools. The condition of this subject in Europe has been well portrayed by the Royal (English) Commission, whose conclusions were published in extenso in our report for 1882-83, and again in Circular of Information No. 3, 1885, as an appendix to the late Prof. Charles O. Thompson’s review of the English report. In addition, the avidity with which the French have lately developed the idea of national industrial instruc¬ tion is well shown by the monograph on the subject by Consul Schoenhof, published by the United States State Department, entitled “Industrial Education in France.” It is, therefore, not necessary to crowd this sketch with quoted or translated matter. MOKALITY MANUAL LABOK. In the autumn of 1865 the Rev. Charles F. Barnard, representing a “ regular meet¬ ing of the ministers at large” of Boston, who had found themselves impelled by a sense of their responsibilities to call the attention of the public authorities to “ ex¬ posed and neglected little children,” petitioned the city government to give its atten¬ tion to five classes of children : 1. Juvenile criminals. 2. Beggars, vagabonds, and petty thieves. 3. Truants from school. * Report of Royal Commission on Technical Education, p. 47, of Mr. Mather’s report in vol. 2. ^Rappoit sur f instruction publique a I’exposition universelle cle la Nouvclle-Orl6ans presents k M. le ministre de I’instruction publique, p. 180. 3 The Right of Property and the Ov/nership of Land, by T. Harris, ll. d., p. 26. MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 425 4. Children under live years of age. 5. Children over nine years of age who have left, or been taken from the public schools, to aid in the support of themselves or their respective families. The reading public, the educating part of it at least, need not be reminded of the discussion concerning the connection of illiteracy and crime, actively cairied on some ten or lifteen years ago. In the Bureau’s Reports for IbTl, 1872, and 1874, are articles on the relation of crime and illiteracy (which we would suggest is not synonymous with ighorance but merely indicates the absence of one and perhaps the most power¬ ful means of removing ignorance) ; while in 1881 a pamphlet was issued under the title “ Education and Crime.” It is not necessary to enter into this discussion, which still survives, nor is the object of the earlier articles apropos to the purpose of this. The writer of one of those articles, however, seizing upon Quetelet’s deliverance that “ society prepares the crime which the criminal commits,” proclaims its truth and argues thence the necessity for universal education “because education is a force restraining vice and crime.” Now, to insure universal education, that is to say, to prevent illiteracy, compulsion has been found necessary ; and compulsion, when a social mandate, is useless unless provided with a punishment for noncompiiance. Those against whom this sanction may be enforced are called truants, and to apply the sanction officers are appointed called truant officers. But whatever may be the value of the “ philosophic statistician’s ” impeachment of society as an accomplice before the fact in the child’s guilt, it was the unanimous opinion of the truant officers of Boston that, in the great majority of cases, truancy was caused by drunkenness of the truant’s parents. It may be inferred from this that, as in England, the parents of such children are of a low, uneducated class of persons; in a word, the class which furnishes the beggars and pilferers also furnishes the truants, and in either case the decensus Averni offers no impediments in the shape of early moral associations to the feet of the youthful traveler of this unfortunate class when once he is well started on this easily traveled road. Although the principle be admitted that illiteracy breeds crime, particularly beastly crime, yet it is, from a theoretical standpoint, very easy to suppose that an other¬ wise respectable parent might “ permit so much barbarism” as to allow the child to grow up illiterate. This would be an extremely grave offense in posse, so to speak, though a very minor one from a purely legal standpoint in esse, for the absence of the child from a school does not necessarily mean his enforced presence at a jail in after days. This kind of truancy, theu, may be looked upon from the standpoint of the immediate present as a very mild offense, if an offense at all, on the part of the child. But when the child is homeless or a wanderer, eking out his subsistence by associ¬ ating with every description of villauy or moving in localities where such associa¬ tions may be formed, the possibility of criminality has become something that the law may take cognizance of. The connection between crime and vagabondism is more immediate than between crime and neglect of the parent to have his child taught the elements of learning. Should the chihl have escaped the truant officer or the police¬ man and become a juvenile offender, that is to say, a petty thief, or worse, he may indeed be considered as a criminal ; but as one entitled to consideration, on account, as Monsieur Quetelet might say, of society having “prepared the crime that he has committed ; ” because, as others might prefer to say, he has not had the associa¬ tions that would give him proper moral ideas. Such are the classes to which the cor¬ recting intiueuces of care, education, and regular hours spent in manual labor are ap¬ plied. Whether statistics can support such extraordinary statements as “Society prepares the crimes that the criminal commits,” and whether by “crime” the ninth century meant the same thing as the nineteen th, is not germane to the far more modest purpose of this sketch; but it is highly essential to its object that the statistics it presents should embrace an area sufficiently large to give those statistics value. We think that the island of Great Britain affords such statistics, for not only is it separated from the rest of Europe by language and geographical position, but, above all other European nations, it has the most continuously, comprehensively, and determinedly and, we may add, successfully attacked the source from which its juvenile criminal class has been fed. It is sometimes said that the English workman is the more un¬ ruly than the workmen of other nationalities ; if this be true for the workman it may be assumed that it is true of the children of the lower orders of Englishmen. The English experiment, then, has been made under the very Avorst conditions. In 1854 reform schools were established for the correction of juvenile lawbreakers, and to aupi)ly the means of reducing the attendance at these institutions “ industrial schools ” were established in 1857, and the relation of the two defined in 1866. In the following table some comparisons have been attempted, the purpose of which a mere inspection of the headings will show, to say nothing of the remarks which follow the table by way of bringing out its value. To keep our article within bounds, we shall confine our attention to England and Wales. 426 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. England and Wales. Tear covered. Absolute figures. Katios — Male adults sentenced. Boys under 16 sentenced. Boys sent to industrial schools. Of col¬ umn 2 to columns 1 and 2. Of col¬ umn 8 to column 2. 1 3 3 4 5 Per cent. Per cent. 1861 . . . 72, 947 7, 373 210 9 aS 1862 . 85, 031 7, 084 255 8 4 1863 . 87, 832 7, 208 280 8 4 1864 . 85. 047 7, 536 245 8 3 1865 . 85, 265 8, 350 373 9 4 1866 . 83, 321 8, 099 543 9 7 1867 . 88, 620 8, 285 1, 019 9 12 1868 . . . 97, 636 8, 702 1, 146 8 13 1869 . . 1C8, 195 8, 956 1, 258 8 14 1870 . 107, 621 8,619 1, 281 8 15 1871 . 100, 010 7, 821 1,527 8 20 1872 . . 94, 785 8, 070 1, 620 8 20 1873 . 99, 883 8, 062 1, 991 7 25 1874 . ; . 102, 808 7, 870 1, 731 7 22 1875 . 106, 368 6, 319 1, 687 6 27 1876 . 116,735 6, 232 1, 868 5 30 1877 . 117, 899 6. 611 2, 200 5 33 1878 . b 61, 884 b 3, 848 2, 204 be 1879 . 118, 363 5, 937 2, 546 5 43 1880 . 115, 038 4, 786 2, 605 4 54 1881 . 124, 657 4, 688 2, 918 4 62 a The value of these percentages depends on whether the figures of colamn 3 are included in col¬ umn 2. b For six months only. The candid reader will readily admit that if the whole population of England increased during the period of time covered hy the table, the population under six¬ teen would form the same per cent, of the whole population in 1881 as it did in 1861. The population under sixteen, then, forming the same per cent, of the whole popu¬ lation year after year, it should furnish the same per cent, of the whole number of persons sentenced year after year, and it is therefore perfectly legitimate to compare the per cent, of the population under sixteen sentenced in 1861 with that of any subsequent year. Let us apply this to the three categories of statistics before us, thus for every 100 persons of each category in 1861 there were in — Sentenced. Sentenced to . - - industrial Adults. Boys, school (boys). 1865 . 117 113 178 1X70 . 148 117 610 1875 . Ht! 86 804 1880 . 158 65 1,240 It is very plain that the number of adults seutenced have increased 58 per cent, while the boys uuder sixteen sentenced have decreased 35 per cent., or recurring to column 5 of the large table, w'hich says the same thing in another w^ay, the boys under sixteen sentenced were 9 per cent, of the whole body of men and boys committed in 1861 and only 4 per cent, in 1881. But during this time the increase in the attendance at industrial schools has been 1,140 per cent. It is true that the education act of 1871 has a decided tendency to increase the number sent to the industrial schools, but we have the testimony of the assistant inspector of reformatory and industrial schools that practically the same class of children were sent to the industrial school as truants by the enforcement of the act as has had before attended them. It must also be stated that in the number of children contained in column 2 may be included the num¬ ber given in column 3; even if such be the case the percentages of column 5 are of value inasmuch as the industrial schools are reserved for vagrant and neglected child¬ ren under fourteen, which wmuld go to show improvement in the character of the criminality. We are inclined to think, however, that the number of children given in column 3 is not contained in column 4. If such is the case the connection between an “industrial” or preventative school for every young children and the shrinkage in youthful criminality is pretty closely established by the hgures. Nor are the figures unsupported. “All seem to agree,” says Lord Norton, who has been conversant with these schools for a number of years, “that the utterly vicious and criminal class of children, the fruit of national neglect [the reader will be reminded of Quetelet’s MANUAL AND iNDUSTEIAL TRAINING. 427 • dictum], wliicli called first for reformatories no longer exists as a class, and individ¬ ually there are fewer and fewer such children in any locality ; so that a call of them from all reformatories would not furnish enough for separate treatment in two or three schools.” In a word, the experience of England seems to show that if you can pick up the vagabond and beggar at an early age and instruct him in an “industrial school you have cut olf the supply of half-grown but thorough-going scoundrels.” ^ On the adult population of law-breakers it seems to have exerted no effect ; perhaps when Elmira-like reformatories for men shall have become general these figures, too, will decline.^ Now an essential, some would say the essential, feature of the industrial and of the reform school is manual labor, especially the learning of a trade. “For,” says Superintendent Brockway of the great Elmira, N. Y., reformatory for men under thirty, “no reformatory system is complete that does not train each subject for a specific industry for which he has a natural adaptation, and actually induct him into it, maintaining supervisory control long enough to insure a good degree of perma¬ nence and success. * * ^ There is a most intimate connection between the con¬ duct of reformed criminals and the readiness with which they can suitably support themselves.” As Mr. Brockway is talking about reformed criminals his remarks may be thought irrelevant to juvenile delinquents and vagabonds ; but it would not be difficult to fill our pages w'ith quotations going to show that a trade is very intimately connected with permanent respectability. Yet, as the statistics for England and Wales hf^ve been used, we should refer to them alone. The Royal (English) Commission in their report of 1884 use the follow¬ ing language : ^ “Both in reformatory and in industrial schools an essential feature of the work is the industrial training. The trade or occupation to which children are put should be suited to their age and physical strength ; it should be adapted to the main pur¬ pose of developing their industrial faculties and training them to industrious habits, and should be such as to give the individual boy or girl the means of earning a live¬ lihood at as early an age as possible. It is not absolutely essential that the trade should be one which the child will afterwards pursue, although this is very desirable. If the occupation taught and the skill and habits acquired enable him to compete on equal terms in the labor market with others, and to earn an honest livelihood, the main object has been attained.” Perhaps this subject may best bo closed by giving the testimony of Col. William Inglis, inspector of certified reformatories and industrial schools, when examined by the commission : Question 4G2. How long have yon hold your office? Answer. Six years. Question G56. What are tho trades which are generally taught in reformatory schools? Answer. They are very various; agricultural training is one of the best for a reformatory,'* and we find it in nearly all of them whose situation permits it; then there are shoemaking and tailoring shops in nearly all schools; besides those there are carpentry, joinering, bookbinding, basket making, and cask making at one place. You will find them all in the report on each school, which mentions what industrial occupations are carried on there. In the report which is before me, I find that the Stoke Farm Keformatory has a large farm, and market gardening is largely carried on, and it has effective tailors’ and shoemakers’ shops also. Wood choi)ping is a great employment for the smaller boys, and firewood making, and in some places they make large quantities of match boxes ; in fact there are a great variety of trades. Question 657. I see that in your evidence on the former occasion j ou rather suggested that It takes two or three .years to learn some of the trades taught in those schools; what trade is there within your experience of which a knowledge would be sufficiently attained in three years? Answer. Hot a complete, knowledge but sufficient knowdedge to get boys emi^Ioj'ment on leaving the school and for them to get enough money to keep themselves. I do not mean to say as much as a practiced workman when they leave the school, but at all events they know as much as an apprentice in his second or third year would know. Question 658. In that case when he left the school a boy would be fit for an advanced position in an apprenticeship rather than obtaining his own living by the trade? A.nswer. That depends a good deal irpon whether he is to follow such a trade as carpentry or joinery; that would be the correct view to take of it. -* * * Question 664. So that practically we are left without any reliable evidence as to the advantages de¬ rived by the boys from this smattering of a trade which is taught them in these schools? * Though speaking of London only, Mr, Buxton, chairman of the school hoard of that city observes, “ Since 1870, 7,566 children * * * have been sent to indxistrial schools. The convictions for juve¬ nile ott’ences are now only half what they were in 1870. The obvious connection between these figures justifies me in putting them together.” 2 See U. S. Ed. Eept. 1886-87, pp. 857-858. ^ The commission was made up of fourteen members, as follows: Henry Austin Baron Aberdare, John William Earl of Dalhousie, Charles Bowyer Baron Horton, the honorable Edward Stanhope, Sir Michael Edward Hicks-Beach, hart., the honorable Charles Owen O'Conor, Sir Hghtred James Kay- Shuttleworth, hart., David La Touche Colthurst, esq^ George Woodyatt- Hastings, esq., Fi’ancis Henry Hewland Glassop, esq., Charles Dalrymple, esq., Henry Broadhurst, esq., William Ewart, esq., William Egerton Hubbard, jr., esq. Three of the members were barristers-at-law and one late a lieu¬ tenant-colonel in the army ; the majority were men of State. ■* See Hote B to this chapter. 428 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Answer. T get what I consider reliable evidence from most of the schools, and it shows that a great number of boys who are put out to trades are doing well and earning their living ; each manager will bring you his books and will tell \ou that, and I am satisfied that generally they are doing well. Question 665. But so far as you know there is no tabulated information upon that ijoint in your annual report ? Answer. None whatever ; it would be impossible. * * * Question 673. But it would be clearly better, would it not, in your opinion, that a boy should be a thorough master of something rather than a jack-of-all trades with no sufficient knowledge of any ? Answer. The great thing in the training of our boys is to give them habits of industry and habits of using their hands and arms. It does uot so much matter what trade they are taught so long as they are taught to work. When they go out they can go on with the work that they iuive been taught in the school, or they can turn to some other sort of work. They do not get habits of idleness in the school. NOTE A. On the “ third of Brumaire” ofits'Wear IV” (October 24, 1795), theFrench Reyolntion passed a bill which, it is said, was its “capital work in the matter of instruction, the synthesis of all its previous doings and projects, its scholastic testament as it were.” This bill provided for central schools, whose course of siudy was to be divided into three sections. Commenting on this course Monsieur A. Dnruy, in his “ L’instruction publique et la revolution ” (p. 217), observes ; “What is immediately noticeable in this new organization of what vve now call secondary instruc¬ tion is the importance accorded by the legislator to certain branches of study. ‘At the threshold of the edifice,’ to use the words of Lakanal, ‘is drawing, drawing which had been considered until then only as related to painting, but which, as related to the perfectment of the senses, accustoms the eye to seize with vigor the traits of nature, and is so to say the geometry of the eye as music is that of the ear.’ i “ The influence of Condillac and the sensualistic school,” continues M. Duruy, “ is very manifest here. Indeed, if the ideas come from the senses, it follows that studies ought to commence by the recognition (connaissance) and the reproduction of sensible objects. If the view of an old oak produces in us the idea of force, the sight of a swallow that of movement and lightness, what better exercise could be devised for children than to have them copy swallows and oaks? What better, not only for edu¬ cating their eye and hand, but still more and especially to put them in a condition to exercise their judgment? The teaching an art or a trade as in ‘Emile’ is no more the only question. Entirely different and based on another philosophy is the pedagogy of Lakanal and Daunou. The legislators of the Year IV had pretensions to build upon foundations that were entirely new and according to the rational method, that is to say by commencing at the commencement. This is why they placed draw¬ ing in the first section of their programme, and why they devote so large a space to it in the course. The idea was not devoid of merit.” NOTE B. “The Eational Agriculture,” said Felleuburg, “which will proceed from Hofwyl and penetrate not only every district of Switzerland but of the whole civilized world, is the instrument for the physical and moral regeneration of mankind.” Upon the basis of an improved agriculture he would banish mechanical study from the school by giving it properly trained teachers who were able to unite the work of the common people with the work of the common school. In the general scientific in stitution which he established in 1808 the pupils were taught to honor agriculture as the primitive vocation of man (Urberuf ), and as the only sure foundation for the prosperity of domestic and national affairs. Agriculture, thus ennobled, in addition to holding out a helping hand to the poverty stricken, would cause the wretched and outcast to detest a life of evil, and would restore them to a condition of manly self-conciousness, courage, and strength. NOTE C. As there is no intention to write the history of this movement on this occasion, the list of works possessed by the library of the Bureau on the subject is given, in order that those who may wish to investigate the subject may know what we have: The Importance of Uniting Manual Labor with Intellectual Attainments in a preparation for the Ministry, by Stephen H. Tyug, A. M., Philadelpliia, 1830; with an Appendix Containing Answers to a Series of Inquiries Propounded to Six Manual Labor Institutions by the Editors of the Quarterly Journal of the American Education Society. Proceedings of a Meeting Held at Masonic Hall on the Subject of Manual Labor in Coui^ection with Literary Institutions, June 15, 1831, together with some Particulars Respecting the Oneida Institute at Whitesboro, N. T., New York, 1831. Report of a Committee on Industrial Schools ; read at a Stated Meeting of the Working Men’s Republican Asso¬ ciation of Chester County, January 7, 1832. First Report of the Society for Promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institutions, by T. D. Weld. N. Y., 1832. Societies for Promoting Manual Labor in Liter¬ ary Institutions (third edition), by M[athewJ. C[arey)., Philadelphia, March 14,1834. 1 Lakanal, Rapport sur les 6coles centrales. CHAPTER XVII. KELTGIOUS HSrSTRUOTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. I. Present interest in the subject of religious instruction in public schools. — IT. (A) Special inquiry issued bythn O dice respecting law and practice in this matter in States and, cities ; (b) Substance of replies. — III. Religious and moral training in public elementary schools. England and ^Vales : (A) Conditions effecting elementary educationat the passage of the education act (b) Analysis of report of the Royal Commission relative to religious and moral instruetioii : (1) Summary of returns made to the commission ; (2) An¬ alysis of returns made by school boards in response to Parliamentary inquiry ; (3) Oral testimony ; (4) Summary of evidence resqn’.cting the quality and value of religious instruction in board and volun¬ tary schools ; (5) Moral training ; (6) Propositions advanced by advocates of purely secular instruction ; (7) Mr. Mundella on Sabbatli-^chool attendance ; (8) Conclusio^is and recommendations of the commis¬ sion: (a) Majority report ; (b) Minority report.— W . Extracts from addresses made at the public con¬ ference on the report of the commission. — V. Status of religious instruction in leading countries of Europe and, in certain British colonies, as shown by returns to the commission. — VI. Table showing the distribution of school boards making specified provision for religious instruction. I.— Present Interest in the Subject. The question of religious instruction in public schools, always one of deep interest, has been brought into special prominence during tbe past two years by several events. It occupied an important place in the discussions before two successive an¬ nual meetings of the National Educational Association, viz, at Nashville, Tenn., July, 1869,1 again at St. Paul, Minn., July, 1890.2 addresses on this subject excited much attention at the time and were widely copied and commented upon in the public press. In February, 1889, the Senate Committee on Education and Labor devoted portions of two sessions, viz, February 15 and 22, to hearings upon a proposed amendment to the Constitution respecting establishments of religion and free public schools. ^ The proposal emanated from a meeting of citizens in Philadelphia, its purpose being to ingraft upon the Constitution of the United States principles formally expressed in the constitutions or laws of many of the individual States. The amendment sub¬ mitted enjoined upon each State absolute neutrality in respect to religion and the ex¬ clusion of all schools, institutions, etc., where any sectarian doctrines, tenets, ceremo¬ nials, etc., are taught or inculcated from any participation in funds raised by taxation. The memorial of the citizens of Philadelphia was supported by delegates from the National Reform Association and from the American branch of the Evangelical Alliance and by individual citizens, and was accompanied also by a petition to the same effect bearing the signatures of above three thousand citizens of Massachusetts. The report of the hearings has been in great demand. Although the immediate purpose of the memorialists was not accomplished, the movement which they represented has given rise to a permanent organization of national extent, i. e., the National League for the Protection of American Institutions, incorporated December 24, 1889. The objects of this league are to “ secure constitu¬ tional and legislative safeguards for the protection of the common school system and other American institutions, and to promote public instruction in harmony with such institutions, and to prevent all sectarian or denominational appropriations of public funds.’’ It advocates an amendment to the Constitution ■* as the most efficient measure for the accomplishment of these objects. iSee proceedings of the National Educational Association for 1889 ; addresses of Cardinal Gibbons, Bishop Keane, Edwin D. Mead, and Hon. John Jay. ^^Proceedings of the National Educational Association for 1890 ; address of Archbishop Ireland. 3 See Religion and Schools — Notes of hearings before the Committee on Education and Labor, United States Senate, February 15 and 22, 1889. ♦The amendment inoposod by the League is as follows; “ No State shall pass any law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or use its property or credit, or any money raised by taxation, or authorize either to housed for the purpose of founding, maintaining, or aiding by ap])ropiiation, payment for services, expenses, or otherwise, any church, religious de¬ nomination or religious society, or any institution, societj', or undertaking which is wholly or in part under sectarian or ecclesiastical control.” 429 430 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. The synod of New York of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America appointed a special committee in 1885 to consider the best means of “ opposing the attitude of indifference to religion which appears both in public school manuals and in the educational systems of reformatories-’’^ This committee has been diligently at work collecting evidence bearing upon the subjects of its investigations and has annually reported the results of its labors to the synod. The agitation over the compulsory school laws of Illinois and Wisconsin was more or less involved in this same question of religious instruction and has served to in¬ crease interest in the subject outside of the States immediately affected. The feeling has been intensified by the decision of the supreme court of Wisconsin, March 18, 1890, relative to the reading of the Bible in public schools. The decision was rendered in “ the Edgerton Bible case,” the history of the case being briefly as follows : Two of the teachers in one of the district schools of the city of Edgerton were in the habit of reading selections from the King James version of the Bible at the opening of the daily sessions of the school. To this practice objection was made by the parents of some of the children who attended the school. The school board declining to order the discon¬ tinuance of the reading of the Scriptures, the complaining parents applied to the cir¬ cuit court of Rock County for a mandamus to compel them to do so. The* grounds on which the application was made will appear sufficiently hereafter. An alternative writ of mandamus was granted by the court, and to this the school board made return conceding the facts of the reading as alleged, specifying particu¬ larly the passages that had been read and objected to, denying the illegality of such reading, and maintaining their right and duty to permit the teachers to continue the practice. To this answer and return the petitioners interposed a general demurrer. This demurrer was overruled by the court. Judge Bennett delivering an elaborate and learned opinion sustaining the school board. From this decision an appeal was taken to the supreme court, which overruled the decision, sustained the demurrer, and or¬ dered a peremptory writ of mandamus to issue as originally applied for.”' In the opinion of the State superintendent, Hon. J. B. Thayer, this decision virtually “ declares the reading of the Bible in public schools to be sectarian instruction, to be an act of worship, and a practice of uniting the functions of church and state, and therefore contrary to the inhibitions of the constitution of the State upon those points.”^ As a consequence of the lively interest awakened by these various events, many inquiries have been addressed to this Office touching the principles and policies rec¬ ognized and fostered in States and cities in respect to religious instruction and ob¬ servances in public schools. In particular, many of the correspondents have sought information as to adjustments which might have been made at any time between denominational organizations and public-school authorities, with a view to giving the former the privileges of the school room for the conduct of religious exercises. In order that the Office might fully meet these requests, a letter of inquiry was addressed to leading school officials covering the main points of interest. The replies give a very clear understanding of the treatment of religious instruction in general in our schools, and of the public opinion which prompts and sustains such action. The letter and essential portions of the replies are appended to this statement.^ It seems also desirable in this connection to present as clearly as possible the status of this question in foreign countries, and more especiallj^ in England, whose policy is frequently cited as a worthy example for our own imitation. A minute investigation was made into the conduct of religious exercises by the royal commission appointed in 1886 to investigate the oi)erations of the elementary education acts. The portion of their report bearing upon this subject gives a very clear insight into the practical workings of the English policy and presents, in the form of majority and minority reports, a full discussion of the subject considered from opposite stand¬ points. Incidentally the report shows also the practical difficulties in the way of making public schools the agencies of religious instruction. It forms, therefore, an important contribution to the stock of information and opinions upon the subject. As it was very generally asserted in England that the composition of the commission favored a fuller presentation of the clerical than of the secular view of the subject, it has seemed desirable to accompany the epitome of the portion of their report con¬ sidered with extracts from addresses made at a public conference held at Exeter Hall immediately after the document was issued. These addresses supply whatever may be wanting to a complete view of the situation. ^See reports of the committee on religrion and public education presented to the synod of Xew York of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, at its meetings in Auburn, 1887, and in Poughkeepsie, 1889. 2 See a review of the decision of the supreme court of Wisconsin in the Edgerton Bible case, by W . A. McAtee, dd., of Madison, Wis. 2 See superintendent’s letter in pamphlet entitled “ Decision of the supreme court of the State of Wisconsin relating to the reading of the Bible in public schools.” ^ See pp. 431-438. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 431 The practical results of the deliberations of the commission were embodied in the education code of 1690. This code left the religious question where it was. Since that document was issued, however, the movement in favor of a uniform system oi board schools has made decided advance. This movement is intimately related to the question of religious instruction. The “ voluntary schools” of England are almost without exception denominational _ schools, in which avowedly the chief end in view is the religious training of the child. These schools are not under public control, although they receive grants from the pub- lie treasury. The success of the measures now pending would bring all elementary schools sharing in the public funds to the basis of the x)reseut board schools. In dealing with the board schools the Government maintains strict neutrality in respect to religion and adheres firmly to the principle that public control should be inseparable from the application of public funds. In adilition to the information relative to England, the report of the commissioners comprised replies to inquiries addressed to foreign countries. The portion of these returns relating tp religious instruction is included in the following pages. II.— Circular Letter with Substance of Replies. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, JVashingion, D. C., August 13. 1890. Dear Sir: The universal interest attaching to the questions at issue between secular and denominational free schools has created a demand for detailed informa¬ tion as to pi'actical efforts at compromise which may have been made in this country at any time between the parish-school and the public-school authorities. In order that this Office may be prepared to answer inquiries I desire to secure all possible information on the subject. Will you kindly aid me as far as you may be able by replying to the following questions, not excluding other items if such occur to you ? Can you recall in your State or elsewhere in this country examples of adjustments between public and parochial school authorities involving division of the public-school funds, the rental of buildings belonging to the Roman Catholic and other churches, with special conditions as to teachers or exercises therein, or arrangements for reli¬ gious instruction ? If so, the place and date of such, their duration and efiects. Would such adjustments be illegal in your State? What reports of their operations have been made ? Thanking you for any attention you can give to this request, I am, very respectfully, yours. Wm. T. Harris, Commissioner. [From Hon. Solomon Palmer, State Superintendent of Education, Alabama, August 13, 1890,] No examples within my knowledge. Our State constitution prohibits any public- school funds from being given to any sectarian or denomipational school. [From Hon. E. O. Chapman, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, New Jersey, August 18, 1890.] Replying to the inquiries in your circular letter just received, I have to say that I recall no effort in this State to secure a portion of the public-school funds for the use of parochial schools, except occasional arguments by church papers and leaders. I may add, that in my opinion any such effort would certainly fail to obtain its •Object as it would be opposed by all the friends of our public-school system. [From Hon. J. TT. Dickinson, Secretary State Board of Education, Massachusetts, August 18, 1890.] No adjustment between parochial and public school authorities has ever been made in Massachusetts, not would such adjustment be legal. We hope to keep our public schools free from sectarian or political influences, con¬ fining their attention to those school exercises which have a tendency to make good cilizens in the best sense of that term. I believe such adjustments as those to which you refer have been made in Pough¬ keepsie, N. Y,, at Rochester, and some other places in that State ; I do not know with what success. I do not know but that the acts of the regents in New York have made adjustments throughout the State. If I can learn anything more on the subject I will communicate the information. 432 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. [From Kon. A. S. Draper, State Superintendent Pitblic Instruction, New YorTc, August 18, 1890.] I have DO official knowledge of any movement in this direction in any part of this State, except that some three years since the board of education at Suspension Bridge, in this State, entered into an agreement by the terms of which it assumed charge of a xjarish school, previously maintained by a Catholic church, and agreed to maintain said school and to keep continually employed therein three persons of the class or order commonly called sisters of charity, of said denomination. The matter reached the department upon apxieal, and it was held that such agreement was illegal and void. The board of education referred to then in fact assumed charge of the parish school, and in fact did employ such persons, dismissing some of them and employing others of the same class in the mean time. Residents of the district objected to this jn’oceeding and again brought the matter before the department upon an appeal from the refusal of the board of education to discontinue the arrangement. It was then held that while it was the duty of the board of education to provide ample school accommodations for all children in the district, and while it was not improper for the board to rent a building belonging to a Catholic church at Suspensio*n Bridge, even at a nominal rental, for the purpose of maintaining a public school in such building, yet when it did do these things it must maintain a school which was in all regards a public school, and w’hich conformed in all its circumstances and proceed¬ ings to the common-vschool system of the State. It was also held that the board of education in that instance had discriminated in favor of a particular class of persons within a specilied religious denomination, and that such discrimination was un¬ lawful. It was also held that the wearing of a distinguishing dress or garb, such as is commonly worn by the class of persons referred to, amounted to a sectarian influ¬ ence, as did also the custom which had there grown up of addressing these persons as Sister Mary, Sister Martha, etc. The board of education was directed to require such teachers to discontinue such distinguishing garb and to cause the pupils and others in the school to address them by their family names with the prefix of Mrs. or Miss, as the case might be. The opinion of the superintendent upon the appeal last mentioned will be found in the annual report of this department for 1888, at page 854, etc. I may remark that this determination led the church which had previously maiu- tained the parish school referred to, to resume charge of it, and its relations to the board of education at once ceased. Further than this I have no official knowledge of any movement in the direction suggested by your inquiry. [From Hon. J. Desha Pickett, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Kentucky, Avgust 18, 1890.] The common-school law of Kentucky does not warrant in any manner or in any measure the division of school funds between a common school of the State and a denominational school of any faith or order — Jewish, Protestant, or Roman Catholic. Sundry cases have occurred in communities exclusively Roman Catholic, but even then such schools have been required to be taught as cornmon schools, in which, as such, during school hours no sectarian or denominational doctrines can be taught. The great principle of this Commonwealth is that her common schools must be common in every regard ; no union or compromise in any degree between the State and any church in any form or in any feature of it. [From Hon. George B. Lane, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Nebraska, August 19, 1890.] Under the constitution and laws of Nebraska no compromise or adjustment could be made. In fact we have never had any of the troubles reported in other places. [From Hon. N. A. Luce, Slate Superintendent Public Instruction, Maine, August 19, 1890.] There are only four or five parochial schools in Maine at this time, and the move¬ ment towards their establishment has little force. Any arrangement for divisions of school moneys between parochial and public schools or for payment of tuition in parochial schools would be illegal under our laws. Public-school moneys can be expended only in schools wholly controlled by public authorities. [From Hon. D. L. Kichle, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Minnesota, August 19, 1890.] There has never been a division of school funds in this State between the public and parochial schools. Such a division would be illegal. The State constitution strictly prohibits it. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 433 {From Hon. T. B. Stochwell, Commissioner Public Schools, Phode Island, August 19, 1890.] No sncli instances as those specified, or any other so far as I know, have ever occurred in this State. Accordingly, the question has never been brought before our courts for a decision in that form. It has been decided that public-school property can not be used for any religious purposes if a single taxpayer objects thereto. I have heard of instances of cooperation in Connecticut and New York, but do not recall others. [From Hon. John Gannon, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Montana, August 21, 1890.] No instance in which buildings were rented with special conditions as to teachers, or exercises therein, or aiTangements for religious instruction. Such an agreement would be illegal in Montana. [From Hon, J. B. Preston, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Mississippi, August 22, 1890.] The only instance of adjustment that I am aware of in this State happened while I was superintendent of the Water Valley public schools. The Catholic children attended the public schools, and the priest was allowed to give them one hour’s in¬ struction in religion twice a week in a class room after school. The priest and I both left at the end of the year and the place was abandoned. [From Hon. R. B. Bryan, Stale Superintendent Public Instruction, Washington, August 23, 1890.] I do not recall any instance of a compromise between parochial and public schools, outside of New Mexico, where it was reported to mo when there some years ago that the practice of appropriating the common-school funds to the support of Catholic schools was very common, in fact, almost universal. Any arrangement of that kind would be illegal and unconstitutional, and the attempt would raise one universal howl of condemnation. [From Hon. J. L. M. Gurry, Agent Peabody Education Fund, Virginia, August 24, 1890.] In Virginia there is no example of adjustment between public and parochial schools, involving a division of school funds. Such an adjustment would not be in accordance with our public-school system. In my judgment it would be highly detri¬ mental and uujust and involve pro ianto a hateful connection between a church or sect and the State. However plausible such a division of school funds may be made to appear, it involves the overthrow of our free schools. [From Hon. John Hancock, State Commissioner of Common Schools, Columbxis, Ohio, August 23, 1890.] I have no knowledge of any attempt at such an adjustment, and if there had been an attempt of the kind, I think I should have been informed of it. Any such ad¬ justment would be illegal in our State. [From Hon. S. M. Finger, State superintendent public instruction, Nm'th CarolinaJl I beg to inform you that in this State there have not at any time been any adjust¬ ments between the public and parochial school authorities involving a division of the public school funds. I do not anticipate any trouble on this subject in this State. [From Hon. Henry Sabin, State superintcndentpublie instruction, Iowa, August 25, 1890. J There are no schools in Iowa in which any adjustments between secular and denomi¬ national free schools have been made, as far as known at this office. No arrangements would be legal in this State which did not give the boards of directors full and complete control of the school and school buildings. In other words, the school would have to be, in every sense, a public school, in order to be entitled to a proportionate share of public money. The following extracts from the Iowa school law, section 1764 (c) (d) were inclosed ; “ (c) The diversion of the school fund in any form or to any extent for the support of sectarian or private schools is inadmissible and clearly in violation of our laws. “(d) Public money shall not be appropriated, given, or loaned by the corporate authorities, supervisors, or trustees of any county, township, city or town, or muni¬ cipal organization of this State, to, or in favor of, any institution, school, association, or object, which is under ecclesiastical or sectarian management or control.” (Sec¬ tion 552, Code.) ED 89 - -28 434 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. [From Hon. J.W. Winans, State superintendent public instruction, Kansas, August 25, 1890.] I cau not now recall in this State examples of adjustments between public and parochial school authorities involving division of the public school fund and rental of buildiugs belonging to Roman Catholic and other churches. As I understand the law of this State, there is no provision for such an adjustment. [From Dr. A. D. Atayo, August 26, 1890.] As far as I am informed, the State of Georgia alone has a provision in its school laws by which all classes of private or parochial schools may for the time be regarded as free common schools by the authorities passing over to them the public school funds, on condition that while they last the school shall be free. Under this arrangement, I found Roman Catholic parochial schools in Savannah included in the public sys¬ tem and was informed that the same was true in Augusta. In the open country this practice, I am told, is so common that in some districts all the schools are of this sort. The leading educators of the State regard this as one cause of the low educational condition of Georgia. The temptation to subsidize a private or denominational school already on the ground for a few months, leaving such children as desire to remain members of it on the expiration of the terra, is held to be a leading cause of the neglect and the nnwilliuguess of the legislature to appro¬ priate money or impose taxes. * * * I find a similar practice prevailing to some extent in all Southern States, in country districts and the smaller villages. The practice is illegal, and, especially in Texas, has been discouraged by the State authorities, I do not think it is looked upon any¬ where as a permanent condition, but as the best that can be done in communities in the transition period. * * ^ [From Hon. J. 77. Patterson, State superintendent public instruction, New Hampshire, August 27, 1890.] I do not recall any case of attempted adjustments between public and parochial school authorities involving a division of the public-school funds. In this State a division of school funds raised by taxation for the support of parochial schools would be impossible, as there is a constitutional provision which would prevent it. As this subject was mooted in some of the States, the constitutional convention of New Hampshire, in 1876, adopted an amendment, which was accepted by the people, as follows: ' ‘ No money raised by taxation shall ever be granted or applied for the use of the schools or institutions of any religious sect or denomination.” So you see such a thing in this State would be impossible. It is a question whether or not article vi of the bill of rights in the constitution of New Hampshire as originally drawn would have allowed such a division if the above amendment had never been made. I have never known the school authorities of any town or city of this State to rent buildings belonging to the Roman Catholic or other churches. I did hear, a few years since, that the school authorities in one of our cities did rent to the Catholics, for school purposes, a school building not then in use, as the establishment of a parochial school had vacated it. Roman Catholic young ladies are educated in our normal school and employed in our public schools as teachers without any question as to their religious predilec¬ tions, and it has given no offense whatever. Such teachers, in many.iustances, have, to my knowledge, been quite popular. [From Hon. John E. Massey, State superintendent public instruction, Virginia, August 30, 1890.] I do not recall ill this State any examples of adjustments between public and pa¬ rochial school authorities involving the questions you submit. Any such adjustments would lie illegal in this State. So far as I am informed, the lines are quite distinctly drawn by authorities of local parochial schools, but not in such a manner as to bring about any conflict at this time. [From Hon E. B. McElroy, State superintendent public instruction, Oregon, August 2^, 1890.] I am pleased to report to you that wo have had no difficulty whatever in this re¬ spect in Oregon, so far. In many of our towns and cities Catholic children attend the public schools. In brief, there has been no report of difficulty in this line sent to me, so far, from any part of our State. Again, there have been no Catholic schools or private parochial schools that liave had under their management public funds, so far as reported to me. So far as I know they are all separate and distinct schools, independent private schools. The RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 435 Catholics have several academies and one college in this State. The public-school laws of this State would not, in my opinion, permit the union of church and State in this way ; that is to say, neither the public-school law nor public opinion would permit the Catholic church to use public moneys in any way in the advancement and support of their immediate parochial schools. No complaints under this head have come to me from any quarter of the State. [From Hon. N. E. Slaughter, State superintendent pioblic instruction, Wyoming, September b, 1890.] I have never known any such arrangements to be made or attempted. [From Hon. A. J. Bussell, State superintendent public instruction, Florida, September 3, 1890. J Replying to your circular letter touching denominational schools and the public- school system, we have fortunately had but little experience of any kind. In St. Augustine, where the native population is largely Roman Catholic, and there is present the ubiquitous consent, the question arose; upon consideration of the case, and providing that a largo number of youth most needing enlightenment would not at¬ tend the public schools, it was suggested to the local school authorities that the sisters be employed to teach public school No, 1, employed just as other teachers were em¬ ployed, subject to the same examination, the same contact, the same regulations, and to bo required to use the same books adopted by the public-school board for use in the public schools ; this was acceded to, and everything has been smooth since. * ^ * The constitution of the State forbids the appropriation of any part of the perma¬ nent or available school fund to be used for the support of any sectarian school. [From Hon. John I. Stewart, deputy State superintendent public instruction, Pennsylvania, August 18, 1890.1 There is no adjustment whatever between the public-school authorities of Pennsyl¬ vania and the parochial schools, and can not be under the provisions of the State constitution and laws governing the ox)eration of the public-school system. Letter contained the following iuclosures : Constitution of 1873, Article X, Education: ‘'Section 2. No money raised for the support of the public schools of the Common¬ wealth shall be axipropriated to or used for the support of any sectarian school.’^ Department of Public Instruction, Harrishurg, October 1, 1388. Rev. I. N. Hays, D. D., I. H. Baldwin, Esq. : Dear Sirs ; As a committee representing quite a large body of the citizens of Pitts¬ burgh, you have asked this department to give its official construction of the law governing school directors in the purchase, holding, and disposal of school property. The request is grounded upon what you regard a violation of law by a board of directors within the Pittsburgh school district, who, as alleged, have rented or leased a public school building for the use of a priv^ate and parochial school. This department can see no reason why it should not make official answer ; and the question raised is of such fundamental importance that we feel constrained to send our construction of the law to the directors referred to as well as to yourselves. The constitution of the Commonwealth (Article X, sections 1-2) declares that “the general assembly shall provide for the maintenance and support of a thorough and efficient system of public schools, wherein all the children of the Commonwealth, above the age of six years, may be educated, and shall appropriate at least one million dol¬ lars each year for that purpose,” and that “ no money rai.sed for the support of the public schools of the Commonwealth shall be appropriated to or used for the support of any sectarian school.” Under these w^ise and imiierative declarations of the con¬ stitution our public school system is carried forward and must be maintained. In establishing the public school system, the maintenance and support of which theiiresent constitution thus makes imperative, the general assembly by act approved May 8, A. D, 1854, section 18, jirovides “ that the several school districts within this Commonwealth sliall have capacity as bodies corjiorate * * to purchase and hold such real and personal property as may be necessary for the establishment and support of the schools, and the same to sell, alien, and dispose of when it shall no longer be necessary for the purposes aforesaid.” It is plain from this section, without further citation, that school houses and grounds are held by boards of directors as corporate bodies in trust for the use of the 436 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. pullic schools ; that is, for schools established and maintained by the public fund, under the authority of the constitution and laws, not for private or parochial schools, but for statutory schools. Beyond the limits of such trust directors have no right to go. All diversion of school property to other uses not purely incidental is clearly unauthorized and illegal. It certainly is a plain principle of law that corporate property must be used solely for corporate purposes. Otherwise, all the school property of the Commonwealth might by a simple vote of directors be* devoted to any i)urpose they saw fit. In the syllabus of a decision rendered by Hon. George W. Mcllvaine, chief justice of the supreme court of Ohio (35 Ohio, f. 143), it is held, first, that “boards of edu¬ cation are invested with the title to the property of their respective districts in trust for the use of public schools, and the appropriation of such property to any other use is unauthorized,” and, second, “that a lease of a public schoolhouse for the pur¬ pose of having a private or select school taught therein for a term of weeks is in violation of the trust, and such use of the schoolhouse may be restrained at the suit of a resident taxpayer of the district.” In rendering the decision, this able judge says: “The questions in this case relate solely to the power of a board of education to appropriate the public schoolhouse of 'its district to private uses, or, indeed, to any use other than public schools.” After citing the Ohio enactment for the reorganization and maintenance of common schools, which defines the powers and capacities of school directors in laoguage almost the exact parallel of our enactment above quoted, he says : “ By virtue of these sections, all public schoolhouses are vested in the boards of education in trust for the use of the public or common schools, and the appropriation of them to any other use is unauthorized and illegal.” In the case submitted to us it is stated that the board of directors have rented or leased a public school building for the use of a parochial school, where the peculiar dogmas and usages of a particular church are promulgated and taught, or where only a certain distinct class of children are admitted. lu this case, granting the state¬ ment of facts, there is not only an unauthorized violation of trust, but a seeming indifference to what is explicitly forbidden by the constitution of the Commonwealth itself. A school is not sectarian because taught by a minister, or priest, or any church official. But a school controlled or managed in the interest of any particular church organi¬ zation, upholding its peculiar confession and ecclesiastical practices, and used for any class of pupils, exclusive of others, is certainly sectarian. It does not, in any sense, belong to our system of public schools. Ou the contrary, no money raised for the support of the public schools can be used for its support, without a direct viola¬ tion of the constitution. Were school directors permitted to lease our public school property thus, at their own will, for the use of parochial schools, the ecclesiastical convictions of the directors could turn our public schools into as many different kinds of church schools as there are different denominations in the Commonwealth. The point is too plain to require any further explanation. Some may be willing to grant that directors can allow school buildings to be used, out of school hours, for such incidental purpose as singing schools, debating societies, etc., without justifying an injunction of restraint, although there has been a de¬ cision in Connecticut, by a divided court, even against this (see 27 Connecticut, f. 499), yet here, the school building, as alleged, is used, not incidentally, but exclusively for a purpose not contemplated in the law and forbidden, as regards statutory schools, by the constitution itself. The very fact that the school building is rented, or leased, or granted for the temporary use of a school is sufficient evidence that its essential, corporate use is perverted; for public schools do neither lease, nor rent, nor ask for the temporary use of that very property which, by public tax, has been purchased and is to be held in trust for their iiermanent use alone. E. E. Htgbee, Superintendent of Fublic Instruction. [From Hon. J. H. Rice, State superintendent of education, South Carolina, October 4, 1890.] I do not know of any adjustments between public and parochial school authorities involving a division of the public school funds. The State constitution prohibits the appropriation of any funds raised by taxation to purposes of sectarian education. [From Hon. Frank M. Smith, State superintendent public instruction, Tennessee, October li, 1890.] In this State no compromise has ever been made. The Roman Catholics have their schools, but they do not receive any of the benefits of the public school fund of the State because they will not send their children to the public schools, and that is the only wa^ to compromise the matter, RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 437 [From Hon. J. S. Boreman, State commissioner of schools, Utah, Octooer 30, 1890.] Throughout this Territory it has been, I am informed, a common practice until within a very recent period for the public schools to be conducted very much as Mormon church schools. This practice has jmssed, or is rapidly passing away. I do not think that it is now practiced, although a case or two has been reported to me, and I am now investigating the same. This whole proceeding of conducting the public schools as church schools was, of course, in violation of law and contrary to the genius of our Government. No other church has been connected with the public schools in this Territory. [From Hon. W. J. Clapp, State superintendent public instruction, Dakota, November 10, 1890.] Religious teaching can not be well given in our public schools. The various and antagonistic ideas of parents and guardians, and consequently the children, upon matter and form of religion would lead to harm, it seems to me, if any form of religion is attempted to be taught in the free public schools. Our State is new and cities small. So far as I can learn, in but one city has any attempt been made to support denominational schools with public funds. In the city of Wahpeton one school board by resolution, for about twenty months paid the Roman Catholic parochial school in the way of tuition at the rate of $250 per annum. This amount was paid against the protest of many of the citizens. The scheme proved unpopular, and now all classes of citizens are much better pleased with the present system, which carefully excludes everything in the way of religious instruction, and teaches only, in addition to the usual branches, good morals, a love and respect for one another and for the common country. The following account of what has become widely known as the Poughkeepsie plan is from a statement made by George E. Cramer, President of the Board of Education, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. About seventeen years ago, the Board of Education of Poughkeepsie assumed control of two large parochial schools which for several years had been maintained at its own expense by the St. Peter’s Catholic Church of this city, in buildings owned and erected by that church for school purposes. “The conditions upon which the board accepted these schools were substantially and in brief as follows, viz : “ The board to lease from the church the school buildings at the nominal rent of $1 per annum, keep them in repair, pay insurance, cost of heating, teachers’ salaries and other expenses of maintaining the schools, and conduct them in the same manner as the other schools of the city under its supervision ; the church reserving the privilege of using the building for its own purposes outside of school hours, but no religious instruction to be given during said school hours. “The course of studies, text-books, appointment of teachers, and general conduct and control of the schools to be entirely under the jurisdiction of the board, and the members of the board and its officers and agents to be allowed free access to the build¬ ings during school hours. This arrangement is still in operation.” Hon. B. M. Zettler, superintendent of public schools, Macon, Ga., says : “The second year of our school system the Roman Catholics petitioned our board to elect two teachers. Sisters of Mercy or members of the Roman Catholic Church, as pub¬ lic school teachers, and allow them to occupy a building furnished by members of that Church, and also to permit children of that congregation from all parts of the dtp, with¬ out regard to school-district lines, to attend the school thus provided for. The appli¬ cation was granted, and the same arrangement has continued to this date. The same books are used in this school as in the others, and the school has the same daily ses¬ sions as the others.” The following additional case-s are reported from Georgia : “ The school board of Augusta,” as appears from the report of the city superintend¬ ent, “ simply appoints Catholic teachers to certain school buildiugs for which the city pays no rent. fSome of the teachers belong to the order of Sisters of Mercy, and in consideration of their veiled seclusion they were, at the special request of the com¬ missioner, excused from attendance on the normal class by the trustees of the wards in which tbeir schools are situated. This the trustees had a perfect right to do under the rules of the board. Others of these teachers belong to the order known as Chris¬ tian Brothers. They do attend the normal class.” The plan of union between Roman Catholics and the city schools in Savannah is as follows : “ 1. The Catholic schools shall be received under control of the Board of Education. “2. Teachers in the Catholic schools shall be yi all cases members of the Catholic Church, but to be subject to examination and appointment by the Board of Education. “ 3. The text-books used in these schools shall be the sanie as are used in the other public schools, except books on history, geography, and reading books. 438 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. “4. These schools shall he opened with reading the Scriptures and the Lord’s Prayer. Such versions of Scripture may be used as the teacher may prefer. •'‘S. The school building shall be under the control of the Board of Education. “6. The trustees of the Catholic school buildings shall have x^ower to withdraw them from the Board of Education at the end of any school year whenever they are dissatisfied with the arrangement, provided that they shall give 3 months’ notice of such withdrawal. “7. In case of such withdrawal the Board of Education may remove all apparatus, books, movable fixtures, and furniture which they may have furnished for these schools. “8. The Board of Education shall have full control of the discipline, instruction and general management of these schogls the same as of the other schools under their care, including also the length of sessions, the arrangement of school, courses of study, work and duties, and all the interests of the schools. “9. The teachers of these schools will be expected to attend the meetings of the normal class the same as teachers of other public schools. They will give respectful attention to the suggestions and instructions of the superintendent, and are exx)ected to exert themselves to carry out his views in the management and instruction of their schools. “10. The holidays shall bo such as are usually given in Catholic schools.” The superintendent of public instruction, Hon. W. H. Baker, says : ^‘This arrangement was made just after the war, when it was absolutely necessary to have unity of action to preserve our public school system. It has worked very harmoniously and to the satisfaction of all parties.” III.— Religious and Moral Training in Public Elementary Schools, England AND Wales. A royal commission was api)ointed by Queen Victoria in 1886 to inquire into the working of the English elementary education acts. This measure was necessitated by complications growing out of peculiar features impressed upon the system of edu¬ cation at the outset. Some account of the origin of the system is therefore necessary to an understanding of the work of the commission. This is especially true of that part of its work relating to religious and moral instruction. Prior to 1870 the education of the English masses was left to private enterprise or religious zeal.^ Two societies, founded early in the century, had endeavored, each in its own way, to give organization and character to the work. The British and Foreign School Society'^ was due to the labors of Joseph Lancaster, although it was formed directly by the efforts of Joseph Fox and William Allen. The purpose of this society was to make provision for the “ nonsectarian elementary instruction of the children of the poor.” The society grew rapidly, and in 1812 had become essentially a public movement. The National Society ^ for promoting the education of the poor in the principles of the established church owed its origin to the efforts of Hr. Bell. It w^as founded in 1811 and incorporated in 1817. The connection of this society with the established church gave it from the outset the advantage of a powerful and far-reaching organi¬ zation, and its growth was exceedingly rapid and vigorous. The scale on which these societies conducted their work and their laudable rivalry had the effect of arousing public interest, and it soon became evident that private funds alone would not suf¬ fice to overcome ignorance in the realm. In 1833 a public grant of $100,000 was voted in aid of the work of elementary education. The fund was to be adminis¬ tered by the treasury, and was to be strictly limited to the building of schoolhouses. Applications were to l3e indorsed by the National Society or by the British and For¬ eign School Society, but in no case was the grant to exceed half the cost of the buildings. In 1839 the grant was raised to £30,000 ($150,000), and its administra¬ tion intrusted to a committee of the privy council— i. e., the committee of council on education [appointed April 10, 1839]. In the same year the principle of State supervision as an inseparable accompani¬ ment of State aid was established. In 1846 the application of the grant was ex¬ tended, appropriations being allowed under certain conditions for teachers’ salaries and for the services and training of pupil teachers who were employed in the schools of the two great societies; the next year the grant was raised to $500,000. In 1853 grants were allowed in respect of schools in small rural districts and unincor¬ porated towns which could show a certain fixed number in attendance, and in 1856 a similar measure was extended to urban schools ; in 1860, under the direction of Mr. Robert Lowe, the many minutes which had been issued were combined into a code * See report of Duke of Newcastle’s Commission (1858), vol. 1, part I, chap. I ; Final Report of Royal Commission (1886), part 1, chap. I. 2 For detailed information respecting these societies see “ The Elementary School Contest in Eng¬ land," by Fi ancis Adams, chap. II. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 439 generally 1511 own as the “ original code’^ ; in 1862 a revised code^ was issued hy which the system of aid was essentially modified, the most radical change being the intro¬ duction of the policy of payment npon results. These successive measures were an index (S the growing and deepening agita¬ tion of the public mind with respect to the education of the masses. The operations of the national society, stimulated and extended by the aid received from the state, roused to action all the forces opposed to the diffusion of sectarian doctrines at pub¬ lic expense. At the same time the failure of voluntary agencies, when operating un¬ der the most favorable conditions, to provide anything like the accommodation de¬ manded, made it evident that no instrumentality short of the Government itself was adequate for a work that concerned every member of the body politic. In 1869 the “National Education League’’ was founded in Birmingham, with the avowed object of securing the education of every child in England and Wales. The measures proposed by the league for the accomplishment of this i)urpose were as follows: (1) Local authorities to be compelled bylaw to see that sufficient school accom¬ modation is provided for every child in their district; (2) the cost of founding and maintaining such schools as might be required to be provided out of the local rates supplemented by government grants; (3) all schools aided by local rales to be under the management of the local authorities and subject to Government inspection; (4) all schools aided by local rates to be unsectarian ; (5) to all schools aided by local rates admission free ; (6) school accommodation provided, the- State or local authorities to have power to compel the attendance of children of suitable age not otherwise receiving education. ^ In other words, the league proposed a system of non-sectarian, gratuitous, compul¬ sory education. The majority of English statesmen were not prepared to support so radical a scheme, but regarded with more favor the proposition formally put forth by the “ National Education Union” to secure the primary educatioii of every child by judiciously supplementing the existing denominational system. These two opposite proposals came iuto collision in the celebrated debate of 1870 over the bill introduced by Mr, W. E. Forster “ to provide for public elementary education in England and Wales.” This debate was one of the most spirited, determined, and remarkable con¬ tests of opinion and policies that is to be found in the history of educational legisla¬ tion, and but for the honest intention of the opposing parties to end the shameful neglect of the young which had become so dark a blot upon the national honor, no compromise could have been effected. In view, however, of the fact that upwards of 1,500,000^ children of the working classes between the ages of 6 and 12 years were destitute of all provision for instruc¬ tion or were at the hazard of schools worse than none, differences of opinion were waived or modified, and the amended bill became an act through the united efforts of the advocates of opposite policies. The intent of the act was to provide for the elementaty education of all the chil¬ dren of the country. For the accomplishment of this purpose the country was divided into school-board districts, within which the school boards were to be elected. The boards were authorized to claim or levy rates for the maintenance of public elementary schools, and the Government assumed the right to order the election of boards wherever the rate-payers ignored or evaded the law. At the same time schools established by private agencies (i. e., voluntary schools) were admitted to share in the Government grant upon the same terms as board schools, ]irovided that their managers fulfilled certain specified conditions. The policy of the Govern¬ ment in respect to voluntary schools remained substantially the same as before the passage of the act. The new departure was the assumption on the part of the Gov¬ ernment of the right and the obligation to see to it that sufficient school accom¬ modation was provided for the whole pbpulation, and the policy of making, the rates contributory to the board schools, i. e.,the schools established by public initiative. Above 12,000 voluntary schools or departments, with accommodations for nearly 2,000,000 children, were receiving Government aid at the time of the passage of the act.''^ These were largely denominational schools and, almost without exception, schools in which religious instruction formed an important part of the training ; hence it will readily be seen that, while the conflicting opinions had been wmived in order that an education act might be passed, the religious question became a vital issue in the framing of the act. In the settlement of the question the Government carefully avoided committing itself, directly at least, to the promotion of sectarian instruction, and with equal ’ See report of the committee of council on education, 1861-62, pp. XV — XLIV. 2 See The Pfiernentary School Contest in England, by Francis Adams, chapter V, p. 197. ® See report of debate, speech of W. E, Forster on moving the bill. ^Seo education act (England andWales), 1870; also statement of English educational system, report of commissioner, p. 79. * See report of committee of council of education, 1869-70, p. XI. 440 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. care endeavored to guard against interference with the religious scruples or convic¬ tions of the people. The former purpose is seen in the restriction of the Government examination to secular subjects and general discipline and the apportionment of the grant on the results of this examination, and the latter purpose in the section of the act ^ dealing directly with the matter of religious instruction, which is as follows : “ Every elementary school which is conducted in accordance with the following regulations shall he a public elementary school within the meaning of this act ; and every public elementary school shall be conducted in accordance with the follovdng regulations (a copy of which regulations shall be conspicuously put up in every such school), namely : “ (1) It shall not be required, as a condition of any child being admitted into or continuing in the school, that he shall attend or abstain from attending any Sunday school or any place of religious worship, or that he shall attend any religious observ¬ ance or any instruction in religious subjects in the school or elsewhere, from which observance or instruction he may be withdrawn by his parent, or that he shall, if withdrawn by his parent, attend the school on any day exclusively set apart for religious observance by the religious body to which his parent belongs. “(2) The time or times during which any religious observance is practised or instruction in religious subjects is given at any meeting of the school shall be either at the beginning or at the end, or at the beginning and the end of-such meeting, and shall be inserted in a time-table to be approved by the education department, and to be kept permanently and conspicuously affixed in every schoolroom ; and any scholar may be withdrawn by his parent from such observance or instruction without for¬ feiting any of the other benefits of the school. (3) The school shall be open at all times to the inspection of any of Her Majesty^s inspectors, so, however, that it shall be no part of the duties of such inspector to inquire into any instruction in religious subjects given at such school, or to examine any scholar therein in religious knowledge, or in any religious subject or book. “ (4) The school shall be conducted in accordance with the conditions required to be fulfilled by an elementary school in order to obtain an annual Parliamentary grant.” This section, commonly known as the “ conscience clause,” is equally binding upon board and voluntary schools. It will be noticed that it does not exclude secta¬ rian teaching, but simply provides for the withdrawal of children from such instruc¬ tion if the parents so desire. Under the act of 1876 it was made the duty of local authorities “to report to the education department any infraction of this conscience clause in any elementary school within their district which may come to their knowledge, and also to forward to the education department any complaint which they may receive of the infrac¬ tion of those provisions.” Board schools were bound also by the fourteenth section of the act, which prohibits in them “ the teaching of any religious catechism or religious formulary which is distinctive of any particular denomination.” In view of these explicit and judicious provisions it is a significant fact that the dis¬ turbances, which made the commission of 1886 an imperative necessity, grew largely out of the religious difficulty, or perhaps we should say out of the conflicting inter- . ests of board and denominational schools, or of their respective advocates. The importance which the commissioners attach to the matter of religious and moral instruction is indicated in the following declaration of their views : ^ Importance of the subject. — “Having been commissioned by your majesty,” they say, “to inquire into the working of the elementary education acts, we should fail in our duty did we not review the religious and moral effect of the present system, and of the provisions made by law for enabling and controlling religious as well as secular instruction. While the whole commission is animated by one and the same desire to secure for the children in the public elementary schools the best and most thorough instruction in secular subjects suitable to their years and in harmony with the re¬ quirements of their future life, it is also unanimously of opinion that their religious and moral training is a matter of still higher importance alike to the children, the parents, and the nation, though the views of its members differ as to the method whereby this object of supreme moment should be attained.” These differences of opinion as to means entertained by men who were agreed in respect to the supreme importance of religious instruction were radical, as will be shown by the majority and minority reports. Method of the investigation. — The investigations of the commission were pursued by the oral examination of witnesses and by printed inquiries. Among the latter were (1) a circular addressed to the managers of all voluntary schools and to all school boards in ten counties, ^ selected as typical; (2) a circular addressed to head teachers * Section 7, act 1870. 2 Final report, p. 112. 3 Final Report, p. 113. These circulars covered all the features of the system. The inquiries relating to religious instruction can be inferred from the summary of replies. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 441 in twelve districts.^ In the replies to the first-named inquiry 3,759 voluntary schools were represented. The information which they alforded with respect to the status of religious instruction is thus summarized by the commissioners. SUMMARY OF RETURNS MADE TO THE COMMISSION. In the return from managers of voluntary schools and from school boards in 10 counties, the managers of the voluntary schools state respecting these voluntary schools that : 1. In 102 schools, or less than 3 per cent, of the number answering, no religious in¬ struction is given. 2. In 1,261 schools (33 per cent, of all the answers) religious teaching is encroached upon (i. e., suspended or abridged) before the Government inspection, in most cases slightly. 3. In 3,618 schools the religious teaching is given by the teachers, and in 2,079 of these (55 per cent, of all the answers) it is also given by other persons (clergy or ladies). 4. In 286 schools (8 per cent.) the registers of attendance are marked before religious teaching and observances. In 2,295 schools the registers of attendance are marked after religious teaching and observances. In 443 schools the registers of attendance are marked both before and after. The returns from 381 school boards in the same counties show that : 1. Thirty-three boards give no religious teaching in their schools. 2. In the schools of 103 boards (or 30 per cent, of boards which make returns) re¬ ligious teaching is encroached upon before the Government inspection, in most cases slightly. 3. In the schools of 358 boards the teachers give the religious teaching, and in the schools of 43 of the above boards some other persons also give it. 4. In the schools of 11 boards the registers are marked before the religious teach¬ ing and observances. In the schools of 318 boards after. In the schools of 37 boards both before and after. In the returns from the head teachers of all schools, both voluntary and board, in 12 counties or populous urban districts it is stated that : 1. In 320 departments (i. e., schools or sections each having its own head teacher) or 9 per cent, of all that sent in replies, no religious teaching is given. 2. In 1,013, or 32 per cent., religious teaching is abridged to a slight extent (except in York West Riding, where it is reported that “ one-half the time is encroached upon in many cases”) before the Government inspection. 3. In 3,220 departments the teachers give the religious teaching, and in 1,602 of these other persons (chiefly clergy or ladies) also give it. 4. In 281 departments the registers are marked before the religious teaching or observances ; in 2,344 after, and in 741 both before and after. These summaries give a pretty clear insight into the relation between religious in¬ struction and the schools. They indicate that it is a general feature, and is in many cases the means by which the influence of the clergy is brought to bear directly upon the minds of the young. With respect to the working of the conscience clause,^ the commissioners say : “ Our returns may be held to show its operation throughout the whole country, as the counties and districts to which our questions were sent are sufficiently numerous and typical to enable us to argue fairly from them as to the country at large. The managers of voluntary schools in the undermentioned counties report as follows : Schools in which some children are habitually absent from reliistious teaching. Percent¬ age of total number of voluntary schools. Number of children withdrawn from ex¬ amination in religious teaching. Berts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2. 64 18 314 Devon . . . . . . . . . . 31 7. 83 Dorset . . ..... _ ................. . . n 4. 36 106 Durham _ _ _ _ _ _ 24 6. 87 1,59 (Tlouoester . . . . . . . 13 3. 02 33 Kent . . . . . . 33 7. 06 152 Lancaster . . . . . . . . 61 3,90 682 Leicester . 9 3. 68 72 Lincolnshire _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 11 2. 20 76 Stafford shire . . . . . 6 1. 13 205 ” Final Report, pp. 114, 120. * For text of conscience clause, see p. 440. 442 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. “And tlie teachers of all schools to which our circulars were addressed report as follows: Departments in which I some children are habitu¬ ally absent from religious teaching. Number of children with¬ drawn from examination in religious teaching. York, West Riding . 55 306 24 Chelsea . . . 16 Greenwich . 20 19 5 Southwark . 12 Bedfordshire . 5 15 Glamorgan . 2 11 Sussex . 18 68 Wiltshire . 11 83 Merioneth . . . . . 6 3 Birkenhead . 4 1 West Ham . . . 8 38 Warwickshire . 34 108 “These figures apply, first, to the numher of schools in which children are daily withdrawn hy their parents from religious teaching, and, secondly; to the same or other schools in which, there being an annual examination into the results of reli¬ gious teaching, the children are withdrawn from such an examination by their par¬ ents; and they clearly prove that the conscience clause is practically operative all over the country in the most ditferent classes and districts of the population.’^ It may be added that it is also quite evident that the instances in which parents avail themselves of the privilege of withdrawing children are not numerous. This fact however, as will subsequently apimar, is not necessarily a proof of satisfaction with the existing arrangement. DETAILED VIEW OF RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN BOARD SCHOOLS. The school boards of England, established originally as a machinery for overcoming the deficiency in school accommodation, have done vastly more than this. In the communities where they have been elected they have developed the exercise of private judgment and the power of combined action among men formerly inapt for general affairs; consequently the status of these boards in respect to religions train¬ ing gives a much better insight into the real attitude of mind which Englishmen hold in this res^iect than the corresponding action of voluntary schools. This important difference has been clearly recognized by the Government, and from time to time, parliamentary inquiries have been instituted for the purpose of ascer¬ taining the exact provisions made by school boards for religious instruction. The last of these was a return of 1888, which was published as an appendix to the final report of the commission. This material is a complete index to the action of the boards in the matter under consideration ; -it affords illustrations of almost every con¬ ceivable method of treating religious instruction in schools maintained for purposes of secular training, and suggests, by the mere completeness of presentation, the diffi¬ culties that beset the endeavor to employ one agency for the twofold work. Inci¬ dentally also it reveals the conception of religious training entertained by the pro¬ nounced advocates of clerical schools. The material is therefore of interest wherever the subject of religious vs. secular instruction is discussed, for which reason it is here presented somewhat in detail.^ » The questions comprised in the parliamentary inquiry were as follows : 1. Is any religious teaching or religious observance practiced or given in the schools of the board ? 2. Are any hymns or prayers used ? 3. Is the Bible read (with or without comment thereon?) 4. State the time (if any) allotted to each subject. 5. Give the syllabus of religious instruction. 6. Give the rules (if any) for annual examination in religious knowledge. 7. A copy of the regulation of the board, in pursuance of w^hich the religious ob¬ servances and instruction are carried out, should be furnished. 8. If no formal regulation has been passed, state the practice of the schools under the board. iFor the di.stribution of boards erap’oying any one of the eTcral courses of action Tritb respect to religious instruction allowable under the act, or’pursued in violation of the act, see table appended to this article, p. 463. RELIGIOUS IKSTRUCTIOU IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 443 Tlie general status of the hoards with respect to the subject of inquiry may he seen from the following summary : Total number of boards, England and Wales . . . . . . . 2, 255 JTumber of boards under wbicli no schools bad been organized . 74 Number making no provision for religious exercises . 91 Number using bymns and prayers, but no Bible reading . 101 Number adopting the system of Bible reading without note or comment . 394 Number framing or adopting schemes of undenominational religious instruction. . . 1, 506 Number allowing denominational teaching under special agreement . 55 Number in whose schools denominational instruction had been given in violation of the law - 34 The 91 hoards that made no provision for religious exercises were distributed in 18 counties.^ The remaining hoards, forming a very large proportion of the 96 per cent, of the whole number maintaining schools, fall into three categories with respectto religious exercises, namely : (1) Those that have prayers and hymns, one or both, without Bible reading. (2) Those that have adopted Bible reading" without note or comment. (3) Those that have framed or adopted schemes of religous instruction. In the first category, viz, those that use hymns or prayers but no Bible reading, there are 101 school boards, distributed in 32 counties. Bible Eeadixg without Note or Comjieet. The plan of Bible reading without note or comment is due to the action of the Na¬ tional Education League. The regulations with respect to religious instruction in the act of 1870 not being in accordance with the programme of the league, that association sought to accommodate itself to the situation by the adoption of the formula, “ Bible reading without note or comment,” and this was the system accepted in the boards generally on which adherents of the league had a majority. Birmingham, the headquarters of the league and a great center of liberal thought, would naturally have been expected to follow the sauie course. The plan was not, however, adopted by the first Birmingham board, “for the reason that the denominational party secured a majority of seats on that board, and a regular system of undenominational religious instruction was agreed upon. On thesecond Birmingham board, at the end of tjie first triennial terra, the advanced party secured a majority of seats ; but by this time the Birmingham ad¬ vanced education party had, after much consideration, abandoned the scheme of Bible teaching without note or comment, and adopted the plan of secular instruction only provided by the school boards, with arrangements for separate religious teaching and observances, by voluntary agency and not by the board’s teachers, in the time set apart in the time tables. This scheme was forthwith introduced into the Birmingham board schools in the second triennial term and carried on for some years. But in the Birmingham triennial election of 1879 a difierence of opinion was made manifest among the supporters of the Liberal candidates on the question of the board’s policy in the matter of religious instruction, which ended in a compromise, by which the scheme of Bible reading without note or comment was conceded. From that time to the jjresent a scheme of Bible reading without note or comment has been in opera¬ tion in the Birmingham board schools. Attempts have been made from time to time by the religious instruction party to get a limited amount of Scriptural explanation introduced but these efforts have not prevailed.”^ The following are the regulations under which the plan is carried out in Birming¬ ham. 1. The Bible shall be read daily, without note or comment, by the head teacher for a quarter of an hour each day. 2. The portion to be read shall be suitable to the capacity of the children, and shall be selected by the head teacher, who shall at the blose of each reading make a record of the portion read in a book to be provided for the purpose. 3. The time for such reading shall be between 9:30 and 9:45 a. ra., except in the case of schools in which religious instruction is being given under the regulations of the board dated December 31, 1873, when the time shall be between 4:15 and 4:30 p. ra. on the days when such religious instruction is given, and between 9:30 and 9:45 a. m. on all other days. 4. Whenever a parent or guardian shall notify to the head teacher his desire that his child be withdrawn from attendance at the reading of the Bible, such child shall receive secular instruction in a separate class room during the time set apart for the reading. *Iii the absence of regulation, the schools under some of these boards have at some time practiced Bible reading, or prayer, or hymn singing. Eight of the counties referred to, containing 21 of the school boards, are in Wales, See table, p. 463. *See School Board Chronicle, Yol. XLII, No. 976, p. 431. 444 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. LETTING SCHOOLS FOE EELIGIOU8 TEACHING. 15. Facilities will be ulforded. for the giving of religious instruction by voluntary agency in the school buildings belonging to the board to children attending the board schools. 16. In every case the wish of the parents or guardians shall determine whether a child shall receive religious instruction, and whether a child shall receive any spe¬ cific religious instruction that may be provided. 17. Any persons proposing to give religious instruction shall be required to pay to the board a rent for the use of the buildings proportionate to the number of children to whom the religious instruction is given and the time occupied in giving the in¬ struction. 18. The opportunity for giving religious instruction shall be given on Tuesday and Friday morning in every week. 19. The schools shall open under the management of the board three-quarters of an hour later when let for religious teaching than on other days. 20. Any future application for the use of the school buildings for the giving of re¬ ligious instructions, in accordance with these regulations, shall be referred to the school management committee for them to report to the board, with the understand¬ ing that these application may be made either — (1) By the committee of any similar society representing one or more of the religi¬ ous communities of the town ; or (2) By the ministers of religion in charge of congregations in the town ; or (3) By any person willing to give religious instruction, when the application is sus¬ tained by the signatures of the parents of at least twenty children in regular attend¬ ance at one of the departments of any board school. (4) Whenever a parent or guardian shall notify to the head teacher his desire that his child shall be withdrawn from attendance at the reading of the Bible, such shall receive secular instruction in a separate class-room during the time set apart for the reading. MORAL LESSONS. 21. Moral instruction shallhe definitely provided for in the time-table of each school. 22. Two moral lessons a week, of half an hour each, shall be given to all the chil¬ dren in the boys’ and girls’ schools, and an entry of these lessons shall be made on the time-table. In the infants’ schools the number and length of the lessons may be ar¬ ranged by the head mistress. 23. The series should include such subjects as obedience to parent, honesty, truth¬ fulness, industry, temperance, courage, kindness, perservance, frugality, and thrift, government of temper, courtesy, unselfishness, and kindred moral duties. 24. The lessons should be of a conversational character, and should be largely en¬ forced by illustrations drawn from daily life. The school boards of three large towns besides Birmingham, viz, Oldham, Hud¬ dersfield, and Swansea (Borough), have adopted Bible reading without note or com¬ ment, and the same plan is also followed by 390 smaller boards distributed through 48 counties. It should be observed, however, that in 93 per cent, of these boards the Bible reading is accompanied with prayers or hymns or with both. In many cases the Lord’s prayer only is allowed. Particular Schemes and Eegulationb for Undenominational Eeligious Instruction. Of the 2,090 boards that make provision to some extent for religious exercises, 1,506, or 72 per cent, are found in the category of those that have framed or adopted schemes of undenominational religious instruction. The diversity of provision in these is so great that little idea of the character and extent of the instruction can be formed without some acquaintance with the details of the schemes. For the purpose of alfording a clearer view of the situation a few typical schemes are here presented.^ THE LONDON SCHOOL BOARD SCHEME. The London school board has elaborated a very full syllabus of Bible instruction which is followed in all its schools occupying from half to three-quarters of an hour daily. The following is the portion applicable to elementary scholars as arranged for i888. Explicit directions as to the carrying out of the scheme are issued for the teachers and the results of the instruction are tested by annual and biennial exami¬ nations. 1 In the selection and arrangement of this matter free nse has been made of a summary of this por¬ tion of the report of the commission in the School Board Chronicle, Vol. XLII, No. 976, pp. 421-440. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 445 General instrucUon.—ThQ teachers are desired to make the lessons as practical as possible and not to give attention to unnecessary details. If the school year ends with any one of the last six months of the year ending 31st of December, teachers may, at their own option, present the children at the written examination in Scripture knowledge in the standards^ to which they belong at the close of the school year. Head teachers of infant schools must draw up a syllabus of lessons for children below standard 1 and submit it to the board inspector when he Ausits the school. Standard 1. Learn the Ten Commandments, Exodus XX, 1-17 Uhe substance only will be required) ; the Lord’s Prayer, St. Matthew, VI, 9-13. Simple lessons from the life of Joseph. .Leadijig facts in the life of Christ told in simple language. Standard 2. Eepeat the Ten Commandments and the Lord’s Prayer. Learn St. Matthew, V, 1-12, and St.Matthew. XXII, 35-40. Simple outline of the life of Moses. Simple outline of the facts and simple lessons from the life of Christ. Standard 3. Memory work, as in standards 1 and 2. Learn Psalm XXIII. Lessons from the lives of Samuel and David. Fuller outline of the life of Christ, with lessons drawn from the following parables : The Two Debtors, the Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son, the Merciless Servant, the Lost Sheep, the Pharisee and the Publican. Standard 4. Memory work, as in standard 3, Learn St.John, XIV, 15-31. Lessons from the Pentateuch, with special refer¬ ence to the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, and Moses, with the practical lessons to be derived therefrom, together with the teaching of the law of Moses with reference to the “poor,” “stranger,” “fatherless,” “wid¬ ow,” “bond-servant,” “parents,” and “chil¬ dren.” The life of Chri.st (first part) as gathered from the Gospels of St. Matthew up to chapter XIV, 36, inclusive; St. Mark, up to chapter VI, 56; St. Luke, up to chapter IX, 17 ; St. John, up to chapter VII, viz, to third passover, with les¬ sons from the following parables: The Sower, the Mustard Seed, the Wheat and Tares, the Pearl of Great Price. Brief accounts of Bethlehem, Xazareth, Sea of Gallilee, Bethany, and Jerusalem. Standard 5. Memory work, portion learned in standard 4 (St. John, XIV, 15-31). Learn Ephesians, VJ, 1-18. Lessons from the books of Samuel and Kings, with special reference to the lives of Samuel, Saul, David, and Solomon. The life of Christ, continued (second part) from third passover to end of Gospels. Acts of the Apostles, first two chapters. Standard 6. Memory work, portion learned in standard 5 (Ephesians, VI, 1-18). Learn Isaiah, LIII, and Ephesians, IV, 25-32. Lessons from the lives of Elijah and Daniel; causes which led to the captivity and return, with the effect on the national life and charac¬ ter of the children of Israel. Becapitulation of the life of Christ, together with an account of his discourses as given in St. John, chapters III. VI, 1-40, and X ; Acts of the Apostles to chapter Vin. Standard 7. Memory* work, portion learned in standard 6 (Isaiah, LIII, and Ephesians, IV, 25-32). Learn I Corinthians, XIII. Kecapitulation of the subjects in the Old Testa¬ ment set out in the preceding standards. Recapitulation of the life of (Ihrist, as in stand¬ ard 6. Acts of the Apostles, with special reference to the life and missionary journeys of St. Paul. Essential portions of the London school board’s scheme and syllabus have been adopted by 101 boards located in 35 different counties. Peoa’isions of the Manchester Board. The Manchester board provides for Bible reading Avith a system of graded instruc¬ tion under the folloAving regulations : 1. From 9 to 9:50 a. m. and from 2 to 2:10 p. m. shall be occupied Avith singing, prayer, and religious instruction, and 10 minutes at the close of the afternoon teach¬ ing shall be devoted to singing and prayer. 2. The hymns and forms of prayer used in the schools of the board shall be taken exclusively from the authorized hymn book. The religious instruction shall consist of a graduated course of teaching, to be carried on by means of oral instruction, passages of Scripture committed to memory, and suitable exercises in reading or writing. 4. When any children are withdrawn from religious instruction provision shall be made for their instruction'in secular subjects during the time of such religious teaching. An examination in religious knoAvledge is held in each school by the board’s inspector of schools in the middle of the school year, on a day set apart for that purpose. * The obligatory subjects of elementary instruction are arranged in seven standards intended for ope year each ; a standard therefore corresponds to a grade in our own schools. 446 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. The following is the syllabus of instruction as arranged for elementary scholars; Infants Standard I. Standards Hand III. Standards IV, V, VI, VII, and Ex. VH. To learn by heart. Scripture instruction. Six specified hymns in the board hymn* book, and three moral songs. The Alphabet of Texts, the Lord’s Prayer, and the Fifth Commandment. ^ Morning and evening prayer. f The Lord’s Prayer and the Ten Commandments; at least forty verses from the following passages : St. Matthew, V. 1-12 ; VI, 24-34; VII, 7-14; Xl, 28- J 30; XIX, 13 and 14; XXII, 37-40; XXVIII, 18-20. St. Luke. I, 46-55, and 68-79: II. 29-32. St. John, III, 16: IV, 24; XI, 25, 26; XIV, 1-3. Six hymns. Morning and evening prayer. The Lord’s Prayer and Ten Commandments, four of the following Psalms : 1, 4, 8, 15, 19, 23, 25, 32, 34, 51, 84, 91, 103, 104, 107,119 (any section, at the dis- 1 cretion of the teacher), 121, 130, 139, 147, and four parables from the Gospel of St. Luke. Six hymns. [ Morniugandeveningprayer. ( The Lord’s Prayer and Ten Commandments, and six of the above Psalms; and J St.John, XV, or I Corin- ] tliians, XIII, or Ephe¬ sians, VI. Six hymns. Morning and evening prayer. Group I.— Creation, fall, flood, life of Joseph, David slaying Goliath, call of Samuel, birth of Christ, visits of shep¬ herds and wise men, Christ’s death. Group II.— Same as group I, and Cain and Abel, Abraham offering up Isaac, early life of Moses, life of Daniel, Christ’s resurrection, three mira¬ cles, and three parables. Outline of the Book of Genesis, with a more ex¬ act knowledge of the life of (a) Abraham, (6) Jacob, or (c) Jo.ieph. Outline of St. Matthew’s Gospel, with a special knowledge of the birth, death, and resurrection of Christ, and of six mira¬ cles and six parables. Outline of the Book of Exo¬ dus, with an exact knowl¬ edge of the life of Moses. Outline of St. Mark's and St. Luke’s Gospels in alternate years, with ac¬ curate knowledge of the miracles and pacables re¬ corded in them. Outline of Old Testament history, and each year two of the following Books: Joshua and Judges, Samuel I and II, Kings I and II, with spe¬ cial reference to the biog¬ raphies contained in them. Outline of New Testament history, and each year one of the following por¬ tions of Holy Scripture: The Gospel of St. John, Acts, XIII, and Acts, XIV-XXVIII. Examples from Holy Scripture of the ob¬ servance or breach of the Ten Command¬ ments. Proof of the Ten Com¬ mandments, by texts, from the Xew Testa¬ ment, The petitions of the Lord’s Prayer exem¬ plified by other pas¬ sages of Holy Scrip¬ ture. Essential portions of the Manchester scheme have been adopted by twenty-one hoards located in thirteen different counties. The following are the regulations for religious instruction under the Liverpool hoard : “ Prayers and hymns shall he used, and the Bible read daily, and there shall he given from the latter, by the responsible teacher or teachers (other than pupil teach¬ ers) of the school, such explanations and instruction in the principles of religion and morality as are suited to the capacities of the children. Provided, always : (a) That in the selection of the prayers and hymns (which shall be made from hooks approved by the board), and in explanations and instruction from the Bible (which shall be in accordance with the syllabus issued by the board) the provisions of the elementary education act, 1870, especially in sections 7 and 14, ^ shall be strictly ob¬ served, both in letter and spirit, viz, that no attempt he made to attach children to, or to detach them from, any particular denomination. (h) That the authorized version of the Bible he used; hut that when the Roman Catholic children in the school are sufficiently numerous to form a class, they shall receive instruction from the Douai version of the Bible. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 447 (c) That, iu regard to any, particular school, the hoard shall consider and determine upon any application hy managers who may show special cause for the exemption of the school from the operation of this regulation iu w'hole or iu part. During the time of religious teaching or observances, any children whose parents object, under the conscience clause (elementary educatiou act, 1870, section 7), to their attending such teaching or observances, may be withheld from the school: (a) If the object of withholding them be that they may receive religious instruction at the same tiuie in some other place ; or (&) If the school be so arranged that they can not receive secular instruction in a separate room ; or (c) If the religious instruction or observances immediately precede-the closing of the school. All children 'sVho attend a school during the time at which religious teaching or observances take place, and are withdrawn from such teaching or observances, shall receive during that time secular instruction in a separate room. While any religious observance or instruction is going on iu a board school, none of the scholars or teachers shall be employed iu any other manner iu the same room. In every school the period for religious observances and Bible instruction in the morning must terminate before 9:45. An official examination of the scholars iu each school, iu secular and religious sub¬ jects, the examination in the latter to be subject to the same conditions and restric¬ tions as apply to religious instruction, and to be conducted within the time set apart for such religious instruction, shall bo held by the board’s inspectors as soon as pos¬ sible after the expiration of eight months of the school year. At least four days before the date fixed for any such examination, notice of it shall be sent to the managers by the board; and a copy of the inspector’s report shall be forwarded to them as soon as practicable after the examination has been held. The syllabus comju'ises a general three years’ course in reading and instruction, and tests for memory work, with se])arate syllabus for infants. Here is a sample from the infant instruction for the “lowest school section : ” (a) Easy conversation lessons and very simple hymns on: (1) God as the maker of all natural things, the sun, moon, plants, animals, etc. (2) The difference between God’s making (creating) and man’s making, showing man’s need of tools and materials for his work. (3) God as our Father in Heaven, loving, all powerful, and all-knowing (hymn 46). (4) Prayer to so great and kind a Father a privilege never to be missed. (h) Repetition of some short pr.ayer, hymn, or text by heart. (c) Easy conversation lessons about some of the Scripture prints illustrating inci¬ dents in the life of Christ, c. arents were compelled to send their children to school, they ought to be enabled to send them to a school that was suitable to their religious convictions or preferences. Mr. Snape said: “That might be a very satisfactory view to the majority who were interested in Church of England schools, which alone existed in some 10,000 parishes of the country ; but if it were followed out to its logical conclu¬ sion it meant that those who had no faith in some of the teaching given in those schools had a right also to have a school in accordance with their ideas of true edu¬ cation and religion. In those 10,000 parishes the children of all nonconformists were compelled to attend Church of England schools, many of them being ignorant of the power which the conscience clause gave them, or unwilling, for fear of obloquy, to take advantage of it. The religions instruction consisted largely of the doctrines of the church catechism, and children who never had godfathers or godmothers were t.aught to say that their godfathers and godmothers gave them their names in bap¬ tism, and that in baptism they were made ‘ members of Christ and inheritors of the Kingdom of Heaven.’ Many of them held such doctrines to be pernicious and untrue, and they ought not to be called upon to submit to such instruction being continued.” From i)aper iiresented by Rev. Dr. Crosskey, of Birmingham : “If the principle of representative government has to be alive ^n England, the time must come sooner or later when every school in receipt of public money during its ordinary secular hours must be under public control. AA^hat was called the de¬ nominational system was not in any way capable of satisfying the educational wants of the people, and no part of the population should be doomed to an inferior educa- 456 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. tion in order to support any ecclesiastical party. Sir William Hart-Dyke bad de¬ clared that next session the Government will have proposals to make. The state of our educational institutions was such that any proposal made must inevitably extend or retard the development of the school-board system. If proposals were made for improvements, the plea of denominationalists would be that they had no money, and they would ask for iucreased funds. Experts knew perfectly well how voluntary schools could be nourished and sustained eutirely apart from throwing them on the rates. The disclaimers of the Government did not touch the heart of the matter. In throwing over the claim to put these schools on the rates they were simply throw¬ ing Jonah to the whale in order to lighten the ship ; but most indubitably they did not say that they were the friends of schools managed by the people in the people’s interest. Nothing but a definite and distinct policy would save the real cause of education at this crisis.” From address of Rev. Hugh Price Hughes, M. a. : “ No denomination, except the Church of England, had introduced any sectarian religious difficulty in connection with education, but the Church of England had never yielded a single point to religious freedom in the schools during all this cen¬ tury, except at the point of the bayonet. Even now this boasted conscience clause was a dead letter in the rural districts, excex^t where there was a school board and a vigilaiit public opinion to protect the poor. In 1886 there were 108 boroughs, 73 urban sanitary districts, and over 10,000 parishes, out of a total of nearly 15,000 parishes, without a school board or a board school, and in all those j^laces the children were forced into sectarian schools. Ten millioupeople were without the protection of school boards. The sectarian schools into which they were forced were the private proi)erty of the clergymen, and the rate-payers had no control whatever over them. The par¬ ish priest did what he liked there, and yet those very schools received nearly 2 n\illions of public money every year, and they now had the modesty to ask for 2 millions more. By a grim joke they were called ‘ voluntary schools.’ He did not call them so, for he was not going to tell a lie to please anybody. Out of a total of 7 mill¬ ions spent this year in education, the voluntafy contribution amounted to only £744,01)0. The main and constant object of the excellent clerical gentlemen who carried on what they called voluntary schools was not to educate the people, but to benefit their own sect. This ancient country had, at the present moment, the most inefficient educatioual system in Europe, and the most unsuitable buildings for school ijur])08es. Some of those places were dark and unhealthy and had tile or stone floors. In one of these places, we were told, the rough unplastered interior resembled a sta¬ ble more than a school room. English people allowed the children of the poor to be driven into a stable in deference to sectarianism. There were hundreds of country schools in which they taught only the three R’s, and a little needlework to the girls. There was no history, no geography, and no science. The peasantry of England were being sacrificed on the altar of sectarianism and bigotry. Another impeachment to be brought against the voluntary system was that it provided most inefficient teachers. Many of the head teachers could not even pass the eutrauce examination of the train¬ ing colleges. The children were encouraged to leave the schools after they had passed the fourth standard. It was a monstrous thing that country magistrates and people of that sort should liave any option whatever as to the standard which children were to pass before leaving the school. According to the testimony of the recent Blue Book, the fees in the voluntary schools were arbitrarily raised in the fourth and upper standards in order to drive away the children. “ There were 4,359 sectarian schools with uncertified head teachers.’ * * * 'j'he sectarian teachers were wretchedly paid. There were 11,079 head teachers belonging to the wealthy Church of England who received in 1880 only between £40 and £50 a year each, and yet they were the educational Gibeonites — the hewers of wood and drawers of water for the parish priest. If voluntary school education was to be made efficient, it must not be subordinated to the ambitious designs of a proselyting sect, but it must be controlled by men whose highest aim was efficiency. At pres¬ ent, in a majority of parishes, the day school could be used, and in many was used, as an instrument to stamp out nonconformity. People living in towns had very little idea of what was going on in that direction in country X)arishe8. He would call as his first witness Dean Gott, the former vicar of Leeds. He wrote: ‘ I hold the polit¬ ical dissenter as an enemy of God and his country.’ Thus the late Samuel Morley and the late Sir William McArthur, and he believed that he might say the present lord mayor of London, were all enemies of their country. Was a clergyman who hold such an opinion as that fit to have the uncontrolled management of the educa¬ tion of the jioor f The rector of a village near Basingstoke had recently asserted in a pastoral letter that men would be asked on the Day of Judgment whether they had attended church or chapel, and he added: ‘Political dissent is hateful to me, and I believe that it is hateful to the Almighty.’ Such men as these had at the present moment the uncontrolled education of thousands of nonconformists. He had no quarrel with them if he would leave them alone. He would let them teach, if they RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 457 liked, thiit every man wbo entered a Methodist chapel committed a sin against God, hut they must not teach it in the name of England, and they must not teach it with the money of the conn try. ’’ Extracts from the Foreign Returns made to the Commission showing what IS DONE IN Elementary Schools in the matter of Religious Instruction AND Moral Training in some of the leading countries of Europe and in certain British Colonies. The following were tfie questions pertaining to religions instruction embodied in the form issued for foreign countries. For convenience of reference the origiiial numbering is preserved : Question IG. Do the schools of the state give religious as well as secular instruc¬ tion ? And, if so, of what nature? By whom is it given ? Question 17. If not, aye the school-houses used out of school hours for religious instruction ? Question 18. Is any provision made for the moral training of the children in the schools by the ordinary teachers in the ordinary school hours ? If so, state what means are taken to secure it. Question 19. Is the religious instruction obligatory on all the scholars? If not, what provision is made for the religious instruction of the minority? Question 20. Are the teachers in "the schools exclusively lay? returns. Austria. IG. They do; and the religious instruction is under the supervision of the church authorities of the various confessions. In places where no clergyman is available to give regular religious instruction the secular teacher can be charged (with the con¬ sent of the church authority) with the instruction in religion of the scholars of his own creed according to the directions of the school inspector. If any cliurch or reli¬ gious body fails to jirovide for the instruction of its members, the provincial school authority takes whatever steps are necessary. 18. The iirimary schools x>i‘ovide “moral and religions’’ as well as secular instruc¬ tion. 19. Yes. As to the religious instruction of the minority, its own church authorities must provide for it. The xiareuts must also secure domestic religious instruction. 20. Any Austrian subject may become a teacher; consequently non-laymen are not excluded. Bavauia. 16. Religious education forms part of the curriculum, and is given by the parish priest. 17. No. 18. Yes; the teachers are bound to look after the moral training as well as the education of pupils, and the teachers must support the parents in the bringing up-of their children. 19. Yes. 20. As a general rule all are lay. Exception: Convent schools: small parishes, where the parish x^riest is also teacher. Belgiu.m. IG. The communes can inscribe religious and moral instruction at the head of the curriculum of all or of some of their elementary schools. This instruction is given at tiie commencement or at the end of the school hours; children, at the request of their xiarents, are exemxited from attending such instruction. In many schools the (Catholic) catechism is taught and sacred history. Generally speaking the teachers give the instruction in religion under the control of the clergy. 17. No. A IS. Generally speaking, moral training is united to the religions teaching. At the same time, in various subjects, such as reading, mother-tongue history, the teacher does not Ipse sight of moral education, nor does he do so during the x^lf^y hours. 19. Religions instruction is not obligatory; the following guarantees are provided by the law for the rights of the minority: («) In the case of a commune in which twenty heads of families having children of school age ask that their children should be exempted from assisting at religious 458 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-80. instruction tlie Kin" can, at the request of the parents, oblige such commune to or¬ ganize for the use of these children one or more special classes. (&) If in spite of the request of twenty heads of families having children of school age the commune refuse to inscribe the teaching of their religion in the school cur¬ riculum or hinder such instruction being given by the ministers of their religion or by persons approved of by these latter, the Government can, at the request of the par¬ ents, adopt one or more private schools, as may be requisite, provided they meet the conditions prescribed for adoption by the commune. 20. The law and the regulations make no difference between the laymen and the members of religious orders. In the communal schools the vast majority of the male aqd female teachers are lay ; in the adopted schools there are a great number of monks and nuns. Fkance. 16. No religious instrnction is given in the public schools; but Thursday must be a whole holiday in order to enable parents to have their children taught in the re¬ ligion to which they belong outside of the precincts of the school. During the week preceding their confirmation (first communion) the teacher will allow children to be absent Irom school, even during regular school hours, in order to enable them to perform their religious duties and attend church if necessary. (Decree of July 18, 1882, art. 5). 17. No. 18. Yes. Article 1 of the law of March 28, 1882, declares moral and civic instruc¬ tion as a part of the regular curriculum of compulsory subjects to be taught by the ordinary teachers in the ordinary school hours. Special directions with regard to the way of teaching these subjects are included in the “ progran mes de I’enseigne- ment des (icoles priniaires.” [Programmes of subjects prescribed for primary schools.] 19. See answer to question 16. '20. Yes, in principle. (Loi du 30 October, 1886, articles 17 and 18.) There are still some teachers in the public schools (of both sexes) belonging to religious corpo¬ rations, but alter 5 years from date of above-mentioned law none but lay teachers are to be employed in boys’ schools ; as to girls’ schools no limit has been fixed as yet. MORAL DUTIES. The programme of instruction in moral duties prescribed for use in the French elementary schools is a ^"»ery remarkable one. The following is a translation of its principal portions. OBJECT OF THE INSTRUCTION. Masters and mistresses shall teach the children during the whole duration of their school life their duties towards their familjq their country, their fellow creatures, to¬ wards themselves, and towards God. METHOD OF THE INSTRUCTION. The method shall be simple and familiar. Morality shall be combined with every part of their instruction ; with the games and recreations of children, and their whole conduct. The aim should be at one and the same time to form the mind, the heart, and the character. DIVISION OF THE CLASSES. Infant de})arimcnt from five to seven years. — 1. Very simple conversations interspersed in all the work of the class and during recreation. 2. Short pieces of poetry explained and learned by heart. Moral tales related to the class, followed by questions adapted to bring out their meaning, and to ascertain whether they have been understood by the children. Short sougs. 3. Special attention by the mistress to children in whom she has observed any signs of vice or other faults. Elementary classes from seven to nineyears of age. — 1. Familiar conversations. Read¬ ings with explanations (narratives, examples, iirecepts, parables, and fables). Ap¬ peals to the heart. 2. Practical exercises tending to set moral principles in action among the class. (1) By observation of individual character, noting the tendencies of the children in order gently to correct their fiiilings or briug out their good qualities. (2) By the intelligent application of school discipline as a means of education, dis¬ tinguishing carefully the failure in duty from the simple infraction of a regulation, pointing out the relation between faults and punishment, etc. (3) By an incessant appeal to the child’s own moral sense, making children fre- RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 459 quently judge of tlieir own conduct, leaving them free to speak and to act with the certainty that they will soon find out for themselves the consequences of their own faults and errors. 4. By the correction of gross vulgar notions, popular superstitions, belief in wizards, ghosts, or in the influence of certain numbers. 5. By deducing from the facts observed by the children themselves the conse¬ quences of the vices of which at times they have the example before their eyes. Intermediate classes from nine to eleven. — 1. The child in the family : (1) Duties towards parents and grandparents; obedience, respect, love, gratitude; to help his ]:>arentsin their labor, to comfort them in their sickness, to succour them in their old age. (2) Duties of brothers and sisters: To love one another; protection due from the elder to the younger — effect of example. (3) Duties towards servants: To- treat tliem with courtesy and kindness. 2. The child at school: Diligence, docility, work, decorum.; duties towards his teacher and towards his school fellows. 3. Country: France, its greatness and its misfortunes; duties towards country and towards society. Duties which the child owes to himself as to the body: Cleanliness, soberness, danger of drunkenness, gymnastics. Outward goods: Economy, avoidance of debt, baneful effects of the passion of gambling, not to be over fond of money, prodigality, avarice. Labor: Obligatory on all men; nobility of manual labor. The mind: Truthfulness and sincerity, avoidance of falsehood, personal dignity, and self-respect. Modesty: Not to be blind to one’s own faults; avoidance of pride, vanity, coquetry, frivolity ; to be ashamed of ignorance and idleness ; courage in danger and in misfor¬ tune ; xiatience, readiness, and promptitude ; dangers of anger. Kindness to animals : Not to cause them any needless suffering. Duties which he owes to other men : Justice and charity; to do to others what you would wish them to do to you ; to do no injury either to the life, the person, the goods, or the reputation of another; kindness, fraternity, tolerance, respect for the belief of others. Throughout this course of teaching the teacher shall take as a starting point the existence of conscience, of the moral law, and of the principle of obligation. He is to appeal to the sentiment and to the idea of duty, to the sentiment and to the idea of responsibility; he is to make no attempt to demonstrate their existence by specu¬ lative reasoning. Duties toward God : The teacher is not called upon to deliver a course of academ¬ ical lectures upon the nature and attributes of God. The teaching he has to give to all, without distinction, is limited to two points: First, he teaches his scholars not to pronounce the name of God lightly. He is strictly to associate in their minds, with the idea of the First Cause and of the Per¬ fect Being, a sentiment of respect and veneration ; and, in the next place, he shall aim at making the child understand that the chief homage which he owes to the Deity is obedience to His laws as they are revealed to him by conscience and by reason. Higher classes from eleven to thirteen years of age. — Conversations, readings, practical exercises as in the foregoing classes. This higher course embraces in addition, in a regular series of lessons, the number and order of which may vary, elementary in¬ struction in morality generally, and more especially of social morality, in accordance with the following programme : 1. The family: Duties of parents and children; reciprocal duties of masters and servants ; family spirit. 2. Society: Necessity and advantages of society; justice, a condition of every so¬ ciety; mutual dependence and relationships ; fraternity amongst men. Application and development of the idea of justice; respect for human life and liberty ; respect for property, for one’s own word, and one’s own honor, and also for the reputation of others ; probity, equity, loyalty, delicacy; respect for the opinions and belief of others. Application and development of the idea of charity or fraternity; its ditferent degrees; duties of benevolence, of gratitude, of toleration, clemency, etc.; self¬ surrender, the highest form of charit^^^; show that it may find some place in every¬ day life. 3. Country: What we owe to our country — obedience to its laws, military service, discipline, self-surrender, military fidelity; taxes — condemnation of every kind of fraud upon the State. Of the vote — it is a moral obligation ; it ought to be free, con¬ scientious, disinterested, enlightened. Rights which correspond with these duties — individual liberty, freedom of conscience, of labor, of association ; guaranty for the security of the life and property of all. Sovereignty of the nation. Explana¬ tion of the republican device — liberty, equality, fraternity. 460 EDUCATION Report, 1888-89. In eacli of these chapters ou social morality, the attention of the scholar shall be called, without entering into metaphysical discussions, to — 1. The difference between duty and interest, even when they seem to be blended together; that is to say, the imperative and disinterested character of duty. 2. The distinction betwecTi the written law and the moral law. The first fixes a maximum of requirements which society imposes upon all its members under fear of certain prescribed punishments; the second imposes upon every man in the secret of his own conscience, a duty which no outward authority constrains him to fulfill, but which he can not omit without feeling himself culpable towards himself and towards God. Holland. 10. No. As regards this subject, see articles 22 and 33 of the law. 17. For that object, in the year 1885, in 298 communes, 620 school premises were used by teachers of religion. 18. The answer to this question is contained in Articles 22 and 33 of the law. 19. No. 20. Yes; that is to say, they must not wear the distinctive garb of their order; but ecclesiastics are not excluded, as they are in France, for example. Hungaet. 16. Yes, according to the denomination, the members of the latter providing for it. 17. It forms part of the regular curriculum, combined with religious instruction, both being given during school hours, but separately, according to religious persua¬ sion. ^ 18. Yes. 19. Not those who instruct in religion. 20. Practically, not. Italy. 10. Religious instruction is only given in cases where it is specially requested, and then out of school hours. 18. One of the courses of instruction is that of “rights and duties,” and in this the teachers are chiefly taken up with moral education, although moral education is not forgotten in other branches, as especially those of language and history. 19. It is obligatory for no one beyond the limits of the Catechism and Holy Scrip¬ ture. (See answer to question No. 16.) 20. Of 40,000 teachers only 4,000 belong to the regular or secular clergy. The remainder are^all^ laymen. ^ Prussia. 16. In all the elementary schools the religious instruction is compulsory, as well as the other branches of instruction. The religious instruction is given, according to the sections 14-21 of the “ General Regulations” by the teachers, exceptionally by clergymen and by special teachers of religion. 17. The schooliiouses are sometimes used out of school hours for religious instruc¬ tion, but that is of no consequence at all, nor is it an interior connection with the elementary schools. 18. Here we can only point out that the Prussian elementary school in principle not only aims at instruction, but as much also at the moral training of the children. The plan and the practice of instruction are regulated from this jjoiut of view. The ordinary teachers take care of the moral training of the children at all hours. 19. Yes. Also for the religious instruction of the minority provisions are made, partially at the expense of the state. For this purpose means are regularly granted by the Government. 20. Yes. Saxony. 16. Religious instruction is given in Protestant schools by the master, in Catholic schools by priest. 18. Falls under “religious” instruction as “ Theory of Morals and Duty.” 19. Yes; but a minority‘of Catholic scholars would be taught bj"^ a local Catholic priest if such is available. 20. Protestants ; yes. Berne. 16. Yes. The religious' instruction is given by the teacher or by a minister of religion ; but in the Catholic schools the Protestant children, and in the Protestant schools the Catholics, are exemiited from attendance. There are also exceptions for the Jews. KELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 461 17. B.y permission of the school hoard the buildings may be used out of school hours for religions instruction or other purposes. 18. By the school law of 1870 the ordinary teachers are bound to provide for the moral training of the children by all ordinary" means. 19. See No. 16. It is left to the parents. 20. No ; but persons belonging to “ religious orders” are excluded. Geneva. 16. No. 17. No. 18. They are brought up to believe in republicanism as the only true form of Gov¬ ernment ; other moral training is left to the parents. 19. There is no religious instruction in the schools. The state gives a certain sum yearly to the corporation of “ Pasteurs,” called the Consistoire,” who give religious instruction to their children sent them by their parents. The sum given by the state is 6,000 francs (£240). 20. Yes. Quebec. 16. Yes. In the Roman Catholic schools the catechism of that church is taught as a regular school subject. In Protestant schools Scripture history and the Gospels are taught, and the schools are opened with Bible reading and prayer. The religious in¬ struction is given by the regular teachers. 17. No. 18. Teachers are required to give lessons upon the subject of good morals as a regu¬ lar part of the course of study. 19. Tbe great majority of the schools of the province are distinctly Roman Catholic or Protestant. In the case of mixed schools religious instruction is given in accord¬ ance with the views of the majority, and the minority are exempt from attendance at that hour. 20. No. Ontario. 16. The law provides that pupils shall be allowed to receive such religious instruc¬ tions as their parents or guardians desire, according to any general regulations pro¬ vided for the organization, government, and discipline of public schools. 18. The following are the departmental regulations on this subject : Moral and religious instruction. — No course of moral instruction is prescribed. The teacher is expected, however, by his personal example, as well as by"the exercise of his authority and by instruction, to imbue every pupil with respect for those moral obligations which underlie a well-formed character. Respect for those in authority and for the aged, courtesy, true manliness, reverence, truthfulness, honesty, etc., can best be inculcated as the occasion arises for referring to them. The religious exer¬ cises of the school should be conducted without haste and with the utmost reverence and decorum. 19. The law enacts that no person shall require any pupil in anj’- public school to read or study in or from any religious book, or to join any exercise of devotion or re¬ ligion objected to by his or her parents or guardians. 20. Yes; but not necessarily so. Prince Edward Island. 16. Only secular. 17. No. 18. No special provision. 19. No provision is made for religious instruction. 20. Yes. Manitoba. 16. Schools under the management of the Protestant section of the board of edu¬ cation are required to have Bible reading daily, and are opened and closed with prayer. The ten commandments and the Lord’s prayer are also taught, but there is no denominational religions teaching. Schools under the management of the Catho¬ lic section of the board have a full system of religious teaching by the teachers under direction of the church authorities. 17. No; except that in rural school districts schoolhouses are frequently used on Sunday for church and Sunday-school purposes. 18. Moral teaching is prescribed as a subject of instruction by oral lessons in Prot¬ estant schools, and is included in the religious instruction given in Catholic schools. 462 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. The means taken to secure it are (1) in strict requirements as to character from persons applying for a license to teach, and (2) by efficient inspection. 19. All primary schools in the province being Protestant and Catholic, the require¬ ments stated in question 16 are found practicable and do not require the provision of special rules for a minority. 20. In the Protestant schools, yes ; in the Catholic, no. Queensland. 16. No. 17. Applications from ministers of religion or “ other persons desirous of giving religious instruction to the children in the school buildings out of school hours must be made to the minister,” and are favorably entertained by him. This permission is not very generally availed of. 18. No special provision is made for the moral training of children in the schools by the ordinary teachers in the ordinary school hours ; but the moral training of the children is regarded as part of the ordinary duties of every teacher. 19. No religious instruction is obligatory on any scholar. 20. “ Ministers of religion and* persons acting as local preachers or Bible readers can not hold appointments as teachers.” ^ South Austealia. IB. No. 17. Very seldom. 18. The regulations require every teacher “ to train his pupils in habits of cleanli¬ ness, industry, punctuality, obedience, truthfulness, honesty, and consideration for others.” 19. Special moral lessons are given weekly. 20. In the government, schools they are so, but not in private establishments. Tasmania. 16. Ministers of religion are allowed to instruct children of their several denomina¬ tions during stated periods, half an hour in morning and half an hour in afternoon. 17. Schoolhouses may, with the permission of the board of advice, be used for Sun¬ day-school teaching. 18. Bible history is taught, and the readers in use inculcate morality. 19. Children are not obliged to attend while ministers of religion of other denomi- uations than their own are engaged in teaching. The system in vogue does not pro¬ vide for dogmatic teaching of any j it is secular. 20. Yea. RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 463 Table showing the distribution of school boards making specified ijrovision for religious instruction. EXGLA^fD. i.'oimlie.s. No religious exercises. o 5 g p Bible reading without note or comment. - - - 1 O 'o ® .i a « a 03 a o a o Manchester scheme. Diocesan syllabuses. Denomination.al teaching under special agree¬ ment. Unlawful religious in¬ struction in board schools. Number of school boards not i)roviding for exam i- nation in religious sub¬ jects. 1 9 1 1 1 38 1 6 4 2 1 1 2 2 1 21 2 10 4 2 1 30 4 2 17 2 5 30 1 20 53 Cumberland . 2 3 5 8 3 5 3 1 40 . . 4 8 3 2 1 47 nAvnn . .. . . . 1 26 10 35 1 76 T)nrsfif, . . . . 6 1 3 9 1 1 6 6 1 35 . ... . . Tr.smAV ... . . 1 ' 12 4 2 7 43 (Tlonp.p.mtp.r _ _ _ _ 1 4 1 2 22 Hants ....... _ _ _ .... 1 3 1 3 1 27 p-pfif*nvrl . . _ ] 2 1 2 9 TTp.rt.fVirrl _ 2 2 1 1 1 1 16 Huntingdon . . . 1 1 1 8 Hent . . . 2 8 7 1 4 2 • 43 Lancaster . . . 5 1 4 1 1 29 Leicester . 1 G 5 2 27 T.iop.nln _ _ _ 4 21 1 G 2 70 Middlesex . 2 6 1 2 7 Monmouth . . 5 9 1 23 Norfolk . . 1 14 8 9 4 2 73 Northampton . 4 2 3 30 Northumberland . 1 1 1 12 Nottingham . 1 8 3 2 1 23 Oxford . 2 1 1 20 Hutland . . 1 1 1 Salop . . . 2 1 1 2 13 Somerset . . 6 3 8 4 4 52 Staftbrd . 4 3 14 Suffolk . 1 1 14 7 4 3 50 Surrey . 3 2 1 G o 9 Sussex . . . 1 5 2 2 4 2 14 AVarwick . 1 1 1 5 18 AA^estmoreland . 1 1 10 AVilts . 1 2 4 15 AV orce.stftT . . . 6 1 2 1 1 12 York . 10 19 50 4 1 ^ 2 2 173 AVALES. Anglesey . 3 7 10 27 Brecon . . . 4 6 2 14 Cardigan . 23 ‘ 3 1 31 Carmarthen . 13 7 8 1 1 22 Carnarvon . 1 6 10 1 14 Denbigh . 2 6 1 24 Flint . 1 1 6 Glamorgan . 8 6 21 1 33 Merioneth . 1 2 8 19 Montgomery . 1 6 5 Pembroke . 17 2 8 1 1 1 25 Radnor . o 8 Total . . . 91 101 394 101 21 131 55 34 1, 463 CHAPTER XVII (A). OO-EDUOATION OF THE SEXES. Substance of an Address Delivered by P. Voss before the Sixth Scandina¬ vian School Conference in Copenhagen, August, 1890. In his introduction the speaker made humorous reference to the “ squinting peda¬ gogues^’ of the eighteenth century, as he called them, or pedagogues who did not look at a thing from the standpoint of the laws of nature and of life, but according to artificial cut-and-dried theories. The practical and progressive ideas of the eight¬ eenth century did not harmonize, he said, with the pedagogical ideas with v/hich that generation w'^as penetrated. In the judgment of the speaker, the means of escaping the tendency to narrow views are observation and experience. With regard to co-education. Dr. Voss said that probably he was chosen to intro¬ duce the subject on account of the larger experience of Norwegian educators in this matter. But as that country’s own experience is only of short duration, he founti himself obliged to lead his hearers over the ocean to the great Republic of the West and eastward to Finland, which nations for some time have followed the same road as the Norwegians. To my knowledge, he said, co-education as a makeshift in public schools with slender resources has been practiced in all European centers of civilization ever since schools existed, or at least from the moment when nations became conscious that women have a right to education as well as men. Starting from this historical be¬ ginning the question arises: Is co-education also admissible in the higher schools, or do their more complicated courses of study, differing according to the future positions and vocations of students, offer decisive obstacles to co-education ? At present, he said, I will treat in particular of the elementary schools, i. e., schools for children up to 15 to 16 years of age, that period when interior and exterior cir¬ cumstances, as a rule, naturally prompt the youth to think of his future career, his means of livelihood, and consequently of the great importance of directing his school education to a definite end. It would be useless to enter particularly upon the question of the proper status of co-education in universities and gymnasia, in normal schools, in a word, in all classes of higher institutions, which as a general rule are designed to be for males or females alone (“separate” schools). As soon as the conditions and facts which determine the place of co-education in the public schools are made sufficiently clear, the pedagogical problem will be solved in its most important part. It is principally from the elementary schools, or as we say in Norway, the middle schools (middelslcoler) that we Norsemen have gained our experience. The number of higher schools, middle schools, and gymnasia, in Norway, where co-education in a greater or less extent has been tried up to the present time may be put down at forty. In about thirty middle schools (with mixed schools belonging thereto) the practice has been fully carried out. The number of pupils in these schools ranges from 40 or 50 up to 250. In general the male sex furnishes the majority of pupils, but little by little this excess is diminishing. In the largest school known to me, i. e., Sandetjord’s middle school, I found an almost equal distribution ; in one class the boys XJredomiuated, but in another the girls. In a few of these schools, originally a kind of lower burgher schools, co-education was introduced at their first establishment, about twenty years ago; but in most of them co-education has been actually practiced only five or six years. Co-education in middle schools received the approbation of the authorities first after a preliminary debate in the Storthing (legislative body) in the sjiring of 1884, which was occasioned by a request from the commercial city Brevik, for a public contribution to a communal middle school for boys and girls. That l>roke the ice. A few years later a departmental circular opened also the gymnasia for female pupils, and the example of Brevik found many followers. Under the financial pressure of the decade 1870-80 numerous middle schools were established, both in cities and in th« country, which in the following straitened years weighed hard upon the com¬ munal budgets. For several of these schools co-education with its great economical 464 COEDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 465 advantages offered the only security from financial ruin. That the higher school education has become so dee|)ly rooted in as it is among our population is essentially due to co-education. ’VV'e should also notice how coeducation, step by step, has gained its way. This system was first cautiously introduced in the small lower classes; to these in time were added the lowest middle classes ; and after an interval the girls, on account of their standing, received admittance to the graduating classes, and finally people came to the conclusion that coeducation would be the most practical and satisfac¬ tory system. Only in a few communities, which for a longer period have had well- equipped girls’ schools, the matter is so arranged that these schools transfer the girls who want to take the higher courses to the highest boys’ schools or to the next high¬ est classes. While in this manner some schools stopped half way, on the other hand no retrograde steps have been taken. Coeducation, where it has once found en¬ trance, has steadily gained ground. I am in possession of statements, the speaker continued, from the leading men of our mixed schools, and I will take advantage of this opportunity to give hearty thanks for the full, clear, and suggestive ansv.mrs sent to me. The statements therein also refer to public feeling both against and for the system. It is repeatedly mentioned that coeducation has met with doubt and opposition. But at present it appears to me that dissatisfaction has subsided ; no¬ where do people wish a change ; on the contrary, lively expressions of satisfaction frequently occur. It is easily understood and is emphatically expressed in many of the statements that economical interests carry special weight in the eyes of the treasurers in favor of coeducation. Apart from a few theorists it was doubtless everywhere at first on account of economy that a general sentiment was aroused in favor of mixed schools. Parents preferred to have their children instructed together, instead of hav¬ ing only one part, the boys, taught, or of having them instructed separately at two¬ fold expense. Some add that they prefer this system instead of having their chil¬ dren inefficiently instructed. The mixed school renders it possible to make a more complete grading. A generation ago it was thought natural in all public schools of our cities that the boys and girls should be separated as soon as the number of the pupils was large enough to support two schools. A reaction has been brought about in many places, and more weight is attached to classifying the pupils according to ability and age than to sex. In this manner several of our schools have been reunited, and I have only heard of favorable results. The questions I have presented to my Norwegian colleagues can be condensed as follows : 1. How do the mixed schools affect the health of the girls? 2. How does coeducation accord with the programmes and methods of study? 3. What influence has it upon morality in school ? Or, in other words, what is thought of coeducation judged from the standpoint of the school’s triple duty as a physical, intellectual, and ethical training school. I.— Effect of mixed schools upon the health of the girls. Thanks to the investigations of Prof. Axel Key and of the Danish commission on hygiene, relative to the sanitary conditions of the school population, which have attracted attention even outside of the Scandinavian countries, we are better ac¬ quainted with the sanitary condition of Swedish and Danish schools than of those of any other country. As to Norway'-, we have no data to present, but it is supposed that the conditions are analogous to those in the neighboring countries. From the reports of the Swedish and Danish investigations mentioned it is evident that the sanitary state of the school population is not good, is worse in the schools for girls than in the schools for boys ; and worst in the higher schools for girls in Sweden. The percentage of ill health, which in the total number of boys’ schools in Denmark amounts to 29 per cent., rises in the Latin schools to .32; in teachers’ seminaries in Sweden to 39 ; and finally, in the thirty-tive higher girls’ schools which were investi¬ gated, the enormous proportion of 61 per cent, is found (shortsightedness not in¬ cluded). Both the Danish school committees assert that the percentages of ill health stated represent the minimum number. If we schoolmen now refer to expert physi¬ cians in order to find out how far the school is at fault with regard to this precarious condition, we shall be left in the dark. They mention a number of hygienic disad¬ vantages, as insufficient light and air, inadequate heating apparatus, school material, etc.; too long schoolhours with too short recesses ; objectionable distribution of lessons with too many studies at home ; insufficient hygienic control by the school author¬ ities ; the teachers’ lack of hygienic physiological education, etc. But, although these evils are bad enough and should impress all who are connected with schools, the physicians seem to agree that ^‘the factors of sickliness are generally of a most complicated nature, so that it is impossible to isolate them from each other, and that every attempt to prove that the children’s sickliness depends, e. g., on the longer or ED 51) - 30 466 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. shorter school honrs, must bo condemned.” (Statement of the Swedish school commit¬ tee for girls.) The Alsace-Lorraine hygienic commission in its report of 1883 attributed the sad sanitary condition of young people principally to the existing social conditions; the sedentary life and impracticable dresses of girls; the influence of exciting literature upon the nervous system, x>ublic dancing, light theatrical plays, etc. And the Swed¬ ish school committee further specifies hereditary tendencies, abuse of alcohol, etc. Professor Key says, Schools are as we want them to be;” and he explains with regard to girls, “ It is the extra housework which produces overexertion, there where the burden is already heavy.” The Swedish girls’ school committee sympa¬ thizes in this with Professor Key. The following remarks are worthy of notice: “According to the Danish school commission, in the Danish schools for girls the daily study hours are longer than with us (in Sweden), the vacations are much shorter, gymuastics are on a low level, and there are no regular lunch hours ; the school grounds are usually not as well located as in our country — a natural conse¬ quence of the lower school fees in Denmark. But in spite of these unfavorable con¬ ditions, the sanitation in the Danish schools for girls is 22 per cent, better than in the Swedish.” Thus, although we know very little of the actual effect the schools in general have upon the health of the children, one thing is certain, the health of school girls is on an average worse than that of boys. It is evident that girls’ schools have had less atten¬ tion paid to their hygienic arrangements than those for boys, and they are even in our day treated as of secondary consequence by the state. Physical training has only slowly gained its way. Grown-up persons, the educated — one-sided educated — and learned people have measured the child with their own measure and have made the erudition of the mind, which in many respects would have been a natural object of their own wishes, the only aim of early school education. The education of boys in and outside of the school is fortunately improving. The boys take the lead and the girls follow at a distance. Many expressions of fresh child life, which for centuries were permitted to boys, have not been considered decorous for girls. A recently published work by Pinloche, a French writer, relating to Basedow and philanthropy, furnishes a retrospective view of the school atfairs of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries which is any¬ thing but inspiring. Only think, in a regulation of a gymnasium in Eisenach, 1676, we -read : The boys are forbidden to bathe and wash in cold water “because it is a very dangerous thing to do.” They shall refrain from skating on the ice, from snow¬ balling, from ball games. Paragraphs upon paragraphs follow, beginning with the significant words of that time, “astiueaut,” “fugiant,” etc. These paragraphs have long since been struck out of the school regulatious for boys, but they were retained for girls in Scandinavia until late in our century; and as antediluvian as it may appear to many, nevertheless it is certain that education in school and house still utters in many instances to the weaker sex Hamlet’s words to Ophelia: “Frailty, thy name is woman.” if woman is frail by nature and education, we are so much the less entitled to push from us the favorable means by which to improve her health by offering her when a child the opportunity to play with the boys, to take walks with them, to engage in skating and sleighing parties, wood and field excursions. A frail boy will always improve in company with stronger boys and under proper care. Why should this not be the case with the sex that has been named the “ weaker?” But a true fellowship between children, which in our days cousist.s chiefly in their school inter¬ ests, requires school companionship, school partnership, coeducation. But we meet with the objection that what we gaiu in one respect through coedu¬ cation, wo lose in another. The feebler strength of girls will not permit them with¬ out overexertion to bear the same amount of work as the boys ; the girl’s brain will not be able to assimilate the same amount of learning as that of the boy, or if so, it will be at the expense of her physical development, which with respect to women requires many peculiar considerations. In this way many people find an obstacle to coeducation. Unfortunately, we schoolmen are not, as we should bo, physiologists, and professional physiologists are not as a rule pedagogues ; and, as scientists so often disagree, it is hard fora layman to form a proper judgment. The iniormatiou I received from several learned and experienced physicians can bo condensed as follows: Up to twelve years of age all agree that the mixed school can not endanger the health of the girls; after twelve years many }diysicians express themselves doubtful, but think it justifiable to pro¬ ceed tentatively, keeping the ears open to the voice of experience in whatever di¬ rection its utterances may tend. Some physicians declare decidedly that from the physical standpoint no objection can be raised against the same studies for girls as those laid down for boys, iirovided ‘that the girls are brought under the same favor¬ able hygienic conditions as the boys. “ If you can provide the girls with the sgme physical exercises as the boys, there will be no danger,” I heard one physician say. COEDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 467 Another physician said, “Do away with the corset and that will more than counterbal¬ ance the difference in lessons.’^ With regard to the Norwegian mixed schools, the school committees have tried to forestall every danger and have made arrangements by which the work in mathematics is somewhat reduced for girls, the division of middle-school examinations is transferred to an earlier school grade, and finally the course for girls in the highest class of the middle schools may last two years. These measures permit “at the critical age” both a shortening of daily school hours and a decrease of the general home studies, leaving some spare time for household work. The arrangement has of course disadvantages; a two years’ course in which a class of girls is associated in turn with two different classes of hoys is not a perfect sys¬ tem of coeducation. But let us look around in other parts of the world. In several States of the United States coeducation has for generations been practiced, though not without opposi¬ tion. The physical capacity of the female sex has especially been a burning question. ‘ It is well known that American physicians in medical journals have ascribed a poor standing to American women of the better classes, as wives and mothers. One especially, the late Dr. Clarke, of Boston, in a manner that attracted attention on this side of the ocean, attributed this evil to coeducation, and prophesied as a con¬ sequence thereof a general degeneration of the female sex. I followed the movement as far as was in my power at such a distance, and in the year 1884 I furnished in Vor Ungdom an account of some contemporary documents, especially of a complete official report of the spread of coeducation in the United States with the prevailing opinion on that subject. The icport was prepared by the Commissioner of Education in Washington, Hon. John Eaton, partly on account of repeated requests for informa¬ tion from iSurope. Mr. Eaton’s investigation comprised more than three hundred large and small cities of the Union, and furnished on the whole remarkable testimony in favor of mixed schools. The following sentence expressed the general sentiment of the time: “ We are created male and female; all the impulses and activities of nature enforce coeducation ; if we must live together we must be educated to that end ; to educate separately is an attempt to change the natural order of human economy.” This information from America contributed to a certain degree to the advancement of coeducation in Europe. From the same report, however, it appears that the sys¬ tem met with considerable opposition in the West, an opposition which in the eyes of some people reeeived a certain official stamp two years later (i. e., 1885), by a pub¬ lication of the Bureau of Education. This publication was a circular by Mr. Phil- brick, who for one generation had a great influence upon education in Boston. Mr. Philbrick’s writing is an earnest and distinguished work, the testimony of an experi¬ enced schoolman, who regarded the school system of his country more criticallj^ than Americans usually do; it treats more of other subjects, however, and si)eaks of coedu¬ cation only occasionally and somewhat critically, as if it were less appreciated in America than formerly. “Coeducation makes it harder” — this is in short his con¬ clusion — “to remedy the reigning overpressure in the schools and it prevents ‘spe¬ cialization’ of schools.” Mr. Philbrick is no partisan of the movement which at present is called “ mixed schools.” Commissioner Eaton introduces Mr. Philbrick’s circular with many complimentary words, but at the same time he takes care to make it plain tlmt the Bureau by publishing this work does not indorse all the opinions expressed therein. As nevertheless the people in Norway and of late the Swedish girhs’ school committee have construed Mr. Philbrick’s writing as an official retreat from the standpoint regarding coeducation which the Bureau of Education com¬ mended in its publication of 1?^83, I consider it opportune to-day, with reference to the conception of Mr. Philbrick’s writing as it has been understood in the Scandi¬ navian countries, to take as a guide in our discussion the recent authentic statement from the Bureau itself. The explicit answer of .luue 17, this year, from the Bureau, has been prepared by the present Commissioner, Dr. W. T. Harris. It states his thorough personal experience of both systems, i. c., the mixed school and the separate school ; he enters upon the essential features of the question and sets forth, forcibly and decisively, in the light of experience, the acknowledged advantages of coeducation. This important document will be published in For Ungdom (Our Young People). At present I confine myself to the following extract: “I think the overwhelming majority of all persons engaged in education in the United States are in favor of coeducation. With regard to Mr. Philbrick’s judgment on the subject of coeducation, I think that he stood almost alone- among our ablest writers on education in his opinion. The Boston schools under his charge educated the sexes separately. Ir may bo that his experience in that city had undue influence on his opinion. At present, with the extension of the city limits, so that new suburbs have been taken in, there are nowin Boston very many primary and grammar schools (pupils from 10 to 14 years of age) and also secondary schools (so-called high schools) now in Bo.ston which have coeducation. The prophecies of Dr. Clarke, of Boston, to the effect that coeducation would prove injurious to the health of women, have not been fulfilled. A very active society of graduates from universities educating women 468 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. * * * the Association of Collegiate AluranaB, have collected the statistics on this point proving that the health of women engaged in higher education is as good as that of men.” The Finlander, Rev. K. T. Broberg, as is well known, walks in the same path, as may be seen from his laktfagelser under en 2}edagogisk res’a i Nord Amerika (Observations During a Pedagogical Journey in North America), Helsingfors, 18»9. These observa¬ tions also impress us with the idea that coeducation has found steady appreciation and application in those sections of America where people formerly were opposed to it. Other statements which I have received confirm this view. Among others, a Norwegian lady. Miss Beutzen, who, aided by a public grant, is studying the Ameri¬ can school system, especially the mixed schools, stares that coeducation has every¬ where in America found a foothold. If this is the case, the Americans must be con¬ vinced that coeducation does not threaten physical degeneration in the female sex, and it appea,rs probable that the mixed school can be arranged in a manner to meet the demands of the time as well as the separate school. It is a very different ques¬ tion whether or not schools, as they at present are established in Europe, in Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Norway, could satisfy these demands. II. — Courses of study in mixed schools. In the second division of his address. Dr. Voss dwells upon the ideas formerly pre¬ vailing in Germany with regard to the weaker sex, and their inadequate school edu¬ cation. He cites Fichte’s gallant remark : “ Man has to make himself rational, while woman by nature is rational.” This, observes Mr. Voss, is beautifully said, but prob¬ ably all women will resent such gallantry if the price, spiritually speaking, is to live a life upon half rations. He refers to his observations made in home and foreign schools for both sexes. Teachers of mixed schools in Norway all agree that girls are fully able to follow the same courses as boys. A ten years’ experience at universities in England, America, the Scandinavian countries, and elsewhere confirms the fact that women can pursue all branches of our higher intellectual culture. He referred to Miss Helene Lange’s work, Die FraiienMldung (Berlin), and to Strack’s article ‘‘ Geschleclitertrennung^’ in Schmid’s Encyclopaedia. As to the German school system, so often held forth as an example and which keeps the timid from entering on the path of reform, much good can be said of it. Steadfastly, without change in the system, and with full and har¬ monious development, the German school has worked itself up to its present high standing, from the time of the reformers. At all times it presents a very fine scien¬ tific aim, and often a noble conception of the school’s high vocation. No other coun¬ try has developed such an admirable technique in instruction. In each individual domain all other countries have learnt from the German pedagogues. But the school’s remarkable specialization is dearly purchased by its isolation, etc. III. — Influence of coeducation upon morality. The speaker then returns to the question, “What influence has coeducation upon morality ?” The Swedish girls’ school committee proposed to make a trial of mixed schools for children up to fifteen years of age, in thirty-five smaller cities, where girls otherwise hardly would have a chance of receiving higher education. This plan was opposed in Stockholm in 1889 by a predominant majority of the DomkapilJer (consistory or council of clergy), as it appears, from fear of the moral influence of mixed schools. In opposition to the Domkapitler^s authority, Mr. Voss cites an extract from Schmid’s Encyci(>])aidia, written by G. Bauer, who recommends coeducation. Mr. Voss observes that small nations have sometimes their advantages. In the Prussian public schools there are on an a verage '77 pupils in a class, sometimes even 100; in the higher classes, from 50 to 60 children. In the Scandinavian countries the maximum is 50, which number seldom is reached. All scruples, therefore, as to too crowded classes in our Scandinavian schools do not exist and can not form an argument against coeducation. From the Prussian Rhine province, where public schools are divided into seven grades, Mr. Voss continues, I have received private informations through the school superintendent and district school inspector, stating that experience proves the ben¬ eficial influence of coeducation on morality in schools. The obstacles to coeduca¬ tion in Germany are (1) the study of Latin for children of 9 years of agi^ “from which absurdity,” adds the writer, “ may God protect our little girls ; ” aucl (2) that women are not authorized to teach in the higher grades of schools for girls. The answers to inquiries made in Norway as to morality in mixed schools have likewise been very satisfactory. A tendency to flirtation has been noticed, but in a very innocent manner, and it disappears in proportion as coeducation is com])letely introduced. Sometimes it is said the girls keep to themselves and don’t wish to have COEDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 469 anything to do with the “ disagreeable boys.” but as a rule the relation between boys and the girls develops uaturally as between brothers and sisters. Similar conditions are noticeable in America, according to M. Buisson, Paul Janet, General Eaton. Coeducation is introduced at Helsingfors, in Finland, a city with 60,000 inhab¬ itants. Professor Gustafson, of Helsingfors, emphasizes the beneficial influence of coeducation upon boys and girls, the boys become less seldsh, the girls more truth¬ ful and natural. With regard to discipline great satisfaction is expressed in Finland, that the teachers’ corps includes both men and women. A good woman teacher is fully able to manage boys. The attention and zeal of children are increasing through coeducation. There is less strain upon girls in the mixed schools than in separate schools and they become used to a rational system of studying. IV.— Coeducation in higuer institutions. ' Hitherto in his address Mr. Voss has confined himself to the elementary schools. With respect to schools for advanced students, gymnasia, etc., he says briefly: If the pedagogical views which I have expressed contain truths, their application will also be practicable for the higher grades. The chief question is : Do we gentlemen desire to oppose obstacles to women who are anxious to study ? Or do we entertain the narrow idea that a little scientific knowledge can make bad wives and mothers of our daughters? Is it not tlie desire for scientific truth which, without stopping at difficulties and hindrances, but with impetuous impulse constantly acquires new pro¬ vinces for human knowledge, in unity with the general feelings of mankind, with the spirit of solidarity, which has use for all energies and will make all partakers in the work, troubles, and reward of the struggle? And should one-half of mankind be left outside or only be admitted by a back door ? Who does not feel the impossibility of maintaining such a view ? Let us with faith in the emancipating power of truth throw open the chief gateway to all who knock. Practically we have here in the North already solved this question by admitting women to the university studies. This we do not repent. It is certainly foolish to deny her admittance to the school course which prepares for these studies. In Nor¬ way the fact has been acknowledged that the competent female pupils who entered this road— though they were small in number — have been a pride to the gymnasia. There is a country called France, more notorious for its radicalism than any other country. How and where has it educated its daughters? Hidden in cloisters as in no other civilized country. At present the French people are trying to rid them¬ selves of this system, and a sigh of grief goes through the discussions over the separating wall which the former educational system has raised between the beliefs, ideas, and habits of the two sexes. The principal idea can be expressed in brief : The unity of the family requires identity of education for men and women. L^uniU de lafamille and Videntitd de V education are bywords. Or as Gambetta expresses him¬ self: In order to make hearts beat together souls must be brought together. It applied perhaps to more countries than France, when a politician who is anything but radical. Count de Mun, recently called out in the Chamber of Deputies: “ It is the dissolution of the family which is the misfortune of our age,” or when Jules Simon {in Arleidersken) complains: “ Communities have established schools for the children, asylums for the old, but they have forgotten one thing: the hearth for the family. They have considered all the necessities of the body, but the heart they have forgotten.” Perhaps the school, the much divid«‘d primary school, has tres¬ passed against “the hearth of the home.” When we look around in our family cir¬ cle, we hardly can keep off the thought that every time wo divide the primary school, we cut out a piece from the life and conscience of the nation. We find an expression for the innermost thought of coeducation in the words with which Erne.st Legonv6, eighty years of age, concludes a book which he furnishes with the pretty title Tlie Histoiy of my House: “ All my ambition, all my longings have been to establish within these walls a part of that which has engraved itself deepest into my heart. I mean the feeling which constitutes the principal interest of my life, which lias sustained me in all ray troubles, spurred me in all my works, consoled me in all my afflictions, upheld me in all my despondency, and which has increased my pleasures : love for my family P CHAPTER XVIIl. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES. WITH AN APPENDIX UPON COMPULSOEY EDUCATION LEGISLATION IN PEUSSIA. Twenty-seven States and Territories of the Union have at the present time^ compul¬ sory attendance laws in operation. These vary considerably in their character and in the degree to which they attain the end for which they were enacted. In the followiag pages the text of several of these laws is given, together with au¬ thoritative statements of any facts relating to the operation of the same, and if inoper¬ ative the reasons therefor — whether any known defect in the law itself, or the lack of public sentiment demanding its strict enforcement, or both combined, as is more likely to be the case. A brief historical r4sum6 is also given for several States, in which the course of compulsory legislation in the past has been traced; this is notably the case with Massachusetts, which was the pioneer State in this matter, and in which a deter¬ mination to make the law effective has resulted in frequent amendment. The defects or deficiencies of the law in its earlier forms are pointed out, as well as the various steps which were taken to bring it to its present state of efficiency. The record of the exx)erience of Massachusetts is a most valuable one for the guidance of those who are engaged in inaugurating or perfecting measures of an analogous character. In the two States, viz, Massachusetts and Connecticut, in which the laws have been the most effective (though not the most elaborate or intricate), a tendency may be no¬ ticed toward two distinct types or systems: In Massachusetts, though the law is in its terms obligatory upon all towns, the system is practically a local-option one, and is ad¬ ministered by the towns. In Connecticut, on the other hand, a more centralized sys¬ tem has been developed, in which the State executes the law through its own agents, with the cobperation of the local authorities. It would seem that the latter method is the more generally effective. In addition to the States and Territories included in the following list, Maryland, Texas, and Arizona have had compulsory-attendance laws on their statute books, but have repealed them or suffered them to lapse. In nearly every other State the subject has been discussed, and in some, notably Pennsylvania, Indiana^, and Iowa, bills have been introduced which have failed for the time being to become laws. The principle of compulsory education is steadily gaining ground. Steps in advance are being taken here and there all along the line. Since 1886 no less than sixteen States and Territories have either enacted laws for the first time or have made their former laws more stringent. The arguments and discussions of thirty years or more have been gradually silencing opposition, and public sentiment is slowly crystallizing in the direction of requiring by law all parents to provide a certain minimum of school instruction for their children. This tendency is unmistakable. The following table shows the dates at which the several States and Territories first iThis chapter has been revised as far as practicable to March, 1891. 2 A compulsory attendance bill has again failed (1891 ) to pass the Indiana legislature, having had a large majority against it. 470 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE - MASSACHUSETTS. 471 enacted compulsory-attendance laws of universal application, excluding the early laws of Massachusetts and Connecticut: Stale. Year. State. Year. Massachusetts . 1852 Wyoming . 1876 District of Columbia . 1861 Ohio . . . 1877 Vermont . 1867 Wisconsin . 1879 New Hampshire . 1871 Rhode Island . . . 1883 Michieran a . 1871 Illinois . 1883 Washington h . ; . 1871 Dakota . 1883 Connecticut . 1872 Montana . 1883 New Mexico . 1872 IVIinnesota . 1885 Nevada . 1873 Nebraska . 1887 New York . 1874 Idaho . 1887 Kansas . 1874 Colorado . 1889 California . 1874 Oregon . 1889 Maine . 1875 Utah . 1890 New Jersey . 1875 a No law from 1881 to 1383. 6 No law from 1873 to 1877. An attempt was made in this connection to compile statistics showing the effect of compulsory laws upon school attendance, but without success. The proportion, of chil¬ dren affected by a compulsory-attendance law is so small, and the other influences tend¬ ing to increase or decrease school attendance are so varied and far-reaching that the effect of compulsory laws may be and generally is completely masked. It is shown elsewhere in this Report (Chap. I) that the percentage of public school attendance in the North has been continuously decreasing during the period compulsory legislation has been taking shape, the effect of such laws having been completely neutralized by the continuous action of other agencies. Mr. Giles Potter, agent of the Connecticut State Board, says upon this subject: “ When we look for results of compulsory school laws in the statistics of the State, it should be remembered that the entire percentage of the number of children affected by such laws is not large. The great majority of children who attend school are sent with¬ out any thought of law. They would go just as regularly if no such laws had ever been enacted. If this were not so these lawscould not be enforced in any case. In any given year a larger percentage of children may be kept from school by a contagious disease or an inclement season than the entire percentage affected by the law, and hence its influ¬ ence, so far as shown by statistics, be wholly lost sight of.” ^ MASSACHUSETTS. The subject of universal education engaged the attention of the general court of Mas¬ sachusetts from the’ time of its earliest settlement. As far back as 1642 the selectmen of every town were required to “ have a vigilant eye over their brethren aud neighbors, to see that none of them shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their families as not to endeavor to teach, by themselves and others, their children and apprentices so much learning as may enable them perfectly to read the English tongue, and a knowledge of the capital laws,” upon penalty of 20 shillings for each neglect therein. Later it was made the duty of resident ministers of the gospel, the selectmen, and the school committees to exert their best endeavors that the youth of their towns should regularly attend the schools established for their instruction. For nearly 200 years, however, the Massachusetts “system of free schools was sus¬ tained directly by the people, without special care or direct aid from the government. The people were then homogeneous; the sentiment in favor of free schools was univer¬ sal; deficiencies in the schools, when they existed, were often supplied by instruction in the family; and if there was little completeness of system or perfection of detail, yet the results were worthy of all praise.” ^ ^ But with the coming in of a foreign aud a manufacturing population, the concentra¬ tion of wealth, and the more marked division of the people into sects and clas.«es, it was found that the public schools were losing their efficiency and the system itself its vital¬ ity. This alarmed patriotic aud intelligent men, and gave rise in 1834 to the provision for a school fund, and to the establishment in 1837 of the Conn. Sch. Rep., 1889, p. 3G. 2 20 Mass. Rep. (1855-56), p. 5. 472 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. A new era then opened. The State board and its secretaries gave their attention to perfecting the public-school system, improving schools and school buildings, and espe¬ cially to raising the standard of the teaching force. A.s a part of this movement, pro¬ visions for increasing school attendance were devised, which finally led up, through the truant law of 1850, to the compulsory-attendance act of 1852. ^ This law (of 1852) was the first of a series of enactments by State legislatures prescrib¬ ing compulsory attendance, and furnished a model on which the earlier laws of other States were based; it was a practical embodiment of the principle that it is the right and duty of the State, for its own safety and advantage, to intervene and compel the parent to accord to his child, as a fundamental right, so much of education as shall fit him to be a citizen of a free state. As this law is an important landmark in American educational history, it is here reproduced verbatim, including amendments to 1859. THE FIRST MASSACHUSETTS LAW. Section 1, Every person having under his control a child between the ages of eight and fourteen years shall annually during the continuance of his control send such child to some public school in the city or town in which he resides at least twelve weeks, if the public schools of such city or town so long continue, six weeks of which time shall be consecutive; and for every neglect of such duty the partj'^ offending shall forfeit to the use of such city or tou’n a sum not exceeding twenty dollars ; but if it appears upon the inquiry of the truant oflicersor school committee of any city or town, or upon the trial of any prosecution, that the party so neglecting was not able, by reason of poverty, to send such child to school, or to furnish him with the means of education, or that such child has been otherwise furnished with the means of education for a like period of time, or has already acquired the branches of learning taught in the public schools, or that his bodily or mental condition has been such as to prevent his attendance at school or application to study for the period required, the penalty before mentioned shall not be incurred. Sec. 2. The truant officers and the school committees of the several cities and towns shall inquire into all cases of neglect of the duty prescribed in tUe preceding section, and ascertain from the persons neglecting the reasons, if anjq therefor; and shall forthwith give notice of all violations, with the reasons, to the treasurer of the city or town ; and if such treasurer willfully neglects or refuses to prosecute any person liable to the penalty providedfor in the preceding section, he shall forfeit the sum of twenty dollars.* * This law of 1852 apparently attracted little attention. In fact, it is not mentioned at all, or is barely relerred to, in the State reports until 1860. On the contrary, the Rev. Barnas Sears says in 1855, while enumerating the various expedients resorted to to diminish irregularity of attendance: “In many towns rules have been established by the school committee excluding from the school those whose absences exceed a certain amount,”® a measure looking rather to compulsory absence than to compulsory attend¬ ance. Supt. Geo. S, Boutwell published the law in full in the twenty-fourth report (1859-60), but without any information as to what extent it was enforced. How little advance the idea of enibrced attendance had made at that period may be gathered from the following remarks of Rev. B. G. Northrop, agent of the board, in 1861: “In those cases where parents, without good reason, deprive their children of the advantages of education, some coercion like that contemplated in the general stat¬ utes may properly be employed, although compulsion should be used with caution and only as a last resort in those comparatively rare cases where all other means have failed. * * * The existence of such a law, when sanctioned and sustained by a public sen¬ timent alive to the importance of the subject, will add weight and authority to personal persuasions.” Early truant laws. — The evils of truancy had previously been the subject of many val¬ uable discussions on the part of Mr. Mann and his successors, who had urged all possi¬ ble efforts for its suppression. In response thereto laws were passed in 1850 and several years following which were finally consolidated (about 1859) into a general statute. This statute gave to cities and towns authority to make all needful provisions “con¬ cerning habitual truants® and children not attending school, or without any regular and lawful occupation, or growing up in ignorance, between the ages of five and sixteen years.” Towns availing themselves of this permission were required to appoint truant officers, who alone should make complaints and carry into execution judgments; truants convicted under it might be fined, or sent to an institution of instruction or reforma¬ tion, or provided with a situation for work.® * An act had previously passed, in 1842, in addition to an act of 1836, providing that no child should be employed in any manufaeturing establishment more than ten hours a day, if said child be under twelve years of age. * Copied from 24 Mass. Rep. (1859-60), p. 131. 3 19 Mass. Rep. (1854-55), p. 53. ^25 Mass. Rep. (1860-61), p. 125. ® “ Truancy,” says Superintendent Eoutwell in 1856, “ is not absence from school merely; it in¬ volves in its commission deception and falsehood, and is usually ijroduced by or connected with offenses, and even crimes of a flagrant character.” (20 Mass. Rep., p. 53.) 624 Mass. Rep. (1859-60), p. 136. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE— MASSACHUSETTS. 473 The legislature of 1862 passed anew truant act, changing the law in two impor tan t par- ticulars; First, the two classesof offenses, truancy and absenteeism, were more clearly dis¬ tinguished and defined than before; and second, that which was only permissible and op¬ tional in the former act was made an absolute requirement in the latter. In effect, what was formerly a law giving permission to towns to “make provisions” now became a pronounced and mandatory truant law. “Each city and town,” the new act reads, '’'‘'aliall make SiW ueediul provisions and ifrrangeinenta concerning hab]tual truants and also concerning children wandering about in the streets or public places of any city or town, having no lawful occupation or business, not attending school, and growing up in ignorance, between the ages of seven and sixteen years.” The remaining provisions of the previous law were left substantially unchanged.^ The justices of the police court of Boston found this act defective, inasmuch as it did not expressly determine who should have jurisdiction under it. To remedy this, an additional act was passed in 1863 providing that either of the justices of the police court of the city of Boston, and any judge or justice of any police court, and any trial justice in the State, shall have jurisdiction within their respective counties.^ An obstacle in the way of the t;uant law. — The most serious difficulty in the way of a successful execution of the truant law was found to be in the disposition to be made of the offenders. “It is obvious, ” says Supt. White, “that children should be confined where they can enjoy the privileges which they are punished for neglecting, and where they shall be removed Irom all contact with the vicious. Unless this can be secured the law will fail of its highest usefulness, and prove an injury rather than a blessing.” It was recommended that there should be a distinct establishment for the purpose in which manual and mental “ labor ” should be combined. Most of the cities and large towns, in fact, had w'ithin a reasonable distance institutions where arrangements could be made to that end. Where such places did not exist, it was suggested that the towns should associate together, or else the counties, for the purpose of establishing them. Further defects of the truant law, — The Boston school committee complain the follow¬ ing year (1864) that the powers of the school board in the matter of truancy have been unwisely restricted, and assert that the truant officers are a part of school, not of crim¬ inal machinery, and should therefore be entirely under the control of the school board. “They owe to the school board no accountability, receive from it none of their power, and are under no obligations to inform it what may be done or what may be left un¬ done.” In 1866, four years after the passage of the revised truant act, only 98 cities and towns out of a total of 335 had chosen truant officers in obedience to law. In these cities and towns the law was enforced to a greater or less extent. But as there was no penalty an¬ nexed to the failure to appoint truant officers the requirement was “largel3’^ ignored.” The compulsory attendance law almost a dead letter — Reasons for its failure. — Coming back to the compulsory-attendance law proper (of 1852) it may be said that it was completely ignored for about two decades in the reports of the State board and its secretaries, ex¬ cept as quoted above. Apparently, public opinion was not yet ripe for such a measure and no attempt was made to enforce it. For instance, in 1869 the truant commissioner of Lowell reported that out of 717 cases of truancy investigated there were found 447 cases of absence with permission of parents. “I have labored hard,” said the commis¬ sioner, “to impress on the minds of this class of parents the vital necessity of constant attendance of their children while members of our schools.” But it does not appear that he or anyone else had resort in any case to sterner measures when “all other means ” had failed. General Oliver, the State constable, says, a short time after, regarding the enforcement of the compulsory law, “nobody looks after it,” “nobody thinks of obey¬ ing the school laws,” and “ most people are ignorant that there is any such law.” Superintendent White took up the subject in 1870, after so long a silence, and pro¬ ceeded to state the reasons of failure and inaugurate a new departure: “I am fully con¬ vinced, he says, “after many years of observation and inquiry, that the several enact¬ ments relating to this matter [absenteeism] are ill adapted to their purpose, discordant, and incapable of execution, and therefore need a careful and thorough revision, to which ample time and thought should be given. I therefore respectlully recommend that the present legislature be requested to pass a resolve directing the board of education oi such other competent body as may be deemed proper to take into consideration all * 26 Mass. Rep. (1861-62), pp. 52-3. In March, 1862, a valuable report on Truancy and Compulsory Educalion in the city of Boston was made by Supt. J. D. Philbriek, giving; an account of the prog¬ ress of opinion on this subject, the act of the city, with the necessary by-laws and forms of legal procedure, the statements of the truant officers as to the practical working and effects of the law, and closing with a summary of the results of the operation of the law in Boston. The State super¬ intendent (Joseph White) asserts that “this document is exhaustive of the subject and valuable for general use,” and that “its possession would be an important assistance to any town which pro¬ poses earnestly to execute the law.” *27 Mass. Rep. (1862-63), p. 80. 474 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. existing laws relating to school attendance, truancy, absenteeism, and the employment of children in manufacturing establishments, ^ and inquire what alterations and amend¬ ments are needed to combine said enactments into a uniform, consistent, and efficient code adapted to the present views and wants of the public.” Compulsory attendance act o/1873. — This recommendation was renewed by the State board in 1872. The outcome of the efforts mpde in this direction was the act of 1873. This act cut short the period of enforced attendance two years, changing it from 8-14 to 8-12; but the annual period of such attendance v/as extended from 12 to 20 weeks.^ The most decided improvement, however, was in the mode of enforcement; by the act of 1852 town treasurers Avere subjected to a penalty of $20 for ivillful neglect or refusal to prosecute under it, ‘‘a most ingeniously contrived method of how not to do it;” “of course this functionary would not find time for so disagreeable service; of course his re¬ fusal or neglect would not be ivUIfuI, even in a legal sense, and thus the matter would end.” The new law required that prosecution for infractions of it should be made by the truant officers, “when so directed by the school committee.” The responsibility was no longer divided between two parties — one to make inquiry and report, and an¬ other to prosecute, but rested solely with the school committee, where it properly be¬ longed. It was provided that no objection should be made by the school committee to attend¬ ance on any private school on account of the religious teaching in it.^ Effiect of the old law. — “The law [of 1852] was an honor to the Commonwealth, as fur¬ nishing a high standard and rule of duty; and although but partially enforced, it has, nevertheless, in its practical working, been the source of incalculable good to the Com¬ monwealth. ’ ’ (Superintendent White. ) Improvements in the truant law. — The same year (1873), and as a nart of the same movement, the truant laws were reconstructed and consolidated. Towns and cities were now required to provide suitable places for the “confinement, discipline, and in¬ struction” of truant children. The provision, “alike impracticable and absurd, for attempting to punish the truant child by a fine,” was omitted, and only his confine¬ ment in a place of instruction provided for. “The law is not a penal one, but reforma¬ tory rather. The truant or absentee is not a criminal, and should not be treated as one. * * * His confinement for the purposes of control and instruction should not be with the criminal classes.” Another marked improvement was the transferring from the several cities and towns themselves to the school committees thereof the duty of appointing and fixing the com¬ pensation of truant officers; and second, in making those officers the agents of said committees, in enforcing the provisions of the act, and of the by-laws adopted under it. “The duties and responsibilities of the town and of the school committee, under this law, are separate and distinct — of the former, to adopt the necessary by-laws, to pro¬ vide a place for the confinement and instruction of the persons convicted under them; of the latter, to appoint proper persons as truant officers, and to superintend and direct them in the discharge of their duties.” County commissioners were required, at the instance of three or more cities or towns in any county, to establish at convenient places truant schools, other than the jail or house of correction.^ The truant officers had now become a part of the school system, and were appointed by the school committees; yet, the school committees did not proceed to obey the provi¬ sions of the truant law with much more alacrity than the town authorities had done; there was still lacking any penalty tor failure to take action. In 1875, out of 341 towns in the State, truant officers had been appointed in 130 only.^ In the.se the truant law was tolerably well enforced, as a general rule, and the evils of absenteeism greatly diminished. Cambridge, after trying a truant officer, “thought that for various reasons it w'ould be better to have this officer more immediately connected with the police de¬ partment, and four da}^ policemen were appointed to act as truant officers.” A new instrumentality needed. — Superintendent John D. Philbrick, of Boston, called attention inl875 to what must be an esseuti.al I'eature of an effective compulsory law. He said: “In a large city it is extremely difficult to execute the law re.specting the non- ’ The legislation of previous years regulating the employment of children in manufacturing es¬ tablishments, etc., was consolidated in a general statute about 1859. (24 Mass. Rep., p. 135.) This statute was superseded by the act of 1866 (30 76., 67-8), and this in turn by the act of 1S67 (31 lb., 47-8), in each of wliich important changes were made. These different laws had no general or necessary conformity, in regard to age of children concerned, number of weeks of enforced school¬ ing, or mode of enforcement, with either the compulsory attendance or the truant laws. 2 The ensuing year (1874) this feature of the law was altered, the age being changed again to bo from eight to fourteen years, as before, and the twenty weeks of attendance being divided into two consecutive terms of ten weeks each. (38 Mass. Rep., p. 483.) 337 Mass. Rep. (1872-73), pp. 136-9. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE— MASSACHUSETTS. 475 attendance of children between eight and twelve years of age without the aid of some new instrumentality. The truant officers have no means of knowing the whereabouts of those nonattendants who are not found wandering about the streets and public squares. What is needed is a register of the names, ages, and residences of all chil¬ dren of the prescribed school age. Such a register is found necessary wherever compul¬ sory education is fully carried out.” The State superintendent intimated the ensuing year, it may be supposed for the purpose of meeting this objection, that the annual school census supplied the necessary means l or compiling registers of the character indicated by Mr. Philbrick. The school census law required the names and ages of the children to be taken, and each teacher should be supplied with a list of those under his or her jurisdiction. Employment of school children at labor, — It has been stated that new compulsory attendance and truant laws were enacted in 1873. An act regulating the employment of children was introduced at the same session of the legislature, but failed to pass then as well as at the two succeeding sessions. In 1876, however, success was attained, and the trio of laws designed to secure the attendance of children at school was completed. The new law embraced children in mercantile as well as in manufacturing and me¬ chanical establishments. “This was done in view of the rapidly increasing numbers of small children who were withdrawn from the schools and gathered in the modern re¬ tail stores of immense proportions, as errand boys, cash boys, etc.” The act embraced all children between ten and fourteen, children under ten not being permitted to be employed at all. The term of attendance — twenty weeks — also con¬ formed to that of the compulsory-attendance law. By the former law, owners, agents, managers, etc., of the establishments mentioned in the bill were subjected to a penalty of $5U for knowingly violating the same. The “word knowingly completely nullified ” that act and in the present one was omitted. The execution of the act was given to the truant officers, under the sole direction of the school committees, who were thus “made responsible in the last resort lor the salutary working of the law.” The legal machinery complete. — Superintendent White, in recapitulating, asserts that the two acts of 1873, the employment act of 1876, and a new provision “ which devolves upon the school committees the duty of making the enumeration of all persons between the ages of five and fifteen years in their respective cities and towns, constitute a con¬ sistent code, and place in the hands of said committees, so far as legal enactments can well do it, an eftective machinery, easily worked, for securing the highest possible rate of attendance upon the public schools.” ^ The law regulating the employment of children was subsequently amended, in the direction of fixing more completely the responsibility of employers. In 1878 it was provided that their share of the income of the school fund should be withheld from towns not complying with the laws relating to truancy. Thus a penalty for nonenforcement was now for the first time applied, and in 1879 the law was reported to be “enforced” by the school committees of 214 towns. REPORT OF GEORGE A. TVALTOR, 1886. Practical results of the trio of laws. — George A. Walton, agent of the State board, in 1886 made a detailed report on “ School Attendance and Truancy,” ^ chiefly relating to the enforcement of the truant law. Of the compulsory-attendance law proper and the employment law, he says: “There is one provision in our compulsory laws which is al¬ most entirely inoperative; it is the section which imposes a fine upon the parent for neglecting to, send his child to school for twenty weeks each year. Instances of such neglect are common. We often hear of them, but seldom of the parents paying the penalty. 1 Near the close of his term of office, Superintendent White formulated the grounds of the right of the State to enact compulsory education laws, as follows: First. Because it is the indefeasible right of every child to secure that measure of education and training which will fit him to enjoy the privileges and to perform usefully to his fellows and hon¬ orably to himself the duties and offices of citizenship ; and if this right be withheld by parents or guardians, it is the duty of the State, as the guardian in the last resort of all, to interpose and se¬ cure to the child this great right. Second. Since it is the first duty of the Commonwealth to guard its organic life, and maintain its highest efficiency for the sake of those great ends for which it exists at all ; and since by com¬ mon consent it is agreed that the universal education of the people is a necessary condition of such life, it follows inevitably that it is both the right and the duty to insist, with an outstretched arm if need be, upon the education of the whole people. Third. It is a manifest injustice to take from the pockets of all the taxpayers, whether having' children to be benefited or not, large sums of money for erecting schoolhouses, and openingschools sufficient for the instruction of the whole number of children in the Commonwealth, under the sufficient plea that the public weal demands it, and then to allow these houses to stand tenantless or half filled, and these privileges to be wasted, as the indifference, the blindness, or wickednessof parents or guardians shall dictate. (37 Mass. Rep., p. 144.) *50 Mass. Rep. (1885-’ 86) pp. 163-185. 476 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. “In general, the manufacturing, mechanical, and mercantile establishments are in hearty sympathy and readily cooperate with the officers appointed to enforce the laws relating to the employment of children. We are fortunate in the officers whose duty it is to inspect these establishments and to make complaints and prosecute violations of the laws. ’ ’ With regard to truants inquiries v/ere made and responses were received from forty- five cities and towns as to compliance with the truant laws. Of these, twenty-seven reported uncoaditioually that the laws were enforced; others reported their enforcement in varying degrees. Tiie result as a whole indicated much efiective work done to sup¬ press truancy, yet there was considerable truancy that lor various reasons went uncon¬ trolled and unchecked. The agent goes on to state: “Where there are no superintendents whose whole business it is to look alter the schools the enforcement of the laws is dependent upon school committees. The danger to some towns of losing their share of the income of the school fund induces a formal compliance with the laws, so that now, with a few exceptions, the committees declare in their annual returns that the statutes concerning truancy are complied with. But the agents of the board find radical defects in the provisions made and often extreme laxity in the enforcement of the statutes applicable to truants and absentees from school. Sometimes we learn incidentally of cases of truancy, and not infrequently, either in this way or through the committee, we hear of whole families of children whose schooling is being neglected. “Many committees are alert in securing constant and punctual attendance of all the children in town. From the answers of some we are led to more than hall suspect that an acknowledgment of existing truancy is felt by the committees to be criminating them¬ selves. Sometimes when we ask if the town has adopted by-laws relating to truancy, and if these make all needful provisions for the restraint and instruction of truant children, we are met with the response, ‘We have no truants, so no provisions are needful. ’ “There is much absenteeism for trifling causes, which is by the consent or require¬ ment of the parents. In many towns there are districts in which are known to exist neglected children who are growing up in ignorance and without parental control. The truant officer is a harmless body in some of these districts; he does not want to make enemies among his neighbors, and therefore does nothing. The arm ol the school com¬ mittee is paralyzed by the same prudent regard for comfort. Committees in some towns of considerable population, on applying for permission to assign a certain truant school as the place to which their truant children may be committed, have given assurance that there will be no truants sent. This shows either insensibility to the beneficent provisions of the law or a foreknowledge which is somewhat remarkable. * * * “With all the obstacles to a strict enlorcement of the laws, it is safe to assume that their provisions are not properly enforced if fewer than one arrest a year is made to every 4,000 inhabitants; and probably, were the laws more strictly enforced, there would be one to every 3,000 or even 2,000. “The one county in the State which has a truant school has received all her truants convicted within the county from five municipalities, not one from the remaining seven¬ teen; yet these contain one-fifth of the school population. Is it probable that with a proper enforcement of the laws not one truant child could be found in these seventeen towns? No one can doubt that diligent search would discover many.” “ Difficulties attending the enforcement of the laws. — The enforcement of the laws relat¬ ing to attendance requires vigilance, and is sometimes attended with difficulties. Pitts¬ field, for example, adopts by-laws which designate as habitual truants ‘for the purpose of these by-laws’ any pupil who absents himself for three or more days without excuse. Being submitted to the judge of the superior court for his approval, the by-laws are rejected on the ground that it is not competent for the town to state what constitutes a truant. So Pittsfield waits till another town meeting. Some informality discovered in the by-laws of North Adams leaves her in the same predicament. Instances have occurred in which the school committee have secured the adoption by the town of a code of by-laws; the State Primary School, the State Reform School, the house of a citizen of the town, a certain school therein, the almshouse, or the lockup is named as the place for the discipline and instruction of truants. These by-laws must have the approval of the judge of the proper court or arrests can not be made under them. With such places of assignment as some of those named, no judge can deliberately approve them. Here the matter rests till another annual town meeting, or perhaps altogether, till the town is awakened by finding that through neglect she has forfeited her share of the school fund. “The town of Brookline assigns the ‘Home of the Angel Guardian ’ as the place for the confinement and instruction of her truants; but her by-laws leave it to the option of the parent to allow the child to be committed — a proper provision, since the insti- COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — MASSACHUSETTS. 477 tution is manager! and controlled by a particular religious denomination, but a pro¬ vision which leaves the town with no absolute control of her truants. She can not be said to have made all ‘needful provisions’ concerning this class of persons. “In the town of - ^ — the ruling of the judge is that no truant can be committed to the place named in the by-laws of the town, the truant school at Lowell, except by the consent of the parent. Here the intent of the law and the purpose of the town are im¬ peded by a judicial opinion. Irregular attendance, which leads to truancy, results from the neglect or overindulgence of parents; too many of these will be in desperate straits before they will choose for their children wholesome restraint rather than the liberty of the street. “A superintendent of one of our cities writes: ‘If you could send us a judge who would be a little firmer in dealing with the few who need severer treatment than we find necessary in most cases, you would make us entirely happy.’ “Fall River, with her ample means for following up truants, would gladly include in her supervision the parochial schools; but their teachers fail to report to the officers, and the truants from these schools are reached only as they are found on the streets. “The superintendent of Northampton says: ‘The means employed for enforcing the laws are the appointment of two truant officers, who look up all cases of truancy re¬ ported to them, and return the truants to the schools as far as they are able without entering a formal complaint against them to the district court. Complaints have been entered in some instances, but we find such a course worse than useless, as the magis¬ trate refuses to commit truants to our lockup, which is the only place provided by our city for their restraint, discipline, and instruction.’ “The enforcement of the laws depends largely upon the judge having jurisdiction. If he deems the by-laws to be inadequate in any respect he may refuse to convict. Right and justice are served by having it so. But every facility should be given for the exe¬ cution of the laws so far as their fundamental purpose, the moral reform of the chil¬ dren, is concerned. * * * “Holyoke has in the last year met with a serious obstacle to the hitherto efficient work of her truant officers; this is in the decision of the judge to the effect that the truant can not be arrested without a warrant and not until the individual case has been passed upon by the school committee and the arrest ordered. The opinion of the judge is sustained by that of the city solicitor. ^ “No such conclusion has been reached elsewhere, and it is a common, if not universal, practice in other places for the officer finding upon the street a boy unable to give a satisfactory excuse for being out of school and presumably a truant to take him to his home or to the school, and only good is known to have resulted from the practice. The consciousness that he is liable to be promptly arrested while in the act blunts the appe¬ tite of the truant for the indulgence. “ Truant schools. — The absence of suitable places for their confinement is a great hin¬ drance to successfully dealing with idle and vicious boys. “There has been a popular distrust, not always well founded, I am happy to say, of our State reform school. A boy expelled from the public school is kept from the reform school for fear, bad as he is, to send him would make him worse. The same feeling is entertained regarding the almshouse and the ‘lockup.’ “By statute all cities and towns are required to provide themselves with suitable places for the restraint, discipline, and instruction of truant children. “Lawrence early established for herself an industrial school to which are committed this class of persons. She seems to be the only city or town in the State that has lit¬ erally complied with the statutes. Others” have virtually met the required conditions by assigning this or some other suitable institution as the place for committing their truants. * * “The superintendent of schools of Fall River says: ‘Our ordinance designates our almshouse as the place of confinement, etc., for truants. We have a good schoolroom on the premises, and the teacher teaches both the truants and the pauper children together. The school is a good one of its kind, but the surroundings are not what they should be.’ “The superintendent at Brockton says: ‘Three [truants] have been sent to the alms¬ house, and several more would have been sentenced if we had had a proper place.’ “The truant school of New Bedford is attached to the almshouse. ‘ The institution,’ says the superintendent, ‘ is by no means what it ought to be, but the fear of it stops truancy among the boys. We have no place to which to send truant girls, or with the fear of which to frighten mothers into keeping their daughters steadily at school.’ “ Many of the towns have assigned the almshouse as the place for the commitment of their truants; none, I believe, without a shadowy sense of the inadequacy of the pro- ^See p. 484, note 2. 478 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. vision; indeed, in most towns, I suspect the provision is only in name. One such school for reform which I have seen, if I may judge from a single visit, itself stands much in need of reforming. “Sometimes the by-laws adopted by the towns name places for the confinement of their truants without asking consent of the proper authorities. One set recently brought to my notice named the State Primary School at Monson; the authorities of this school do not grant the privilege, Hampden County has a truant school. A charge of $10 is made to every town outside of the county for the privilege of assigning this truant school as the place for the discipline of the truants from such town. Several towns have been granted the privilege; but as I learned at a recent visit to the school, only three have ever paid the charge. The towns which have not paid are not entitled to send, and so have not provided a place fiy their truants. “A law passed in 1873 provided that, on petition ofthree or more cities or towns in any county, the county commissioners shall establish a truant school for the county. An act of 1881 provided that the commissioners of certain counties, and an act of 1884, that the commissioners of two, three, or four contiguous counties shall, on petition as before, establish a union truant school. Though in several counties petitions have been pre¬ sented from a sUflEicient number of towns to meet the conditions of the law, these have not been so numerous as to compel the commissioners to obey the law, except in one county. Compliance was prompt in Hampden; this county has had a well-ordered county truant school for six years in the city of Springfield. ‘ ‘ Some expense attends the arrest and conviction of truants. If committed to a truant school the town is chargeable with their support. By statute the maximum charge against any municipality for the support of its truants in a county truant school is $2 for each per week. In some towns, it is said the expense is a drawback to the enforce¬ ment of the law. Can it be that the means which might transform many a prospective criminal into a self-respecting and respectable member of society, placed in one scale of the balance does not outweigh a few dollars placed in the other ? “Thus from imperfections, real or imagined in the laws, from wrong interpretations of them, from the inefficiency in their administration by reason of poorly paid and incom¬ petent officers, and the indifference, ignorance, and cupidity of parents and people, and especially from the want of suitable places for the instruction of this class of our chil¬ dren, there exists a large amount of truancy and unnecessary absence from school throughout the State. How can the laws he made more effective? — What can be done to secure a better en¬ forcement of existing laws ? The laws look primarily for their enforcement to the school committees. No more important duty is imposed upon the committees than that of securing regular school attendance. They are required to have made, once each year, a list of all the children of school age in town, with the age of each; in large towns and cities the name of the street where the child lives should be recorded. This list should be compared with the names in the teachers’ registers. The whereabouts of the ab¬ sentees should be discovered and personal effort should be made by the committee to secure punctual and constant attendance of all who are absent without excuse on account of age, occupation, or previous attendance for the required time. “ Parents often need a personal appeal from the school committee. One of my cor¬ respondents, in reply to the question, ‘ What better means can be provided for control¬ ling truancy ? ’ replied, ‘ A new set of parents.’ Some parents wink at, excuse, and assume the responsibility for their children’s unnecessary absence. This should be met by kindly but emphatic rebuke. They should be made to see that direct practical results follow to themselves and their children from the discipline and instruction ot the schools. If a child is incorrigible and refuses to accept school privileges at his own door, the parent should be led willingly to intrust to the proper authorities the train¬ ing of the child for a brief time in a good school away. In some of our cities parents have learned that the officers of the law are acting the part of true friends to their chil¬ dren when they secure their committal to a good truant school. “A most important duty of the committee is to present to the towns for their adop¬ tion a code of by-laws fully complying with the statutes concerning truants, including all necessary provisions for their full and prompt enforcement. Having secured their adoption, it is the duty of the committee to see that the provisions are enforced regard¬ less of all else but the interest of the children and the community. There are intima¬ tions in the earlier part of this report that these duties are not uniformly so discharged. Laboring in this spirit, committees will not connive at the fraudulent statements of pa¬ rents regarding their children’s age, their own or the children’s condition; nor will they blindly make such statements to excuse their own or the town’s neglect. “All necessary provisions relating to truant children include, first, a suitable place for their confinement, discipline, and instruction. It should not be a house of correc¬ tion or reformatory, or any place with which is associated the idea of criminality. It COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE - MASSACHUSETTS. 479 should not he a poorhouse, suggestive of insanity, infirmity, shiftlessness, and imbeeil- ity. Truant children are unfortunate in their constitution or in their surroundings; they are often bright, and almost always sensitive; they are wayward, but not criminal; they are sometimes more ‘sinned against than sinning;’ they are to be reclaimed by being trained to habits of cleanliness, regularity, and self-respect. After their brief ab¬ sence from society they must not be restored to it with a stigma upon them. They have too often come from poor, bad, wicked homes. What they need is the influences which pervade the well-ordered Christian family. The institution, whatever it is, to which they are sent should be small, not containing much over thirty, including the inmates, a teacher, a skilled mechanic, and the superintendent and his wife, or a matron, who should be virtually father and mother to the children. “Connected with the institution should be a few acres of land easy of cultivation; no wails need surround it. There should be also a workshop and a school. The truant can often work easier than he can study. Here, under competent directors, work and study will alternate. The children will learn to use tools; they will read good books and be taught the elements of a good education. At the table, in the sitting or reading room, and in their plays, under the eye of a sympathizing friend and guardian, they will practice the amenities of social life. The school should be furnished with a teacher who can and will find in every child some good motive to which to appeal ; a teacher who can eliminate the bad by augmenting the good; a teacher who by tact and sympathy, and a sincere desire for his welfare, will become an object of personal interest to the child. * * * “ WwwiScr of truant schools needed. — A rough estimate, based upon the fact that about one commitment may be anticipated for a population of 4,000 people, shows that the several counties should make provision for truants as follows: County. Truants. County. Truants. Rfirlrsbire . 17 Suilolk . . 97 Franklin . . . 9 Noriolk . 24 TTfl.mp.ahirft . 12 Bristol . 35 Hampden . 2G l*ivniouth . . 17 Wnri'pister . 57 Barnstable . 7 "Middlesex: . 80 Dukes . . 1 Essex . . 61 Nantucket . 1 “If 3,000 should be taken as the average population for one truant, the number of truants to be provided for would be proportionately increased. If proper provisions were made and due vigilance - 'ere exercised in enforcing the laws forcompuUory at¬ tendance, probably the number of arrests would considerably exceed the above estimates. It can be seen from this what the number of truant schools for the whole State should be, what counties could unite to maintain one, and what counties would require one or more. “ It is well known that in every town there are children attending school who are disobedient and difficult to control. Such nonconforming pupils, while they annoj' the teacher and interrupt the good order of the school, do not profit by their attendance. Whipping, if it were effective, is too unpopular to be a common resort for discipline; such pupils have sometimes to be dismissed from the school and turned into the street. It has been proposed to so amend our truant laws that on complaint of the school com¬ mittee such pupils shall be sent for short periods of time to truant schools;^ the fear of being sent would have a restraining influence. The class of children for which such an amendment would provide, though very small, is one that causes a great deal of trouble. If such amendment should be made, it would necessitate still larger accommodations in the truant schools. ''‘Truant officers. — Another duty which the town by-laws devolve upon the school com¬ mittees is to appoint truant officers and fix their salaries. These officers should be dis¬ creet persons, having executive ability combined with a kindly spirit and an elevated character. They must know how to manage truants and their parents also. “ ‘The importance of the services of these officers,’ says Superintendent Cogswell, ‘is not to be judged by the number of truants brought before the court, or even by the number of cases of truancy which have occurred during the year, but rather by the number of children now in our schools, who, but for the watchful care and personal in¬ fluence of these faithful officers, vvould be wandering about the streets, exposed to the dangers and temptations of a vagrant life. They are helpful to parents as well as to teachers, and have gained the respect and confidence of both.’ “ Superintendent Edgerly, ofFitchburg, says: ‘Their work does notconsistiu arresting ^ This provision has now been incorporated in the law. See p. 48f, sec. 10. • 480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89.- boys and endeavoring to send them to reform schools. People are beginning to realize this. Parents and pupils oftentimes need advice more than censure. Children are kept from school because they have not sufiQcient clothing. There is work at home to be done and the child must do it. The interposition of a benevolent society is needed more than that of the officer of the law. Occasionally there will be found a family careless or stubborn in regard to this subject, the parents refusing to allow the attendance of the children when there is no good reason for nonattendance. The strong arm of the law must deal with these exceptional cases. ’ “ When no attempt is made to enforce the laws, the schools become demoralized by irregular attendance, illiteracy increases, vagrants abound, the vicious and criminal classes are augmented. Anyfeeble or partial enforcement of the laws may serve only to show the extent of the absenteeism without holding it in check. The number of convictions for tru¬ ancy might increase even, and yet the evil might not be controlled. It is only when the right kind of men are employed as officers that truancy is kept within narrow limits. The experience of one city is like that of many. In one, under a defective system for executing the laws from 1865 to 1873, truancy was rife; thirty-live truants were com¬ mitted in one year. In 1874 a proper truant school was established. One efficient offi¬ cer was employed. Idle boys were no longer found in the streets, absenteeism was sensibly diminished, and the commitments for truancy were reduced to less than one- half their former number. “ In the smaller towns few requisitions will be made upon the truant officer; he will attend to special cases brought to his knowledge by the teacher or school committee. Cities and towns of ten thousand inhabitants or more should have at least one officer who is subject to immediate call; his compensatiou should be such as to enable him to give all his time to the service. In the smaller of these cities and towns he may have some other duties, such as taking the school census and distributing school supplies. He should become acquainted with the people, know of all new families moving into town, and see that tbeir children are placed in school. In larger cities he will not neglect these duties, but he will be mainly employed, especially during school hours, in look¬ ing after truants and absentees. He will secure the cooperation of the employers of children who work in manufacturing and other establishments. This will involve his seeing that children discharged from work shall at once return to school. Especially should it be his duty to arrange with overseers of mills a system by which, without break between school and work, the classes of pupils who are required to attend school can pass from one to the other. “The duties of these officers are greater in number and variety than the name truant officer would imply. A vigilant officer with a cooperative police force will make the streets and by-ways of a large city as lonesome to a boy as the tombs of the dead, and the school room, in comparison, a delight. “ Where the time of one well-paid officer — or more than one if the service demands it — is exclusively devoted to the work, the results reached are the most satisfactory. The most effective work is done in the cities. Here, officers give their entire time to it. At the commencement of each school session they are notified of all suspected cases of truancy. For this purpose the teacher fills out and furnishes to the officer blank forms giving the circumstances of each case, including the name and residence of the absentee. The officer at once attends to looking up the absent pupil; dependent upon what the facts are, the absentee is excused, placed in the school, or under arrest to be brought to trial. A return of the case is made to the teacher or committee. * * * “ The surest means for reducing truancy and absenteeism to their smallest terms is to improve the schools. ‘Make the schools so good,’ says one of my correspondents, ‘ that the people will want the children to attend. ’ Says another, ‘ We rely largely upon the personal efforts of teachers and superintendents — upon the officers last; we make but few arrests.’ And still another says, ‘ Put more emphasis upon moral means, less upon the merely restrictive. To this end have better teaching, more personal work by teachers and school officials, more attractive school rooms.’ ‘The best means to reduce truancy, ’ says a fourth, ‘ is to place a good teacher in every school room. As long as in¬ ferior teachers are employed, and parents are ignorant and debased, so long shall we have a certain amount of truancy.’ ‘‘^Changes in the law recommended. — A tew suggestions looking to modifications in the lavvs au I to additional means for their enforcement will conclude what I have to say upon this subject.^ “1. The laws relating to the employment of children in manufacturing and other establishments should be extended to all kinds of wage labor. “2. The attendance of every well child should be required from the age of seven to twelve, during the whole time the schools keep; from twelve to fifteen for two terms a year, and for the whole time, unless the child is at work. Some ot the changes recommended have since been made. The present law is given, pp. 481-5, * COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE— MA.SSACHUSETTS. 481 “The reasons for this are: First, if under twelve years of age, children can not he employed to work in manulacturing or other establishments during the days the schools keep. " Second, the children of well-to-do people attend school the whole time. Third, by being allowed to stay out of the school half the time, as they may where the schools keep forty weeks, those least disposed to attend school can waste half theirtime in con¬ tracting the itinerant habits of the truant, and, by associating with others, help to swell the vagrant class. “3. In case the children are in need of clothing suitable for attending school, and parents are unable to provide it, or are in circumstances to need help, it should be fur¬ nished by the town, and not at the expense of the child’s schooling. “4. So far as possible, the parents should be held responsible ior the children’s ab¬ sence from school, whether it be caused by truancy or otherwise. * * * “5. In case of absence from school the burden of proof should be thrown upon the parent; he should be required to show that his child’s absence is necessary, or that bis education is otherwise properly provided for. At present the school official is obliged to prove that the education is being neglected. “6. By imposing the penalties, and making them greater if need be, towns should be encouraged to more fully comply with the laws relating to truancy and absenteeism. “ 7. Provision should be made for enl'orcing the laws relating to truancy by a State official. The principal reliance in the State of Connecticut, outside of four cities, for executing the laws is one State agent. Under his administration sixty-five fines have been imposed for noncompliance with the laws requiring parents to send their children to school within a period of nine years, while under our system, with local officers to enforce the law, not one-tenth as snany are kuov/n to have been imposed in the period of thirty-five years that our law has been in force, and this with our larger population. “8. Truant officers should be empowered to make arrests for the purpose of placing in school or for temporary detention under the geoeral instruction of school committees. “9. IC the law under which county commissioners are required to provide truant schools is inadequate, amend it. Then let towns petition for and insist upon their estab¬ lishment. “10. Let the law requiring county truant schools to be established be so amended that, instead of |2 a week being charged to the town for the support of her children committed, the whole expense shall be borne by the county or State. “ 11. Let the time for which the truants may be sent to these schools be changed to four years; also provide a board of visitors for every such school. “ 12. So amend the truant law that those pupils who persistently violate the reason-- able rules and regulations of the common schools may be sent, upon complaint of school committees, for brief periods of time to the truant school. • “13. Make more ample provisions lor the care of girls in truant schools. “The grounds for many of these suggestions are shown in the illustrations already given. I need not state the reasons lor others; these will at once occur to the reader; they are all occasioned by something observed or brought to my notice during the year. Though they may seem to reflect discredit upon our truant laws and upon their enfbrce- meut, it is doubtless true that the provisions of these laws as a whole are wiser and .better than those of any other State, and that where they are faithfully enforced they are as effective as any laws upon the statute-book.” THE PEESENT LAW OF MASSACHUSETTS. The following are the Massachusetts laws now in force, including the amendments of 1889, which are indicated by italics in the text and by foot notes. They are the out¬ come of forty years’ experience in compulsory attendance legislation, and deserve care¬ ful study by those interested in this matter. Of the attendance of children in the schools {sections 1, 2, and 3 of chapter 47 of the Public , Statutes.) [Children between eight and fourteen years must attend school.] Section 1. Every person having under his control a child between the ages of eight and four¬ teen years shall annually cause such child to attend for at least 20 weeks some public day school in the city or town in which he resides, wliich time shall be divided so far as the arrangement of school terms will allow into two terms each of 10 consecutive weeks, and for every neglect of such duty the person oflending shall forfeit to the use of the public schools of such city or town a sum notexcesding ^f20; but if such child has attended for a like period of time a private day school, ap¬ proved by the school committee of such city or town, or if swh child has been otherwise instriicied for a I ihe period of time in the branches of learning required by law to he taught in the public schools, or has already acquired the branches of learning required by law to be taughtin the public schools, or if his physical or mental condition is such as to render such attendance inexpedient or impracticable, such penalty shall not be incurred. ^ ^ Exemption from complying with the law on account of poverty w'as done away with by an amendment of 1889. ED 89 - 31 482 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Sec. 2. For the purposes of the preeedina: section, school committees shall approve a private school only when the teaching in all the studies required by law is in the English language, and when they are satisfied that such teaching equals in thoroughness and efficiency the teaching in the public schools in the same locality, and that equal progress is made by the pupils therein, in the studies required by law, with that made during the same time in the public schools ; but they shall not refuse to approve a private school on account of the religious teaching therein. [Duty of truant officers and committees.] Sec. 3. The truant officers and the school committee of the several cities and towns shall vigi¬ lantly inquire into all cases of neglect of the duty prescribed in section one, and ascex'tain the rea¬ sons, if any, therefor; and such truant officers, or any of them, shall, when so directed by the school committee, prosecute, in the name of the city or town, any person liable to the penalty pro¬ vided for in said section. Police, district, and municipal courts, trial justices, and judges of the probate court shall have jurisdiction within their respective counties of the offenses described in section one. The ad regulating the employment of children — The law regarding truancy. The following law relative to the employment of children forms chapter 348 of the acts of 1888, and is a substitute for sections 1 to 6, chapter 48, of the public statutes. It is much more stringent in some of its provisions than former laws. It is followed by those sections of chapter 48 now in force relating to truancy, etc. [No child under thirteen to be employed.] 1. No child under thirteen years of age shall be employed at any time in any factory, workshop, or mercantile establishment. No such child shall be employed in any indoor work, performed for wages or other compensation, to whomsoever payable, during the hours when the public schools of the city or town in which he resides are in session, or shall be employed in any manner during such hours unless during the year next preceding such employment he has attended school for at least twenty weeks as required by law. [When children under fourteen may be employed.] 2. No child under fourteen years of age shall be employed in any manner before the hour of six o’clock in the morning or after the hour of seven o’clock in the evening. No such child shall be employed in any factory, workshop, or mercantile establishment, except during the vacation of the public schools in the cit^r or town where he resides, unless the person or corporation employ¬ ing him procures and keeps' on file a certificate and employment ticket for such child as prescribed by section four of this act, and no such child shall be employed in any indoor work, performed for Avao’es or other compensation, to whomsoever payable, during the hours when the public schools of s"uch city or town are in session, unless as aforesaid, or shall be employed in any manner during such hours unless during the year next preceding such employment he has attended school for at least twenty weeks as required by law ; and such employment shall not continue in any ease be¬ yond the time when such certificate expires. The chief of the district police, wdth the approval of the gpvernor, shall have authority to designate any kind or kinds of employment in factories, workshops, or mercantile establishments as injurious to the health of children under fourteen years of age employed therein, and after one week’s written notice from the said chief to the em¬ ployer or his superintendent, overseer, or other agent of such designation, no such child shall be employed in any such kind or kinds of employment in any factory, wOrkship, or mercantile es¬ tablishment. [When children under sixteen may be employed.] 3. No child under sixteen years of age shall be employed in any factory, workshop, or mercan¬ tile establishment unless the person or corporation employing him procures and keeps on file the certificate required in the case of such child by the following section, and also keeps on file a full and complete list of such children employed therein. ' [Form of certificates.] 4. The certificate of a child under fourteen years of age shall not be signed until he presents to the person authorized to sign the same an employment ticket, as hereinafter prescribed, duly filled out and signed. The certificate and the employment ticket shall be separately printed, and shall be in the following forms respectively, and the blanks therein shall be filled out and signed as in¬ dicated by the words in brackets : Employment ticket, laiu of 1888.— When [name of child], height [feet and inches], complexion [fair or dark], hair [color], presents a certificate duly signed, I intend to employ [him or her]. [Signature ol intending employer or agent.] [Town or city and date.] ' Age and schooling certificale, law of 188S.— This certifies that I am the [father, mother, or guard¬ ian] of [name of child], and that [he or she] was born at [name of town or city], in the county of [name of county, if known], and State [or county] of [name], on the [day and year of birth], and is now [number of years and months] old. [Signature of father, mother, or guardian.] [Town or city and date.] Then personally appeared before me the above-named [name of person signing] and made oath that the foregoing certificate by [him or her] signed is true to the best of [his or her] knowledge and belief. I hereby approve the foregoing certificate of [name of child], height [feet and inches], complexion [fair or dark], hair [color], having no sufficient reason to doubt that [he or she] is of the age therein certified. [Signature of persons authorized to sign with official character or authority.] [Town or city and date.] In case the age of the child is under fourteen, the certificate shall continue as follows, after the word “certified: ’’ And I hereby certify that he or she can read at isight, and can write legibly simple sentences in the English language, and that [he or she] has attended the [name] public [or COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — MASSACHUSETTS, 483 private] day school according to law for [number of weeks, which must be at least twenty] weeks durhig the year next preceding this date, and that the last twenty weeks of such attendance be¬ gan [date]. This ccrtiricate expires [date, one year later than above date]. [Signature of the person authorized to sign, with official character or authority]. If attendance has been at a private school, also signature of a teacher of such school, followed by words certifying to school attendance. [To« n or city and date.] In case a child can not read and write as above stated, the following may be substituted for the clause beginning “and i hereby certify” through to and including the word “language,” "and I hereby certify that [he or she] is a regular attendant at the [name] public evening school; ” but in such case the certificate shall only continue in force for as long a time as attendance of such child at such evening school is indorsed weekly during the session of .such evening school, not exceed¬ ing the length of the public school year minus twenty weeks, in place of attemlance at day school as now provided by law, with a statement from a teacher thereof certifying that his attendance continues regular. If attendance has been at a half-time school, forty weeks of such attendance must be certified to instead of twenty. The foregoing certificate must be filled out in dupl icate, and one copy thereof shall be kept on file by the school committee. Any explanatory m atter may be printed with such certificate in the discretion of the school committee or superintendent of schools. [Who shall sign certificates.] 5. In cities and towns having a superintendent of schools said certificate shall be signed only by such superintendent, or by some person authorized by him in writing. In other cities and towns it shall be signed by some member or members of the school committee authorized by vote thereof : Provided, however, That no member of a school committee, or other person authorized as aforesaid, shall have authority to sign such certificate for any child then in, or about to enter, his own em¬ ployment, or the employment of a firm of which he is a member, or of a corporation of which he is an officer or employe. The person signing the certificate shall liave authority to administer the oath provided for therein, but no fee shall be charged therefor. Such oath may also be adminis¬ tered by any justice of the peace. [Who may sign certificates of age.] . 6. The certificate as to the birthplace and age of a child shall be signed by his father if living and a resident of the same city or town; if not, by his mother; or if his mother is not living, or if liv¬ ing, is not a resident of the same city or town, by his guardian ; if a child has no father, mother, or guardian living in the same city or town, his own signature to the certificace may be accepted by the person authorized to approve the same. [Provisions as to correct age.] 7. No child who has been continuously a resident of a city or town since reaching the age of thirteen years shall be entitled to receive a certificate that he has reiiched the age of fourteen unless or un¬ til he has attended school according to law in such city or town for at least twenty weeks since reachingthe age of thirteen, unless exempted by law from such attendance. Before signing the approval of the certificate of age of a child the person authorized to sign the same shall refer to the lastschool census taken under the provisions of section three of chapter fortj’-six of the public statutes, and if the name of such child i.s found thereon, and there is a material difference between his age as given therein and a.s given by his parent or guardian in the certificate, allowing for lapse of time, or if such child plainly appears to be of materially less age than that so given, then such certificate shall not be signed until a copy of the certificate of birth or of baptism of such child, or a copy of the register of its birth with a town or city clerk, has been produced, or other satisfactory evidence furnished that such child is of the ago stated in the certificate. [Duties of truant officers and factory inspectors.] 8. The truant officer may, when so authorized and required by vote of the school committee.visit thefactories, workshops, and mercantile establishments in their several cities and towns and ascer¬ tain whether any children under the age of fouiTeen are employed therein contrary to the provis¬ ions of this act, and fchej’’ shall report any cases of such illegal employment to the school commit¬ tee and to the chief of the district police or the inspector of factories for the district. The inspectors of factories and the truant officers when authorized as aforesaid may demand the names of all children under sixteen years of age employed in such factories, workshops, and mercantile estab- li.shments, and may require that the certificates and lists of such children provided for in this act shall be produced for their inspection. Such truant officers shall inquire into the employment, otherwise than in such factories, workshops, and mercantile establishments, of chi'dren under the age of fourteen years during the hours when the public schools are in session, and may require that the aforesaid certificates of all children under sixteen shall be produced for their inspection ; and any such officer, or any inspector of factories, may bring a prosecution against a person or corporationemployingany such child, otherwise than as aforesaid, during the hours when the public schoolsare in session contrary to the provisions of this act, if such employment still continues one week after written notice from such officer or inspector that such prosecution will be brought, or if more than one such written notice, whether relating to the same child or to any other child, has been given to such employer by a truant officer or inspector of factories at any time within one year. [Duties of parents, guardians, and employers.] 9. Every parent or guardian of a child under fourteen years of age who permits any employ¬ ment of such child contrary to the provisions of this act, and every owner, superintendent, or over¬ seer of any factory, workshop, or mercantile establishment who employs or permits to be em¬ ployed therein any child contrary to the provisions of this act, and any other person who employs any chilu contrary to the provisions of this act, shall for evei'y such offense forfeit not le.ss than twenty nor more than fifty dollars, for the use of the public schools of the city or town. Every par¬ ent, guardian, or person authorized to sign the cerlificate prescribed by section four of this act, who certifies to any materially false statement therein shall be punished by fine not exceeding fifty dollars, or by itnprisonment not exceeding thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment. A failure to produce to a truant officer or inspector of factories the certificate required by the pro- 484 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. visions of this act shall be prima facie evidence of the illegal employment of the child whose cer¬ tificate is not produced. 10. Tlie expressions “ factory” and “workshop” used in this act shall have the meanings defined for them respectiv-ely by chapter one hundred and three of the acts of the year one thousand eight hundred and eighty-seven. ^ 11. Within one month of the passage of this act the chief of the district police shall cause a printed copy thereof to be transmitted to the school committee of every city and town in the Common¬ wealth. 12. Sections one to six inclusive of chapter forty-eight of the public statutes, chapter two hundred and twenty-four of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and eighty-three, chapter two hundred and tweiit\'-two of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and eighty-five, and section one of chapter four hundred and thirty-three of the acts of the year eigliteen hundred and eighty-seven are hereby repealed. 1;1. This act shall take effect on the first day of July in the year one thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight. Approved May 17, 1888. [Penalty for employing children under fourteen who can not read and write,] Sec. 7. Every owner, superintendent, or overseer in any such establishment who employs, or permits to be employed therein, a child under fourteen years of age who can not read and Avrite while the public schools in t!ie city or town where such child lives are in session, and every parent or gusrdianwho permits such employment shall for every such offence forfeit not less than twenty nor more than fifty dollars, for the use of the public schools of such city or town. [Sections 8 and 9 relate to the employment of children in cii'cuses, shows, etc.] [Truant children and absentees from school.] Sec. 10. Each town shall make all needful provisions and arrangements concerning habitual truants and children between seven and fifteen years of age who may be found wandering about in the streets or public places therein, having no lawful occupation or business, not attending school, and growing up in ignorance, and such children as persistently violate the reasonable rules and repidalions of the common schools; and shall make such by-laws as shall be most conducive to the welfare of such children, and to the good order of such town; and shall proyi !e suitable places for the confinement, discipline, and instruction of such children. Such by-laws may be approved by the judge of the probate court of the county, as well as in the manner provided for the approval of other by-laws by section twenty-one of chapter twenty-seven.” ‘ [School committee to appoint truant officers.] Sec. 11. The school committee of each town shall appoint and fix the compensation of two or more suitable persons, to be designated truant officers, who shall, under the direction of said com¬ mittee, inquire into all cases arising under such by-iaws, and shall alone be authorized, in case of violation thereof, to make complaint and carry into execution the judgment thereon; and who may serve all legal processes issued by the courts in pursuance of such by-laws or of .sections ten to sixteen inclusive, but who shall not be entitled to receive any fees for such service.* [Truants may be committed for two years.] Sec. 12. Any minor convicted under a by-law made under section ten of being an habitual truant or of wandering about in the streets and public places of a city or town, having no lawful employ¬ ment or business, not attending school, and growing up in ignorance, or of persistently violating the rides and regulations of the common schools, shall be committed to any institution of instruc- tionor suitable situation provided for the purpose, under the authority of said section or by-law, for a term not exceeding two years. * FOltM OF BT-LAWS. This form of by-laws has been approved by the board of education, and is given here simply as a suitable form to be adopted by the towns: By-laws. Articee 1. The town of - hereby avails itself of the several provisions of the statutes of this Commonwealth, now in force, relating to habitual truants and absentees from school, and in pur¬ suance of authority conferred the^eb5^ adopts the following by-laws : Art. 2. All children between the ages of seven and fifteen years, residing in said town, and who may be found wandering about in the streets or public places of said town, having no lawful occu¬ pation or business, not attending school, and growing up in ignorance, shall be committed to - for confinement, instruction, and discipline. Art. 3. Two or more truant officers shall be appointed annually, whose duty it shall be to Inquire into all the violations of the truant laws and of the law relating to compulsory education, and to do all the acts required of them by the laws of the Commonwealth. Art. 4. It shall be the duty of everytruant officer, previous to making any complaint under these laws, to notify the truant or absentee from school, also his parent or guardian, of the offence com¬ mitted and of the pen.alty therefor: and if the truant officer can obtain satisfactory pledges for the restraint and reformation of the child he may, at his discretion, forbear toprosecute, so long as such pledges are faithfullj' kept. Art. 5. It shall be the duty of the school committee, the teachers of the public schools, and the ciiizens generally, to aid the truant officers as far as possible in the discharge of their duties. Art. 6. It shall be the duty of the truant officers to keep a full record of all their official acts, and make an annual report thereof to the school committee, who shall publish the same with their own report. Art. 7. Nothing in these by-laws shall be so construed as to alter or impair the obligation and duty of teachers to enforce punctuality and regularity of attendance, and to preserve good order and discipline. * An act of 1889 authorized truant officers, under the direction of school committees, to apprehend and take to school without warrant all truants found wandering about in the streets and public places. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE— MASSACHUSETTS. 485 [Jurisdiction.] Skc. 13. Police, district, or municipal courts, trial justices, and judges of probate courts shall have jurisdiction within their respective counties of the ofiences described in sections ten and twelve. [County truant schools.] Sec. 14. If three or more towns in any county so require, the county commissioners shall estab¬ lish at the expense of the county, at convenient places therein, other than the jail or house of cor¬ rection, truant schools for the confinement, .discipline, and instruction of minor children convicted under the provisions of sections ten and twelve; and shall make suitable provisions for the gov¬ ernment and control, and for the appointment of proper teachers and officers thereof ; but if three or more cities or towns in each of two or three contiguous counties so require, the county com¬ missioners of such counties shall, at the expense of the same, establish at a convenient place therein a union truant school, to be organized and controlled by the chairman of the county commission¬ ers of such counties, in the manner provided for the government and control of county truant schools by county commissioners; and any county so uniting with. another county or counties in the support of a union truant school shall not be required to support a truant school of its own. [What places of confinement towns may assign.] Sec. 15. A town may assign any such truant school, or, with the assent of the Slate board of health, lunacy, and charity, the State primary school as the place of confinement, discipline, and instruc¬ tion of children so convicted, and shall pay for their support therein such sum, not exceeding two dollars a week for each child, as the county commissioners or the trustees of the State primary and reform schools, respectively, shall determine. [How children committed may be discharged.] Sec. 16, Children so committed may, upon satisfactory proof of amendment, or for other sufficient cause, be discharged from the State primary school by said State board, and from other places of confinement by the judge or justice who committed them. [Reports relative to compliance with truant law.] Sec. 17. The school committees of the several towns shall annually report to the secretary of the board of education whether their towns have made the provisions required by law relating to tru¬ ants and absentees from school. ‘ Practical effects of ihe child-labor statute. — Superintendent E. P. Seaver, of Boston, says (March, 1889): “The work of investigating the cases ol children whose parents apply for certificates, explaining to them the requirements of the law, filling out, duplicat¬ ing, and indexing the certificates granted takes one person nearly the whole working time. * * * “It is, perhaps, too early to make observations on the practical elfects of the new statute. Already proposals to amend it have been made in the legislature. But it should have a fair and thorough trial by steady enforcement for at least a year. Some of the diffi¬ culties incident to the change from the old law to the new may be expected to disap¬ pear in time and the good elfects to show themselves more distinctly. The very marked improvement in school attendance among children thirteen and fourteen years old, shown by the statistics, is probably due in part to the new law. “Still I feel impelled to say that this new law is a very hard law to enforce. No man who has not a heart of stone can listen to the pitiful tales of distress, seeing the little wages of a thirteen-year-old child are all that stand between a bereaved family and starvation, without ardently wishing he had the power to mitigate the stern dic¬ tates of the law. The temptation to break the laws of men and rely for justification on the higher law is very strong — may become overpoweriug if the legislature does not soon provide some way of relief in cases of dire need. “On the other hand, the amount of falsehood, chicanery, and fraud attempted among certain classes of employers, parents, and children in relation to the employment cer¬ tificates, is such as to perplex the most astute and dishearten the most humane admin¬ istrator of the law.” Between 1,700 and 1,800 certificates of age and schooling had been issued in Boston since the new statute went into force. A large number had been refused. From Chicopee (Superintendent R. H. Perkins) comes the report: “Parental indiffer¬ ence, together with the demand for child labor, and the not too strict regard paid by many employers to the employment laws, make the duties of these (truant) officers, as well as '^Penalty for employing truanis. — Chapter 71 of the acts of 1885 provides that whoever, after notice from a truant, officer to refrain from so doing, offers a reward for service to anychiid, in consequence of which reward such child is induced unlawfully to absent himse lf from school, or whoever, after notice as aforesaid, in any manner entices or induces any child to truancy, or whoever knowingly employs or harbors any unlawful absentee from school, or truant, shall forfeit notlessthan twenty nor more than fifty dollars to the use of the public schools of the city or town in which said offence occurs, to be recovered by complaint. (Note.— No one is authorized t i prosecute in order to enforce this provision of the law. In order to test the matter a certain truant officer of Boston made complaints in two aggravated cases; the judge refused to entertain them on the ground that the truant officer had no legal authority to make them. — Rep. Sup’t. Bost. Sch., 1888., p. 11. J 486 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. those of the superintendent, at times somewhat difficult and unpleasant. The officers report but two cases of illei*:al employment; the superintendent has observed many more, yet no prosecutions have Vjeeu ordered.” Supt. William.Connell, of Fall River: “The labors of the truant officers are not to be measured by the number of truants returned to school or broue:ht before the court for trial, but rather by the larger number of waywardly inclined children kept in the schools by their influence and daily visits,” Under date of January 27, 1890, State Supt. J. W. Dickinson writes to this Office as follows: “The compulsory law operates well, and is generally obeyed. The employ¬ ment law is quite thoroughly enlorced. There is not much temptation in rural districts to break these laws, so not so much stringency is required to enforce them as in cities.” Considerable difficulty is experienced by school authorities in procuring suitable places for the confinement and education of habitual truants and incorrigibles. In Boston truants are still sentenced to the Mouse of Reformation for Juvenile Offenders, a crim- rinal instituti'ui, notwithstanding the efforts of the school board to have a truant, or “parental,” school established. Magistrates are reluctant to commit ordinary truants to an institution ot this character. In Fall River truants are sent to the almshouse, where there is no school. Superintendent Connell, of that city, considers it an outrage upon defenseless pauper children “when truants, often the vilest boys in the city, are sent there to ^e their associates, and to exert upon them their contaminating and de¬ basing influence. ” The county commissioners of Essex County have neglected to establish a truant school, though double the number of cities and towns required by law have repeatedly petitioned to that effect. Four counties, Berkshire, Hampden, Hampshire, and Norfolk, have com¬ plied with the law and are supporting county truant schools. A. W. Edson, agent of the Massachusetts State Board of Education for Hampden and Worcester Counties, reports to the board December 31, 1889: “The law requires school committees to appoint and fix the compensation of two or more suitable persons as truant officers, whose duty it shall be to attend to all cases, of truancy,. In most towns, not in all, such officers are appointed. In a few cases these men are active, and, as well as they are able, do their duty in enforcing regular attendance in the public schools. Of course they can do little where there is no place to which to send habitual truants. In most towns, owing to the fact that there is no truant school, to the small compensation allowed, to the fear of offending neighbors and friends, or to the indiflerenceof the com¬ mittee, the officers do practically nothing, and the law is a dead letter.” COIS'KECTICTJT. EarJy legislation. — The first code of laws of the Connecticut colony, adopted 1650, con- ained a provision for obligatory education which was a literal transcript of the Massa- husetts law of 1642, already given. A fine of twenty shillings was imposed “for each neglect.” Selectmen of towns, after suitable admonition had failed, were required to take the children of negligent parents and bind them out with persons who would look after their education. Parents were also required to instruct their children in religion. These provisions, more or less modified, have remained in force to the present day, and are incorporated in the revision of 1888, some of the ancient phraseology being still retained . The code of the New Haven colony, completed in 1655, contained similar requirements and penalties. It seems that some parents and masters failed to comply with these laws, for in 1690 an additional order was made by the court, which observed in the preamble that “there are many persons unable to read the English tongue, and uncapable to read the holy word of God.” In the revision of 1805 the penalty of twenty shillings was given as $3.34; in 1821 this fine for neglect disappears from the statute, though contumacious parents were still liable to have their children taken from under their care, as before. In this shape the law was of little or no effect as a general compulsory measure, the severity of the pen¬ alty being such that public opinion would not sanction the enforcement of it except in very extreme cases. ^ In 1821 the requirement concerning religious instruction also disappeared, it being re¬ placed by arithmetic, and in 1849 English grammar and geography were added. In 1813 the proprietors of manufacturing establishments were compelled to see that the children in their emplo}’- were taught to read, write, and cipher, and that due attention was paid to their morals. To secure observance of this law, the selectmen of towns ” 1 Conn. Sch. Rep., 1864, p. 18; J6., 1886, p. 40. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE—CONNECTICUT. 487 were constituted boards of visitors to ascertain annually the facts of the case and report any neglect to the next county court. ^ Dr. Karnard said, in 1840, of this law: “It is a dead letter in nearly if noteverytown in the State. I know not of a single instance where the board of visitation authorized by the act has been organized.” Emploiiment act o/1812. — The act of 1842 forbade, under a penalty of twenty- five dol¬ lars for each violation, the employment of children under fifteen years of age unless they had been instructed in school at least three months of the twelve preceding. State Superintendent D. C. Gilman remarked of this law in 1866: “It has been found very difficult to enforce this law. In many cases the proprietors or agents of manufacturing establishments would willingly see the provisions ol the statute sustained, but they are well aware that the law is not obeyed through the State, and are apprehensive that they shall lose both parents and children as operatives if they reiuse the latter work. * * * I am confident that if a law can be devised which public opinion will sustain and w'hich the magistrates and school visitors throughout the Slate will be likely to enforce, the large manufacturing corporations will cooperate. * * It may be said that the present law is good enough. But it is not eni'orced; it is not likely to be. Nobody assumes the responsibility of seeing that its requirements are obeyed.” “ Prosecutions are un¬ heard offer the violations of the law.” “Public opinion does not cry out for the exe¬ cution of the law.” ^ ■ Truant act of 1865. — In 1865 there was enacted a truant law, based on the then exist¬ ing Massachusetts truant law, which had been gradually gathering shape since 1850. Neiv cmpJoipnent law (1860). — The defects of the employment act of 1842 led to the enactment of a new law in 1869, which differed from the lormer one in several important particulars, viz: (1) The age of children forbidden to be employed without three months’ schooling the preceding year, was changed from fifteen to fourteen years. (2) Under the law of 1842, only manufacturers, agents, and superintendents could be prosecuted; under that of 1869, all employers were liable to prosecution. (5) The penalty for each offense was raised from twenty to one hundred dollars. (4) The act of 1842 charges school visitors with examining into the execution of the law and reporting violations of it; that of 1869 requires in addition. State attorneys and grand juries to cooperate, and, what was the most important change in providing for the enforcement of the law, it au¬ thorized the State board of education to “appoint some one of its members, or some other suitable person, an agent for that purpose.” This agent w'as to be at all times subject to the direction and control of the board. Previously, the enforcement of the employment laws had been left entirely with the local authorities, and “very little was accomplished.” An act to put discharged children to school. — The employment law of 1869 took children out of the factories, but it did not send them to school. This was effected by a law of 1871, requiring parents, guardians, and others to send to school children who had been discharged from employment for the pujpose of attending school, on penalty of five dollars for every week of noncorapliance. “ The only olqection made to this law, within my knowledge,” said State Superin¬ tendent Northrop, “ is its limitation to the parents and guardians of those children who are hired out. They ask, ‘ While we are justly required to send our children to school, why are the parents of children unemployed, it may be the idle and vicious, excused ? ’ This has the look of class legislation. I\lake this law impartial and universal in its obligation, and you remove the only real objection as yet urged against it.” During the year 1871 Dr. Northrop made a foreign tour, during which he examined the operation of the compulsory laws of several European countries. On his return he incorporated the results of his observations with other matter in a report on “Obliga¬ tory Education,” which attracted wide attention, and stimulated action in other States as well as Connecticut. A portion of his argument is quoted farther on. The compulsory system fully esfahlished in 1872. — The final step suggested by Superin¬ tendent Northrop was taken the following year (1872). The law of 1871 was made ap¬ plicable to all children, whether employed or not; at the same time the employment and truant acts were incorporated with it, and the whole revised. The system of legislation requiring universal education in Connecticut, in its modern form, dates from this year. The law as originally proposed contained a provision to the effect that parents whose “ pecuniary condition was such as to render the attendance of their children inexpedi¬ ent or impracticable” should be exempt from its requirements. But on motion of a leading member of the house this provision was unanimously stricken out, thus com¬ mitting the State to the position that poverty should be no bar to education. Public charity must supply the wants of dependent parents when necessary. * (^onn. Sch. Rep., 1853, p. 147, 2 Conn. Sch. Rep., 1866, pp. 82-3. 1867, p. 85. 488 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. The law has been amended in several important particulars since 1872, and now reads as folio v/s: THE PEESENT CONNECTICUT LAW EEGAEDING THE INSTEUCTION AND EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDEEN. r Taken from the Laws of Connecticut Relating to Education, of which it forms Chapter III.] Sec. 21. Ch ildren to he educated. — All parents and those who have the care of children shall bring them up in some honest and lawful calling or employment, and instruct them or cause them to be instructed in reading, spelling, writing, English grammar, geography, and arithmetic; Parents and guardians must send children to school. — And every parent or other person having con¬ trol of any child over eight and under sixteen years of age, whose physical or mental condition Is not such as to render its instruction inexpedient or impracticable, shall cause such child to at¬ tend a public day school regularly during the hours and terms while the public schools in the dis¬ trict wherein such child resides are in session, or to elsewhere receive thorough instruction during said hours and terms in the studies taught in said public schools. Put children under thirteen years of age who have attended school twenty-four weeks of the preceding twelve months, and children between thirteen and fourteen who have attended school twelve weeks of the preceding twelve months, and children over fourteen years of age, shall not be subject to the requirements of this section while lawfully employed to labor at home or else¬ where. But this section shall not be construed to exempt any child who is enrolled as a member of a school from any rule concerning irregularity of attendance which has been enacted or may be en¬ acted by the town school committee, board of visitors, or board of education having control of the school. Sec. 22. Penalty. — Each week’s failure on the part of any person to comply with the provisions of the preceding section shall be a distinct offense, punishable with a fine not exceeding five dol¬ lars. Excuses. — Said penalty shall not be incurred when it appears that the child is destitute of cloth¬ ing suitable for attending school, and the parent or person having control of such child is unable to provide such clothing, or its mental or physical condition is such as to render its instruction inexpedient or impracticable. Complaint. — All offenses concerning the same child shall be charged in separate counts, joined in one complaint. When a complaint contains more than one count the court may give sentence on one or more counts and suspend sentence on the remaining counts. Procedure. — If at the end of twelve weeks from the date of the sentence it shall appear that the child concerned has attended school regularly during that time, then judgment on such remaining counts shall not be executed. Sec. 23. Attendance at privode schools, when sufficient. — Attendance of children at a school other than a public school shall not be regarded as compliance with the provisions of the laws of the State requiring parents and other persons having control of children to cause them to attend school, unless the teachers or persons having control of such school shall keep a register of attend¬ ance ill form and manner prescribed by the State board of education for the public schools, which register shall at all times during school hours be open to the inspection of the secretary and agents of the State board of education, and shall make such reports and returns concerning the school under their charge to the secretary of the State board of education as are required from the school visitors concerning the public schools, except that no report concerning expenses shall be re¬ quired ; and it shall be the duty of the secretary of the State board of education to furnish to the teachers or persons having charge of any school, on their request, such registers and blanks for returns as may be necessary for compliance with the provisions of this section. Sec. 24. Employment of children tinder thirteen. — No child under thirteen years of age shall be employed in any mechanical, mercantile, or manufacturing establishment. Sec. 25. Penalty. — Any person, acting for himself, or as agent in any way whatever of any me¬ chanical, mercantile, or manufacturing establishment, who shall employ or authorize or permit to be employed in such establishment any child, in violation of the preceding section, shall be fined not more than sixty dollars, and every week of such illegal employment shall be a distinct offense, provided that no person shall be punished under this section for the employment of any child when at the time of such employment the employer shall demand and thereafter during such em¬ ployment keep on file the certificate of any town clerk, or of the teacher of the school where such child last attended, stating that such child is more than thirteen years of age, or a like certificate of the parent or guardian of such child in such cases only where there is no record of the child’s age in the office of the town clerk, and such child has not attended school in this State. Any parent or guardian who shall sign any certificate that his child or ward is more than thirteen years of age w'hen in fact such child or ward is under thirteen years of age shall be fined not more than sixty dollars. Sec. 26. Employment of child under fourteen, who has not attended legal time. — No child under four¬ teen years of age, who has resided in the United States nine months, shall be employed to labor, unless such child shall have attended a day school in which instruction has been regularly and thoroughly given in the branches of education required in the public schools during at least twelve weeks, or sixty full school days of the twelve months next preceding any month in which such child shall be so employed, nor unless six weeks at least of this attendance have been consecu¬ tive. Any person who shall employ a child contrary to the provisions of this section shall be fined not more than sixty dollars. Sec. 27. Certificate of school attendance. — It shall be the duty of every parent, or other person hav¬ ing control of a child under fourteen years of age, to furnish the employer of such child a certifi¬ cate signed by the teacher, school visitor, or committee of the school which the child attended, showing that the child has attended school as required by the preceding section. The employer of any such child shall require such certificate, shall keep it at his place of business during the time the child is in his employment, and shall show the same when demanded, during the usual busi¬ ness hours, to any school visitor of the town where the child is employed, or to the secretary or agent of the State board of education. Said certificate shall be evidence that the child has attended school as the law requires. Sec. 28. Penalty for false statement. — Any parentor any person having control of achild, who, with intent to evade the provisions of this chapter, shall make any false statement concerning the age of such child, or the time such child has resided in the United States, or shall instruct such child to make any such false statement, shall be fined not more than seven dollars, or be imprisoned not more than thirty days. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE— CONNECTICUT. 489 Seo. 29. Inspectionof factories by school visitors— The school visitors in every town shall, once or more in everv vear, examine into thCgSituation of the children employed in all its manufacturing establishments’ and ascertain vrhether all the provisions of this chapter are duly observed and re¬ port all violations tiiereof to one of the grand jurors of the town. Sec. 30. Seleclmen may bind out neglected children.— The selectmen in every town shall inspect the conduct of the heads of families, and if they find any who neglect the education of the children under their care, may admonish them to attend to their duty ; and if they continue negligent, w’hereby the children grow rude, stubborn, and unruly, they shall, with the advice of a justice of the peace, take such children from those who have the charge of them, and bind them out to some proper master or to some charitable institution or society incorporated in this State for the care and instruction of such children, males till twenty-one and females till eighteen years of age, that they may be properly educated and brought up in some lawful calling. Sec. 31. Town regulations respecting truants and vagrant children. — Each city and town may make regulations concerning habitual truants from school, and children between the ages of seven and sixteen years wandering about its streets or public places, having no lawful occupation, norat¬ tending school, and growing up in ignorance ; and such by-laws also respecting such children as shall conduce to their welfare ^and to public order, imposing suitable penalties, not exceeding twenty dollars for any one breach thereof; but no such town by-laws shall be valid until approved by the superior court in any county. Sec. 32, Truant offlcers. — Every town, and the mayor and aldermen of every city having such by¬ laws, shall annually appoint three or more persons, who alone shall be authorized to prosecute for violations thereof. All warrants issued upon such prosecutions shall be returnable before any jus¬ tice of the peace or judge of the city or police court of the town or city. Sec. 33. Truants, arrest of. — The police in any city, and bailiff's, constables, sheriffs, and deputy sheriffs in their respective precincts, shall arrest all boys between eight and sixteen years of age who habitually wander or loiter about the streets or public places or anywhere beyond the proper control of their parents or guardians during the usual school hours of the school term ; and may stop any boy under sixteen years of age during such hours and ascertain whether he is a truant from school ; and if he be, shall send him to such school. Sec. 34. Truants may be committed to reform school, when. — Any boy arrested the third time under the provisions of the preceding section, if not immediately returned to school, shall be taken be¬ fore the judge of the criminal or police court or any justice of the peace in the city, borough, or town where such arrest is made ; and if it shall appear that such boy has no lawful occupation, or is not attending school, or isgi’owingup in habits of idleness or immorality, or is an habitual truant, he may be committed to any institution of instruction or correction or house of reformation in said city, borough, or town for not more than three years, or, with the approval of the selectmen, to the State reform school. Sec. 35. Fees of ti-uant officers.— Officers other than policemen of cities shall receive for making the arrests required by the two preceding sections, such fees, not exceeding the fees allowed by law for making other arrests, as may be allowed by the selectmen of the town in which such ar¬ rests ai’e made; but unless a warrant was issued by a judge of the criminal or police court, or by a justice of the peace, the officer shall, before receiving his fees, present to the selectmen of the town a written statement showing the name of each boy arrested, the day on which the arrest was made, and if the boy was returned to school, the name or number of the school to which he was so returned. Sec. 36. Wari’ant and hearing. — In all eases arising under the provisions of the three preceding sections, a proper warrant shall be issued by the judge of the criminal court of the city, or by a jus¬ tice of the peace in the borough or town where such arrest is made; and the father, if living, or if not, the mother or guardian of such boy, shall be notified, if such parent or guardian can be found, of the day and time of hearing. The fees of tlie judge or justice shall be two dollars for such hear¬ ing; and all expenses shall be paid by the city, borough, or town in and for which he exercises such jurisdiction. Sec. 37. Suspending judgment. — After the hearing in any such case, such judge or justice of the peace may, at his discretion, indefinitely suspend the rendition of judgment. Sec. 38. Appointment of district committee or janitor as special constables. — The selectmen of any town may appoint committees of school districts and janitors of school buildings, and other per¬ sons on nomination by the school visitors of the towui or board of education of an incorporated school district, special constables. Said constables shall have power in the town in which they re¬ side, and in adjoining towns when offenders have escaped thither, to arrest for truancy and other causes named in section 33, and for disturbance of scliools and school meetings and damage to school property, and to serve criminal process in all such cases. Sec. 39. Vagrant girls maybe committed to industrial school. — Upon the request of the parent or guardian of any girl between eight and sixteen years of age, a w’arrant may be issued for her ar¬ rest in the same manner and on the same conditions as is provided in sections 34-37 with respect to boys; and thereupon the same proceedings may be had as are above provided, except that said girls may be committed to the Connecticut Industrial School for Girls. ANALYSIS OF THE EEQUIREMENTS OF THE CONNECTICUT LAW RELATING TO TEE IN¬ STRUCTION AND EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN. ^ I. Who may attend. — “Schools shall be open to all children over four years of age in the respective districts without discrimination on account of race or color.’’ But chil¬ dren under live may be excluded “whenever in their (the school visitors’) judgment the interest of the school will be thereby promoted.” “Children ’ ’ would probably comprise legal infants. Whether this be so or not, there is no legal ground ter rejecting from schools persons over sixteen. Boards of visitors may make rules relating to such matters. II. Who must attend. — “Every parent or other person having control of any child over eight and under sixteen years of age shall cause such child to attend.” The persons who must attend, unless legally excused, are all children over eight and under sixteen years of age. This is the limit of compulsory schooling in the State. * From Conn, Sob. Doc., No. VI, 1SS8. 490 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-8D. III. Possible attendances. — “Public schools shall be maintained for at least thirty-six weeks in each year, in every school district in which the number of persons between four and sixteen years of age at the last preceding enumeration was one hundred or more; and for at least thirty weeks in every district in which the number of persons between said ages was twenty-four or more; and for at least twenty-four weeks in the other districts” (sec. 40). “School committees shall see that good public schools of the different grades are maintained in the various parts of the town, for not less than the same length of time as would be required had no such consolidation been made ” (sec. 129). IV. Hoio long and when children must attend. — Parents must cause their children to attend * * * (a) “Regularly” (sec. 21). (b) “During the hours and terms while public schools in the district wherein such child resides are in session ” (sec. 21 ). Instruction at home and attendance at private school are recognized excuses for non- attendance in public schools as stated below; but this instruction at home or in a private school must be: (a) During the hours (sec. 21). (b) During the terms (sec. 21). (c) And in the studies taught in the public schools (sec. 21). There should be no misunderstanding with regard to these requirements. Instruc¬ tion elsewhere than in a public school can not be a cover for no instruction, or for such instruction as the caprice or convenience of parents or others may determine. Without question instruction must be in the English language. Parents can incur the penalty of section 22 only for such weeks as the schools are in session. The prescribed studies are mentioned in the first paragraph of section 21 and in sec¬ tion 40. V. Recognized excuses. — The excuses recognized under the law are: 1. Thorough instruction elsewhere during the hours and terms of the public schools and in the studies taught in the public schools (sec. 21). This would admit: (a) Instruction at home. (b) Instruction in private schools. Private schools, however, must conform to the requirements of section 23, or attendance will not be regarded as compliance with the provisions of section 21. 2. Such physical or mental condition as renders instruction inexpedient or impractica¬ ble (sections 21, 22). 3. Destitution of clothing and inability of parents to provide the same. The burden ' of proving such destitution and inability is upon the parent (section 22). 4. The most important recognized excuse for nonattendance is employment. The law on this subject may be summarized as follows: (a) AH over fourteen may be employed. (b) Children between thirteen and fourteen may be employed if they have attended school 60 days within the preceding 12 months (section 21). (c) Children under thirteen and over eight may be employed if they have attended 120 days within the previous school year (section 21). But children under thirteen can not be employed in mechanical, manufacturing, or mercantile establishments at any time. State administration of the law. — There were in 1888 four agents of the State board of education charged with executing the provisions of the law relating to the attendance and employment. The local authorities cooperate with these, but seldom take the initia¬ tive. “In very few towns are any steps taken by local authorities to enforce the law.’” “In three out of fifty towns local authorities have acted. On the other hand. State Agent Giles Potter says: ^ “While in some towns the local authorities have done noth¬ ing toward enforcing these compulsory laws, the number of towns where notice is taken of failure of children to attend school, and in which efforts are made by school officers by means of notices and personal admonitions, is increasing. More towns and districts are appointing truant officers, and aid is constantly solicited from agents of the State board. This local influence and cooperation should be encouraged in everj community or the laws can not therein be effectively enforced. I therefore deprecate any legislation and any measures which seem to relieve towns of responsibility concerning this matter of attendance or any other matter affecting the schools.” 7b what degree enforced. — Hon. Charles D. Hine, secretary of the State board, writes to the bureau as follows (January 28, 1890): “In general the law is more effective in rural 1 Conn. Sell. Rep., 1887, p. 37, Hbid., 1889, p.14. ^Ibid., p. 37. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE— CONNECTICUT. 491 districts than in cities, because (a) there are fewer cases compared with the whole num¬ ber of pupils; ih) they are easier to get at. “The method pursued in case of the rural districts is to have a whole county thor¬ oughly canvassed. Every family which has children is noted, and the attendance or nonattendance recorded by the agent. All cases of nonattendance are investigated, and children are brought to school. Thereafter families that have been or are likely to be delinciuent are inquired about by letter, and if they are not sending their children to school an agent is sent. Sometimes it is necessary to keep the record for a month or two, and then send the agent upon a round of visits. “The difficulty is in compelling regular attendance. Our law requires 120 days at¬ tendance. Schools must now be in session 150 days. We find difficulty in compelling children to attend the extra 30 days above the compulsory limit. There is a little con¬ fusion in the law as to whether 120 or 60 days attendance is required, but the courts are with us on the question, and we have no difficulty in compelling 120 days up to the age of thirteen. “The per cent, of attendance as compared with the enumeration in this State does not run much above 53. This seems to be a small showing for our compulsory system, but it is really a remarkably good showing. Parents are not under legal obligation to send their children until they are eight, and they can put them to work between thir¬ teen and fourteen for all except 120 days. Between these ages of eight and thirteen we secure almost entire conformity to the law. Between thirteen and fourteen we are not so successful. After fourteen we have considerable difficulty in compelling even those not employed to attend school. “The system has the support of the people of the State. The general assembly gives the board all the means it asks for enforcement, and the board regards the enforce¬ ment as on the whole satisfactory. This is not saying that it can not be more exactly enforced, but that there are comparatively few cases of violation within the compulsory ages.” The Connecticut school report, 1889, gives the following details regarding the en¬ forcement of the attendance laws by the State agents: Towns visited . 59 Cases of absence investigated . 1,341 Families visited . 898 Absent under legal excuses : Mental or physical disability . 125 Lack of clothing . . . 74 At work legally . 213 Total . : . 412 Absent illegally, negligence, etc . 499 Absent illegally, at work,... . 145 Total . 644 Sent to school . 764 Prosecutions (parents) . . ........ ^6 Prosecutions (employers) . 7 Total.. . . 33 Truants . 75 Sent to I'eform school . 11 Sent to industrial school . 1 Cases of parents being fined or imprisoned for noucompliance with the provisions of the law relating to compulsory attendance, pure and simple, are of frequent occurrence. It is believed that Connecticut is the only State where such fine or imprisonment has ever been enforced. Un, ceasing activiiy in enforcement. — The Connecticut law owes its efficacy in great meas¬ ure to the unremitting persistency with which it has been enforced. It has been the settled policy of the State board to allow delinquents no rest in so far as its agents could reach them. The practice of making — A scarecrow of the law, Setting it up to fear the birds of prey, - till custom make it Their perch, and not their terror — has been replaced by one of energetic enforcement. Especial emphasis is laid upon this t>oiut in the report of the board for 1878, which saj^s (p. 6): “ Unceasing vigilance and activity are required to resist the strong tendency among the juvenile population towards slipping back into idleness and truancy. * * * The work of one year will never answer for the next. Efforts to restrain truancy may not be relaxed for so much as a single term without engendering evils which can never be wholly eradicated.” 492 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Moral suasion and arguments have been resorted to to enforce the law whenever they would effe,ct the purpose in hand, as they generally do. But the determination has been firm to enforce the penalties of the law in cases of stubborn resistance. Examples are made of offenders which have an incalculably wholesome though silent influence for good. In 1889 twenty-six prosecutions of parents and seven of employers for noncompliance are recorded; seven hundred and sixty-four children illegally absent were sent to school. The rights of children. — In the Connecticut sj’stem parents and employers are pun¬ ished for nonattendauce of children, not the children themselves. The children are the parties sinned against. It is considered the duty of the State to protect children from the neglect or rapaciousness of parents and employers, and to secure to them their rights, both out of regard for its own welfare and as a measurS of abstract justice. This theory is well defined, and the practice of the authorities has been conducted in strict accord¬ ance with it. “Three years’ observation of the child-labor law and execution of its provisions,” says Secrelary Hine, “supply abundant evidence of its benefits to children. This is the only view this department can consider. The greed of parents is restrained, the rights of parents are respected by employers.” The general subject of the relations of parents to their children is thus discussed: “Therearemauy parents who assert what they call their rights of governance. Such think itunjust that they must send their children to school, and thus lose the profit of their labor. Others, timid about interfering with the relation of parent and child, pre¬ fer that the child should suffer abuse and deprivation rather than disturb the princi^ile of parental control. “There is no necessity for confusion or hesitation here. That parents may have the governance of their children is not an unalterable principle upon which unchangeable laws are based. It is only a proposition based upon extensive experience and embody¬ ing the general conviction that parents, inspired by instinctive love, will treat their chil¬ dren wisely and humanely. There is a strong probability that they will so treat them. This presumption of good will yield to a certainty of evil. When it is certain that a parent is injuring his child a point is reached where society says his action is not rea¬ sonable, and the law says it is not lawful. It may be unreasonable long before it is unlawful, but it is merely a question of degree when the legal limit is overstepped. “Responsibility for the education of the child is placed upon the parent. It is ad¬ mitted that the parent may and ought to understand what is the best education for his own children. But at the point of no education or of limited education resulting in mental starvation, the law undertakes to make the parent do his duty. If in the ex¬ ercise of his judgment and right of control the parent gives no education he has over¬ stepped the reasonable limit of control and transgressed the positive enactment. He is now compelled to do what he ought to do. “Similarly there is no principle which confers upon a parent the right to cause his child to work for gain or for the support of the family. It is [not] supposed that the labor which the parent compels the child to perform will result in good to the child. If the mind or body of the child is injured by work in any industry, the limit of reason is again overstepped, and the law compels the parent to refrain jfrom doing what he ought not to do. Both in dei^riving the child of education and in causing him to spend his early years in labor the parent is not conforming to what the experience and con¬ victions of society regard as right. He is not acting in a reasonable manner, and the law says he is not acting in a lawful manner. “The enactments relating to attendance and employment have restrained and miti¬ gated in many cases the harshness of parental control. It they have accomplished noth¬ ing more their operation has been beneficent.”^ Ihe emplojiment law does not work hardship. — Mr. Giles Potter, agent of the board, wrote in 1883: “The law very wisely does not make the pecuniary condition of the parent an excuse for depriving a child of opportunity to attend school. Towns have in such cases furnished assistance which otherwise would not have been required. I have myself presented requests in behalf of unfortunate families for such aid. The ap¬ plications were cheerfully met, and I have never known towns or selectmen complain that such demands were unreasonable. * * * The number of such families and the amounts required are so small that it can not be said that pauperism is thereby increased; eventually the families, by the education of their children, are made less dependent, since families whose children attend school regularly earn more in the course of the year than those who bring up their children in ignorance.” The replies of the selectmen of six large manufacturing towns, when interrogated by Mr. Potter on this subject, were substantially in accordance with the above.“ If the enforced depriving parents of the proceeds of their children’s labor “ were at¬ tended with hardship to many, or even to few, there would be room to question the Conn. Sch. Rep., 1888, pp. 29, 30. 2 1884, pp. 35-36. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — NEW YORK. 493 liiimamty of the law, however much its justice mio:ht be admitted. The cases of hard¬ ship do not frequently come to light, and when they are found are easily remediable without resorting to ‘child labor.’ It must be borne in mind that the law applies to children of tender years, whose right it is to have schooling. If the misfortune or shift¬ lessness of parents has resulted in poverty, shall the burden of this fall upon young children ’ Objections to compulsory education answered. — In 1872 Hon. B. G. Northrop, then sec¬ retary of the State board, replied as follows to certain arguments that had been adduced against the compulsory law:^ “1. Such a law would create a new crime. I reply, it ought to. To bring up chil¬ dren in ignorance is a crime and should be treated as such. As the most prolilic source of criminality, it should be under the ban of legal condemnation and the restraint of legal punishment. All modern civilization and legislation has made new crimes. Barbarism recognizes but few. To employ children in factories who are under 10 years of age, or who have not attended school, or to employ minors under 18 years of age more than 12 hours a day, is each a new crime. “2. It interferes with the liberty of parents. I reply again, it ought to, when they are incapacitated by vice or other causes for the performance of essential duties as par¬ ents. Many other laws limit personal libert3^ The requisition to serve on juries, or to aid the sheriff in arresting criminals, or the exactious-of military service in the hour of the country's need, these and many other laws do this. If the law may prohibit the owner from practicing cruelty upon his horse or ox it may restrain the parent from dwarfing the mind and debasing the character of his child. If the state may imprison and punish juvenile criminals it may remove the causes of their crime and its conse¬ quences ol loss, injury, and shame. The child has rights which not even a parent may violate. He may not rob his child of the sacred right of a good education. The law would Justl.y punish a parent for starving his child, and more mischief is done by starv¬ ing the mind than by famishing the body. The right of a parent to his children is founded on his ability and disposition to supply their wants of body and mind. When a payent is disqualified by intemperance, cruelty, or insanity, society’’ justly assumes the control of the children. In ancient Greece the law gave almost unlimited authority to the father over his offspring. The same is true in some semibarbarous nations now. lu all Christian lands the rights of the parents are held to imply certain correlative duties, and the duty to educate is as positive as to feed and clothe. Neglected children, when not orphans in fact, are virtually such, their parents ignoring their duties and thus for¬ feiting their rights as parents. The state should protect the helpless, and especially these, its defenseless wards, who otherwise will be vicious as well as weak. “3. It arrogates new power to the government. So do-all quarantine and hygienic regulations and lawsTor the abatement of nuisances. Now ignorance is noxious as the most offensive nuisance and more destructive than bodily contagious. Self-protection is a fundamental law of society. “4. It is un-American and unadapted to our free institutions. To put the question in the most offensive form, it may be asked, ‘Would you have policemen drag your chil¬ dren to school? ’ I answer, ‘ Yes, if it will prevent his dragging them to jail a few years hence.’ But this law in our land would invoke no ‘dragging,’ and no police espionage, or inquisitorial searches. With the annual enumerations and the school registers in hand and the aid of the teachers and others most conversant with each district, school officers could easily learn who are the absentees.” ISTEW YORK. In 1866 the assembly of New Y’ork adopted a resolution calling upon the State super¬ intendent of public instruction for information respecting the compulsory-attendance laws of other States and of foreign countries. In obedience thereto, State Superintend¬ ent Victor M. Rice submitted a carefully prepared report in which his opinion as to compulsory school attendance was summed up in the following language: ‘‘I doubt the expediency of laws compelling parents and guardians to send their children and wards of a proper school age to the public schools, or to provide education for them at home or at private schools, until the persuasive power of good teachers, commodious and com¬ fortable schoolhouses, and free schools shall have been tried, and tried in vain.” No further action was taken with regard to compulsory edacation until 1871, when a bill for that purpose was introduced into the assembly. State Superinleudent Abram B. Weaver, in his report of that year, discussed the whole subject with much care, and strongly opposed the proposition to make education compulsory, principally on the ground that it was at variance with the principles of free institutions. ‘‘The citizens ‘ Conn. Sell. Rep., 1SS9, p. 4G. ^Ibid., 1872, pp. 32-33. 494 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. of a free state,” be remarked, “must learn to take care of themselves in the matter of education as in other respects if they would remain their own masters.” The hill lulled to become a law. The question continued to be extensively discussed, however, and an act was finally passed. May 11, 1874, which, with the amendments of 1876, is the law in force at the present day. The foliowdng is the text of the law: NEW YORK COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAWL [PasiTcZ May 11, 1874.] AN ACT to secure to children the benfits of elementary education. Section 1. All parents and those who have the care of children shall instruct them, or cause them to be instructed, in spelling:; reading, writing, English grammar, geograph and arithmetic. And every parent, guardian, or other person having control and charge of any child between the ages of eight and fourteen years shall cause such child to attend some public or private day school at least fourteen weeks in each year, eight weeks at least of which attendance shall be consecutive, or to be instructed regularly at home at least fourteen weeks in each year in spelling, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, and arithmetic, unless the physical or mental condition of the child is such as to render such attendance or instruction inexpedient or impracticable. Sec. 2. No child under the age of fourteen years shall be employed by any person to labor in any business whatever during the school hours of any school day of the school term of the public school in the school district or the city where such child is, unless such child shall have attended some public or private day school where instruction was given by a teacher qualified to instruct in spelling, reading, writing, geography, Englhsh grammar, and arithmetic, or shall have been reg¬ ularly instructed at home in said branches by some person qualified to instruct in the same, at least fourteen weeks of the fifty-two weeks next preceding any and every year in which such child shall be employed, and shall, at the time of such employment, deliver to the employer a certificate in writing, signed by the teacher or a school trustee of the district or of a school, and countersigned by such officer as the board of education or public instruction, by whatever name it may be known in any city, incorporated village or town, shall designate, certifying to such attendance or instruc¬ tion; and any person who shall employ any child contrary to the provisions of this section sha'l, for each offense, forfeit and pay a penalty of fifty dollars to the treasurer or chief fiscal officer of the city, or supervisor of the town in which such offense shall occur; the said sum or penalty, when so paid to be added to the public school money of the school district in which the offense occurred. Sec. 3, It shall be the duty of the trustee or trustees of every school district, or public school, or union school, or of officers appointed for that purpose by the board of education or public instruc¬ tion, by whatever-name it may be known, in every town and city, in the month of September and of February in each year, and at such other times as may be deemed necessary, to examine into the situation of the children employed in all manufacturing and other establishments in such school district where children are employed; and in case any town or city is not divided into school districts, it shall for the purposes of the examination provided for in this section be divided by the school authorities thereof into districts, and the said trustees or other officers as aforesaid notified of their respective districts on or before the first day of January of each year; and the said trustee or trustees, or other officers as aforesaid, shall ascertain whether all the provisions of this act are duly observed, and report all violations thereof to the treasurer or chief fiscal officer of said city, or supervisor of said town. On such examination the proprietor, superintendent, or manager of said establishment shall, on demand, exhibit to said examining trustee, or other officer as afore¬ said, a correct list of all children between the ages of eight and fourteen years employed in said establishment, with the said certificates of attendance on school or of instruction. Sec. 4. Every parent, guardian, or other person having control and charge of any child between the ages of eight and fourteen years, wjio has been temporarily discharged from employment in any business, in order to be afforded an opportunity to receive instruction or schooling, shall send such child to some public or private school, or shall cause such child to be regularly instructed as aforesaid at home for the period for which such child may have been so discharged, to the extent of at least fourteen weeks in all in each year, unless the physical or mental condition of the child is such as to render such an attendance or instruction inexpedient or impracticable. Sec. 5. The trustee or trustees of any school district or public school, or the president of any union school, or such officer as the board of education of said city, incorporated village, or town may designate, is hereby authorized and empowered to see that sections one, two, three, four, and five of this act are enforced, and to report in writing all violations thereof to the treasurer or chief fiscal officer of his city, or to the supervisor of his town; any person who shall violate any pro¬ vision of sections one, three, and four of this act shall, on written notice of such violation from one of the school officers above named, forfeit, for the first offense, and pay to the treasurer or chief fiscal officer of the city, or to the supervisor of the town in which he resides, or such offense has occurred, the sum of one dollar, and, after such first offense, shall, for each succeeding offense in the same year, forfeit and pay to the treasurer of said city or supervisor of said town, the sum of five dollars for each and every week, not exceeding thirteen weeks in one year, during which he, after written notice from said school officer, shall have failed to comply with any of said provisions ; the said penalties, when paid, to be added to the public school money of said school district in which the offense occurred. [Section 6 pi'ovides for text-books for poor children.] Seo. 7. In case any person having the control of any child between the ages of eight and fourteen years is unable to induce said child to attend school for Jhe said fourteen weeks in each year, and shall so state in writing to said trustee, or said other officers appointed by the board of education or public instruction by whatever name it may be known, the said child shall, from and after the date and delivery to said trustee, or other officer as aforesaid, of said statement in writing, be deemed and dealt with as an habitual truant, and said person shall be relieved of all penalties incurred for said year after said date, under sections one, four, and five of this act, as to such child, • Sec. 8. The board of education or public instruction, by whatever name it may be called, in such city and incorporated village, and the trustees of theschool districtsand union school in each towii, by an affirmative vote of a majority of said trustees, at a meeting or meetings to be called for this purpose, on ten days’ notice in writing to each trustee, said notice to be given by the town clerk, are for each of their respective cities and towns hereby authorized and empowered and directed, on or before the first day of January, eighteen hundred and seventy-seven, to make all needful COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE-NEW YORK. 495 provisions, arrangements, rules and regulations concerning habitual truants and children between said ages of eight and fourteen years of age, who may be found wandering about the streets or public places of such city or town during the school hours of the school day of the term of the pub¬ lic school of said city or town, having no lawful occupation or business, and growing up in igno¬ rance ; and said provisions, arrangements, rules and regulations shall be such as shall, in theirjudg- ment, be most conducive to the welfare of such children, and to the good order of such city or town; and shall provide suitable places for the discipline and instruction and confinement, when necessary, of such children, and may require the aid of the police of cities or incorporated villages, and constables of towns, to enforce their said rules and regulations; provided, however, that such provisions, arrangements, rules and regulations shall not go i nto effect, as laws for said several cities and towns, until they shall have been approved, in writing, by a justice of the supreme court for the judicial district in which said city, incorporated village, or town is situated ; and, when so approved, he shall file the same with the clerk of the said city, incorporated village, or town, wlio shall print the same, and furnish ten copies thereof to each trustee of each school district, or public or union school of said city, incorporated village, or town. The said trustee shall keep one copy thereof posted in a conspicuous place in or upon each school-house in his charge during the school terms each year. In like manner the same in each city, incorporated village, or town may be amen ed or revised within six months after the passage of this act, and thereafter annually as the trustee or trustees of any school district or public school, or the president of any union school, or the board of education or public instruction, or by whatever name it may be known, in any city, incorpo¬ rated village, or town, may determine. Sec. 9. Justices of the peace, civil justices, and police justices shall have jurisdiction, within their respective towns and cities, of all offenses and all actions for penalties or fines described in this act, or that may be described in said provisions, arrangements, rules and regulations authorized by section eight of this act. All actions for fines and penalties under this act shall be brought in the name of the treasurer or chief fiscal officer of the city or supervisor of the town to whom the same is payable, but shall be brought by and under the direction of the said trustee or trustees, or said officer designated by the board of education. Sec. 10. Two weeks’ attendance at a half-time or evening school shall, for all purposes of this act, be counted as one week at a day school. Sec. 11. This act shall take effect on the first day of January, eighteen hundred and seventy-five. The position of Superintendent Gihnour. — Hon. NeilGilmour, the then State superintend¬ ent, Avhile not considering the act unconstitutional, expressed his conviction that the sys¬ tem should not have been introduced into New York until after some years of careful preparation; iu his view ample school accommodations should have been provided, the quality of the instruction improved, and provision made for the care of truants and va¬ grants, before having had recourse to any compulsory measures. “I am also decidedly of the opinion,” he .went on to say, “that if we can, under a voluntary system, closely approximate the results which we aim to reach by the enactment of a compulsory law, it will be better not to have such a law upon our statute books.” He expressed his determination, however, to render all possible assistance in enforcing the law, notwith¬ standing a number of defects which were pointed out. The law after four years’’ trial. — In 1878 Superintendent Gilmour called upon the city superintendents of schools for special reports, showing what had been accomplished under the compulsory law. “These reports,” he says, “show that no practical results have been secured. With the exception of two or three cities no step? have been taken to the carrying out of the provisions of this law; and where steps have been taken hardly any satisfactory results have been secured. The manner in which this law has been received by the public is in marked contrast with the law in reference to industrial drawing. The act in reference to compulsory education is practically a dead letter, and it must be materially amended before it can be enforced. “Statistics iu reference to this law have also been required * * * from local offi¬ cers in the rural districts. * * The reports generally indicate that the law in its present lorm is not and can not be enforced.” Why not enforeed in eities; what the reports say. — Albany: No direct steps taken; no compulsion necessary; educational advantages are appreciated so highly that the board is embarrassed only in providing sufficient school-room to supply the demand. Elmira: The school board has done all it can, but the city authorities refuse to make necessary appropriation. Lawyers think the law a cumbrous, awkward thing to exe¬ cute. A reform school or ungraded school for irregular attendants greatly needed. Poughkeepsie: Substantially nothing done. Ouly a small number of the children coming under the provisions of the law are not in school. ^ Brooklyn: In 1876 five attendance agents and a superintendent of attendance of high character were appointed under rules of the city board of education. These agents notified the proprietors of all the large manufactories of the terms of the law with the following results: (1) Large numbers of juvenile employes were thereupon discharged, and the streets were filled with children “ whose precocious sa'j:acity was constantly ex¬ ercised to elude the vigilance of the agents.” (2) Many of the children were members of families in which the rigid exclusion from work “of every member below the age of fourteen was a verdict of death by starvation or subsistence by charity. ” (3) “A third result of enforced attendance of unwilling pupils upon our public schools was more im¬ portant in its effect on the discipline, morals, and efficiency of instruction in them than had been anticipated, and unhappily that result was the reverse of beneficial. * * * The effect of their forced obtrusion upon many of the classes was not less disastrous to 496 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. the discipline and morals of tlie pupils in them than to the equanimity and efficiency of the instructor. In consequence of their long neglect of the subjects of study it was found necessary to place these unfortunate youths in the same classes with pupils scarcely more than one-half their age to whom the contagion of their vices was doubly infectious from the influence of their superior strength and greater year.s,” etc. “It was such evils as these which affected the judgments of the members of this board in establishing some mode of accomplishing the designs of the law without the attendant evils of its late enforcement.” From September, 1876, to July, 1878, the attendance agents were employed entirely as truant officers, the same as had been the case for 12 years prior to the passage of the compulsory law. In Octol)er, 1878, two attendance schools were established for the instruction of children of confirmed truant habits. These -were designed to relieve the public schools from the burden of the discipline of such children and materially increase the efficiency of tuition for the more regular attendants upon them. The city superintendent, in closing his report, says in general terms with regard to the compulsory law: “Its extent of utility, however, ought not to be measured by the number of delin¬ quents whose tendency has subjected them to arrest by the attendance agents, as the wholesome fear of such discipline has doubtless deterred many others from committing the same offense. “The modified system adopted by this board during the last year (1878) effected nearly all that could be judiciously performed for arresting truancy, and when supple¬ mented by the establishment of special truant schools I believe the act will accomplish all that is practicable in compulsory attendance upon the public schools.” New York : “The compulsory education clauses of the law have been only partially enforced. * * The superintendent of truancy reports that he has found only 303 children between* the ages of 8 and 14 who are employed in stores, factories, etc., of whom fully one-half are entitled to certificates of attendance. He, however, says: ‘I desire to know what course I shall pursue in regard to those who are the children of very poor parents, whose wages are of the greatest importance to assist in the support of their parents and other members of the family during the rigors of winter. A notice to their employers will discharge the whole of them into the street, making afresh supply of recruits for the beggar and pauper class.’ In other words, he reports that the law can not be enforced without such distressing consequences to parents as he shrinks from being the means of producing, even though the duties of his office would seem impera¬ tively to require this to be done. ‘‘ From all the facts presented it would appear that very little has been accomplished this year in the effort to carry into effect the provisions of the law. But I do not think the community, or the school system, has suffered therefrom, as I deem the law in its general scope unnecessary and in many respects impracticable.” Lockport: No effort made to enforce the provisions of the law, the prospects of suc¬ cess being insufficient to warrant the labor and expense involved. Syracuse: A census was taken; only a few children, eight to fourteen, were found to be non-attendants, so action was deemed unnecessary. The superintendent fears the act may have the effect of limiting to fourteen weeks the attendance of many poor chil¬ dren who would have attended longer, and does not feel certain “that any good can be secured to the cause of education by legislation compelling attendance at the public schools. ’ ’ Newburg: Nothing done. Oswego: Nothing done except to publish the act. Long Island City: Nothing done. Ogdensburg: Nothing done. “The law is not adapted to the condition of the citizen and his rights in a free country like ours. School men should have a voice in making school law in order to make it practicable.” Schenectady: Notfiing accomplished. After fourteen years of trial. — State Superintendent A. S. Draper, in his second report, dated January 17, 1888, stated that the attendance on the schools did not keep pace with the growth of the population, and attributed this result to the circumstance that nothing practical had ever been done in the State by way of compelling attendance upon the schools. “To be sure,” he says, “we have a compulsory education law upon our statute books, but it is a compulsory law which does not compel. It has never been acted under to any considerable extent, and this being so after fourteen years of trial, it is lair to presume that it never will be.^ In my opinion there are good reasons why Hn writing to the Bureau under date of January 27, 1890, Superintendent Draper .saya of the statute of 1874: “It has never been operated effectually, unless in two or three large cities, where the circumstances were extreme, and where they have facilities through other legialation for utilizing some of its provisions.” COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — NEW YORK. 497 it has never accomplished what was desired of it. In the first place it requires members of boards of education to looh after and apprehend delinquent children, and it is un¬ reasonable to expect that officials elected only to manage the schools and who serve without pay will devote the necessary time or that they will engage in work which should devolve upon a policeman or constable or some other officer specially charged Avith and paid for such service. Again, the penalties provided in the act run mainly against children, and no people will be swift to enforce penalties against children for delinquency not amounting to crime, for which they are not so properly answerable as are their parents or guardians. The penalties in the act which go against parents are mere fines, so inconsiderable as to be ridiculous, and the machinery provided for collect¬ ing them is too cumbersome and expensive to be commonly made use of. Moreover the act requires that children under fourteen years of age should attend for at least fourteen weeks in the year. Attendance for so small a part of the year is hardly of enough im¬ portance to justify any serious effort to insure it. Again, the law does not require communities to act in the matter, nor does it provide any adequate school facilities for the accommodation of delinquents if brought in.” The present law insufficient. — In another connection Superintendent Draper says of the statute of 1874: “This measure, now known as chapter 421 of the laws of 1874, was materially amended in 1876, and constitutes the present compulsory-education law of this State. It has never availed much. In the light of experience we are able to see that its theories were not altogether sound, that its processes were ill-conceived, that its remedies were inadequate, and that, above all, it made no suitable provision for its own enforcement. * * * Only in two or three larger cities where circumstances have been extreme, where local oflicers have been interested and possessed of back-bone, and where, in consequence of other legislation, they have had authority and means to enforce some of the provisions of this statute, have any results worth mentioning flowed from it. Yet these two or three large cities serve an excellent purpose in pointing out the course necessary to be pursued in order to be successful in gathering the children of indifferent and dissolute parents into the schools.” Principles to he ernhodied in any effective statute. — “There is no longer any necessity for moving blindly in the matter. The State can now act more intelligently than it did in 1874, and effectually meet the difficulty if it undertakes to do so. Public experience, at home and abroad, since that time, has been such as to point out clearly the particu¬ lar steps which need to be taken to make certain of general success in the undertaking. * * * I think that experience has shown that any statute which will be effective must at least embody the following principles: “1. The law must specify the ages between which and months of the year within which all children must be in some school, eitherpublic or private, of suitable character, unless excused therefrom for sufficient reasons by official authority. “2. Parents and guardians must be made responsible for sending children to school, and must be punished sulficiently to insure compliance with the requirements of the statute. “3. Special institutions must be provided for thoroughly vicious and incorrigible cases which can not safely be received into the ordinary schools. “ 4. The law must set up the machinery for securing, and keeping continuouvsly a per¬ fect census of children of school age in each city or district, and it must provide and pay officers to look up and account for each child, and to execute all the provisions of the statute. “ Y/hiie the friends of popular education will be justified in vigorously seeking the enactment of a measure which does something more than toy with this important sub¬ ject, and in refusing to accept any measure which does not give promise of operating effectually, it is to be hoped that no controversy will be permitted over nonessentiat details. There is no room for any serious differences as to details among people who admit the principle that the State should see to it that children within specified ages should be sent to a suitable school, and who are either experienced themselves or are familiar with the experience of others in trying to enforce this principle. It seems to me that, at this late day, the opinions of people who deny this principle are entitled to but little consideration, and that a principle so important, both to individual and public interests, should not be jeopardized through the lack of aquaiutance with what may be necessary to enforce it.” Action of the council of superintendents. — Certain occurrences in 1887 had aroused pub¬ lic attention in the matter of school attendance, and the State council of city and village superintendents, which met in November of that year, adopted the following resolu¬ tions: Resolved, That it is the sense of the'couucil that the existing laws of a compulsory nature are in a general way sufficient lor the accomplishment of the purposes intended. ED 89 - 32 498 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. ‘‘That the weakness of the law lies in its failure to fix specific obligations for its en¬ forcement with sufficient certainty to secure individual responsibility therefor. “ That the important need is some place of detention free from semblance of a penal institution for the temporary detention of delinquents under the law. Industrial schools under State or local authority should be established in sufficient numbers to meet this requirement of the law. “That every community should be rigidly required to furnish sufficient school accom¬ modations for the entire school population. “That the law, if it does not warrant the appointment of truant officers, should be so amended as to provide for such appointments, with a provision for adequate compensa¬ tion for such officers, and such officers should be required in all cities and important village communities.” A committee composed of competent and experienced members of the council was ap¬ pointed to draft a general bill covering the whole subject of compulsory education, and submit the same to the State superintendent. A bill embodying the necessary provisions was accordingly drawn up and introduced into the assembly in 1883, but failed to pass. The ensuing year it was reintroduced in a modified form and passed both houses, but failed to become a iaw through want of ap¬ proval of the governor. The proposed law. — The bill, as it finally came to the governor, contained the follow¬ ing provisions:^ 1. All children between the ages of seven and eleven years shall attend some school, either public or private, or be instructed at home during the entire time in each year between the 1st day of October and tlie 1st day of June that the public schools of the city or district in which they reside may be in session. 2. Children between eleven and fourteen years of age must attend school for at least fourteen consecutive weeks in each year; children between the ages of eleven and six¬ teen years, when not regularly engaged in some useful employment, must attend school when the public schools are in session. The existing law provides that violations against its provisions shall be punishable by fines not exceeding sixty-six dollars in any one year, recoverable by civil process. But it happens that the great majority of the vio¬ lators of the law are persons for whom a civil process has no terrors, and hence the law may be and is broken with impunity. The proposed law, however, makes violations of its provisions a misdemeanor punishable by fine or imprisonment, or both. The penalty for the first conviction is one dollar or one day’s imprisonment, and for each subsequent conviction, not exceeding thirteen in any one year, the penalty is five dol¬ lars or five days’ imprisonment, or both. If a parent shall make a written statement of his inability to induce or compel his child to attend school, then the parent shall thereafter, for the period of one year, be relieved from the penalties prescribed in the act, and the child shall be deemed and dealt with as an habitual truant, and as such shall, upon conviction, be committed to some suitable reformatory institution for juve¬ nile delinquents already existing, or to the one for the establishment of which the bill provides in subsequent sections. Requisite machinery is provided for carrying the law into effect. In rural districts the trustees are charged with its execution, and consta¬ bles are required to aid therein by notifying parents, making arrests under the law, and placing nonattendant and truant children in school. In cities and villages boards of education are charged with this duty, and are required to appoint attendance officers and to see that the law is faithfully and properly enforced. Failure so to do is made punishable by withholding from the delinquent district or city its share of the public money until such time as the law is complied with. Cities of two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants or over must within five years, and all other places must within two years, provide adequate and suitable accommodations for all children of school age residing within their respective limits who may desire or be required to attend school. Failure to comply with this provision will work a withholding of the public money as above. “If a parent should prefer to place his child in a private or parochial school rather than in a public school he may do so, subject to the requirement that it shall be a school in which at least the elementary branches of reading, spelling, writing, arith¬ metic, grammar, and geography are taught in the English language. ‘ The design evi¬ dently is that all our youth should be instructed in the national tongue; that aliens shall not be permitted to perpetuate foreign prejudices and foreign habits of thought in their children through clinging to the use of a foreign language.’ If the instruction is to be given at home it must be by a teacher duly qualified to teach under the laws of the State or approved by a school commissioner or a city superintendent of schools. “The final sections of the bill provide for the establishment of a State school for in- ^This summary of the essential features of the bill is taken from a paper by Superintendent U, N. Jones, of Saratoga Springs. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — NEW YORK. 499 corri;>:ible children to which truants convicted under the act maybe committed. No person convicted or accused of a crime or misdemeanor not described in the act shall be committed to this school, the purpose being to avoid giving to it, so far as possible, a penal character, so that those who have been discharged therefrom shall carry with them as little of stigma and disgrace as may be. The authorities of this institution are required to report to the State sup:'rintendent of public instruction annually such facts as he may require relating to the conduct and management thereof.” The bill originally contained a clause requiring all teachers of private schools to sub¬ mit to the same examination as do teachers of the public schools. This was stricken out in its passage through the legislature, since “ in order to get the bill before the ex¬ ecutive the parochial schools must be conciliated,” says Superintendent Jones. “They must be satisfied that the terms of the bill would not be an infringement upon their educational plans.” Objections of the governor. — Governor Hill, without passing judgment on the general intent and i^urpose of the measure, found some provisions in it that led him to think that the interests of the public would be better subserved by postponing the bill for revision by the next legislature. His most serious objections were made against the proposed State school for incorrigible children as being an institution of an essentially criminal character and not adapted to the purpose for which it was intended. He sug¬ gested that the proper provision for truant schools might better be made by the local authorities than by the State at large. The bill accordingly failed to become a law. The compulsory law enforced in the city of New York — siynifican police statistics. — Supt. John Jasper, of the New York city schools, reports as follows (1889-90): ” The city of New York is fortunate in the possession of an efficiently organized tru¬ ancy department, Avith a corps of twelve agents. For this reason the compulsory-edu¬ cation act is not, as is asserted of many other places, a dead letter. ‘‘ The records of the department show that the total number of visits made by the agents to homes, schools, stores, etc., was 34,105; that the total number of cases fully investigated and closed was 16,526, and that the whole number of cases of truants found and returned to school was 3,590. In the reports of truants the same child may be given more than once; the actual number of different truants averages, year by year, about half the whole number of cases reported. The number of nonattendants found and placed in school was 1,254. “ The beneficial effects of the enforcement of this law are shown most clearly by the police statistics, from which can be seen the remarkable decrease in the arrests of ju¬ venile offenders, notwithstanding the very large increase in population during the last twenty years. “If the law could be so amended that all unemplo^^ed children of school age found loitering in the streets or other public places, should be obliged to attend school, a fur¬ ther improvement would be effected. “To throw the clearest light possible on this subject and to furnish an ‘object lesson ’ that may encourage other localities to a systematic enforcement of the truancy law, I submit the folloAviug table: Table obtained from the records of the police department, city of New York, shovjing the num¬ ber of children beixoeen eight and fourteen year-i of age, arrested for flue years preceding the enactment, of the law, and for the last flue years, together xvith the cause of arrest. Cause of arrest. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1 Total. Truancy . 103 71 99 l;39 81 493 Vaaraney . 212 237 198 141 101 099 Disorderly conduct . 300 167 216 181 194 1,067 Violatina'citv ordinance . 17 12 16 3 66 ill Assaultand battery . 23 12 22 20 15 92 Malicious mischief . 11 4 10 2 13 40 Intoxication . 32 21 15 24 11 103 Felonious assault . 1 6 3 4 1 4 Petty larceny . . . . 216 226 284 252 218 1, 195 Larceny from the person . 5 14 23 ”26 12 ■ 80 Grand larceny . . 28 23 25 35 22 132 Buralary . . 17 12 26 33 19 107 Robbery . 1 3 7 5 5 21 Suspicious persons . 28 14 17 21 29 109 Held for farther examination . 117 354 268 351 334 1, 424 All other causes . 25 3 22 33 31 114 Total . 1, 144 1,194 1,253 1, 269 1, 245 6,105 500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Table obtained from the records of the police department, city of Kew Torlc, etc. — Cont’d. - Cause of arrest. Truancy . Vasrancy . . J^isorderly conduct . Violating city ordinance . Assault and battery . Malicious mischief . . . Intoxication . Felonious assault . Petty larceny . Larceny from the person . Insanity . Grand larceny . Burglary . RobViery . Suspicious persons . Held for further examination. All other causes . Total. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. Total. 28 31 47 35 17 158 84 88 75 95 35 377 140 207 148 126 137 758 64 41 55 74 36 270 11 12 11 11 7 52 G ]6 6 4 9 41 9 12 10 4 7 42 3 4 2 3 3 15 92 89 117 80 45 4a3 6 2 3 1 6 18 1 1 17 12 15 9 3 56 25 20 23 33 8 109 6 5 3 5 19 20 13 19 10 li 73 189 204 176 151 210 930 3 5 2 3 13 703 761 712 644 535 3,355 Brooklyn. — In his report to the State superintendent, City Supt. Y/illiam H. Max¬ well, of Brooklyn, gives the following table, exhibiting the work performed during the past year, under his direction, by the attendance officers in enforcing the compulsory- education law, as compared with the year 1888: Statement showing the work of the Brooklyn attendance bureau from November 1, 1889, to ,'i November 1, 1890. i Number of visits made . Number of cases investigated . Number of cases reinvestigated . Total . Children— kept at home by parents . . kept at home by sickness . kept at home by poverty . taught at home . mentally or physically disqualifled . transferred from one school to another . . . under eight or over fourteen years of age . withdrawn from school : left the city . . gone to work . whose residence could not be found . found to be truants and returned to school . found to be truants and committed to attendance schools, found to be truants and committed to Truant Home by parents through agent . found to be nonattendants and placed in school . found to be nonattendants and committed to Truant Horae by parents through agent . found employed in compliance with compulsory act . found employed contrary to compulsory act and placed in school . . . . Total . . Year ending — Increase. Decrease. Novem¬ ber!, 1890. Novem¬ ber!, 1889 36, 223 29, 579 6, 644 5,843 5, 826 17 2, 537 2, 342 195 8, 380 8, 168 212 1,792 1,813 21 1,066 1,074 8 430 420 10 3 5 2 5 15 10 196 177 19 349 253 96 141 126 15 106 81 25 244 291 47 2, 666 2,549 117 . 182 216 "34 68 102 34 1,058 974 84 10 12 2 32 32 32 28 4 8, 380 8, 168 212 “ It is something,” Superintendent Maxwell says, “to have rescued 1,068 waifs from the streets of a great city; it is something to have returned 2,666 truants to their regu¬ lar schools; it is something to have placed 250 boys, apparently incorrigible, in schools where they will have a chance for reformation; but all this is very small compared with what might be done, had we a compulsory law such as that outlined in your last an¬ nual report,” COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — -RHODE ISLAND. 501 IIH013E ISEAKI). School attendance was not required of all children by law in Rhode Island until 1883, though for nearly thirty years previous provisions relative to the employment of school children, and authorizing the enactment of local ordinances for the suppression of truancy, and the appointment of officers for the special duties appertaining to these matters, had been borne upon the statute books. These provisions, however, had been entirely inoperative, for various reasons.^ A study of the results of the census of 1880 revealed to the people of Rhode Island the fact that that State had the largest proportion of illiterates above ten years of age of any State in the North, there being 11.2 per cent, in Rhode Island, against an aver¬ age of 5.9 per cent, for all the other Northern States. Being placed between two States where the laws compelled employers and parents to educate the children, Rhode Island served as an open and inviting field for parents who sought to escape these conditions, and thus attracted an illiterate foreign element. A full knowledge of the magnitude of this evil quickly led to efforts to counteract it. ‘’Already different localities have begun to move in the matter,” wrote State Supt.Thomas B. Stockwellinl882, “and seek for means of self-protection, so far as they can be provided under existing laws. The city of Newport has already passed a truant ordinance, and several of the towns are considering the question. The public sentiment of the State is rapidly changing in reference to such legislation.” This movement culminated in the passage of the compulsory-attendance law of 1883, in which were incorporated also provisions relating to the employment of school chil¬ dren and truancy. This law was revised in 1^87, the principal changes being, (1) the imposition of a penalty upon cities and towns for noucompliance (section 15), (2) the giving of jurisdiction to the district courts of the State instead of to the justice courts of the towns, and (3) the extension of the field of forbidden labor to mercantile estab¬ lishments and telegraph and telephone companies. The law of 1837 accordingly reads as follows: Act of 1887 in Relation to TauANT Children and op the Attendance of Children in the Public Schools. Section 1. Every person having under his control a child between the ages of seven and fifteen years shall annually cause such child to attend for at least twelve weeks, six at leastof wbichshallbe con¬ secutive, some public day school in the town or city in which such child resides, and for every neg¬ lect of such duty the person so offending shall be fined not exceeding twenty dollars; but if such child shall have attended for a like period of time a private day school, approved by the school committee of such town or the superintendent of public schools of such city, or if such child shall have been otherwise furnished for a like period of time with the means of education, or shall have already acquired the elementary branches of learning taught in the public schools, or if his physi¬ cal or mental condition was such as to render such attendance inexpedient or impracticable, or has been excused by the school committee of the town in which such child resides, then such penalty shall not be incurred. Sec. 2. For the purposes of the preceding section such school committees or such superintendent of public schools shall approve a private school only when the teaching therein is in the English language and when they are satisfied that such teaching is thorough and efficient, but they shall not refuse to approve a priv.ate school on account of the religious teaching therein. Sec. 3. The town council of each town, and the boardof aldermen of each city,sh,all annuallyap- point one or more special constables, and fix their compensation, who shall be truant officers and who shall, under the direction of the school committee, inquire into all cases arising under the pro¬ visions of this act or under any ordinances made in pursuance thereof by the town or city by which such officers were appointed, and shall alone be authorized in case of violation of any of the pro¬ visions of this act, or of any such ordinances, to make complaint therefor; they sliall also serve all legal processes issued in pursuance of this act or of any such ordinances, but shall not be entitled to receive any fees for such service: Provided, hoivever. That in case of the commitment of any person under the provisions of any section of this act, or of any ordinance made in pursuance thereof, or for default of payment of any fine and costs imposed thereunder, such officer shall be entitled to the regular fees allowed by law for similar service. Sec. 4. The truant officers and the school committees of the several towns and cities .shall in¬ quire into all cases of neglect of the duty prescribed in section I of this act, within their respective towns apd cities, and ascertain the reasons, if any, therefor, and such truant officers or any of them shall, when so directed by the school committee, prosecute any person liable to the penalty pro¬ vided for in said section 1. Sec. 5. No child under ten years of age shall be employed in any manufacturing, mechanical, or mercantile establishment, or by any telegraph or telephone conipan}' in this State, during the time that the public schools of the town or city in which said child may reside are in session, and any parent or guardian who permits such employments shall for every such oflezice be fined not exceeding twenty dollars. Sec. 6. No child between the ages of ten and fifteen years shall be so employed except during the vacations of the public schools of the town or district in which such child resides, unless dur¬ ing the twelve months next preceding such employmenthe shall have attended school as provided for in section 1 of this act, or shall have alreadj^ acquired the elementary branches of learning taught in the public schools, or shall have been excused by the schocl committee of the town in which such child resides, nor shall such employment continue unless such child shall attend schoo »R. I. Sch. Rep., 1882, p. 118; 1883, pp. 10 and 116. 502 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. above provided each year, or until he shall have aequired the elementary branches of learning taught in the public schools, and no child shall be so employed who does not present a certificate made by or under the direction of said school committee of his compliance with the requirements of this section. Sec, 7. Every owner, superintendent, or overseer of any establishment or company named in section 5 of this act shall requh-e and keep on file a certificate of the place and date of birth of every child under fifteen years of age employed therein, as nearly accurate as may be, so long as such child is so employed, which certificate shall also state, in the case of a child under fifteen years of age, the amount of his school attendance during the year next preceding such employment. The certificates herein mentioned shall be signed by a member of the school committee of the town or city where such attendance was had, or by some one authorized by such committee, and the form of said certificate shall be furnished by the secretary of the State board of education. Sec. 8, Every owner, superintendent, or overseer of any such establishment or company who employs or permits to be employed any child in violation of either of the two next preceding sec¬ tions, and every parent or guardian who permits such employment shall be fined not exceeding twenty dollars. Sec. 9. The truant officers shall at least once in every school term and as often as the school com¬ mittee require, visit the establishments described in section 5 of this act, in their respective towns . and cities, and ascertain whether the provisions of the four next preceding sections hereof are duly observed, and report all violations thereof to the school committee. Sec. 10. The truant officers shall demand the names of the children under fifteen years of age employed in such establishments or company in their respective towns and cities, and shall require the certificates of age and school attendance prescribed in section 7 of this act to be pro¬ duced for theirinspection, and a refusal to producesuch certificates shall be punished by a fine not exceeding ten dollars. Sec. 11. Every owner, superintendent, or overseer of any such establishment or company who employs or permits to be employed therein a child under fifteen years of age who cannot write his name, age, and place of residence legibly, while the public schools in the town or city where such child lives are in session, shall for every such offence be fined not exceeding twenty dollars. Sec. 12. The town council of each town and city council of each city shall make all needful pro¬ visions and arrangements concerning habitual truants and children who maybe found wandering about in the streets or public places therein, having no lawful occupation or business, not attend¬ ing school and growing up in ignorance, and shall make such ordinances as will be most condu¬ cive to the welfare of such children and to the good order of such town or city, and shall designate or provide suitable places for the confinement, discipline, and instruction of such children. Sec. 13. Every minor convicted under an ordinance made under the provisions of section 12 of this act of being an habitual truant or of wandering about the streets and public places of a town or city or of having no lawful employment or business or of not attending school and of growing up in ignorance shall be committed to any institution of instruction or suitable place designated or provided for the puriiose under the authority of said section 12 for a period not exceeding two years. Sec. 14. Children so committed may on satisfactory proof of amendment or for other sufficient cause be discharged from such institution or place by the court which committed them. Sec. 15. The school committee of the several towns and cities shall annually report to the State board of education whether their towns or cities have made the provisions required by this act, and in ease the town council of any town or the board of aldermen and city council of any city shall in any year refuse or neglect to comply with the provisions of section 3 and section 12 of this act or of either of them after having been duly notified by the commissioner of public schools, fifty per cent, of the money apportioned to such city or town from the State for school purposes shall be withheld until the provisions of said section 3 and section 12 of this act shall have been complied with. Sec. 16. All fines under the provisions of this act shall inure and be applied to the support of the public schools of the town or city where the offence was committed. Sec. 17. The district courts of the State shall have jurisdiction in their respective districts of all cases arising under this act and all ordinances passed in conformity with this act. Sec. 18. No officer complaining under any of the provisions of this act or under the provisions of any ordinance that may be passed in pursuance hereof, shall be required to give surety for costs, and such officer shall not in anywise become liable for any costs that may accrue on such com¬ plaints. Sec. 19. [Repealing clause.] Under the old law. — Before tlie introduction (in 1887) of the penalty clause of section 15, cities and towns were only liable to be “reported” annually by the local school committees to the State Board for noncompliance with the law, so that it was virtually a local-option law; yet even under those circumstances a truant ordinance had been enacted in every town and at least one truant officer appointed. The machinery for carrying the law into effect therefore existed before the passage of the revised law. But in some places it was almost, if not quite, worthless, for the lack of any suitable provi.sion for the compensation of the truantofficer.^ The enforcement of the law had also to give way here and there to political exigencies. In Providence it was ignored. The real reason, however, for its not being completely enforced throughout the State was summed up by the State superintendent in one word — indifference. The people had not become suffi¬ ciently aroused. Under the law of 1887. — The new law (of 1887) differs from that of 1883 only as pre¬ viously noted. It is being enforced with increasing rigor, principally as the result of the development of a more healthy public sentiment in its favor. The statistics of its enforcement, as gathered by Superintendent Stockwell, “are very encouraging, not be¬ cause they show a perfect attendance, or one that we should be satisfied with, but because they reyeal a steady and general movement toward the attainment of that end. This is the best kind of evidence that the principles of the compulsory law are being R. I. Sch. Rep., 1887, p. 126. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — KANSAS. 503 more and more fully recognized, their logical deductions accepted, and the necessary efforts made to carry them out. * * “While the law is enforced in very different degrees in different localities, still it is corraing to be a recognized factor in nearly every town. There are but six towns that do not report some work done under the law, and in most of those towns it is probable that there was really no occasion for the services of a truant officer. In the rural sec¬ tions of the State there is seldom any demand for its interference; the fact that there is such an officer, ready to act if the necessity arises, is usually all the force required. “ Attention is particularly called to the very small number of convictions of truants reported. While a great many cases of truancy are reported as having been investigated, it has been found necessary, in order to secure attendance of the great body of these truants, to send to the reform school but eleven. This shows what has always been claimed, that the great mass of truants would at once yield to the orders of the truant officers rather than take a term at the reform school; that, practically, only the hard¬ ened offenders against not only the school laws but other laws also would need such treatment.”^ And in writing to the Bureau Superintendent Stockwell says (January 27, 1890); “Our experience shows that locality does not make so much difference in the matter of enforcement as the disposition or interest of the authorities. Providence has so far been a conspicuous illustration of ‘ how not to do it,’ while the other cities have done excel¬ lent work. Pawtucket, with a school population of 5,285, brought into her schools during the year every child who was amenable to the law, or was not exempt under its provisions. “ Some of the country towns have made very thorough work, while others have done very little. Of course there is much less demand lor such a law in the country, so far as quantity is concerned, but there are cases which need it fully as much as any in the cities. “With us the enforcement is a matter of growth. Each year shows an advance in popular sentiment and an improvement in attendance.” A more central ized system desired. — The .State Board of Education, in the follow¬ ing recommendation, look to the adoption of something resembling the Connecticut system: “We think that it would be conducive to a better enforcement of the truant law if the truant officers could be appointed by the State Board of Education or by some central authority. By the present law the officers are restricted in the honest discharge of their duties. Appointed by the party in power, they have a strong incli¬ nation to serve their friends and cater to their interests. In many towns their com¬ pensation is not enough to support them.” ^ KAIN’SAS. The Kansas legislature passed a compulsory attendance law in 1874, which was al¬ most a literal transcript of the noted Michigan law of 1871, and which has come down to the present time unaltered, save in the addition of a provision two years later (1876) relating to malicious prosecution, which forms section 106. The law is as follows; Kansas law— 1871. Sec. 103. Children shall attend school. — That every parent, guardian, or other person in' the State of Kansas, having control of any child or children between the ages of eight and fourteen years, shall be required to send such child or children to a public school or private school, taught by a compe¬ tent instructor, for a period of at least twelve weeks in each year, six weeks of which time shall be consecutive, unless such child or children are excused from such attendance by the board of the school district, or the board of education of the city in which such parent, guardian, or person hav¬ ing control resides, upon its being shown to their satisfaction that such parent or guardian was not able by reason of poverty to clothe such child properly; or that such child’s bodily or mental con¬ dition has been such as to prevent his attendance at school or application to study for the period required ; or that such child or cliildren are taught at home in such branches as are usually taught in the public schools, subject to the same examination as other pupils of the district or city in which the child resides; or that he has already acquired the ordinary branches required by law ; or that there is no school taught within two miles by the nearest ti'aveled road. Sec. 104. Penalty for violation of this act. — Any parent, guardian, or other person failing to comply with the provisions of this act shall upon conviction ,be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and fined in a sum not less than five nor more than ten dollars for the first offense, nor less than ten nor more than twenty for the second and every subsequent offense. Said action shall be prosecuted in the name of the State of Kansas before any court of competent jurisdiction; and all fines so col¬ lected shall be paid into the county treasury for the support of common schools. Sec. 105. Duty of school officers; penalty. — Itshall be thedutyof any school director or presidentof the board of education to inquire into all cases of neglect of the duty prescribed in this act, and as¬ certain from the person neglecting the reason, if any, therefor, and shall forthwith pi'oceed to secure the prosecution of any offense occurring under this act; and any director or president neglecting R. I. Sch. Rep., 1889, pp. Ill and 112. 2 J6id, 1888, p. 15. 504 EDUCATION REPOKTy 1888-89. to secure such prosecution for such offense within ten days after a written notice has been served on him by any taxpayer in said district or city, unless the person so complained of shall be ex¬ cused by the district or city board of education for reasons hereinbefore stated, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and liable to a tine of not less than twenty nor more than fifty dollars, which fine shall be prosecuted for and in the name of the State of Kansas; and such fine, when collected, shall be paid into the county treasury as in section 2 of this act. Sec. lot). Idalicious prosecution. — That upon the trial of any offense, as charged herein. If upon such trial it shall be determined that such prosecution was malicious, then the costs in such case shall be adjudged against the complainant, and collected as fines in other cases. The only State superintendent who has referred to this law in his report, previous to 1890, is the Hon. John Fraser, who in 1876 called upon county superintendents to re¬ port upon the operation of it in their respective counties. In response forty- four replies were received, 70 per cent, of which reported the law either as “inoperative,’’ “defi¬ cient,” or a “ dead letter,” while 30 percent, report it as having had so far some effect in increasing attendance. The principal and almost the only reason given for non-enforcement related to the means provided forsecuringa prosecution: “No one wishes to inform on his neighbor.” “Individuals are not sufidcieutly interested in their neighbors’ affairs to he willing to incur their displeasure by complaining of them.” “ There are few persons, compara¬ tively, that possess sufficient educational enthusiasm to incur a neighbor’s displeasure by attempting the enforcement of the law.” Subsequent to 1876 the law ceases to be mentioned in the State school reports, as already stated. In response to an inquiry by this Bareau, the newly-appointed State superin¬ tendent, Hon. Geo. W. Vfinans, says (January 23, 1890): “As there are so many ways in which the law may be evaded, I can not say that it has so far been any great suc¬ cess.” ILLI^^OIS. The Jaw o/1883. — Compulsory education legislation in Illinois dates from 1883. The law approved June 23 of that year required all persons having control of children be¬ tween the ages of eight and fourteen years to send them to a private or public school not less than twelve weeks in each school year, unless such children were excused from at¬ tending school by the local school board. It was provided that a child might be excused (1) on account of unsuitable mental or bodily condition; (2) if he had been taught in a private school or at home in such branches as are ordinarily taught in primary or other schools; (3) if he had already acquired the branches of learning ordinarily taught in public schools, or (4) if no school had been taught within two miles of his residence during the school year. Persons having control of children and not complying with the law were subject to a fine of from five to twenty dollars. Members of school boards were required to bring suit within twenty days after service of notice by any taxpayer that the law had been violated, and were made liable to be sued by any taxpayer and fined ten dollars if they neglected to do so. The law a failure. — This law failed to accomplish the purpose for which it was enacted: , Hon. Richard Edwards, the State superintendent, writes to the Bureau regarding it: “Its phraseology was such as to make it easy of evasion. That law appeared to pro¬ duce absolutely no effect. It may be said that the people gave it no attention.” And elsewhere he says; “It is doubtful whether this law has caused an increase in the attendance upon our schools of one hundred pupils. ” The laio noiv in force — In 1889 a new law was enacted, and a more stringent one, es¬ pecially in its provisions concerning the instruction that may be considered equivalent to public-school instruction. This law (the “Force act”) reads as follows: AN ACT concerning- the education of children. Beit enacted by the people of the Stale of Illinois, represented in the general assonhly : That every person having under his control a child bet-w^een the ages of .seven and fourteen years shall annu¬ ally cause such child to attend for at least sixteen weeks, at least eight weeks of which attendance shall be consecutive, some public day school in the city, town, or district in which he resides, which time shall commence with the beginning of the first term of the school year, or as soon thereafter as due notice shall be served upon the person having such control of his duty under this act. For every neglect of such duty the person offending shall forfeit to the use of the public schools of such city or district a sum not less than one nor more than twenty dollars, and shall stand committed until such fine and costs of suit are paid. But if the person so neglecting shall show to the satisfaction of the board of education orof directors that such child has attended for a like period of time a private day school, approved by the board of education or directors of the city, town, or district in which such child resides, or that Instruction has otherwise been given for a like period of time to such child in the branches commonly taught in the public school; or that such child has alreadv acquired the branchesof learningtaughtin the public schools, orthat his physical or mental condition, as declared by a competent physician, is such as to render such attendance inexpedient and impracticable, then such penalty shall not be incurred. Such fine shall be paid, when collected, to the school treasurer of such city or township, to be accounted for by him as other COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — -ILLINOIS. 505 school money raised for school purposes. But no school shall be regarded as a school under this act unless there shall be taught therein in theEn glish language reading, writing, arithmetic, history of the United States, and geography. Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the board of education in every city and the board of school direct¬ ors in every school district to appoint one or more truant officers, whose duty it shall be carefully to inquire concerning all supposed violations of this act, and to enter complaint against all persons who shall appear to be guilty of such violation. It shall also be the duty of said officer to arrest children of a school-going age who habitually haunt public places and have no lawful occupation, and also truant children who absent themselves from school without leave, and to place them in charge of the teacher having charge of the public school which the said children are by law enti¬ tled to attend. And it shall be the duty of said teacher to assign said children to the proper classes, and to instruct them in such studies as they are fitted to pursue. Said truant officers shall have such compensation forservices rendered, under this act, as shall be determined by the board of ed¬ ucation or the board of directors appointing such officer, which compensation shall be paid from the' distributable school fund. Sec. 3. Any person having control of a child who with intent to evade the provisions of this act shall make a willful false statement concerning the age of such child, or the time such child has attended school, shall, for such olfense, forfeit a sum of not less than three dollars nor more than twenty dollars for the use of the public schools of such city or district. Sec. 4. Prosecutions under this act shall be instituted and carried on by the authorities of such boards and be brought in the name of the people of the State of Illinois for the use of the school fund of said city or township. Sec. 5. Police, municipal courts, justices of the peace, and judges of the county court shall have jurisdiction within their respective counties of the offenses described in this act. Sec. 6. “An act to secure to all children the benefit of an elementaiy education,” approved June 23, 1883, in force July I, 1883, Is hereby repealed. Approved May 24, 1889. Concerning this law Superintendent Edwards writes (January 27, 1890): “I do not regard the act as in all respects perfect, but it is found in practice to have many excel¬ lent points. There has been some opposition to it among the friends of parochial schools, especially those in which some foreign language is the vehicle of communica¬ tion. Some of them propose that instead of requiring the specified subjects, reading, writing, arithmetic, history of the United States, and geography, to be taught in the English language, it bo required that English shall be taught to every pupil during two or three hours each day. The whole subject is under consideration by the friends of the law, and it is impossible now to tell what the result will be. “But the law has already accomplished very great good. In the city of Chicago thousands of children have been brought into the schools through its agency. The same thing is also (rue in otlier towns and cities of the State. The educational senti¬ ment of the State required the passage of some such law, and there has been a praise¬ worthy effort to execute it thoroughly but humanely. Complaints have come from two or three places of harshness outlie part of school authorities. But these complaints have in some instances been exaggerated. “From the great majority of towns and school districts, however, the testimony is that the law is working admirably, and that it is not used for any purpose of persecu¬ tion. “One excellent result of the enacting of this law has been the very general discussion of the subject of compulsory education. * * * It has been everywhere thoroughly discussed, and the indications are that throughout this State its friends are very largely in the majority.” Superintendent Edwards further says in his reporU that the compulsory school bill was brought forward by the consent of men of all parties; it passed the senate unani¬ mously and in the house only six votes were recorded against it. “It is preposterous,” he says, “to claim that the legislature should, with such unanimity, enact a measure intended to infringe upon the liberties of any reputable class of citizens. The claim that this law does so was an afterthought. “The compulsory education law is right in principle. The State taxes the citizen for the support of the public schools because universal education is necessary to the preser¬ vation of the State and of the institutions of civilization. This tax every property holder is compelled to pay. He has no choice. Now, if the State has this right to take by authority the citizen’s property, has not the citizen the right to demand that the purpose for which this property is taken shall be carried out? And that purpose is the education of all the children in the State. It is, therefore, the imperative duty of the State to do all it can to enforce the accomplishing of this purpose. To fail in this would be, on the part of the State, an exercise of bad faith toward its tax-paying citizens. “The present compulsory education law does not interfere with .the rights of parents or with individual liberty any more than any other wholesome law. If aparentshould beat his child unreasonably, or should starve him, or should otherwise maltreat him, the law steps in to protect the child. But to deprive a child of education, to cripple him for life by a lack of knowledge and of proper schooling, is a worse outrage than any of the.se, because it injures the child in his noblest attributes, disables him where he ‘ 111. Sell. Rep., 1883-90, pp. Lxxxiv-Vir. 506 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. ought to be strongest and best. The compulsory educational law is no more tyrannical than the law prohibiting teachers and school oificers from dealing in school books, or the law requiring teachers to pass an examination and hold certificates. “Much misapprehension arises from a fixilure to note the thing aimed at in this com¬ pulsory law. If the law provided that children should be compelled to learn certain dog¬ mas, to accept certain beliefs, whether in religion or politics or social science, it might be reasonably objected to as restricting the liberty of the individual. But the compulsion is not of this nature. The compulsory education law merely compels the recognition of the rights of children to an amount of intelligence that will enable them to make use¬ ful and successful citizens, to secure their own happiness and to do good in the world. The compulsion that dictates the belief of a man is a trammel upon his mental freedom; but the compulsion that prevents one human being from keeping another human being in ignorance, really promotes an enlargement of individual liberty. If the present com¬ pulsory education law is executed in a right spirit, the amount of individual freedom in the State of Illinois will be immensely enlarged by its agepcy. “Education protects those who profit by it against the greed of selfish power and also against the cajolery of the demagogue. The object of the compulsory education law is to enlarge in this State the number of persons who are really self-directive, who are really masters of themselves and of their circumstances— who do not derive their opinions from cliques and parties, but from their own thinking. To say that it is an interference with the freedom of the citizen, therefore, is emphatically to misrepresent it. * * * “The compulsory education law does not necessarily interfere with the parochial or other private schools. In the enactment of it there was no intention of such interfer¬ ence. It specially provides that attendance at such schools shall be accepted in lieu of attendance upon the public schools. It was decided by the circuit court in Effingham County that the fact of such attendance, where it could be proved, must be accepted by the board of directors. In other words, the authority conferred by the law upon the board of directors does not empower them to ignore the facts in the case, and of their own mere whim to refuse to recognize a private school. This is in exact agreement with the intention of the friends of the law at the time of its enactment. And the statistics _ of the year show, conclusively, that no such injury to private schools has resulted from the execution of the law. On the contrary, it seems to have helped them. * * * “In general, we find that the results of the enactment of this law have been in all re¬ spects excellent. In the city of Chicago during the last year, some 10, 000 children have been brought into the schools by means of it, and of these 1,500 have been placed in parochial schools. Taking the statistics of the public schools in the entire State, we have a gain in the enrollment for the year ending June, 1890, over the preceding year of 16,454. The increase in the enrollment of pupils in the public schools during the last year is 20 per cent, of all the increase during the last ten years. That is, the in¬ crease for the last year is just double the average increase. Considering the character of the last winter, the muddy roads, and the prevalence of epidemics, this is a remarka¬ ble showing. * * * “The number of cases in which the penalty has been inflicted is exceedingly small. In this State there were, in 1883, 11,532 school districts. It may reasonably be sub¬ mitted that the proportionate number of prosecutions is much smaller than it would be found to be in the execution of almost any other law. In the city of Chicago not a single suit has been brought. The same is true of the city of Springfield and of other cities. The instructions that have been given from this office have urged the avoidance, as far as possible, of the inflicting of penalties. Officers have been advised to explain the law to those who had been negligent of their duty, and thus by friendly appeals to induce them to deal justly by their children. In almost every instance such appeals have been successful. And if captious opposition to the law should cease and persons of humane feelings and good sense should be appointed as truant officers, an immense amount cf good might be done in the State with substantially no friction at all.” Amendments proposed to the Illinois law. — It will be useful to note that the State super¬ intendent has recommended to omit the requirement that each child should attend school in the city, town, or district in which he resides; also to consider any private school “in which the branches of learning required by this law are taught” as equivalent to a pub¬ lic school, instead of merely providing that such private school should be approved by the public school board. ^ Ill. Sch. Rep., 1888-’90, p. nxxxis. 507 COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — WISCONSIN. WISCOKSINT. LdwoflSld. — This law, which took effect September 1, 1879, was the initial step in the direction of compulsory education in Wisconsin. As amended in 1882, it required persons havin<>; control of children between seven and fifteen years of age to send them to a public or private school at least twelve weeks each year. Any child might be ex¬ empted from attending, (1) if incapacitated in mind or body, as shown by physician’s cer¬ tificate; (2) if histimeorlabor wereesseutial to the support of an indigent parent, brother, or sister; (3) if he were otherwise being furnished with the means of education for a like period of time; or (4) had already acquired a fair knowledge of the branches of learn¬ ing ordinarily taught in the common schools; or (5) resided more than two miles from the public school of his district. School boards were to meet annually, on the first Monday of September, to hear rea¬ sons for the nonattendance of children at the public schools; a list was to be made of all children residing in the district who had not attended school during the preceding year, and a note opposite the name of each child on such list was to indicate whether the child was exempt f rom attendance, and, if so, for what cause. Persons having control of children and failing to comply with the terms of the law were subject to a fine of from five to thirty dollars, to be collected by the director or president of the school board, and if such officer, on notice of violation of law served by any qualified elector or taxpayer, failed to prosecute the offender, he himself be¬ came liable to a fine of from ten to twenty dollars, in an action instituted by any pmson feeling aggrieved. Immediate effect of the law. — The succeeding year witnessed a considerable increase in public school attendance. “ Undeniably,” says the State superintendent in 1880, ‘‘this result is chiefly due to the operation of the compulsory education law. * * * It is true that all ijortions of the State have not regarded the law with equal favor; and it can not be questioned but that many sections have utterly neglected to secure the bene¬ fits which the law is intended to provide. But it is very evident that, by the efforts of some county superintendents, teachers, and school boards, the measure has been rendered quite effective in several localities. It will be found that the duty imposed upon the director of any school district or the president of the board of education ‘to prosecute of¬ fenses under this law ’ does not meet all the necessities of the case. These officers are inclined, from the nature of their positions, to avoid or neglect such prosecutions. The qualified electors or taxpayers in a district shrink from complaining before these officers of the neglect of their neighbors in requiring the children to attend school the specified time each year. We shall l e compelled to follow the example of other communities, * * and provide for the appointment of a police force, or special agents.” Its sul) sequent failure. — In the years succeeding 1880 no action worthy of note appears to have been taken under the lawof 1879. Whatever good it had done at first had been chiefly in an indirect or moral way under the stimulus of a general discussion of the subject, rather than to any summary proceedings taken. Would-be transgressors were re¬ strained from violating the law through the mere apprehension of being subjected to its penalties. As the law, however, was not invoked against offenders, they soon ceased to regulate their conduct with reference to it. State Superintendent Graham said, in 1886, “ But little attention is paid to the law so far as I have discovered. The little use that is made of it, however, is to make it the occasion of annoyance of school officers or of persons against whom there is prejudice or animosity. If the law is to remain, school officers should be relieved of the duty of commencing actions upon the written notice of any voter or taxpayer in the district that some person has violated the law, under lia¬ bility of fine' for failure to prosecute. There does not appear to be good reason why the aggrieved voter or taxpayer should not make his complaint directly to the magistrate, as in other cases of violation of statutes. ’ ’ And a county superintendent remarked, 1888, ‘‘Since the time that the public school law has authorized any legal voter of the district to prosecute offenses against said law, no attempt has been made to enforce the same.” V he law of 18S9, known as Bennett law.’’’’ — In order to make more effective provision for the elementary education of all children, the Legislature of 1889 enacted what is known as the “ Bennett law,” the text of which is here. presented. “Although there may be some question whether this act entirely repeals the law of 1879, it is generally understood that such is the effect of the enactment of this law.” AN ACT concerning the education and employment of children. The people of the Stale of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and AssenMy, do enact as folloivs: Every parent or other person having under hig control a child between the ages of seven and fourteen years, shall annually cause such child to attend some public or private day school in the city, town, or district in which he resides for a period not less than twelve weeks in each year, which number 508 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. of weeks shall be fixed prior to the first daj’^ of September in each year by the board of education or the board of directors of the city, town, or district, and for a portion or portions thereof to be so fixed by such boards, the attendance shall be consecutive, and such boards shall, at least ten days prior to the be.a:inning of such v)eriod, publish the time or times of attendance in such manner as such boards shall direct; provided, that such board shall not fix such compulsory period at more than twenty-four weeks in each year. Sec. 2. For every neglect of such duty the person having such control and so offending shall for¬ feit to the use of the public schools of such city, town, or district a sum not less than three dollars (?3) nor more than twenty dollars ($20) ; and failure for each week or portion of a week on the part of any such person to comply with the provisions of this act, shall constitute a distinct offense: Provided, That any such child shall be excused from attendance at school required by this act by the board of education or school directors of the city, town, or district in which such child resides, upon its being shown to their satisfaction that the person so neglecting is not able to send such child to school, or that instruction has otherwise been given for a like period of time to such child in the elementary branches commonly taught in the public schools, or that such child has already acquired such elementary branches of learning, or that his physical or mental condition is such as to render attendance inexpedient or impracticable ; and in all cases where such child shall be so excused the penalty herein provided shall not be incurred. Sec. 3. Any person having control of a child who, with intent to evade the provisions of this act, shall make a willful false statement concerning theageof such child, or the time such child has at¬ tended school, shall, for such offense, forfeit a sum of not less than three dollars ($3) nor more than twenty dollars ($20), for the use of the public schools of such city, town, or district. Sec. 4. Five days prior to the beginning of any prosecution under this act such board shall cause a written notice to be personally served upon such person having control of «ny such child, of his duty under this act, and of his default in failing to comply with the provisions hereof, and if, upon the hearing of such prosecution, it shall appear to the satisfaction of the court that before or af er the receipt of such notice such person has caused such child to attend a school as proVided in this act in good faith and with intent to continue such attendance, then the penalty provided by this act sliall not be incurred. Sec. 5. No school shall be regarded as a school under this act unless there shall be taught therein, as part of the elementary education of children, reading, writing, arithmetic, and United States histoVy,in the English language. Sec. 6. Prosecutions under this act shall only be instituted and carried on by the authority of such boards, and shall be brought in the name of said boards, and all fines and penalties, when collected, shall be paid to the school treasurer of such city, town, or district, or other officer en¬ titled to receive school moneys, the same to be held and accounted for as other school moneys re¬ ceived for school purposes. Sec. 7. Jurisdiction to enforce the penalties herein described in this act is hereby conferred on justices of the peace and police magistrates within their respective counties. Sec. 8. Any child between theageof nine and fourteen years, who without leave and against the will of his parent, guardian, or other person having the right to control such child, habitually ab¬ sents himself from the school to which he is sent, or directed to be sent, and is beyond the control of his parent or guardian or other person having the right to control such child in that regard, and wanders or loiters in streets, alleys, or other public places, shall be deemed a truant child, and on such truancy being alleged and proved, such truant child shall be adjudged a dependent child in like manner as is now provided by law for the adjudication of dependent children, and on being so adjudged dependent may be committed in like manner for such time not exceeding two years, as the judge or court having the jurisdiction of the matter may determine. Any child so com¬ mitted may upon proof of amendment or for other sufficient cause .shown upon a hearing of the case, bo discharged by such judge or court at any time, but such child shall not be so confined after the age of fourteen years, nor shall he be bound or apprenticed nor placed out of any school to which he shall be committed. Officers appointed by the board of education or board of school directors shall have power and authority to take a trunt child found on the streets, alle5’S, or other public places during school hours to such school conveniently located to the home of such child as may be designated and requested by such parent, guardian, or other person having the right to control such child, and such officer shall ascertain from such parent, guardian, or other person having the right to control such child, the school which he desires such child shall attend; or in case of refusal to designate and request by the parent, guardian, or other pei-son having the right to control such child, or in case such child has no parent, guardian, or other person in control, then to the public school situated in the district where such child lives, or to such public school as such board may direct. Sec. 9. No child under thirteen years of age shall be employed or allowed to work by any per¬ son, company, firm, or corporation at labor or service in any shop, factory, mine, store, place of manufacture, business, or amusement, except as hereinafter provided. Sec. 10. The judge of the county court in the county where the child resides and is to be em¬ ployed or to woi’K, may, by order of record, grant a permit to any child over ten years to be ex¬ empt and in such county from the operation of this act as to such emplojnuent, and to such extent, and for such time and on such terms as may be named in such ijermit, on its being shown to his satisfaction that such child can read and write the English language, and that it is fit and proper, considering the lack of means of support of the family of tvhich such child is a member, that such permit should be granted, and such permit may be rescinded by any such judge on written notice to such child or to any person havingcontrol of or employing such child. Such peruiit must state the age, place of residence, and the amount of school attendance prior to the granting of such permit. A record of such permits to be kept in such court. The court may, when the bu.siness of the court requires, appoipt a suitable person to hear and report on all applications 'or the issuance and recision of permits, and may, on hearing such reports, grant or refuse such application. Su 'll person to be paid a reasonable compensation by the county, to be fixed by the county board. Such person shall be an officer of the court and removable bj" an order of the court at any time. No charge or fee shall be required in any matter under this section. Sec. 11. No child shall be so employed or work who does notpi-esent such permit, and every person before employing or permitting such child to so labor or be at service shall require and re¬ tain such permit, and shall keep the same, together with a correct list of all children so employed, posted in a conspicuous manner in the place of employment, and shall show such list,on demand, to any school officer or teacher or police officer. Sec. 12. Any person, company,or corporation who employs or permits to be employed or to work any child iir violation of this act, and any person having the control of any such child who per¬ mits such, employment or work, shall for every offense forfeit a sum of not less than ten dollars ($10), nor more than fifty dollars ($50), for the use of the public schools of such city, town, or dis¬ trict, and every day of such illegal employment shall constitute a distinct offense. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE - WISCONSIN. 500 Sec. 13. Any pei’son having control of or in his employ a child who, with the intent to evade the provisions of this act, shall make a false statement coiicernin>r the age of such child or the time such child has attended school, or shall instruct such child to make any false statement, shall, for such offense forfeit a sum oi not less than ten dollars (-$10), nor more than fifty dollars ($511), for the use of the public schools of such city, town, or district. Hou. J. B. Thayer, the present State superintendent, in October, 1889, sent to the various city and county superintendents an inquiry as to extent to which the Bennett law was being enforced. The replies, he notifies the Bureau, “indicated that boards of education in cities had, at that date, generally complied with the provisions of the law, and that school boards in rural districts had generally neglected to act. “A very pronounced opposition to the law,” he continues, “ has been manifested by certain religious denominations interested in the maintenance of private or parochial schools, in which instruction is given in a foreign language only. A portion of the Ger¬ man press of the State is making a vigorous opposition to the law, and is demanding of the next legislature its repeal. * * * The newspapers of the Stale, in general, have taken a very lively interest in the discussion of this statute, and it is attracting very general public attention.” Superintendent TaaijeSs circular.— In January, 1890, State Superintendent Thayer issued to school boards the following circular, explaining the provisions of the Bennett law, and defining clearly the right of the State under that law regarding the education of its children: “The first duty imposed upon school boards by this law is that of determining, by formal action at a regularly convened meeting of the board, by the adoption of a rule or resolution, the number of weeks which every child between the ages of seven and fourteen years shall attend some public or private school during the current school year, “This period can not be fixed at less than twelve, nor more than twenty-four weeks in one year. For a portion or for portions of the time thus fixed the attendance must be consecutive, and boards are to designate in the resolution or rule adopted the time or times of such consecutive attendance. Ten days prior to the commencement of this time or these times of consecutive attendance, the board is required to give public notice of the time thus fixed by publishing the fact in such manner as they may pre¬ scribe. * * * “The provision that the compulsory period and the number of weeks of consecutive attendance shall be fixed j)rior to the first day of September in each year, is directory only. Where the board has neglected to fix this number of weeks, as the law directs, that may still be done, provided the public school will be in session a sufficient number of weeks before the close of the school year to render such action by the board practica¬ ble. It is hoped that no board will neglect or refuse compliance with the law in this respect. “ The second duty imposed upon school boards by this act is that of carefully consider¬ ing the excuses, on the part of parents and guardians, for real or apparent noncompli¬ ance with the law. The law does not presume that every parent or guardian can or will avail himself of the public schoolasa means of education for his children or wards, and it therefore wisely and judiciously recognizes the right of choice in means, and the rigorous exactions of necessity, growing out of conditions either of parent and guardian, or of the child of the prescribed age. The excuses for noncompliance which must be accepted by the board are four in number, and briefly stated are as follows: (a) Pecun¬ iary or physical inability of parent or guardian, [h] Equivalent instruction, otherwise given, in time and in kind, (e) Proficiency of the child in elementary branches, {d) Physical or mental disability of the child. “It will beobserved that twoof these reasons justif3dng noncompliance with the law relate to the parent or guardian, and two relate to the pupil. Of the latter couplet little or nothing need be said. If the facts exist, it will be a simple and easy matter to satisly any reasonable board, that a child has a physical or mental defect which inhibits at¬ tendance upon any school, or that ill health equally calls for exemption from attend¬ ance. “With persons having no desire to evade the law, or to avoid the natural obligations and responsibilities imposed by parental relations, or those arising from the relations of a self-imposed trust or legal guardianship, there will also be no difficulty in present¬ ing satisfactory evidence to the board, that the pecuniary situation, or distance from the school, or claims of the family upon the services of the child, form a valid excuse for nouattendauce, or that the alleged recusant is availing himself or herself of the option which the law proffers, and is providing through some other public or private school, or other means, equivalent instructions, both in amount and in kind. In extent, the instruction must not be less than that prescribed by the rule adopted bj’' the board. In subjects, tbeinstruction must include reading, writing, arithmetic, and United States history, in the English language, as provided in the fifth section of the act in question. No school, public or private, and no instruction in the family or by private tutors should 510 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. be recognized as sufficient which does not include instruction in these subjects in this form. School or family or other forms of instruction claimed as equivalent may include any other branches of knowledge, and this will be no objection if the enumerated studies, in English, are not omitted. “By this analysis of the duties of school boards, under this law, it will be readily seen that there is no attempt or purpose to ostracize, antagonize, or in any manner or degree to interfere with parochial or any other form of private schools. “The law has due regard for the rights of conscience, and holds parents alone respon¬ sible, and requires of them only that they provide for their children, somehow and some¬ where, that secular education which the state deems necessary for its own prosperity, and for the welfare of its citizens. Parents, guardians, and others who may elect otuer means than the public school of the district in which they reside, for the education of children under their charge or control, when summoned by the school board of their district must show sufficient reasons for nonattendance of their children upon the pub¬ lic school. In hearing excuses of parents, guardians, and others, boards should act fairly, judiciously, and without prejudice, and seek to secure the cooperation of all parents in awaking a public sentiment in favor of the end which the law contemplates. It must be borne in mind that compulsory enactments are supplementary only to the persuasive statutes which characterize the great body of laws upon which the school system of Wisconsin is founded. “The thing that is antagonized by this law is the practice of allowing children of this State of proper school age to pass that period of life without acquiring a minimum of education in the elementary branches; without acquiring the ability to think in the language of the country, to express themselves intelligibly in that language, orally, in writing, and in business forms; and without becoming familiar with the essential lea- tures of United States history. To this end, through this statute, the State has invoked the active energy of all school officers to save the future citizens, reared within the Com¬ monwealth, from the irreparable loss and disadvantage which will follow neglect or cupidity, in depriving children of their rightful heritage. “All classes of citizens concede the right of the State to supervise and control the edu¬ cation of children where parents or guardians neglect or reluse to make suitable and adequate provision for such education, and to compel attendance of children, and pro¬ vision for such attendance on the part of parents and others having charge of children of school age. Nobody j ustifies that penuriousness or neglect which can only result in planting blight, illiteracy, and hopeless disadvantage for all time in the very bud of a human life. The degree and the form of compulsion herein exercised by the State is infinitesimal when conjpared with that employed by parental authority to secure ade¬ quate education of children. This law is directed chiefly to those responsible for the care and education of children who are devoid of the impulses and instincts of pure parental affection, and who disregard wholly the injunctions and directions of the church and other social and benevolent organizations. To rescue the victims of this thought¬ lessness, indifference, and cupidity is the main object of this legislation. “Incidentally, and in conclusion, it may be said that the provision of this law pre¬ scribing a standard by which to measure a school, in its claim to be a public school, is an admirable feature which sl^iould strongly commend it to every school board. At last we have given to us, in statutory form, a statement of the very least which a school may. do and claim to be a public school suitably and adequately providing for the edu- tion of children and entitled to the advantages of State aid arising from that claim.” Ought intelligence to he in Engli li? — Isaac Thomas, in the Yale Review: “The funda¬ mental reason for compulsory educational laws has usually been considered to be to protect the State from the evils of illiteracy. Whether they have done so is not now the question. This can be done, in part at least, by increasing the intelligence of the people. It has usually been thought sufficient, therefore, to frame compulsory laws so as to bring about, if possible, this result. But section five, of the Bennett law, says the child must not only be intelligent but must have intelligence in English, i. e., he may be never so intelligent, may have good mastery of reading, writing, arithmetic, and United States history in any other language under the sun, yet if he have not his knowledge in English he is liable to the penalties prescribed by this law. Absurdity in lawmaking could hardly go farther i * * “With many of our legislators, both national and State, the panacea for ills in the State, real and imaginary, is a law. No matter about natural forces at work curing these ills as rapidly as ought to be expected in such a heterogeneous mass as exists in the United States, no matter whether the law can be enforced or not, nor, if enforced, whether it will help or harm, the cry is for a law, and a laiv we get! If this were only the end of it! But every law passed and not enforced is a degradation of all law and breeds contempt for it, and every attempt to contravene, by law or otherwise, natural forces which are working reforms, slowly perhaps, but surely, puts off by just so much the day of reform.” COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE - WISCONSIN. 511 Hie purpose and scope of the Wisconsin Jaw. — Chicago News: Neither the Bennett act of Wisconsin nor the Force act of Illinois, upon which it is based, authorizes the State to lay a linger upon a private school or any other private property. They do, however, assume that the State has the right to direct the education of the children of its citizens so far as elementary instruction is concerned, and they provide that every person having control of a child between the ages of 7 and 14 years shall send it to a school for a certain number of weeks in every year — 12 weeks in Wisconsin and 16 in Illinois — where it shall be taught, in the English language, reading, wanting, arith- * metic, United States history, and geography. If it can receive this education in a private or parochial school, well and good; if not, ic must be sent to a public school. Wherein is this an attempt on the part of the State to lay hands on the private schools? Wherein is it an attempt to say what shall or shall not be taught in them? The private and parochial schools may, if they choose, conduct their lessons in Persian, Chinese, or any other language, and they may exclude reading, writing, arithmetic, United States his¬ tory, and geography from their studies. The law does not seek to restrict or compel them. And parents may send their children to these schools for 40 weeks in the year in Wisconsin or 36 in Illinois. But for 12 weeks in the former State or 16 weeks in the latter the little ones must be afforded opportunities to obtain the statutory instruction. Does anybody consider this unreasonable? If so, it must be because he denies the right of the State to enforce a compulsory-education law of au,y kind. The Lutherav ISynod of IlUssouri, Ohio, and other States, on compulsory education in Wis¬ consin— 1, By the law of nature, as well as by divine command, parents are entitled and in duty bound to provide for the education of their children. 2. It is therefore the right and the duty of all parents to select such schools for the education of their children as they are convinced will best promote the welfare of their children. 3. In case parents neglect their duty the State is justified in compelling them, by ap¬ propriate legislation, to the discharge of their duty. 4. If, however, the State assumes the right to educate, unless for such cause, it is an infringement of the natural rights of parents. 5. The conduct of the State in such case is, furthermore, unconstitutional, as the Con¬ stitutions both of the United States and the State of Wisconsin proclaim liberty of con¬ science and religion, which liberty is set aside not only by forcing upon any one that which opposes his religion or is in conflict with his conscitjnce, but also when a person is hampered in any manner in “the free exercise of religion ” and “rights of conscience,” provided he does not act in open violation of law and morality, 6. In view of the foregoing declarations we are compelled to combat with all lawful means in the courts such encroachments, and at the polls to withhold our vote from every candidate and party not publicly pledging themselves to do all in their power to bring about a repeal of the obnoxious sections of said (Bennett) law. 7. To avoid all misunderstanding we declare that we consider our public-school svstem a political necessity, and that we are willing to support it in the future as we have in the past. W^’e are also convinced that by opposing said school laws, we do not only con¬ tend lor our inherent rights, but also best promote the true welfare of our free country. We finally declare most emphatically that it has always been and ever shall be our aim to provide in our parochial schools for the best instruction in the English language. Should he left for the great Jaw of natural selection to adjust. — The Scliool Journal: It is very plain that a mistake has been made by the people of Illinois and Wisconsin by insisting that the English language only must be taught in all their schools. It it well to keep in mind that voters can be easily influenced; but with difiiculty driven. For¬ eigners are attached to the language and literature of fatherland, and will insist that their children must learn it thoroughly. No one can say that it is not right. In this city [New York] several daily papers publish editions in the German language, because there are many who will read no other. It would be foolish to enact a law compell¬ ing these papers to print their issues only in English, for it is certain that it could not be enforced. The common sense of the community would not stand it. What we want is education in some language, it matters little what. The English is to-day, and is to be, the language of America, and if all the Germans in the world should come to this country in a body it would not change her predestina¬ tion. For a time in certain States it may seem as though German was taking the coun¬ try, but it is not and never can. Educators should let these minor matters work out their own solution, just as they have in certain parts of Pennsylvania, where for many years the “Pennsylvania Dutch” has been spoken almost to the exclusion of English. The Pennsylvanians have been too wise to attempt to compel these people to use nothing but English, but in the, absence of any law the English is rapidly supplanting the mixture, which is neither German nor English. It would be well if no language was 512 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. spoken in this countrj’-but the English, hut since this can not be, nothing will be gained by going to law or the legislature about it. There are some things that must be left for the great law of natural selection to adjust, and the use of a foreign tongue in our schools is one of them. Position of the department of superintendence. — The following resolution was adopted by the department of superintendence of the National Educational Association at its Phil¬ adelphia meeting (February, 1891). It will be observed that while the necessity of an acquaintance with the English language is upheld that distinguished body did not com¬ mit itself to an approval of the extreme principles of the Wisconsin law: In our free Republic the State is merely the expression of the people’s will, and not an external Rovernmental force; and taxes are levied on pi-opsrty for the support of schools, because universal education is indispensable to the perpetuity of the State. Education, tlierefore, including an ac¬ quaintance with our national language, becomes the rightful inheritance of every child. It is the right and the duty of the State not only to provide for this education, but also to insist thatnochild shall be deprived of that priceless heritage. The proper exercise of this right does not restrict the freedom of parents in the education of their children except in the narrow limits of this necessary purpose. Fi,epral of the Bennett taw. — The State legislature, in the spring of 1891, repealed the Bennett law by a very large majority (89 to 14 in the lower house). A new compul¬ sory attendance law, which received the support of both political parties, was .soon after passed and was approved April 6. In this law the provision that the required instrnctiojft should be in the English language does not appear. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. A law was enacted by Congress and approved June 25, 18G4, of which the following is the substance: Every person in the District of Columbia having under his or her control a child between the ages of six and fourteen years shall amiually send such child to some public school in the part of the District in Avhich he or she shall reside at least twelve weeks, six of which shall be consecutive, and for every neglect of said duty the offender shall forfeit to the use of that part of the District in which he or she shall reside, not exceeding twenty dollars : Provided. That if the party was not able, for any cause, to send such child to school, or the child has attended any other school for a like period, or was not tit to attend school by reason of bodily or mental infirmity, the penalty shall not be enforced. The trustees may make such arrangements for the purpose of ascertaining wdiether any children witiiin the above ages ai* *e not attending the public schools as they shall deem best for the purpose of enforcing their attendance and the penalty prescribed. This law has been a dead letter. It was asserted by Mr. W. C. Dodge in the Washington Post (February 21, 1890), that in 1887 the then District Commissioners did not know of the existence of such a law; and even if they did, it could not be enforced for want of buildings. “It is not the need of a compulsory law, but of more schools, for of course it would be absurd to line people for not sending their children to school when there are no schools for them.” The Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1875 (p. 483) says: “ The statute has been a dead letter from the date of its enactment to the present hour, as during all this time the voluntary attendance has been in excess of the accommodations afforded by the schools. ” In 1886, 12,089 out of a total enrollment of 32,336 were restricted to one-half day attendance for want of school rooms. In 1889, 6,000 children were still limited to hall- day schools.^ Superintendent W. B. Powell suggests the appointment of truant officers to ascertain what children do not attend school and why they do not attend, to the end that the benefits of the schools may reach all for whom they are designed. ^ VERMONT. The law requiring all children between eight and fourteen years of age to attend school was first enacted in 1867; in 1870 it v/as amended so as to prescribe more particularly the proceedings for enforcing it. TJiis law was said by the late State superintendent, Hon. Justus Dartt, to have been “obsolete and inoperative, and has been so for years, if in¬ deed it was ever effective.”'^ One fatal defect is that it “ does not designate the person to execute it. ” In 1888 the law was remodeled and made much more stringent; among other changes the annual obligatory period was extended from twelve to twenty weeks, and illiterate ^Rep. Koard Trustees, 1888-89, pp. 9 and 10. ^Ibid..\>. 25. *Vt. Sch. Rep., 1886-88, p. 6. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE — -NEW HAMPSHIRE. 513 children under fourteen were made entirely ineligible for employment while the public schools were in session. A weak, it may be said a fatally weak, feature of the present law is the provision under which the initiation of proceedings is virtually made to de¬ pend upon the complaint of three voters. All experience goes to show that the com¬ plaints of voters or taxpayers have never yet set in motion the machinery for enforcing a compulsory law. The following is a summary of the law ; Every person having eontrol of a child ot good health and sound mind between eight and four¬ teen yearsof age must send it to a public school at least twenty weeks each year, unless it is other¬ wise educated for that period or has completed the required branches of the common schools. No child between ten and fourteen years of age may be employed in a mill or factory unless it attended a public school twenty weeks during the preceding year and deposited with the owner or superintendent of the mill or factory a certificate to that effect, signed by the teacher, which certificate must be shown to the supervisor of schools, upon his demand, and any other informa¬ tion given as to the employment of children. After July 1, 1889, no one may employ a child under fourteen who can not read and write, but is capable of such instruction, during the session of its school. Any one not complying with the above regulations forfeits not less than ten dollars nor more than fifty dollars, one-half to go to tiie complainant and the other half to the town in which the child resides. Any one having a grand list of over eight dollars, who allows his child to remain from school in violation of the above provisions, becomes liable to the district for a sum equal to the amount distributed to such district for the attendance of a pupil for the same period, which amount may be recovered at any time within three years after the close of that school year. The truant officer, or a member of the prudential committee, or any officer authorized to make arrests in the town, may arrest, and, upon written application of three voters in the district, must arrest, any child not attending school as required, and is to give written notice to the parent or person having control of the child that it must attend school regularly. If such person then fails to send the child regularly during the remainder of the term, without good reason for fhe failure, he is to be arrested and taken with the child before a justice, and if convicted is fined not less than ten dollars nor more than twenty dollars, which goes to the benefit of the schools of the town. The prosecution may be conducted like criminal prosecutions, and an appeal may be had to the county court. Any person authorized to make the arrests, but who refuses or neglects to do so after application has been made to him as provided, is fined not more than one hundred dollars, A justice of the peace has concurrent jurisdiction with the county court under this section. The report for 1890 of State Superintendent Palmer says (p. 314) that out of 38,000 children between eight and fourteen years of age 2,600 have not attended any school at all during the year, and thatof those actually enrolled it is believed a large number failed to attend the statutory period of twenty weeks. “The laws against truancy should be repealed or rigidly enforced,” since one of the chief objects of education is to train the child into a willing obedience to good laws, and here is a permanent object-lesson in law-breaking kept constantly before the eyes of all the scholars. The following amendments to the school law are recommended: 1. That the district clerk shall furnish the teacher on the first day of the first term of the school year a list of all children between five and eighteen in the district, with the age of each. 2. That it shall be the duty of the teacher from time to time, to carefully examine the list and notify the truant officer of any violation of the truant laws. 3. That the sheriff, or constable, or policeman, may act as truant officer. 4. That if the truant officer fails to act the teacher shall notify the supervisor. ISTEW HAMPSHIRE. A compulsory education law was passed in 1871, ^ ot the same general character as the Michigan law passed the same year. A truant law had been on the statute book for about twenty years previous. The law relating to compulsory attendance, truancy, and the employment of school children to labor, as it stood in 1886, may be summarized as follows: The school boards of the several towns and cities are authorized to elect and fix the compensa¬ tion of truant ofticers whoso duty it is to enforce all lawful regulations to require the attendance at school of truants and children between the ages of six and sixteen not having any regular and law¬ ful occupation. Any town may make by-laws to compel such children to attend school, and may impose a fine not exceeding ten dollars for each violation thereof. Any offender against such by¬ laws may, instead of such fine, be sentenced to the reform school for a term not exceeding one year ; but he may give bond to the town in the penal suqi of twenty-five dollars that he will faithfully attend sciiool during the next term, and the court may thereupon remit such fine upon payment of the costs. No child under ten years of age^ is to be employetl by any manufacturing corpora¬ tion ; and any agent, superintendent, or overseer, in any corporation, who willfully employs, or permits to be employed, any child in Violation of this act becomes subject to a fine of not less than tAventy dollars nor more than one hundred dollars, one-half to go to the complainant and the other half to the county. No child under sixteen is to be employed in any manufacturing establishment unless he has at¬ tended school at least twelve weeks during the preceding year, and no child under sixteen is to be employed, except in v'acation of the school, who can not write legibly and read fluently in readers 1 See N. H. Sch. Rep., 1872, p. 37. ED 89 - 33 * Since raised to thirteen. 514 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. of the grade usually classed as third readers. No child under fourteen is to be employed as afore¬ said unless he has attended school at least six months during the preceding year, or during the whole time the school was kept; and no child under twelve is to be so employed unless he has at¬ tended the school of his district the whole time it was kept during the preceding year. A.ny per¬ son employing in a manufacturing establiiihment any child under sixteen, without having a cer¬ tificate from the school committee or such persons as they may designate, that such child has at¬ tended school as above required, is liable to a fine of not exceeding twenty dollars for each offense. Every person having charge of any child between eight and fourteen years of age, and residing in a district in which a public school is annually taught for twelve weeks or more within two miles of his residence, must require such child to attend such school for at least twelve weeks each year, six weeks of which are to be consecutive, unless such child is excused from attendance by the school committee on account of its physical or mental condition or because it has been instructed elsewhere for a like period. Any person violating this provision is to forfeit ten dollars for the first offense and twenty dollars for each subsequent one. School committees and boards of education, respectivelj', are to sue for all penalties incurred and institute prosecutions for all violations of the above provisions, and, upon failure so to do, for¬ feit twenty dollars for each neglect. No information can be obtained that the compulsory clauses of the above law have been enforced. The state reports of recent years contain scarcely a reference to the mat¬ ter. Superintendent Folsom, of Dover, says: “I haye never heard of a case of a suit of this kind in this State. * * * * i have had reason to believe that there have been, and are now, many children in this city whose parents are liable to the penalties pre¬ scribed by section 18, though no legal complaint has ever been made to me.” ^ This has been the uniform experience in those States where the school authorities have bee» obliged to depend upon information furnished by some taxpayer, or inter¬ ested or aggrieved party, before taking action. With regard to the employment laws, Superintendent Folsom says: “I find an im¬ pression quite prevalent that these laws are a dead letter with the employers of chil¬ dren in this city. Whether or not this impression is correct, I have no means of know¬ ing officially, as no taxpayer has ever made written complaint, and the law gives no authority for an investigation.” The circumstance that numbers of children in Dover and other towns having attended school the required tim.e apply for and receive certificates authorizing their employment to labor, is sufficient evidence that the law is of some effect. It is stated that the law is especially defective in not providing for furnishing school authorities with lists of school population, giving age ol each child, and in not requir¬ ing employers to keep a list of children employed, and to keep on file the certificates entitling them to the privilege of employment, such lists and certificates to be open to inspection at all times; inspectors should also be appointed, local and State, whose duty it shall be to examine all mauuiacturing establishments several times yearly and to in¬ vestigate and prosecute all violations of the laws. Several towns have availed themselves of the authority granted by law to enact an ordinance and enforce the provisions of the law relating to truancy. MICHIGAIs^. A compulsory education law was enacted in Michigan in 1871, of which the Kansas law of 1874, still on the statute book ot that State (see p. 503), and the present laws of Minnesota, Montana, and in part Colorado, are an almost literal counterpart. It failed for the same reason that the Kansas law has failed; i. e., “it was made everybody’s busi¬ ness to see that it was enforced, and consequently it was not enforced at all.”^ This law was repealed in the revision of 1831. It was a great step in advance at the time it made its first appearance, and was widely quoted and discussed as such. In 1883 a new compulsory attendance law was passed, which, as amended in 1885, is the one now in operation. Other laws have also been enacted relating to employment of school children and truancy, the whole forming an inter-related system. It will be observed that section 5 of Chapter XX provides no penalty for noncompliance with section 1, which contains the compulsory requirement; and by the repealing of the sections of the original law that provided for the appointment of truant officers, “the duty of insti¬ tuting proceedings to enforce the provisions of the act, in cities or villages of over 5,000 inhabitants is placed [by section 6] upon certain officers who have no legal existence.” “There areother marked defects and inconsistencies,” says State Superintendent Esta- hrookin his report of 1889, “that combine to render the enforcement of this law impracti¬ cable. The act should either be repealed or made effective by harmonizing conflicting sections, providing suitable penalties, and designating definitely whose duty it shall be to institute proceedings against persons violating its provisions.” » Dover (N. H. ) Sch. Rep., 1887, p. 22. * Mich. Sch. Rep., 1881, p. 277. See also the discussion on pp. 278-279. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE— MICHIGAN. 515 MICPIIGAN LAW EELATIXG TO COMPULSORY EDUCATION. Chapter XX.>— Act Xo. 144. Laws of 1883, as amended by Act No. 108, Laws of 1885. COMPULSORY education OF CHILDREN. (§180.) Section 1. Duty oj parents and guardians to send children to school. — The people of the State of Michigan enact. That every parent, guardian, or other person in the State of Michigan having control and charge of any child or children between the ages of eight and fourteen years, shall be required to send such child or children to a public school for a period of at least four months in each school year, commencing on the first Monday of September in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-three, Rt least six weeks of which shall be consecutive, unless such child or children are ex¬ cused from such attendance by the board of the school district in which such parents or guardians reside, upon its being shown to their satisfaction that his bodily or mental condition has been such as to prevent his attendance at school or application to study for the period required, or that such child or children ai’e taught in a private school or at home in such branches as are usually taught in primary schools or have already acquired the ordinary branches of learning taught in public schools: Provided, In case a public school shall not be taught for four months during the year within two miles, by the nearest traveled road, of the residence of any person within the school district, he shall not be liable to the provisions of this act. (§181.) Sec. 2. Children can not be employed to labor in certain cases. — No child under the age of fourteen years shall be employed by any person, company, or corporation, to labor in any busi¬ ness, unless such child shall have attended some public or private day school where instruction was given by a teacher qualilied to instruct in such branches as are usually taught in primary schools, at least four months of the twelve months next preceding the month in which such child shall be so employed : Provided, That a certificate from the director of the school district in which such child shall have attended school shall be evidence of a compliance with the provisions of this act. (§182.) Sec. 3. Children unemployed to attend sc/ioof.— Every parent, guardian, or other person hav¬ ing charge or control of any child from eight to fourteen years of age, who has been temporarily discharged from any business or employment, shall send such child to some public or private day school for the period for which such child shall have been discharged, unless such child shall have been excused from such attendance by the board of the school district, for reasons as stated in sec¬ tion one hereof. (§183.) Sec. 4. District board to furnish texl-boohs. — It shall be the duty of the school district board of each district of the State to purchase and furnish, at the expense of the district, such text-books as may in the judgment of said board be necessary for the use of children whose parents are not able to furnish the same, the expense of such books to be levied in like manner as other district taxes. (§ 184.) Sec, 5. Penalty for noncompliance with foregoing sections. — In case any parent, guardian, or other person shall fail to comply with the provisions of sections two, three, or four of this act, such parent, guardian, or other person shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall, on convic¬ tion, be liable to a fine of not less than five dollars nor more than ten dollars for the first offense, and of not less than ten dollars for each subsequent offense. (§ 185.) Sec. 6. Truant officers empowered to institute proceedings. — It shall be duty of the officers de¬ tailed or appointed under the provisions of this act to assist in the enforcement thereof, to insti¬ tute, or cause to be instituted, proceedings against any parent, guardian, or other person, having legal charge and control of any child, or any person, company, or corporation, violating any of the provisions of sections one, two, three, four, and five of this act; and in school districts and cities, and villages of less than five thousand inhabitants, it shall be the duty of the school board to institute, or cause to be instituted, such proceedings. (§ 188.) Sec. 7. Proceedings may be had against officcrsof corporations.— When any of the provisions of this act are violated by a corporation, proceedings may be had against any of the officers or agents of said corporation, who in any way participate in or are cognizant of such violation by the corporation of which they are the officers or agents, and said officers or agents shall be subject to the same penalties as individuals similarly ofihnding. Chapter XXI of the General School Laws provides for the compulsory reformatory education of juvenile disorderly persons. It authorizes the school boards of cities, vil¬ lages, and townships maintaining a graded school to establish one or more ungraded schools, and to require the attendance thereat of, (1) habitual truants; (2) incorrigibly turbulent, disobedient, or insubordinate pupils; and (3) unemployed children, not en¬ rolled in the public schools, frequenting the streets. The appointment of truant offi¬ cers is provided for; and parents refusing to send children to a reformatory school alter being duly warned are made subject to a fine of from ten to twenty-live dollars. As regards the enforcement of compulsory education in Michigan, State Superintend¬ ent Joseph Estabrook writes (January 29, 1890): “ No information is gathered on the subject by this department. We have learned incidentally of a strict enforcement of the law in some of the cities, but very little, if any, attention is paid to it in the coun¬ try districts. ’ ’ The Detroit ungraded school.— \n conformity with the provisions of Chapter XXI, an ungraded school has been established in Detroit for the “compulsory reformatory edu¬ cation of juvenile disorderly persons. ” This school in 1886 enrolled 372 different pupils, of whom 136 were voluntary. City Superintendent J. M. B. Sill says that the law under which it is operated is defective, and that there is difficulty in holding boys whom the school is designed for without the consent of their parents- “ But, even under these discouraging circumstances, the school established has been a most useful institution. * * * It has already greatly diminished the number of arrests of boys for criminal * Act No. 144, Session Laws of 1883, consisted of thirteen sections. Act No. 108, Session Laws of 1885, repealed sections 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, leaving but seven sections in torce. Sections 6 and 7 of the above chapter are numbered 12 and 13 in the act as passed at the legislativ'e session of 1883. 516 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. acts, and has freed the other public schools from the injurious presence of many pupils whose influence was dangerous to good order and good morals, giving them at the same time the advantage of proper restraint and needed instruction.” i Grand Rapids ungraded school. — Of this school Superintendent F. M. Kendall says (1889): “The attendance of the ungraded school has been larger this year than for¬ merly, notwithstanding every effort has been made to return boys to the schools from which they came, as soon as their deportment and regularity of attendance would per¬ mit. Most of the members of the school are confirmed truants, or are boys whose pres¬ ence in a well-ordered school is a source of harm to the other pupils and a daily burden to the teacher. Many of them are resting under the suspended sentence of the court for criminal acts and for truancy, and a number have been sent to the reform school during the year. “And yet a good proportion of boys who have been compelled to attend this school have returned to their own schools and have given no further trouble. 1 regard the un¬ graded school as an important factor in our educational system. Not the least good which it does is to stand as a warning to boys whose conduct might otherwise be much worse than it is. ” ^ WASHINGTOIS^. A compulsory-education law was enacted in 1871 requiring parents, guardians, etc., to send children eight to sixteen years of age to school at least three months of each year, upon penalty of $100 for each case of failure, provided “no good reason can be shown for the failure.” This law was repealed in 1873. In 1877 a section was again introduced into the school law requiring attendance at school of all children from eight to sixteen years in places of more than 400 inhabitants for six months each year. There was no penalty for noncompliance attached nor pro¬ vision for enforcement. In 1883 the law of 1871 was reenacted, except that it was made to include children between eight and eighteen years. By some oversight the word ‘ ‘ parents ’ ’ was omitted, so as to leave it virtually applicable only to orphans. All the above laws were inoperative. In 1890 the present law was enacted, of which the sections providing for compulsory education read as follows: All parents, guardians, and other persons in this State having, or who may hereafter have, im¬ mediate custody. of any child or children between the ages of eight and fifteen years, shall send the same to school at least three months in each year said child or children may remain under their supervision. Any person mentioned in the preceding sections who shall fail or refuse to comply-with thepro- visions of said sections shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined in any sum not less than ten dollars or more than twenty-five dollars, and the fine so collected shall be paid into the school fund of the district. Regarding the Washington law State Supt. R. B. Brian writes: “The law has never been enforced, and there seems to be no disposition on the part of the public to attempt the enforcement of it. My judgment is, that in so far as the rural districts are con¬ cerned, it will be a dead letter for years to come.” NEVADA. A compulsory law which is still in force was passed in 1873, containing the following requirements: Every parent or other person having control of a child between eight and fourteen shall send it to a public school for sixteen weeks each year, eight of which must be consecutive, unless excu.sed by the scliool trustees on account of the bodily or mental condition of the child or because it has been instructed elsewhere. At the end of four school months the trustees are directed to proceed to collect the penalty from any one violating this act. Penalty for the first offense, $50 to $100; for each subsequent offense, $100 to $200. State Supt. W. C. Dovey says of this law in a letter to the Bureau dated February 11, 1890: “The law, from the beginning, was a dead letter. The statute for compul¬ sory education was enacted to meet a condition in our towns and cities. It is sel¬ dom needed in rural districts, the children generally finding employment on the farm, and are eager to quit work for the easier tasks of the schoolhonse; but in our mining towns many boys are idle owing to the restrictions of labor unions, which prevent them from learning trades or entering the mines. Such boys are generally averse to going to school, and here the compulsory law is needed to be enforced. Detroit Sch, Rep., 1886, p. in. ^tlrand Rapids Sch. Rep., 1889, p. 66. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE - CALIFORNIA - MAINE. 517 CALIFOROTA. An act was passed in 1874 to the following effect: Every parent or other person having: charge of any child between eight and fourteen years of age must send it to a public school for two-thirds of the public school term, twelve weeks of which must be consecutive, unless excused on account of the bodily or mental condition of the child, or the poverty or sickness of its parents, or unless it has been instructed elsewhere. Penalty for violating this act, twenty dollars and costs for the first offense ; for each subsequentoffense, twenty dollars to fifty dollars and costs. The clerk of the board of education or of the district trustees, on complaint of any teacher or taxpayer, must prosecute all offenses under this act or be liable to a fine of twenty dollars to fifty dollars. All deaf, dumb, and blind children must be sent for five years to the institution provided for such persons, unless excused for the reasons before mentioned. Penalties same as before. This act is still in force. The reports of the State superintendents have called attention to the circumstance from time to time that it is a dead letter in nearly all parts of the State. “This is occasioned, ” says Supt. Ira G. Hoitt, in 1888, “partly by the fact that some towns and cities have not sufficient school accommodations for all those who apply for admission, and partly from the indifference and negligence of parents and guardians.” It has been recommended to amend the law so as to meet those cases in which parents claim to be too poor to send their children to school. “The law enacted to enforce the educational rights of children so effectually guards against any encroachment upon the rights of parents, that it utterly fails to accomplish the purpose lor which it was en¬ acted.’” MAINE. Towns were authorized to make by-laws against truancy in 1850. In 1875, in addi¬ tion, an act was passed requiring the attendance at school, either public or private, of every child between the ages of nine and fifteen years for at least twelve weeks in each year, unless excused from such attendance by the school officers of the town for physical or mental disability, or because of living more than a mile and a half by the shortest traveled road from any school, or having been taught at home. Parents, etc., were fined five dollars for noncoinpliance, and boys neglecting or refusing to attend forfeited the same. The duty of enforcing this act was imposed upon school committees and supervisors. “I am not aware,” said State Superintendent Luce, in 1887, “that the provisions of this act were ever anywhere enforced. I know that its enforcement was generally found to be impracticable whenever any supervisor who sought to entorce it in some aggravated case of absenteeism came to the question of ways and means.” In view of the defective character of this law the legislature of 1887 enacted a substi¬ tute requiring every person having under his control a child between eight and fifteen years of age to send it to a public school sixteen weeks each year, divided as far as pos¬ sible into two terms of eight weeks each, unless it has been instructed elsewhere or labors under some bodily or mental disability. Anyone not complying is to forfeit not more than twenty-five dollars. Cities and towns are required to elect truant officers, who are to enforce this law. Any city or town or truant officer neglecting this require¬ ment is to forfeit from ten to filty dollars. Any boy between ten and fifteen years of age found wandering about the streets during school hours is to be committed to the State reform school, but it satisfactory pledges are obtained from him or the person Lav¬ ing him in charge that in the future he will conform to the requirements he shall not be prosecuted so long as the pledges are faithfully kept. Regarding this law Superintendent Luce writes (January 28, 1890): “As to its effi¬ ciency in securing the ends desired, the result depends largely upon the activity and efficiency of truant officers, and this upon the countenance and interest of the commu¬ nities of the towns of the State. In many cities and towns the increase of average attendance has been marked; in others little change has been discernible. The pas.sage of the law has been too recent to decide upon the actual or prospective results to be secured by its general enforcement. Some amendments will probably result from the general enforcement of its provisions.” Rep. Com. Ed., 1875, p. 29. 518 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. NEW JERSEY. The original law of 1875 was susperseded in 1885 by one of which the following is an abstract: Every parent or other person having charge of any child between seven and twelve years of age must send it to a public day school for twenty weeks each year, eight of which must be consecutive, unless such child has been excused by the school board on account of its bodily or mental condi¬ tion or has been instructed elsewhere. Every parent or other person having charge of any child between twelve and sixteen years of age who has been discharged from employment in order that it might receive instruction at school must send it to school for the period lor which it was dis¬ charged. Any person not complying with these requirements becomes liable to a fine of not less than ten dollars for the first offense, nor more than twenty-five dollars for each subsequent offense, or to imprisonment from one to three months. No child under fifteen may be employed by any person or company unless it has attended school for twelve weeks during the preceding twelve months, nor unless such child or the person having charge of it has complied with the act limiting the hours of labor of children. All children between the ages of seven and fifteen who habitually wander about the streets, having no lawful occupation, or who are incorrigible while attending school, are to be deemed juvenile disorderly persons. One or more members of the police force in cities, and in other places constables, are appointed truant officers to enforce this act. Any child that can not be made to attend school by its parent or the person having charge of it may be sent to a juvenile reformatory, unless said child is under nine years of age. Two weeks’ attendance at an evening school is to be regarded as equivalent to one week’s attendance at a day school. It does not appear that this law has ever been enforced. In the cities it is practi¬ cally a dead letter, and must continue to be so until the cities build schooihouses to ac¬ commodate their increasing populations.^ City Superintendent Wm. Barringer, of Newark, says^ (1889) of the compulsory school law : ‘ ‘We are now enforcing this law with excellent success. A complete set of books and blanks have been prepared for use by superintendent, principals, and truant ofecers. A large number of cases of truancy and street vagrancy have been dealt with. Most of them are now in regular attendance at school. A number of them were sent to the city home at Verona. The law has also been enforced in the evening schools with gratify¬ ing results. I am satisfied that two ur three years’ persistent effort will practically re¬ move truancy and vagrancy from our city. The employment of children under age in our factories and shops is also receiving careful attention.” WYOMING, Compulsory education was nominally provided for in Wyoming as early as 1876, when the attendance of all children between the ages of seven and twenty years was made ob¬ ligatory for at least three months of each year. Any parent, etc., having children in' charge between the ages of seven and sixteen years not complying with this obligation was liable to a fine of twenty-five dollars for each offense.^ In the revision of 1887 the law provides in brief as follows: It is made the duty of all parents and other persons having children under their control between the ages of six and twenty-one to send them to school three months each year, unless excused by the district board for special reasons. Any parent or other person having control of any child b^ tween seven and sixteen years of age who shall fail to comply with this requirement may be punished by a fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars for each offense, and it is made the duty of sheriffs and constables to report the names of all children found loitering about the streets and thoroughfares, and complaint shall be made against them by the county superiniendent of schools before some justice of the peace. “When this law was first passed,” writes Territorial Superintendent John Slaughter (January 30, 1890), “ a strong effort was made in Cheyenne and in some other towns to enforce it. At present it seems to be almost (if not quite) a dead letter. “The law does not seem to be applicable to the rural districts, mainly on account of their large size, many of them being from ten to fifty miles long, and nearly as wide. No general effort was ever made in the country to enforce the law. “I am uncompromisingly in favor of compulsory education.” OHIO. A compulsory education law was enacted in Ohio in 1877. The original bill “to se¬ cure to children the benefits of an elementary education ” was so amended during its passage through the legislature “as to render the act virtually inoperative.” A por¬ tion was stricken out, so as to leave no provision for the prosecution of any offense. The clerk of any board of education was supposed to enforce the law, but he could do noth¬ ing except when a written notice was served by some member of the board or some per¬ son who felt aggrieved, “and then he may do all he can, which is simply nothing.”* 1 N. J. Sch. Rep., 1887, p. 35. 2 Ibid., 1889, p. 109. 3 Rep. Com. Ed., 1877, p. 296. '‘Ohio Sch. Rep., 1877, p. 104. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE - OHIO. 519 This law remained on the statute book until 1889, when a more complete law was passed, which, as amended in 1890, is in substance as follows; Every parent or other person having control of any child between eight and fourteen years of age must send ic to school for twenty weeks each year in city districts, and for sixteen weeks in special, village, and township districts, unless excused on account of the physical or mental con¬ dition of such child or because it has been instructed at home. All parents or other persons hav¬ ing control of children between eight and sixteen years of age not engaged in any regular employ¬ ment are required to send them to school during the full term it is continued. Anj’- parent orother person failing to comply with these requirements is liable to be punished by a fine of not leas than five dollars nor more than twenty dollars. But if the parent or other person is unable to cause the child or children to attend school, thev may be sent to the juvenile reformatory. No person or company is to employ any child under fourteen who has not attended school as required, or has not completed the usual primary and grammar grades; a fine of fifty dollars is imposed for any violation of this provision. All children over fourteen and under sixteen who can not read and write must attend school one-half of each day, or an evening school, or be instructed privately until he or she shall be able to read and write; any person or company employing such a child, who is not receiving the instruction required, is made liable to a fine of fifty dollars, unless provi¬ sion has been made for its instruction. Every parent or other person having control of any child under sixteen who has been discharged from business in order to receive instruction must send such child to school until it becomes able to read and write, or be liable to fine or imprisonment. Truant officers are required to be appointed to enforce the above provisions. Comments on the law. — Referrino; to this law, Hon. John Hancock, State school com¬ missioner, writes (January 30, 1890): “It has gone into operation so recently that I am unable to speak with definiteness as to results. I can say, however, that we have favor¬ able reports of its workings from all parts of the State. Of coarse the greatest benefits to be derived from the execution of the law will be in the cities and towns, especially those largely engaged in manufacturing. But I see no reason why the law should not work equally well in the country districts. We deem the enactment of the law a great step in educational progress in our State.” An inquiry as to reswU ami defects. — The following circular to school superintendents of cities and towns of Ohio was sent out by the State school commissioner May 29, 1890; Gentlemen: As you are fully aware, the compulsory-education law is one of the highest mo¬ ment to our people. I am therefore anxious to learn with some definiteness how it is working in the different sections of the .State. 1 shall be greatly obliged to you, then, if you will give me in¬ formation on the following points : 1. What have been the results of the enforcement of the law in your own field of labor? 2. What is the feeling of tne community towards the law? 3. If any opposition has nanifested itself against the law, what is the source of that opposition? 4. In the execution of the law, what weaknesses, if any, have been developed? 5. What remedies for these weaknesses can you suggest? Any information or suggestions not called for by the above questions will be thankfully received. Very respectfully, yours. John Hancock:, Commissioner. The answers to this inquiry are thus summed up by Mr. Hancock:^ ‘^To this circular answers were returned from ninety-four superintendents, one clerk of a board of education, and one truant officer. In thirteen of the ninety-six localities represented, 'it was reported that no action to carry out the law had been taken by their respective boards of education. “1. Of the eighty-three localities distributed throughout the State wherein the boards of education have taken action by the appointment of a truant officer, it was reported from fifty-seven that the enforcement of the law was satisfactory — in most the statement was made in very strong terms; from six that the results were but partially satisfac¬ tory; from seven that they were so happily situated as not to require the intervention of a compulsory law, as ail youth of the proper age were already in school; from two that the results were unsatisfactory; and by the remainder no answer was given to this question. In the two districts reporting unsatisfactory results, the fault was not at¬ tributed to the law itself, but to the way in which it was attempted to be enforced. Of the localities reporting satisfactory results, it is stated that there has been a considerable increase in the school attendance — in some, that everybody due at school had been brought in; that the attendance had been more regular; and in many places that the law had caused the establishment of night schools, an important addition to the educa¬ tional facilities afforded by a town. “2. Of the answers made to the second question, seventy-five report their communi¬ ties favorable to the law, one unfavorable, and seven as not having formed any opinion. Such a unanimity in favor of a law touching so many persons in its provisions is ex¬ ceedingly rare. It indicates on the part of the people a deep-seated determination that hereafter no child in Ohio shall grow up without receiving a fair common-school educa¬ tion. “3. In answer to the third question, thirty-two localities report that there was no OhioSch. Rep., 1889-90, pp. 8-13. 520 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. opposition to the law from any quarter. What opposition there was in other places is variously stated as coming from the lawless and criminal classes; from the idle and shiftless; from those who take no interest in the education of their children, or care nothing for them but to get work oat of them; and, of course, from those who have felt the penalties of the law. Besides these, there have been complaints from a few locali¬ ties that the enforcement of the law costs too much, and particularly that the trouble and expense sending a boy to the reformatory are too great. Again, it is asserted that some opposition to the law has been aroused by the lack of wisdom shown by some of the truant officers in enforcing the law, though, as a rule, these officers have shown themselves intelligent, prudent, and faithful in the discharge of their delicate and diffi¬ cult duties. In one or two instances objection to the law has come from the authorities of parochial schools, though in most cases, so far as my knowledge extends, these au¬ thorities have yielded assent to the law, and have availed themselves of its provisions to gather in from the street the truants belonging to their schools. That the law is lib¬ eral towards this class of schools can not be successfully denied. It makes no attempt to force any man’s conscience. If the child is only in school, whether it be in a public, a parochial, or a private school, the law is satisfied. It declares no preference between classes of schools. It says the child must be educated; where it shall be educated is left to the free election of the parent. “Some manufacturers have opposed the law because to be compelled to substitute the labor of adults or of older youth for that of children under fourteen enhances the cost of their wares, and thus, as they put it, takes money out of their pockets by bringing them in direct competition with goods produced in States that have no such restrictive law. But it must be said that such objectors among the employers of youth are few, and that the great body of them acknowledge the wisdom of the law and cheerfully comply with its requirements. “4. When the answers to this question were written, it is evident that most of the superintendents had not had an opportunity of seeing the amendments made to the law last winter. Among the weaknesses of the law named by a large number of the writers, are (1) that the age of fourteen is too low a limit for school attendance; and (2) that children of the ages named in the law should be compelled to go to school the whole time the schools are in session instead of a part of it, particularly where they are not engaged in some regular employment. These two weaknesses, however, have been re¬ moved substantially by amendments. That amendment which enforces attendance for the whole time the schools are in session, upon all youth between ages of eight and six¬ teen years not engaged in some regular employment, is a noble measure, scarcely less beneficent than the original law itself. “Other weaknesses noted in the reports are: (Ij The general objection that the law in many points is too indefinite in its terms, in consequence leaving school authorities in doubt as to their duties; and, more specifically. (2) that truancy is not defined with ad¬ equate distinctness; (3) that it is not made sufficiently certain whose duty it is to pro¬ vide decent clothing for the children whose parents are unable to do so; (4) uncertainty as to who is to pay costs of suit; (5) a like uncertainty as to whose duty it is to bring suit to recover the fines imposed for neglect of duty under section 13 of the act; (6) no compulsory law lor feeble-minded children; (7) the act seems to conflict with the law forsuspeosion and expulsion of pupils from school; (8) that in village districts the truant officer is required to report to the clerk of the board of education instead of to the super¬ intendent of schools. “5. In answer to the fifth question the following suggestions have been offered : (1) Thatthe duties of prosecuting attorneys in connection with the law shall be more clearly defined; (2) that as the parents prosecuted under the law are generally persons from whom a fine can not be collected, process against habitual truants should in all cases be against the child and not the parents fprobably this is the intent of the law as it now stands]; (3) the law should provide for a fund for the relief of indigent children; (4j the relief of this class of children should be imposed on boards of education instead of on township trustees; (6) truant officers should be empowered to arrest on sight truants loitering about the streets during school hours. “The information presented above comes from cities, towns, and villages. In the township districts the execution of the law has been far from universal. The boards of education from a large portion of these districts have been slow to act, though a severe penalty is imposed for a failure to do so. While it is true that the cities and towns will, from the nature of things, derive the greatest benefit from the law, still in almost every subdistrict will be found parents greatly indifferent to the education of their chil¬ dren, and who will need the coercion of the law to bring them to a realizing sense of their duty. I would therefore recommend that the duty of bringing action to recover the fines imposed under section 13 of the law be especially placed upon the prosecuting attorney of the county. This would compel all parties to whom the law assigns duties COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE— DAKOTA. 521 • 'to be performed to act, and the enforcement of the law would soon become universal. The execution of the act in the large cities has been impaired to a considerable extent by the fact that in none of them has more than one truant officer been appointed. How¬ ever, as the beneficial effects of the law shall more and more reveal themselves, Ave may expect boards to adopt a more and more liberal policy on this point. “ Knowing that Cleveland has maintained for some years separate schools for special classes of pupils, I addressed a letter of inquiry to Hon. L. W. Day, superintendent of the schools of that city, as to the workings of these separate schools. I here insert his answer, believing it may prove suggestive to boards of education in other cities in con¬ nection with the compulsory law. He says: For a number of years we have maintained three separate schools — requiring the services of five teachers— known as “ungraded schools,” or “ bo3^s’ schools,” as they are now officially termed. To these schools we have assigned pupils whose presence in the regular schoolroom proved un¬ necessarily disorganizing, or who on account of truancy, offensive personal habits, persistent de¬ fiance of authority, etc., require an undue amount of attention. These schools are taught by gen¬ tlemen who are supposed to be strong disciplinarians, as well as excellent teachers. The course of study is the same as that pursued in the regular schools, and the general rules and regulations of the schools apply to their management. Corporal punishment is allowed in these schools, but not e!se%vhere. The enforcement of thecompulsory law brings in many neglected children — waifs without friends or homes, or belonging to homes that are worse than none. For such pupils — pupils who need to go through a sort of cleansing and toning process — these schools are just the thing. Boys familiar with the street and its ways feel better iti a school for boys than they would in a school composed of both sexes; at least it is better that many of these should be thus assigned. We are making a vigorous push in the enforcement of the law, but with only one truant officer many cases slip through our fingers. Wc have but little trouble in enforcing the law so far as the pupils of the public schools are con¬ cerned, but there are many who enter no school whom we find it difficult to reach. We are en¬ deavoring to arrange matters so that we shall have the cooperation and active aid of the police of the city. With this help we shall soon make it unsafe for pupils in the street during school hours. We have established no special schools in consequence of the compulsory law, but as occasion re¬ quires we make excellent use of the schools referred to above. “In my visits to institutes, to county teachers’ associations, and to other educational meetings, I have taken occasion to call attention to the importance of this law, and to explain its provisions and the proper methods of procedure under it to the best of my ability. All the information as to public feeling I could gather at these meetings, as well as by conversation with prominent citizens in the various callings of life, has been in entire harmony with the written statements of the superintendents of schools in reply to the questions propounded in my circular, “ Considering, then, that the law was new to all to whom its enforcement was com¬ mitted, and thatsome of its provisions were not altogether plain, as Avell as the further facts that the law was to go into effect in the middle of the school year (which proved a great embarrassment in its execution), and that the schools had been working under it but half a year, the favorable results obtained are full of encouragement for the fu¬ ture, when the principle of enforced attendance will be applied under the law greatly strengthened and improved in other respects than those already named, and by officers of larger experience. If public sentiment shall in the future stand as firmly for the law as it now does, we have a right to expect that in the course of two or three years nearly all the friction now incident to its enforcement wilt have disappeared, and that we shall gather the full fruits of its wise provisions.” DAKOTA. The Dakota law, first enacted in 1833 and amended in 1887, contains the following provisions: '■ Every parent or other person having control of any child between the ages of ten and fourteen years is required to send such child to a public school twelve weeks in each year, six of which shall be consecutive, unless such child be excused on account of bodily or mental infirmity, or has been instructed elsewhere, or has alreadj' completed the public-school branches. The director of the subdistriet is instructed to ascertain if there are any children not attending school as required; and, if so, he must direct that they be sent to school. If such children are not then sent to school he is to make complaint before some justice of the peace, and the parent or person having them in charge is liable to a fine of not less than ten dollars nor more than tAventy-five dollars. If the director fail to make such complaint, he becomes liable to the same penalty as that provided for the parent or person having the child in charge. The Territorial board, in their report for 1888, called attention to the fact that the pro¬ portion of school children enrolled had fallen off during the year from 83 to 81 per cent. ; and they go on to state: “This means thatasmaller per cent. of the children of theTer- ritory are enrolled in the public schools, and, taken in connection with the fact that we * This law Avill probably be revised in the new school laws of the States of North and South Da¬ kota. 522 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. have a compulsory clause in our school law, it is all the more remarkable. The con¬ clusion is not, however, that the compulsory law is entirely a dead letter. We know of some cases it has reached quite effectively; but, as a rule, the compulsory clause is not enforced. But the above statements show that, while a smaller proportion of the chil¬ dren attend our schools, those who are enrolled attend more regularly, there having been a gain of 1 per cent, in this regard over 1887. It does seem that more than 81 per cent, ot the children of the school age ought to be brought into the schools. The compulsory education clause has certainly not accomplished all that its supporters expected of it. If the State must support schools, it certainly has the right to compel attendance. It is a very common error among the people that schools are supported for the benefit of indi¬ viduals, and that an education is of advantage to the child or parent only, and that it is no business of the State if the child, or his parents for him, decline to accept the school advantages offered. This is not only absurd, but wrong. The whole idea of the public school is compulsory. A system that would simply permit the establishment and main¬ tenance of a school would be no system at all. The State has the right to compel the support of schools, and the further right to compel attendance. * * * “ We would respectlully advise that our compulsory clause be not only retained but be made more effective. In its present shape it is too cumbersome, and burdened with too many qualifications, and is too difiicult of application. We are convinced that the compulsory age should be extended from ten to fourteen years — to seven to fifteen years, and the term of attendance extended from twelve to sixteen weeks per year. The only excuse for nonattendance should be bodily or mental infirmity, attendance at some private school for the same length of time, or too great a distance from the nearest school- house. Local school officers who receive no compensation should not be charged with the execution of the law. Such a provision, if enforced, would be a most fertile source of neighborhood quarrels, of which the number is large enough. This regulation is a police regulation, and there should be .some officers in each county required to execute the law. If the compulsory law were properly amended, there are many indications that it could be used to bring many of the delinquent children into the schools.” MOI^TAT^-A. The Montana law, enacted in iS83, is virtually identical with the Kansas law of 1874, already given on page odd. The only change calling for notice is the introduction in the second section of the alternative penalty ot thirty days’ irnpri.sonment in the county jail for the second and each subsequent offense on the part of parents, etc. With reference to this law State Superintendent John Gannon writes (February 1, 1890): “It stands to-day a dea I letter upon the statute book. There has not been a single conviction un ler it to my knowledge; and as to its efficiency in rural districts, as compared with cities, would state that it has never been emorced in either.” MINNESOTA. Minnesota adopted compulsory ed ucation in 1885. A 1 aw was enacted that year which also is a literal transcript of the present Kansas law (of 1874), given on page 503, except that the compulsory age is made eight to sixteen instead of eight to fourteen, and the penalties imposed on parents and guardians for noncompliance are ten to twenty-five dollars for the first offense, and tv/enty-five to fifty dollars for each subsequent offense, instead of as in the Kansas law. The following statement raaile in 1886 by State Superintendent Kiehle regarding the enforcement of this law he says is practically true to-day (1890): “I am not able to report any substantial aid gained from the law on compulsory education. Several superintendents hive undertaken to enforce it, but the results have not been permanent. The reasons of failure have been: “1. Defects in the law. It very properly allows children to be educated in other than the public schools, yet leaves the conditions so indefinite that there is not the least guaranty that the children are receiving the equivalent of a common school education. Whatever else is required, every school which is to be recognized by the law should certify that it is conducted in the English language, and that instruction is given in the branches of a common school education, viz: reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, and the geog¬ raphy and history of the United States. “ 2. The difficulty inherent in this method of improving the people. The more chil¬ dren there are in any given district who do not attend school, the more probable it is that no one in the district will take the trouble, or endure the odium necessary to the enforce¬ ment of the law. There should be a truant officer in the city, and a constable in the country, whose duty it would be to attend to the enforcement of the law.” COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE— NEBRASKA. 523 KEBRASKA. School attendancfo was not made compulsory until 1887, when the following law was enacted: Section 1. That it shall be unlawful for any parent or guardian, living in the State of Nebraska, to neglect or refuse to cause or compel any one person, or persons, who are, or may be under their control as their children or wards, to attend and comply w ith the rules of some one or more public or private school, or schools, for a term of twelve weeks or more, during each successive year from the time said children, or wiirds, are eight years old until they are fourteen years old inclusive, unless they may be prevented by illness, poverty, inability, or by reason of already being profi¬ cient, from attending such public or private school or schools : And provided. That in such case they shall be excused by the board of education of the school district in which said children or wards may live at the time of such failure to attend such public or private school or schools. Sec. 2. That any person or persons violating this act shall be subject to a fine of not less than ten dollars nor more than fifty dollars lor each and every olfense. Said rine shall be imposed by any court of justice having Jurisdiction on sutticient evidence of the same, being furnUhed by two or more credible witne.sses, and all fines so collected shall be placed in the general school fund the same as other fines and penalties. Regarding this law Hon. Geo. B. Lane, State superintendent, writes as follows (Feb¬ ruary 12, 1890); “The compulsory law of this State was passed in the spring of 1887. Before that time no accurate statistics were kept ol pupils between eight and fourteen years of age. Since this date an actual enumeration of such children and their attend¬ ance at school have been made. The following facts show the effect of the law in this State: The total enumeration of all school children in the State for the years 1886-87 was 279,550, of this number 194,661 were enrolled in the public schools; this gives 69.6 per cent, of all children of school age enrolled in the schools. In 1887-88 the total enumeration of school children was 298,006. The total public school attendance was 215,889, giving 72.1 per cent, enrolled in the schools. This same year the records show 138.325 children in the State between eight and fourteen years old; and 112,074 en¬ rolled in the public schools, giving 80.8 per cent, of those between eight and fourteen enrolled in the public schools. This was the first year after the passage of the com¬ pulsory law. For the year 1888-89 the total enumeration was 316,805, and 232,344 were enrolled in the schools, giving 73.3 per cent, of the total school population en¬ rolled in the schools. During the same year there were 143,208 children between eight and fourteen years old in the State with 1 19,932 enrolled in the schools, giving 83.7 per cent, of all the children between eight and fourteen enrolled in the schools. I am reasonably assured that the school year 1889-90 will show as good or even a better rec¬ ord. “In the matter of the efficiency of compulsory education in this State, I will say, from my exjierience, it is of more real service here in the West than in the East. While there has been an increase here in attendance, there has been at the same time an in¬ crease in efficiency in instruction and in the length of school. This is especially shown in the fact that most of our country schools have adopted a regular course of studj^ and the average school term in the State was increased five days last year. “I am of the opinion that education, social and moral elevation, is not a field to be improved by legal enactments and prescription. Personal freedom has long been a cry of our people and individual liberty has been nurtured by the very forms of our gov¬ ernment. But then, rational order, personal freedom, and individual liberty are secured only by general intelligence and wisdom. Here, then, comes the conflict. The law can not (as a law, a prescriptive rule of action) be eulorced. It is against the funda¬ mental principles of our natures, as well as the expressed will of our people. But the real value of such a law is in the general environments given in favor of education. Tlie true function of such legislation, in mg opinion, is not to direct officially in the social affairs or education of the individual, hut rather to cooperate with and encourage all to receive the hencfits of the school. The child is taught to think, to act, and to do for himself. This is the spirit of our institutions, and by this self-activity he becomes self-governing. “Again, the very nature of education, as well as the entire ethical being of man, is cast and fostered in the exercise of freedom. Freedom of the will and free moral agency have long since been conceded to the individual. A person’s education is not only an act of his mental powers, but to accomplish what the law attempts, it must be a free act of the person. The execution of the law would make it otherwise than a free act of the individual. “My general impression is, that here in Nebraska the law has resulted in just what the local school authorities desired to make of it. In quite a number of counties, in which there were active county superintendents and others who had a real interest in education, the subject has been discussed and the people encouraged so much as to have every child between eight and fourteen years of age in school. The same is true in re¬ gard to the cities. In certain cities every child between eight and fourteen has been brought into the schools. 524 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. “ My opinion then of the subject is simply this: I am not in favor of any rigid en¬ forcement of the law. It can not be of much service if enforced by external authority. I am in favor of the law as far as it can be carried out by means of supervision, encour¬ agement, and moral support. All school officers, from the State to the district officers, teachers, and all engaged or connected with the school system, should have the matter at heart: In this way it may be made a complete success.” IDAHO. The following is a brief summary of the law enacted in 1887: Every parent, guardian, or other person having control of any child between eight and fourteen years of age is required to send such child to a public school twelve weeks each year, eight of which must be consecutive, unless such child is excused on account of its bodily or mental condi¬ tion, or is being instructed elsewhere, or hascompleted the ordinary branches of the publicschools, or does not live within two miles of a public school, or is compelled to labor for the support of its parents. Any parent or other person not comply ing with tliis provision is ma e liable to a fine of from five dollars to twenty dollars for the first oftense, and from ten dollars to fifty dollars lor each subsequent one, besides the cost of collection. All fines to be paid into the county treasury for the benefit of the district collecting them. If at the expiration of the first three months of the school year it shall appear to the trustees that any parent or other person has not complied with this provision, they shall cause demand to be made upon such person for the penalty provided, and, if it is not paid in five days, they are to proceed to collect it in any court having jurisdiction. Notices of these requirements must be posted in public places each year. Effect of the law. — Territorial SuperinteDdent Charles C. Stevenson says of this law (February 13, 1890): “It is defective. Its iutentions are good, but in a new country like this, where many settlements are badly scattered, it is well-nigh impossible to enforce its provisions. The law was passed, like many other enactments, under a suspension of the rules and with a hurrah. “From some school districts I have received very favorable reports regarding enforce¬ ment, but the opposite is the case from the majority. My impression is that if there is any difference at all, the rural districts lead the cities and towns as to efficiency. In the towns there are more attractions for both sexes, while in the rural districts the sole difficulty is found in the necessity to keep the childien at home to assist in the manual labor of the farm. I have found it to be the ca.se that in the towns the tendency of parents is to shield their children and provide them with excuses for truancy (for many absences can be distinguished under no other namei, while in the rural districts the parents are extremely desirous of giving their children the most of the limited schooling furnished them. My sympathies are with the country schools; and in my opinion surer foundations for good education and useful men and women are laid in the rural schools of three or four months’ duration, than in the well-equipped and splen¬ didly-endowed institutions of the cities.” KEW MEXICO. School attendance was made compulsory in New Mexico at least as early as 1870. t As the public-school system at that date had not been developed to any considerable extent, in some places there being a very general opposition to it, there can be no doubt that compulsion existed only in name. Other compulsory-education laws were passed in subsequent years, but were appar¬ ently never enforced. In 1887 a law was enacted which was so defective in wording that it “did not compel anything or anybody. ” The school act approved February 12, 1891, contains the following provisions, being the law now in force: The school directors of the various districts in this Territory are hereby empowered and required to compel parents, guardians, or other persons having the control, care, or direction of children, when such children do not attend some private school, to send such children under their control to the public school for at least three months in each year, except when such children shall be under eight or above sixtee years of age, or of such physical disability as to untit them for the labor required, which disability shall be certified to by some regular practicing physician. Any parent, guardian, or other person having the control of children who shall fail or refuse to send such chil¬ dren to school as required by this act, shall be punished upon conviction thereof by a fine of not less than one dollar nor more than twenty-five dollars, or by imprisonment for not more than ten days in any county jail : Provided, That such school directors shall have served written notice upon said parents, guardians, or other persons having the care and control of said children that such children are not in attendance at the public school or any other school as required by law: Pro¬ vided further. That if such parent or guardian is not able by reason of poverty to buy books for any such child, it shall be the duty of the school board of the proper district, upon the facts being Hep. Com. Ed., 1870, p.327. COMPULSOKY ATTENDANCE COLORADO — OREGON. 525 shown to their satisfaction, to furnish the necessary books and pay for the same out of the school fund of such district by warrants drawn as in other cases; or that there is no school taught within two miles of the place of residence of such child by the nearest established road. All fines so collected from the violation of this section shall be paid into the county treasury and placed to the credit of the school district in which the offense occurred. ^ COLORADO. Compulsory education in Colorado dates only from 1889. The law enacted that year is as follows: AN ACT to secure to children the benefit of elementary education. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Colorado, That it shall be unlawful for any per¬ son, persons, or corporation to employ any child under the age of fourteen years to labor in any business whatever during the school hours of any school day, of the school term of the public school, in the school district where such child is, unless such child shall have attended some public or private day school where instruction was given by a teacher qualified to instruct in those branches required to be taught in the public school of the State of Colorado, or shall have been regularly instructed at home in such branches, by some person qualified to instruct in the same, at least twelve weeks in each year, eight weeks at least of which shall be consecutive, and shall, at the time of such employment, deliver to the employer a certificate in writing, signed by the teacher, certifying to such attendance or instruction; and any person, persons, or corporation who shall employ any child contrary to the provisions of thissection shall, upon conviction, be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and fined in a sum not less than twenty-five (25) dollars nor more than fifty (50) dollars; and all fines so collected shall be paid into the county treasury, and placed to the credit of the school district in which the offense occurs. Sec. 2. Every parent or guardian, or other person in the State of Colorado, having control of any child or children between the ages of eight (8) and fourteen (14) shall be required to send such child or children to a public school, or private school taught by a competent instructor, for a period of at least twelvm (12) weeks in each year, at least eight weeks of which time shall be consecutive, unle.ss such child or children are excused from such attendance by the board of the school district in which such parent, guardian, or person having control resides, upon its being shown to their satisfaction that such child’s bodily or mental condition has been such as to prevent attendance at school, or application to study for the period required: Provided, That if such parent or guardian is not able, by reason of poverty, to properly clothe any such child, it shall be the duty of the school board of the proper district, upon the fact being shoAvn to their satisfaction, to furnish the neces¬ sary clothing and pay for the same out of the school fund of such district, by warrant drawn as in othercases, or that such child or children are taught at home iusuch branchesasare usually taught in the public schools, subject to the same examination as other pupils of the district in which the child resides; or that there is no school taught within two miles by the nearest traveled road. Sec. 3. Any parent, guardian, or other person failing to comply with the provisions of section two of this act shall, upon conviction, be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and fined in a sum not less than five nor more than twenty-five dollars for each offense ; and all fines so collected shall bo paid into the county treasury and placed to the credit of the school district in which the offense occurs. Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of any school director of the district to inquire into all cases of neglect of the duty prescribed in this act, and ascertain from the person neglecting the reason, if any, therefor; and he shall forthwith proceed to secure the prosecution of any offense occurring under this act; and any director neglecting to secure such prosecution for such offense, within ten days after a written notice has been served on him by any taxpayer in said district, unless the person so complained of shall be excused by the district board of education for the reasons hereinbefore stated, shall, upon conviction, be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and fined in a sum not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars; and such fine, when collected, shall be paid into the county treasury and placed to the credit of the school district in which the offense occurs. All actions for offenses committed under this act shall be prosecuted for in the name of the State of Colorado. Sec. 5. That upon the trial of any off ense as charged herein, before any court of competent juris¬ diction, if it shall be determined that such prosecution was malicious, then the costs in such case shall be adjudged against the complainant and collected as fines in other eases. Sec. 6. Two weeks’ attendance, at half time or night school, shall be considered within the mean¬ ing of the article equivalent to an attendance of one week at a day school. Sections 2, 3, and 4 of this law are based on the Michigan law of 1871, which was copied by a number of States, and which has generally been incapable of enforcement. OREGON. The following law dates from February 25, 1889 : Every parent, guardian or other person in this State having control or charge of a child or chil¬ dren between the ages of eight and fourteen years shall be required to send such child or children to a public school for a period of at least twelve weeks in every school year, of which at least eight weeks school [shall] be consecutive, unless the bodily or mental condition of such child orchildren has been such as to prevent his or her or their attendance at school or application to study for the period required, or unless such child or children are taught in a private school or at home in such branches as are usually taught in primary schools or have alreadj’’ acquired the ordinary branches of learning taught in the public schools : Provided, In case a public school shall not be taught for the period of twelve weeks, or any part thereof during the year, within two miles by the nearest traveled road of the residence of any person within the school district, he or she shall not be liable to the provisions of this act.* * N. Mex. Sch. Law, 1891, see. 42. 526 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1888-89. A.ny parent, guardian or other person having control or charge of any child or children failing to comply with the provisions of this act shall be liable to a fine of not less than five dollars nor more than tv/enty-five dollars for the first offense, nor less than twenty-five dollars nor more than fifty dollars for the second and each subsequent offense, besides the cost of the prosecution. It shall be the duty of the directors and clerk of each school district to make diligent effort to see that this law is enforced in their respective districts. Justices of the peace shall have concurrent jurisdiction with the circuit court in all prosecutions under this act. UTAH. The most recent compnlsory-attendance law is that of Utah, approved March 13, 1890, which reads as follows: Sec. 130. Timerequired — When pupils may he excused. — Every parent, guardian, or other person havingcontrol of any child between ten and fourteen years of age, shall be required to send such child to a public, district, or private school in the district, in which he resides, at least sixteen weeks in each school year after the 30th day of June, 189-, ten weeks of which shall be consecu¬ tive: Provided, That such parent, guardian, or other person having control of any child shall be excused from such duties by the school board of the district or the board of education of the city, as the case may be, whenever it shall be shown to their satisfaction that one of the following reasons exists : First. That such child is taught at home in the branches provided by law and for the same length of time as children are required by law to be taught in the district schools. Second. That such child has already acquired the branches of learning taught in the district schools. Third. That such child is in such physical or mental condition (which may be certified by a com¬ petent physician if required by the board) as to render such attendance inexpedient or impracti¬ cable, If no such school is taught the requisite length of time within two and one-half miles of the residence of such child by the nearest road such attendance shall not be enforced. Fourth. That such child is attending some public, district, or private school. Fifth, That the services of such child are necessary to the support of a widowed mother or an invalid father. Sec. 131. Penally for refusing lo send child to school. — Any such parent, guardian, or other person having control of any child between ten and fourteen years of age, who willfully fails to comply with the req lirements of the last preceding section, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, be fined not more than ten dollars for the first offense, and for the second and every subsequent offense, not more than thirty dollars and costs in each case, such fine shall be paid into the district school fund. Sec. 132. Neglect of duly. — It shall be the duty of the president of the board of education of any city and of the chairman of the school trustees of any district, within their respective jurisdiction, to inquire into all cases of neglect of duty prescribed in this act. VARIOUS OBSERVATIONS AND OPINIONS. Unnecessary to argue, about the power of the State. — State Superintendent A. S. Draper, of New York: It is worse than futile to assume that all persons charged with the care of children will send them to school. The great majority will. But unfortunately some parents are idlers, drunkards, or criminal themselves. In every large community there are many children without parental care of any kind. There are also children who are uncontrollable who might be saved to society by a strong hand and firm dis¬ cipline, but who in the absence of these will become outcasts and criminals. It seems unnecessary to argue that the State has the power to provide for these exceptional cases, and that there is great propriety in its doing so. The rights of the helpless child to reasonable care and the elements of an education on the one hand and the interests of society on the other are both in jeopardy and can be protected and promoted only by public action. Moreover, a government which provides a free public-school system for its own safety is necessarily bound to see to it that all children who are not otherwise provided for are brought within the influences of that system if it would make sure of results which will justify its precedence. Summary punishment for the parent. — -Supt. W. II. Maxwell, of Brooklyn, N. Y. : There is a large and, I regret to say, a constantly increasing class of parents, either too negli¬ gent or too depraved to give their children an education. These people we are now powerless to reach. A law which does not provide summary punishment for the parents who neglect this duty, all-important both to the State and to the individual, is un¬ worthy of this age and country. The compulsory term should be extended; the continuation schools (Fortbildungsschulen) of Germany. — Richard T. Ely, in the Century Magazine: Compulsory education laws should everywhere be passed and enforced as in other civilized countries. Education is a right of a child, the right to existence carrying with it the right to an opportunity for an un¬ folding of its powers, and if parents fail to do their duty it only remains for the State to step in and protect the child. This is a more sacred duty even than the protection of property, for property is but a means to an end; namely, the welfare of man. It is not an interference with the rights of the parent, but a protection of the rights of the child. Compulsory education should continue in ordinary schools until the age of four- COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE, 527 teen, and be followed by continuation evening classes for three years, as in parts of Switzerland and Germany, where they have almost annihilated pauperism. Instruc¬ tive are these remarks quoted from Mr. Samuel Smith, M. P., who has made a study of common schools on the continent of Europe. The quotations are taken from an article which appeared in the London Times. Speaking of German 37-, he says: “ There is no such thing as an uneducated class; there are no such things, speaking broadly, as neglected and uncared-for children. * * * The great defect of our sys¬ tem (that is, the English system) * * * is that it stops just at the time when real education begins. It allows a child to leave school at an age when its learning is soon forgotten and its discipline effaced. It is hardly too much to say that the two years’ additional training the German child receives in the elementary school doubles its chances in life as compared with the English child. * * * The Germans are rapidly developing a system of evening continuation classes which carry on education for two or three years longer. In Saxony the boys who leave the primary school, if they do not go to the higher schools, must attend for three years longer — say until they are seventeen — continuation classes for at least five hours per week, but teaching is provided for them and they are encouraged to attend twelve hours per week. So complete is this system that even the waiters at the hotels up to the age of seventeen attend afternoon classes, and are taught one or two foreign languages. * ->5^ I must state as an undoubted fact that in Germany and Switzerland, and I believe in some other continental coun¬ tries, the opinion is ripening into a conviction that the education, even of the poorest classes, should be continued in some form or other to the age of sixteen or seventeen. They find that wherever this is adopted it gives an enormous advantage to the people in the competition of life, and, above all, trains them to habits of industry and mental application. I believe that it is owing to this system of thorough education that Ger¬ many has almost extinguished the pauper and semipauper cla.ss, which is the bane and disgrace of our country. * * * Indeed, I have not seen since I left home a single case of a ragged or begging child, * * * No country has ever suffered more from the abuse of individual liberty than England has done. Owing to this overstrained idea, we did not get compulsory education until long after the advanced nations of the Conti¬ nent. * * Wherever the Germans and English are coming into competition upon equal terras the Germans are beating us. * * * We, up to lately, resented all state interference, and so exaggerated the doctrines of freedom as almost to glory in our abuses.” Private effort never has and never can carry forward universal education. Private gifts for educational purposes in the United States may amount to six or seven millions of dollars — a large part of it, as the president of Cornell has shown, misapplied and wasted — whereas the very inadequate expenditure of New York State alone is some six¬ teen millions a year. It is safe to say that we should spend three times what, we do on our schools. Means for this can be secured by husbanding our resources, cutting off needless expenditures, and improving our system of taxation. Compulsory education not the remedy in 3Iissouri. — State Superintendent W. E. Cole¬ man: Compulsory education is another question that is receiving considerable attention and eliciting much discussion. It is the opposite extreme to the laxity, carelessness, and indifference so prevalent in too many communities relative to regularity of attend¬ ance of the children in the public schools of said communities. But the question nat¬ urally arises, is a compulsory law the proper remedy ? In my humble judgment, it is not. There are now sixteen States that have legislated upon this subject, but in not one of them is the law enforced. Why is there room or occasion for such a demand? Where does the complaint of nonattendance come from? Is the cause found in dis¬ tricts that have good schools, that employ experienced teachers and pay fair wages? Or is it found in districts in which just the reverse is the case ? My experience has been that in the districts characterized by liberality tovrard their schools, nonattendance is reduced to the minimum, and in such communities there is no demand for a compul¬ sory law. The demand for such a law comes from those districts in which the schools are of the least value, the teachers employed are unworthy the position they occupy, the school term just as short and the taxes as low as the law will permit. Compulsory education is not the remedy in Missouri; what we most need to make our schools effi¬ cient are more active and energetic school officers, better qualified teachers, longer school terms, better salaries and good, wholesome, efficient county supervision. * * * Advocates of this compulsory theory rush to hasty conclusions in making up their verdict, and thereby endeavor to sustain their ground by the flimsiest argument imag¬ inable; in fact, by figures that are perfectly absurd. For instance, they say, “Look here, take the enumeration and enrollment and compare them, and behold the mighty army of children that are growing up in absolute ignorance in the State,” Consider this argument a minute and see the fallacy. The enumeration for the State last May was 865,364, while the actual enrollment re- 528 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. ported to this office for last year, many districts making no report; was 611,541; from these figures the advocates of compulsory laws claim that “there are 253,823 children in Missouri who are actually growing up in ignorance as dense as that in the jungles of Africa.” If this be true, the situation is actually deplorable. But is it true? No, notone word of truth in the statement. Let these parties answer the following questions ; Of those enumerated last May, over six and twenty years of age, how many of this 253,823 belong to each of the following classes ; 1. Married? 2. Teaching in this State? 3. Graduates of reputable schools? 4. Attending private, State, and denominational schools ? 5. Have completed the common-school course and are now out at work in the various vocations of life ? 6. Over six, but their parents consider them too young to go to school? 7. Have a fair knowledge of the common school branches? 8. Idiots, lunatics, imbeciles, feeble, blind, deaf, and demented? 9. A part of the children of lamilies attend school one year and the others the next? 10. The number of others that any compulsory law would necessarily exempt from attendance? Please fill out these items and subtract the result from 253,823, and see how many are actually growing up in ignorance. They will find they have a problem they can not solve; and furthermore, if they are honest, they will never again undertake to prove the necessity for compulsory education by such consummate sophistry. COMPULSORY EDUCATION IN PRUSSIA. A HISTOEICAL EEVIEW.i [From Das gesammte Volksschulwesen im preussischen Staate (1886) and Das Volksschulwesen in Preussen.] Two hundred years had passed since Luther, in his famous open letter to the magis¬ trates of cities, urged the establishment of day schools, and appealed to the duty of Christians, in behalf of the training of the young, to make the establishment and support of schools a governmental affair. One hundred years had passed since, for the first time, it was convincingly demonstrated in scientific form that every human being receives from his Creator not only the capability of being educated, but also the right to be ed¬ ucated and trained; that though man is created in the image of God, the child possesses only the possibility of that image, and that in order to fulfill its destiny it must be ed¬ ucated and instructed, hence also the paramount duty of the community or state to provide for general education of the youth; and in the year 1713 King Frederick Will¬ iam I of Prussia took a very decisive step by ordering, on the 24th of October, 1713, the drawing-up of instructions, mandatory in nature, which proved to be the embryo of German compulsory-attendance laws. On the 28th of September, 1717, the king issued the first law concerning compulsory attendance, which reads as follows: “We, by the grace of God, Frederick William, King in Prussia, margrave of Bran¬ denburg, archchamberlain, and grand elector of the Holy Roman Empire, have noticed with displeasure a thing about which inspectors and preachers raise complaint, namely that parents, especially in the country, prove negligent in sending their children to school, in consequence of which negligence the poor youth are kept in gross ignorance as concerns reading, writing, and ciphering, as well as that which concerns the weal and salvation of their souls. Hence, to counteract this destructive evil at once, we have resolved with grace to issue this our general edict, and to order earnestly that hereafter wherever there are schools in the place the parents shall be obliged, under severe pen¬ alty, to send their children to school. The tuition fee is fixed at two threepence (zwei Dreier) per week for every child. School is to be attended daily in winter, but in sum¬ mer at least twice a week, when the parents need their children at home and on the farm, so that what has been learned in winter shall not be forgotten in summer. In cases where parents have not the means to pay this much, the fee is to be paid from the com¬ munity’s funds. We also earnestly command preachers, especially in the country, to hold ‘ catechizations ’ with their congregations on Sunday afternoons. By L. R. Klemm, specialist of the Bureau in foreign school systems. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAWS. 529 •■‘This is to be followed and obeyed because given by our will and command. It is to be published in the customary places, and the school officers are called upon to watch its execution and report the names of delinquents, so that they may be punished, which will be done with our cognizance. “Given at Berlin, on the 28th day of September, 1717. “Upon His Royal Majesty’s Most Gracious Special Command. “Von Dohnhoff, Hgen, Von Blaspiel, Von Plotho.” This cabinet order received several modifications which defined it better in a subse¬ quent order, dated September 29, 1739. This order (at that time a law, because Prussia was an absolute monarchy) was the beginning of a series of laws for compulsory school attendance, but its main features remained the stock upon which all subsequent changes were grafted. The various provisions and subsequent orders, among which that of July 30, 1736, was the most remarkable, were all special orders referring to separate prov¬ inces. The last one mentioned is known in the history of the Prussian schools by its title, Prhicipia Regulativa. It was the first attempt at regulating the school system of a province and lifted it above local whims and interference. In 1763 (August 12) the General Country School Eeyulations were issued by Frederick the Great, who was farsighted enough to see that ignorance is the greatest crime of omission in any state. Frederick’s efforts in behalf of public education were less suc¬ cessful than they deserved to have been, because he had not a sufficient number of well- trained teachers. Although he tried to supply the demand by placing military petty officers who were mustered out after the Seven Years’ War in the schools as teachers, his whole school system remained incomplete. The regulations he issued provided for compulsory education throughout the King¬ dom, rrniting the best features ot the various provincial orders then in existence. They specify the length of school-going age, to wit, between five and thirteen; state the amount of tuition fees to be paid, namely, in winter six pence weekly for every child until it can read, nine pence after it can read and until it has acquired the art of writ¬ ing, but twelve pence (1 groschen) as soon as it can cipher. In summer, two-thirds of the winter fees (namely, four, six, or eight pence, respectively) are to be paid. If at any place a higher tuition fee has been agreed upon between teacher and parents, these reg¬ ulations shall not interfere with the arrangement. The regulations further provide for indigent pupils and throw the burden of the cost of their education upon the church or the village poor fund. But the King explicitly states that in the eyes of the teacher all children shall be equal, in so far as he must ex¬ pect to be paid by all, or for all, in order that he may treat them alike with diligence and faithfulness. The regulations also make minute provisions for punishing willful and intentional absence from school, for controlling the registers of population, and other items concerning the internal affairs of the school. King Frederick in these regulations erected a monument for himself, for they were of abiding historical significance, being the first school law which dealt with every phase of popular education — course of study, supervision, teachers, statistics, finances, man¬ agement, organization, etc. They created no little stir in other European countries, where attempts were made to imitate his example, notably in Italy. Many of these regulations are, in modified form, still in force in Prussia, though a number of provincial special orders have been issued. In 1794 the Allgemeine Land-Eecht (the General Code) was adopted, which contained two paragraphs (including scarcely more than forty items) devoted to school affairs. We quote four items: “Art. 29. Where there are no irreducible funds for the maintenance of common schools, the expenses for the support of the teachers are to be defrayed by the inhabit¬ ants of the place (town), regardless of whether they have children or not. “Art. 34. Also the erection and keeping of buildings for school purposes and teachers’ dwellings is regarded a duty of the civil communities, therefore the expenses must be borne by all the inhabitants alike. “Art. 43. Every inhabitant {Eimoohner) who can not provide his children with the necessary instruction at home is obliged to send them to school after they have com¬ pleted the fifth year of life. “Art. 46. The instruction in school must be continued until the child is found to possess the knowledge necessary to every rational being. The clergyman of the dis¬ trict determines this.” The years immediately following the issuance of the Land-Eecht were not favor¬ able to the development of the lower schools. The period of nonaction during which Minister of State Woellner tried to check the school system in its growth by his reaction¬ ary regulations of December 16, 1794, was only transitory and of short duration. King Frederick William III, from the first moment of his reign, directed his attention to the promotion of the people’s best interest, and concluded that in improving the schools he aided the people and strengthened his Government. ED 89 - 34 530 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. Then came the terrible time of degradation of Prussia by Napoleon the First. The Prussian state owes its rejuvenation to the wise counsel of such men as Ministers Stein and Hardenberg, Professor Fichte, and such military menasGneisenauandScharnhorst, and to them, primarily, may be attributed the vigorous execution of the compulsory- attendance laws in force in the various parts of the Kingdom. The entire state was reorganized, as is seen from this: On June 1, July 27, 1808, and on September 14, 1811, laws were issued which freed the peasants of the last obligations that had arisen from ancient feudal laws. A law, issued November 19, 1808, gave self-government to the cities; another, issued June 26, 1811, created school boards in cities (committees of the city councils), and defined their functions; still another, issued October 28, 1812, established supervisory authorities in the country for elementary schools. Shortly after the Napoleonic wars, the secondary schools were reorganized and granted privileges. A law of October 23, 1817, transferred the functions of the former school consistory, consisting of clergymen, to the provincial school councils, which were spe¬ cially created and considered the representatives of the royal Government in school mat¬ ters. Finally, on November 3, 1817, a department of education was created under the title of “ Department of Worship, Public Instruction, and Medical Affairs.” Thus in a few years the governmental machinery of Frederick the Great, that had become anti¬ quated, was swept away, and a new structure put up which was more in harmony with the times and the spirit of the age of the French Revolution. The schools had through timely legislation become a state institution, the first of its kind in modern history. The schools, though poorly equipped at first, and often hampered by want of funds, did more toward rejuvenating the state than any other agency, save, perhaps, the army. From 1817, the entire school system of Prussia has been under the supervision and management of the Minister of Education (as his lengthy title is abbreviated). The difficulties in the way of making the system homogeneous were greater than is commonly known. Most of the component parts of the Prussian state were acquired by the crown at different times, and all had separate rights secured by inviolable treaties. In some parts of the Kingdom the “Code Napoleon ” was in force; some had provincial codes; some parts, notably those that were added by the Congress of Vienna, had no school systems. The cabinet order of May 14, 1825, attempted to regulate some of the existing inequalities by ordering that the rules laid down in the Land-RtcM for school attendance be extended over all newly acquired territory. This was felt to be a harsh measure, notably in Rhenish Prussia, where the Code Napoleon was in force. But how necessary that measure was is seen from a single fact, to wit : In the year 1824 the governmental districtofAix-la-Chapelle had 66, 611 children of school age (5-14 years); of these were enrolled in school 34,140; hence 32,471 children were kept out of school, and many of them were employed in workshops and factories. In 1826 the minister had a census taken of school children thus employed, and in some governmental dis¬ tricts, such as Dusseldort, Elberfeld, Crefeld, and Cologne, from 2,000 to 3,000 children were found employed in factories. Slowly the work progressed, and the children were drawn into school without mak¬ ing the compulsory-attendance law onerous. State and communities, as well as private benevolence, united in enabling indigent parents to dispense with the services of their children, so that they might be sent to school. When in the year 1849, in consequence of the violent agitation of the popularly styled “Revolution of 1848,” the various Kings and Princes of Germany granted constitutions to the people, making the states constitutional monarchies, the idea of compulsoiy attendance in school had been so uni¬ versally accepted that it tound expression in the constitutions. The Prussian constitution, signed and sworn to by King Frederick William IV, Jan¬ uary 31, 1850, contained these articles: “Art. 20. Science and the teaching of science are free. “Art. 21. For the education of the young public schools shall be established and main¬ tained. Parents and guardians must not leave their children or wards without that in¬ struction which is prescribed for the public school. “Art. 22. To give instruction and to establish schools is allowed toevery one whocan prove to the state authorities moral, scientific, and technical capacity. “Art. 23. All public and private educational institutions are under the supervision of the state authorities. Teachers of public schools have the rights and duties of officers of the state. “Art. 25. The means for establishing, maintaining, and extending the public-school system are furnished by the communities, and only in cases of inability the state fur¬ nishes the means.” [Note: The state in 1887 bore 18 per cent, of the cost of maintain¬ ing the public elementary schools, and about 34 per cent, of thatof the secondary schools. ] “Rights acquired by private grants in behalf of education shall be inviolate. The state guaranties public-school teachers a fixed income. Instruction in the public schools is COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAWS. 531 free of charge.” [This remained a good intention until October 1, 1888, when a law was passed enabling all commanities, who so desired, to abolish tuition fees.] “Art. 26. A special school law regulates all educational efforts in the state. “Art. 112. * * * and till the law mentioned in article 26 is passed, the former legal status, so far as it does not conflict with the constitution, shall remain in force.” [Note: It is significant that at present, forty years after the adoption of the constitution, this general school law has not been passed yet. Laws which partially cover the ground have been adopted, but substantially the public schools are still governed by the “Min¬ ister of Educational, Ecclesiastical, and Medical Affairs.”] Since 1850 all the other states of Germany have adopted compulsory attendance at school, and entered into treaties with Prussia, so that children living near the bound¬ aries may attend the nearest school. In the summer of 1890 the Prussian Diet passed a new compulsory-attendance law which is intended to do away with the many differ¬ ent provincial regulations in force. It reads as follows: “1. Every child within the Kingdom of Prussia must follow the course of instruction laid down for the elementary (so-called public or people’s) schools. “2. Compulsory attendance begins with the term of admission following the com¬ pleted sixth year of life. Children who complete their sixth year within three months after this term may be admitted upon application of parents or guardians, provided they have the necessary bodily and mental maturity. “3. Compulsory attendance ends with the close of the school term following the completed fourteenth year of life. Dismissal from the duty of attending school must take place twice a year. “4. The commencement of compulsory attendance may, for local causes, be postponed for a year by the supervising authority, and even for a longer period of time in individ¬ ual cases, such as insuflicieut physical or mental development. “5. Attendance upon religious instruction can only be enforced with regard to those children whose parents belong to the religion the dogmas of which are taught during school hours. “6. Children who are taught at any other public or private school, and the teaching at which is considered by the authorities to be equivalent to that at the elementary schools, are exempted from attendance at elementary schools. When this is not the case the Inspectors have the right to enforce the attendance at the public schools. “7. Children slaying away from school for no valid reason maybe forced to attend by the proper authorities. “8. The parents or guardians or employers must take care that the children attend school regularly. “9. The school inspectors must inspect the rolls of attendance, and give notice to the police of the district in cases of unjustified absence from school. “10. For absence from school without valid reasons, the persons mentioned in clause 8 shall be fined for each day of nonattendance from 10 pennies to 1 mark (2i cents to 25 cents), or, where the fine is not immediately paid, with imprisonment of from three hours to one day. Instead of imprisonment, the persons convicted may work for the same number of hours for the benefit of the community, each according to his aptitudes. “11. Employers allowing children to work during school hours, whether at the re¬ quest of their foreman or their workmen, shall be fined from 1 to 150 marks (25 cents to $37.50), or be imprisoned for, at most, fifteen days, unless the case falls within the terras of the factory law, and a severe punishment be inflicted. “12. The punishment shall be enforced in accordance with the law of April, 1883, on the infraction of police decree. The judge may inflict punishment on several per¬ sons at the same time, and notice of it may be given by a public functionary by word of mouth. Imprisonment for nonpayment of the fine may be resorted to before applica¬ tion for payment has been made, if the insolvency of the accused has been proved at law. All fines paid for violating the compulsory-school attendance regulations are to be turned into the school funds, minus the cost of judicial process. “ 13. This law is to go into effect on the 1st day of October, 1890. The Minister of Worship, Education and Medical Affairs, the Minister of the Interior, and the Minister of Justice shall take the necessary steps towards its execution.” CHAPTER XIX. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS, The following synopsis of State laws relating to text-books has in most cases been ‘ brouglit down to May, 1891. Only the most general features of the different laws have been considered, the provisions relating to free text-books for indigent children and those forbidding the use of sectarian text-books, which are common to nearly all the States and do not call for special mention, being omitted; the same has been the case ^ with special provisions relating to cities. Considerable use has been made of the valuable material upon this subject gathered ! by Hon. Oscar H. Cooper, State superintendent of Texas, and published in the Seventh Biennial Texas School Report (1888-90), pp. xxvii-xliv. i There has been of late a widespread agitation in favor of cheaper text-books. The number of bills introduced in the legistures of the various States to effect this object has been unprecedented — in one case at least four. These bills have generally been '• drawn up with a view to give the State control of contracts and prices, sometimes of selection or publication, systems much favored by legislators, though strongly opposed by most school officials and the educational press. Such bills as have become laws are noticed in this chapter. j 533 Tabular exhibit of certain features of State text-book laws and views of State superh STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 533 System preferred by State superin¬ tendent. The present system the only solution of the whole problem. (N. A. Luce.) The present system the best. (J. W. Patterson.) Free books. (E. F. I’almer.) The present system the true one. (J. W. Dickinson.) The Massachusetts plan. (T. B.Stock- well.) Free books found satisfactory and growing in favor. (J. T. Steward.) District or county selection and free books. (A. N. Paub.) Free books. (M. A. Newell.) Free books. (W. B. Powell.) Local control. (J. I^. Massey.) The present system. (B. S. Morgan.) The presentsystera, and againstfree books. (S. M. Finger.) Present arrangement w'orks well. (J. H. Kice.) The present system for selecting. (J. S. Hook.) Provisions of the State law re¬ garding free text-books to all Itublic school pupils. i All towns required to furnish free books (1889). Towns and districts authorized to furnish free books. All tow’us required to furnish free books (1881). (A few towns furnish free books). Towns authorized to furnish free books. (Several cities have adopted free books). (Some cities and districts fur¬ nish free books). District boards authorized to furnish free books. All districts required to fur¬ nish free books (1891). County boards authorized to lurnish free books. Free books are furnished the six lower grades. Whom does the State law re¬ quire to contract with pub¬ lishers or dealers? M Towm boards . County boards . State superintendent . Upon whom is devolved by State law the selection of text-books.* (“Hoard,” without qualification, de¬ notes the school board, whatever may be its official designation.) Town boards . . . . do . . . County boards . Town, boards . Town boards. (State board may di¬ rect but never has.) District meetings (by a three-fourths vote) and city boards. District boards, in connection with the county superintendent. Town boards, in consultation with teachers. State boards . County boards . District board . . . State board (according to construc¬ tion by present superintendent of the State law). Books prescribed by State law . State board . County boards, from State book list.. County boards . State. NORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION, Maine . New Hampshire . Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut . New York . New Jersey . Pennsylvania . . SOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION. Delaware . . . Maryland . District of Columbia . Virginia . West Virginia . North Carolina . South Carolina . Georgia . . . . Florida . *Thi8 determines in general tlie extent to which uniformity is carried. In many States cities are exempt from the requirements of the general law. It should be borne in mind that “districts” are often (as in Michigan, Iowa, etc.) coincident with townships and sometimes embrace a still larger extent of territory. Tabular exhibit of certain features of State text-booJc laws and views of State superintendents — Continued. 534 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. p:2 d X « O 03 ®'G ■S'® a CC-i 3 « 51 O' 5-7! — M p C bJO X o C O .2 ? On O > a ^ OTS o X -- cc:-^ '7 ^'O g o 03 V 03 O .2,30 0.2 §'0- §<2 (UG! >>a3V- o c o a* 'S o gi’5 .2 03 2-2 = rn O .2 "C 7 COG 3! o s <1 <) Vi O X 0 Ir!-® 03 jO ^ 3 ^ a S5 1'^ X “1.2 03 V d Gi — 03 to^ O o o o O ® Goi il^ =1 O S‘-o C 03 §s 0X1 a tr> o 'C'3 o 2 "O o3 42 X 03^3! 'is .2 J2 Q O u >.2 V >> O (33 2 a o d O 03 Vi I 0 o a i O . di c:^:' tifl . 57’7 cHx s a 0 ^ a 0 u^- 03 0) GJ gS a3'3 a o G — G 03 V O’ S a n "2 .a^f x-5 i ii >>’0 03 JI C3 .o V a (S a.n 5 ® <0 a g ® X o « 2 >>07' S' a.o a p: 3 43 'v 3 d g a.2 8 o O P ^ SS ^ a 03 ^ oS o C cc ^ o X ^ O m S 'C XI d ^ O'® ,0 73 03 .2 G ■ V 5 .2 a p X M ^ d 03-® O d CCp 2-^ .2,§' X a 2 O 03 Sph o o5 23 3'® .2 55a ^ i 5 o .n O P-^ 52 a.® 032 QQ^ STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 535 'CctJ .o a> 5j: <0 E3 3 -. O la ^'S p M O s o a _ o a o 0) o 'C >. S a 3§ ■g « a O ^£•1 o a t; a a d 0 a cc i;i O :•" > :c3 . 03 lis ~ a ® CST3-5 a|5 •SI’S 'S--TS 'H '^ = a a i§£oi o rj 03 a «3 ® 03 03 a^ bS 380^ ca CCCfi M ® a S a = -p 3 cS ^ o a C 2 03 , 12 J3 a ® u Ala. Sch. Rep., 1889-90, pp. 17-19. * Ark. Sch. Law, 1889, sec. 6167. 6 7th Bi. Tex. Sch, Rep., p. XXVII. ^Ibid., sec. 6216. * Ibid., sec. 6240. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 537 CAI.IFORNIA. Constitutional provitsion. — An amendment to the State constitution, adopted November 4, 1884, made it the duty of the State board of education to compile or cause to be com¬ piled a uniform series of text-books, to be used in all the schools of the State; and au¬ thorized the board to have them printed by the State printer and sold to pupils at cost, the books to continue in use not less than four years. ^ Legislation.— The acts of February 26, 1885, and March 15, 1887, provided for the compilation of thirteen text-books, by “well qualified persons,” under the direction of the State board and the .printing of them by the State printer. The board was directed to copyright them. When any book of the State series was compiled and adopted an order was to be issued requiring its use in all the schools, such order not to take effect until the expiration of one year from time of completion of the electrotype plates. According to the amendment of 1887, books may be ordered from the State superin¬ tendent by county superintendents, clerks of district school boards, and principals of State normal schools, all orders being accompanied with cash for the cost price at Sac¬ ramento and expense of transportation. Retail dealers are also permitted to order books upon making an affidavit not to sell them at a price exceeding that fixed by the State board, etc. County school boards were directed to provide a revolving fund. Appropriations from the State treasury were made for compiling the books, for the purchase of machin¬ ery and other material needed in their manufacture, and for paying the wages of com¬ positors, binders, etc.'^ AeswZte.— State Superintendent Ira G. Hoitt, gives the following account of the results of the operation of the law up to July, 1890.® State text-books. It is DOW six years since our constitution was amended, making it the duty of the State board of education to compile a series of text-books for use in the schools of the State. The experiment was unique, and hasjbeen attempted by no other State. The books were to continue in use not less than four years. This time will shortly have expired as regards the readers, which were ready for distribution in December, 1886, and the continuance of the scheme will be determined by the future actions of the legislature and of the various county boards in reference to a change. If school officers and the legislature shall decide to discontinue the use of the State books the experiment will have proved a costly one. The members of the State board of education, who have had in charge the compila¬ tion of this series, have done their very best, under the provisions of the law, to make successful books. It is not to be denied that, in our isolation from the great literary and trade centers, this has sometimes been a task shadowed with many obstacles. The changes in the board that have occurred from time to time, the widely scattered residences, and the heavy duties already devolved upon each member of the board and upon those employed to compile the books, have all been obstacles inthewayof aspeedier completion of the work. As was to be expected, the opposition from various sources has been strong and un¬ ceasing. But whether the system is continued or changed it does not alter the fact that the people should be protected in some legislative way from the extortion of book rings. In just what form Ihis protection can best be given is difficult to determine. To my mind the free text-book syteru offers a full solution of the problem. * * * California has appropriated |;ii5,000 for the manufacturing plant and for the first 50,000 copies of each book, and also $35,000 for purposes of compilation. Since 1885, $255,054.42 have been expended for labor alone, and $25,644.20 for pur¬ poses of compilation, and $234,886.48 have been received from sales for the same length of time, ending June 30, 1890. A certain proportion of the receipts is expected to pay for the plant in twelve years, but the total receipts form a revolving fund used by the State printer for manufacture of all editions after the first fifty thousand. The advantages of State publication are that it has relieved county boards of educa¬ tion from the solicitation of book agents; that it has reduced the prices of the books from former rates, and that the money spent therefor has been retained in our own State. 1 Cal. Sch. Law, 1888, p. 98. * Ibid,, pp. 55-61. s Qal. Sch. Rep. , 1890, pp. 37-42. 538 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-89. The disadvantages claimed are: First, that it costs the State more to manufacture the books than it would cost a private publishing house. This is true, because the State pays its employes a higher rate of wages and requires only eight hours of daily service; second, the lack of all competition in the authorship; third, the intrusting of the work of supervision to a board whose members are already burdened with duties and which is subject to frequent changes. For instance, five changes have taken place in the mem¬ bership of the State board of education in the last three and a half years; only one mem¬ ber of the board inaugurating the work now remains. * * * How prices are fixed. The following rules, which were at first adopted by the board for determining the cost of a book at Sacramento, have been continued in use: 1. Divide the cost of preparing the plates of a given book, including composition, engraving and electrotyping, by estimated supply of that book for twelve years. 2. Divide the share of the cost of the plant chargeable to a given book by the estimated supply for twelve years. 3. Divide three-fifths of the cost of compilation by the estimated supply for four years. 4. Divide the cost of the presswork, paper, and binding of a given edition by the number of that edition printed. 5. Take the sum of the preceding quotients and add one cent per copy for revision of text and one cent per copy for revision of plates. To illustrate the application of these rules, the items in the cost of the Third Eeader, a book of 512 pages, are here given: Plates . 53,502.44, as reported by superintendent of printing. 20 per cent, of plant . 7, 300. 00, as reported by superintendent of printing. Total . 10,802. 44-1-300,000 (estimated supply for twelve years) . $0,033 Compilation . •... 1,531.00 Three-fifths . 908. 00-^100, 000 (estimated supply for four years) . 01 Edition, cost . 9, 614, 60-j- 20, 000 (number of edition) . 48 Add for revision of text . . . . . 01 Add for revision of plates . . 01 Cost of book . . . 543 Assuming postage to be the cost of distribution, the retail price becomes 66 cents. It will be seen that the course pursued insures a full return to the trea.sury of the State of all money appropriated therefrom and expended, and provides for such revision from time to time as may be necessary. Comparison of present and former prices. The following statement of present and former prices is given without comment. The prices are in all cases retail prices: I. State Readers, complete in three books (948 pages) . . $1,25 State Speller and Word Analysis (192 pages) . 30 State Arithmetics, two books (437 pages) . 75 State Grammars, two books (450 pages) . . t. . . . . 80 History United States (432 pages) . . . 80 Elementary Geography (132 pages quarto) . ( . 60 Corresponding books formerly used : McGuffey’s Readers, five-book series, cheapest in former use (1,088 pages) . $2.50 Reed’s Spellers (18-< pages) . . 30 Fish’s Arithmetic, two books, cheapest in former use (498 pages) . 1.05 Reed & Kellogg’s Grammars, two books, cheapest in former use . 1.25 Histories of United States, uniform in price (320 to 400 pages) . . . 1.25 Elementary Geographies, uniform in price (82 to 120 pages) . 75 7.10 Provision for completing the series, and for revision. In fixing the prices of the books issued, as has been seen, the board has provided for a self-sustaining series, and for relieving the general fund from further drafts for com¬ pilation and revision. 01 the $35,000 appropriated to the use of the board, there re¬ mained on hand July 1, 1890, $9,335.80. In addition to this sum, all that is needed to enable the board to complete successfully the work of further compilation and revision STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS.* 539 is the use, from the proceeds of sales, of the one cent per copy which has been added to the price of each book for that purpose. Process of distribution. The act of 1887, providing for the distribution of books through private dealers, has proved effective, and in most respects satisfactory. The only friction arising has been in consequence of the prohibition to sell books to be sold again. This prohibition was imposed to prevent books getting into the hands of dealers not bound to sell at the price fixed by the board. In my judgment the prohi¬ bition should be removed if at the same time the selling of books by any one above the retail price fixed by the board is made a misdemeanor and punishable as such upon conviction. Public satisfaction. For four years the scheme has had a fair and impartial trial. Every aid to its suc¬ cessful issue which this office could suggest or render has been given. Ten books in all have been published during this time, and three more yet remain to be issued, two of which are nearly completed. So far as my observation goes, the favor with which the series has been received has been very much the same as that accorded to the books of private publishers. Many of the teachers throughout the State look upon the series with very general favor, while others have been less pronounced in their commendation and some have expressed severe and adverse criticisms. In the expressions of prefer¬ ence and criticism there is not much uniformity, some teachers preferring one book of the series and some another. Nearly all agree that the readers are poorly graded, that they should be revised, and at least one if not two more books should be added to the series. My conversations with teachers and superintendents in various parts of the State lead me to the conclusion that with a few exceptions the books of the State series are giving as fair general satisfaction as the books previously in use. The mechanical work, at first bitterly complained of, is now generally conceded to be good. The character of this work may easily make a difference of 25 to 50 per cent, in the working life of such books. The State publication of text-books in California has undoubtedly been one factor in causing the publishers of school books generally to reduce their prices, and there is not now so great a difference between the prices of our State series and those of private pub¬ lishers; it would even be possible for the State to purchase school books now at whole¬ sale for less prices than it costs to manufacture them at the State office, as may be seen by the following lists oi])resent prices at which books are now sold: Swinton’s First Reader . . . SO. 18 Swinton’s Second Reader . 35 Swinton’s Third Reader . 50 Swinton’s Fourth Reader . 65 Swinton’s Word Book . 18 Milne’s First Lesson Arithmetic . 22 Milne’s Practical Arithmetic . 50 Maxwell’s Primary Lessons In Language . 30 Maxwell’s Introductory English Grammar . 40 Swinton’s United States History . 90 Harper’s Introductory Geography . 48 Total . 4.66 .17 .30 .42 .50 .17 .30 .60 .32 .72 .80 .60 4.90 These are retail prices, and were the State to purchase in large quantities a discount from these figures of 33 per cent, ccpuld probably be obtained. As such an arrangement would entail an amendment to the constitution, it is not likely to be done very soon. McGuffey’s Revised First Reader... McGulfey’s Revised Second Reader McGuflFey’s Revised Third Reader.... McGuffey’s Revised Fourth Reader McGuffey’s Revised Speller.. . Fish’s Arithmetic, No. 1 . Fish’s Arithtnetic, No. 2 . . Kerl’s Language Lessons . Kerl’s English Grammar . Ridpath’s United States History .. .. Monteith’s Elementary Geography Total . . 540 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. What the State printer says. The following is taken from a letter of Mr. J. D. Young, State printer, dated Novem¬ ber 25, 1890; “As to the contents of the books I do not pretend to judge critically, but with the mechanical work I have something to do, and I know that in printing and binding, quality of cloth, leather, and board, our books are equal to any issued, while the paper is superior to most; for instance, we have been paying for that we used three-tenths of a cent more per pound than the price for which we could get the article used by the Appletons. We pay our compositors twenty-seven dollars per week; bookbinders and pressmen, twenty-four dollars per week; employ no apprentices, work but eight hours per day, and yet sell the school books at a great reduction from the price previously charged by those engaged in the publishing business, and make a profit on each book which is held to pay, at the expiration of the twelve years the series is to run, the cost of plant, compilation, and manufacture of plates. “The books seem to gwe good satisfaction as a whole. Some people say that a cer¬ tain book is not equal in its compilation to others they have seen, and other people al¬ lege that the same book is excellent, but another one, pronounced superior by the first lot of critics, is not what it should be. It is probably the same with the books issued by private publishers.” The foregoing would seem to be competent testimony as to the mechanical quality of the California State school books. Later views of the Slate Superintendent — It will be seen by the following circular letter, dated December 26, 1890, that Superintendent Hoitt has finally reached the conclusion that State publication of text-books is unsuccessful: Dear Sir : In reply to your late inquiry concerning the publication of school text-books by the State of California, I have had so many inquiries from your own and other States, that I have con¬ cluded to make a general statement in regard to the principal results of our experiment in State publication of text-books. For over four years this plan has had a fair and impartial trial in our State. I came into oflBce a believer in the project, and every aid which I could give to its successful issue has been freely rendered throughout my administration. But now, in the light of my experience, I must acknowledge that the results have not met my expectations. In the first place, the expense has been great, over ^400,000 having been appropriated thus far for the compilation of the series and the manufacture of the first 50,000 copies of each book. Ten books have so far been issued and three more are yet to come to complete a full series as required by our law. Whatever may be the advantages claimed for State publication by believers in a paternal plan of government, the result of the experiment in our State shows that it costs the State more to manufacture the books than it would cost a private publishing house, for obvious reasons. Be¬ sides this there Is in a State series a lack of spontaneity and competition in authorship. When the State board employs an author or compiler it must accept and pay for his'work whether it is suitable or not. And the supervision and compilation of the series of schoolbooks by a State BoaiA whose membership is subject to frequent changes and who are already burdened with other duties, is attended with difficulties. While our State board has been zealous and done the best it could in making a State series, I regret that its efforts have not met the requirements of the schools or the expectations of our lead¬ ing educators, as shown by the following resolution adopted at the Biennial Convention of Cali¬ fornia school superintendents, held December 2 and 3, 1890: “ Resolved, That while certain of the State text.books, notably the ‘Primary Language Lessons’ and the ‘ Elementary Geography,’ have met the approval of the public school teachers of the State, we desire to record our severe criticism and disapproval of others of the State series, and express our judgment that their thorough revision by competent authors, so as to adapt them to the wants of the schools, is imperative, and should be entered upon at once.” In the light of our experience, aftey four years of trial, I am therefore compelled, with personal reluctance, to acknowledge to the comparative want of success in our California experiment in making and publishing schoolbooks. Taking into consideration the large appropriations made, and the further constant outlays for revisions, new plates, etc., the same number of books can be purchased in the open market at jkvholesale prices for less than it costs the State to manufacture them. I am therefore constrained to admit that I would not advise any other State to enter upon the publication of school books. Verv truly, yours, iRA G. Hoitt, Superintendent of Public Instruction. CODORABO. District school boards are authorized and required to “fix the kind of text-hooks to be used; provided, that but one kind of text- book of the same grade or branch of study shall be used in the same department of a school, and that alter the adoption of any book, it shall not be changed in less than four years, unless the price thereof shall be unwarrantably advanced, or the mechanical quality lowered, or the supply stopped.’” Also to “furnish free text-books for the use of all pupils, when authorized to do so by a majority vote of the district, as expressed at any regular or special meeting.”^ Colo. Sch. Law, 1889, sec. 51, second. ^ Ibid., ninth. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 541 Comments of State Superintendent L. S. CorweZ?.—“ The last legislature amended the school law so as to permit school districts to purchase and own the text-books for the use of all the children in the schools. Quite a number of districts in the State have already availed themselves of this provision, andare well pleased with the results. In my opinion free text-books owned by the district is the only solution of the text-book problem. The anxiety to have all the schools of the county or the State use the same books ceases when each district owns its own books.” CON^KECTICUT. The provisions of the Connecticut law relating to text-books are as follows: Authority of State hoard. — “The board [of education] may direct what books shall be used in all its schools, but shall not direct any book to be changed ofteaer than once in five years. ’ ’ ^ Physiology and hygiene. — “The State board of education shall prescribe the text-books to be used in teaching physiology and hygiene as required by law, and shall prepare or cause to be prepared a text-book, and if desirable, charts for such teaching, which text¬ books and charts shall be furnished to towns and school districts for the use of scholars in the public schools needing the same free of expense.” * Changes of text-hooks. — “No [town] board of school visitors or school committee shall change any text-book used in its public schools except by a two-thirds vote of all the members of the board or committee, notice of such intended change having been pre¬ viously given at a meeting of said board at least one week previous to such change.”^ Free text-hooks 'permitted. — “Any town at its annual town meeting may direct its school visitors or board of education or town committee to purchase, at the expense of said town, the text-books and other school supplies used in the public schools of said town, and said text-books and supplies shall be loaned to the pupils of said public schools free of charge, subject to such rules and regulations as the school visitors or the board of edu¬ cation or town committee may prescribe.” ^ The secretary of the State board, Hon. Charles D. Hine, replied to the inquiries of Superintendent Cooper as follows: “ I. The only system ever tried in this State is that of committing the selection of text-books to town boards. This has never been abandoned. “II. The system above named is now in operation. The State board of education, however, has by law the power to regulate the selection of text-books. It never has exercised this power. The present system doubtless meets with public approval, because efforts to overthrow it have never met with substantial encouragement. “ III. I can not tell you what system is best, because lam notacquaiuted with many. “IV. In 1886 the State prescribed a text-book in physiology, and not only prescribed the book but authorized the publication by the State board of education. A small text¬ book was prepared by the board and has been widely circulated in the State. The board, however, has never insisted that this book was exclusive, and has never interfered with instruction in other books. “V. If your inquiries relate to the question whether text-books should be furnished by town or State, I am not prepared to give you a full opinion upon this subject. In our State free text-books would be of advantage in some places and of no advantage in others. My belief, however, is that the expense of text- books to the people would be very much decreased, as it ought to be, by the purchase ot books by the local authorities and sup¬ plying them at cost to families. The objection, of course, is that it permits abuse; yet there is no good thing which can not be perverted to improper ends.” ® DELAWARE. The following statement regarding the Delaware system was prepared by President A. N. Kaub, of the State Board of Education, for State Superintendent Cooper, of Texas:^ “I. The State purchased the books and furnished to local dealers as depositaries, to whom they allowed 10 per cent, for handling. Result, some dealers failed, some were dishonest, and many of the books became shelf- worn; and add to all this expenses of freight, etc., and the loss to the State became a very serious one. The plan was aban¬ doned two years ago. “II. Pupils now purchase their books at the stores as they would purchase any other merchandise. This plan of course allows merchants to fix their own prices. Under the ■Colo. Sch. Rep., 1886-88, p. 20. * Conn. Sch. Law, Ed. 1888, sec. 5, ^Ihid., .sec. 9. ^ Ibid.^ sec. 65. ^Ibid.. sec. 48. 67th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., pp, XXVII-VIII. T Ibid., p. XXIX. 542 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. former plan the prices were fixed by contract with the publishers. Books are adopted every five years by the State Board of Education. “III. In my opinion the best plan is to allow local districts, or at most counties, to select their own series of books, and have the State authorize the purchase of these books by the local school boards, just as they would purchase any other supplies, and furnish the use of them free to the pupil. When I began teaching in 1857 in the county of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, I found this plan pursued in the township in which I taught. It is still continued in the same township, and there has never been a particle of ob¬ jection urged against it. “ Under this system the. right of individual pupils to purchase and keep their own books has always been conceded, but even these prefer to purchase of the school board, because the'advance on first cost is very slight. If each district purchases and holds its own books, giving free use of the same to its pupils, the question of either State or county uniformity is a matter of little consequence.” ^ DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. The board of school trustees determines the text-books to be used in the public schools. Supt. W. B. Powell adduces the following considerations in favor of free text-books: “According to the rules of the board, text-books are now loaned to the children whose parents request the same. This request, however, is to be accompanied by a declara¬ tion that he who makes it is unable to furnish the text-books for his children. Many worthy persons, unfortunately situated, naturally dislike to make such statement or declaration. For this reason there is no doubt that many children are detained from school for weeks or months at a time, and that others are wholly deprived of the privi¬ leges of school. “It were folly to say that this need not be so. The condition exists; the children are not in school. They should be. Their education is demanded by the interests of the community. “Again, many children are withdrawn from school before they would be if their parents were able to furnish the books required by their advancement and promotion. A large number of children, therefore, get only a modicum of education. The interests of the State demand a broader learning and a more thorough disciplining than these children get. “Again, there is much waste to the community at large in the purchase of text-books by individuals, as many of these books are used but for a short time, and being of little or no value as library books, are destroyed or thrown aside. “To prevent this unnecessary outlay and, what is infinitely more important to the State, to insure a desirable minimum education of every child, I believe the State should furnish the text- books as well as the instruction. * * * “ The American community is more interested to-day in having every child benefited by its schools than it is in having the character of its schools improved. Not how high shall we take our schools nor how broad shall we make our courses of instruction, but how may every child be reached and be made a safer and better member of the com¬ munity, is the problem to be solved. Any movement or instrumentality that reaches down and uplifts will give value to the school system and compensation to the tax¬ payer. ’ ’ 2 GEORGIA.' “The county board of education shall prescribe, from time to time, what text-books and books oi reference shall be used in the common schools of the county: Provided^ That the Bible shall not be excluded from the common or public schools of the State: And provided further^ That when such text- books are prescribed, they shall not be changed for five years thereafter, except by a three-fourths vote of all the board: And provided further, That the county boards shall not be permitted to introduce into the schools any text or miscellaneous book of a sectarian or sectional character. No teacher shall receive pay for any pupil who is allowed to use any other than the prescribed text-books.” ^ * Since the above was put in type, information has been received by the Bureau of the enact¬ ment of a law, to take effect the first Saturday of April, 1891. requiring the school boards of each school district to furnish text-books free to all pupils. The books are to be paid for out of the funds appropriated by the State. 2D. C. Sch. Rep., 1888-89, pp. 25-6. Congress, at its session of 1890-91, made an appropriation to supply the six lower grades of the public schools of the District of Columbia with free text-books. This action encountered considerable opposition. ^Ga. Sch. Law, 1889. sec. 23. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS, 543 State Supt. James S. Hook says of the law: “I believe that our system for selecting text-books to be used in the schools, and which has obtained for several years in this State, is the very best known to me. We have no law of the State prescribing uniform text-books throughout the whole State. Section 23 of our school law is all the provis¬ ion which the legislature of Georgia has thus far deemed it proper to make. It works well thus far, and is a special advantage to those counties where many of the patrons are poor, and frequent changes of text-books would be a great hardship upon them. The restrictions placed upon the board in that section are wise, judicious, and work well.^i IDAHO, County superintendents, with the concurrence of at least two county commissioners in each county, are required to adopt uniform text-books for the schools of the county, such books not to be changed for four years. They must invite proposals from publishers, accompanied by samples of all books offered, with a suitable guaranty as to maintain¬ ing quality and price. Superintendents and commissioners are authorized to make such terms and conditions with the publishers as they may deem best for the interest of the counties concerned.'^ The school boards of independent districts are authorized to select the text-books to be used. They are not to be changed in less than three years, unless the price is un¬ warrantably advanced, quality lowered, or supply stopped.'^ “A number of changes in text-books were maile in many counties early in 1890, nearly all of them being satisfactory, so that little fault can now be lound with the books in use and which can not be changed until 1894. This provision is a wise one.” — State Supt. Charles C. Stevenson. IDDmOIS District boards of directors determine the text-books to be used in their respective dis¬ tricts, and are required to enforce uniformit3\ Books are not to be changed ottener than once in four years.'’ Every child buys his own book whenever he can. This method, says State Superin¬ tendent Edwards, “has some merits, but also some defects. It is diliicult to say what method is the very best for supplying the pupils in our schools with books. The method by which each ocal board purchases the books for the school under its control and loans them to pupils has many advocates.”® INDIANTA The Indiana act of March, 1889, constituted the State board of education a board of commissioners for the purpose of selecting or procuring the compilation of a series ot text¬ books in spelling, reading, arithmetic, geography, English grammar, physiology, history of the United States, and a graded series of writing books. The text-books selected by this board are to be equal in every respect to certain specified text-books in general use. The board is directed to advertise in Indiana, and in the cities of New York, Phila¬ delphia, ( incinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis, for proposals: First, from publishersof school text-books for furnishing books for a term of five years, each book being bid for sepa¬ rately; second, from authors ol school text-books, who have manuscripts of books not published, for prices at which they will sell their manuscript and copyright; third, from persons who are willing to undertake the compilation of a book or series of books, giv¬ ing the price at which they are willing to undertake such compilation. Bids from pub¬ lishers must be accompanied byabond for $.50,000 to guaranty their fulfilling theircon- tract; and every bid must be accompanied by an. affidavit that the bidder is not, directly or indirectly, connected with any other publisher who is also bidding under the same advertisement, and is not a party to any compact, syndicate, or other scheme, whereby the benefits of competition are denied to the people of Indiana. The board is to make a full, complete, and thorough examination of all proposals, and ascertain which it would be for the advantage of the State to accept. But no book shall be accepted, or manuscript of a book, which shall be sold to patrons at a price exceed¬ ing the following, including cost of transportation and delivery to the several county superintendents: J7th Bi. Te.x. Sch. Rep., p. XXX. Snh. r,a\v.1.SS7 sftt?. fi.'Sl. plan Sch. Law, 1887, sec. 651, eleventh. ^Ibicl., sec. 735. “Ida. Sch. Rep., lSSS-89, p. 5. *1113. Sch. Law, 1889, Art. V., sec. 26. ® 7th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., p. XXXI. 544 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Minimum prices for Indiana iexi-hooks. Cents. Spelling book . 10 First reader . 10 Second reader . 15 Third reader . 25 Fourth reader . 30 Fifth reader . 40 Arithmetic (intermediate) . 35 Arithmetic (complete) . 45 Cents. Geography (elementary) . 30 Geography (complete) . 75 Grammar (elementary) . 25 Grammar (complete) . 40 Physiology . 35 History of the United States . 50 Copy books, each . 5 If, upon examination of the proposals, the board is of the opinion that such books can be furnished cheaper to patrons by causing to be published the rnanuscript of any or all of the books, they shall advertise for proposals for publishing the same. It shall be stipulated in the contract with any successful bidder that he shall pay the compen¬ sation due to the author or owner of the manuscript, as agreed upon by the board; also, that the State of Indiana shall not be liable for any books, but that the contractors shall receive their pay and compensation solely from the proceeds of the sale of books. As soon as any contract for furnishing text-books shall have been entered into, the governor is to issue his proclamation accordingly; school trustees shall then, within thirty days, certify to county superintendents the number of books needed for the pub¬ lic schools of their disricts; county superintendents make requisition upon the State su¬ perintendent, and the latter upon the contractor, for all books needed; the contractor must ship the books required direct to the county superintendents within ninety days. School trustees receive the books from the county superintendents, and furnish them on demand to school patrons or school children at the prices fixed upon in the contract, for cash only. Pupils of private schools, or any children between six and twenty-one years of age, or their parents, guardians, or teachers, have the right to purchase the books, at the same prices, of the county superintendents. The law also provides for the reports to be made by trustees and county superintend¬ ents, the bonds to be given by them, the mode of transmitting proceeds of sales of text¬ books, etc. Any trustee directly or indirectly demanding or receiving any money for any books in excess of the contract price shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be sub¬ ject to fine of not less than ten nor more than one hundred dollars, and imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding sixty days. IOWA. Law O/1890. — The following law relating to text- books is to take effect July 4, 1890: Section 1. The board of directors of each and every district township and independent district in the State of Iowa is hereby authorized and empowered to adopt text-books for the teaching of all branches that are now or may hereafter be authorized to be taught in the public schools of the State, and to contract for and buy said books and any and all other necessary school supplies at said contract prices, and to sell the same to the pupils of their respective districts al cost, and said money so received shall be returned to the contijigent fund ; that the booEs and supplies which are purchased under the pi’ovisions of this section shall be under the charge of the president of each board of dii-eciors ; that he shall care therefor and i-eceive all moneys for books sold, and he shall be responsible for all such booksand moneys, and heshall give a bond in the sum of five hun¬ dred dollars with sureties to be approved by the county board of supervisors to insure the faithful performance of such duties. Sec. 2. All the books and other supplies, purchased under the provisions of this act, shall be paid for out of the contingent fund, and the board of directors shall annually certify to the board of supervisors the additional amount necessary to levy for the contingent fund of said district to pay forsuch books and supplies. Butsuchadditional amount shall notexceed in any one j'ear the sum of one dollar for each pupil residing in the district township or independent school district, and the amount so levied shall be paid out on warrants drawn for the payment of books and supplies only, but the district shall contract no debt for that purpose. Sec. 3. In the purchasing of text-books it shall be the duty of the board of directors or the county board of education to t ike into consideration the books then in use in the respective districts, and they may buy such additional number of said books as may from time to time become necessary to supply their schools, and they may arrange on equitable terms for exchange of books.in use for new books adopted. Sec. 4. If at any time the publishers of such books as shall have been adopted by any board of directors or county board of education shall neglect or refuse to furnish such books when ordered by said board in accordance with the provisions of this act, at the very lowest price, either contract or whole.sale, that such books are furnished any other district or State board, or were furnished to any other district or State board in the year 1889, then said board of directors or county board of education may, and it is hereby made their duty to bring suit upon the bond given them by the contracting publisher. Sec. 5. Before purchasing text-books under the provisions of this act it shall be the duty of the board of directors or county board of education to advertise by publishing a notice for three con- secutire weeks in one or more newspapers published in the county; said notice shall state the time up to which all bids will be received, the classes and grades for which text-books and other f STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 545 necessary supplies are to be bought, aud the approximate quantity needed; and said board shall award the contract for said text-books aud supplies to any responsible bidder or bidders offering suitable text-books and supplies, at the lowest prices, taking into consideration the quality of ma¬ terial used, illustrations, binding, and all other things that go to make up a desirable text-book, and may, to the end that they may be fully advised, consult the county superintendent; or, in ease of city independent districts, with city superintendent or other competent persons, with reference to the selection of text-books: Provided, That the board may reject any and all bids or any part thereof and readvertise therefor as above povided. Sec. 6. It shall be unlawful for any board of directors, or county board of education, except as provided in section 4, to displace or change any text-book that has been regularly adopted and introduced under the provisions of this act, before the expiration of five years from the date of such adoption, unless authorized to do so by a majority of the electors present and voting at their regular annual meeting in March, due notice of said proposition to change or displace said text¬ books having been included in the notice for the said regular meeting. Sec. 7. Any person or firm desiring to furnish books or supplies under this act, in any county, shall, at or before the time of tiling his bid hereunder, deposit in the office of the county auditor samples of all text-books included in this bid, accompanied with lists giving the lowest wholesale and contract price for the same. And said samples aud lists shall remain in the county auditor’s office, and shall be delivered by him to his successor in office; and shall be kept by him in such safe and convenient manner as to be open at all times to the inspection of such school officers, school patrons, and school teachers as may desire to examine the same, .and compare them with others, for the purpose of use in the public schools. The board of directors and county board of education mentioned shall require of any person or persons with whom they contract for furnish¬ ing any books or supplies to enter into a good and sufficient bond in such sum and with such con¬ ditions and sureties as may be required by such board of directors or county board of education for the faithful performance of any such contract. Sec. 8. When a petition shall have been signed by one-half the school directors in any county, and the same shall haye been filed in the office of the county superintendent of said coun ty, at least thirty days before the annual school elections in March, asking for a uniform series of text-books in the county, then the said county superintendent shall notify the county auditor and the board of supervisors of such petition. Such notice shall be in writing and shall be served or delivered as soon as possible, and within fifteen days after the filing of the petitions provided for herein the board of education, provided for in section 9, shall meet and provide for the submission of the question of county uniformity. Sec. 9. The county superintendent, the county auditor, and the county board of supervisors shall constitute a board of education, Avhose duty it shall be to arrange for a vote by the electors at the annual meeting in March, for or against county uniformity of school text-books under such rules and regulations as said board of education may determine. Should a majority of the electors voting at such election, favor a uniform series of text-books for use in said county, thou the county board of education shall meet and select the school text-books for the entire county, and contract for the same under such rules and regulations as the said board of education may adopt. When a list has been so selected, they shall be used by all the public schools of said districts, and the board of education may arrange for such depositories as they may deem be.st, and may pay for said school books out of the county funds and sell them to the school districts at the same price as provided for in section 1 of this act, and the money received from said sales shall be returned to the county funds by said board of education monthly. The boards of school officers, who are made the j udges of the school meetings, shall certify to the board of supervisors the full returns of the votes east at said meetings the next day after the holding of said meetings, who shall, at their next regular meeting, proceed to canvass said votes and declare the re.sult. Sec. 10. The county superintendent shall, in all cases, be chairman of the county board of educa¬ tion, and the county auditor shall be the secretary, and afull and complete record shall be kept of their proceedings in a book kept for that purpose in the office of the county superintendent. A listof texhbooks so selected, Avith their contract prices, shall be reported to the State superintend¬ ent with the regular annual report of the county superintendent. Sec. 11. It shall be unlaAvful for any school director, teacher, or member of the county board of education to actas agent for any school text-books or school supplies during such term of office or employment, and any school director, officer, teacher, or member of the county board of education who shall act as agent or dealer in school text-books or school .supplies, during the term of such office or employment, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall upon conAuction thereof be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than one hundred dollars, and pay the costs of prosecu- cution. Sec. 12. The provisions of sections 8, 9, and 10 of this net shall not apply to schools located within cities or towns, nor shall the electors of said cities or towns vote upon the question of county uniform¬ ity, but nothing herein shall be so construed as to prevent such schools in said cities and towns from adopting and buying the books adopted by the county board of education at the prices fixed by them, if by a A'ote of the electors they shall so decide. Sec. 13. All acts or parts of acts in conflict with the provisions of this act are hereby repealed. The Farmers’ Alliance and the Iowa law. The following is taken from the report of the Iowa State secretary of the Farmers’ Alliance : “ Many of the legislative demands made by the Alliance at its last annual meeting have been enacted into laws. A joint rate bill has been'passed, and also a bill relating to school text-books which has already been productive of much good. After maturely considering the various plans for school-book legislation, it would seem to be the part of wisdom that the kind of instruction to be given to the children of the State and the selection of the text-books by means of which it is to be imparted should be kept where they can he carefully guarded by parents and the school officers, who are in closest con¬ tact with the school interests. The new law does this, and at the same time has effected large savings in the cost of text-books. As to the extent in the reduction in price, I quote my own town, Moulton, where, by contracting under the new school law, we have effected a saving to the consumer of nearly 50 per cent. In Keosauqua, a town in the neighboring county, the saving to the consumer is 55 per cent, as compared with former ED 89—35 546 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. prices. The instances are given as examples of results such as more than 100 towns in Iowa acting under the new law can show. The simplicity of the plan in the law for securing county uniformity, combined with the purchase plan, furnishes a feasible method of carrying out the popular Alliance principle of cooperation, the books for the entire county being thus bought in a bulk, and the advantages arising from such pur¬ chase being distributed among the users ot the books. U we are true to our own inter¬ ests, we can save hundreds or thousands of dollars in this State by availing ourselves of the cooperative power given us by this law, enacted, as I have said, largely owing to our efforts at the last legislature.” KANSAS. County uniformity — Law of 1885. — Whenever a majority of the districts of a county indicate at their annual meetings, their desire for county uniformity of text-books, the county superintendent is to call for one delegate from each township and city of the third class, such delegates to be chosen by the local school boards and organized into a county text-book board. It is made the duty of this board to prescribe the text- books to be used in all the public schools of the county, and when once adopted they are not to be changed for five years. Such books are the only legal text-books for the county, and school boards are required to adopt them. Cities of the first and second classes are exempt from these provisions, unless the school board of any such city votes to conform to them, in which case it is to be represented on the text-book board. Guarantees as to price, quality, and permanence of supply for five years are to be exacted from the publisher of every book before prescribing it.^ Penally. — A member of a school board violating the law is subject to fine or impris¬ onment, or both; any teacher violating the law is liable to immediate dismissal.^ Result of the Jaw. — In 1890 over 40 counties out of a total of 106 had availed them¬ selves of the above law regarding county uniformity; 6 counties had readopted it for another 5 years. “The plan, where it has been followed, seems to have been quite sat¬ isfactory. It is claimed that under this law there has been a saving of from 25 to 30 per cent, in the cost of school books. State Superintendent Winans is opposed to State uniformity, and believes that the adoption of it would work great injury to the cause of education. “My reasons,” he says, “and I am not alonein my Delief, are as follows: State uniformity would be certain to increase an already present tendency to routine in the work of the schools. No single set of text-books would meet the requirements of so many different communities as there are in our State. State uniformity would necessitate the loss of all books now in use.” He is also opposed to State publication and recommends free text-books.^ KENTUCKY. The State board of education is required, “from this time, to select and recommend * * * suitable lists of text-books for all the common schools of the State, from which lists the county superintendents of the various counties shall adopt the books to be used in their respective counties, which books shall not be changed oftener than once every five years: Provided, however, That in any district where a list of text-books has been adopted and is now in use, no change in text-books shall be made in such district in a less time than five years from the time that list was adopted or until the books are worn out.”= EOUISIANA. St'de texi-boohs. — “The State board [of education] shall strictly enforce a uniformity of text-books in all the public schools, and shall adopt a list thereof, which shall remain unchanged for four years after such adoption. For satisfactory reasons shown to said board, it may change said list or adopt a list generally preferred by teachers and parents in certain localities, maintaining as far as possible a uniformity of text-books and with¬ out placing parents and guardians to further expense. The adoption of such list and apparatus shall be by contract to the lowest bidder, subject to the change aforesaid, and to the best advantage as to cost to pupils.”® Operation of the law. — State Superintendent Jos. A. Breaux reports that “in compli¬ ance with section 3 of the school law, the State board of education adopted a list of ^ Kans. Sch. Law, 1889, secs. 82-90. ^Ibid, sec. 91. * Kans. Sch. Rep., 1889-’90, p. 175. ^Ibid.pp. 176-178. *Kv. Sch. Law, 1886, Art. IV, sec. 5. SActof 1888, sec.3. ^STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 547 books to be user! in the public schools. Contracts were entered into with publishing houses, and stipulations were made to have the books sold at the lowest maifeet prices. “The retail prices are as low as the retail prices of school books in any State of the Union. These prices are stamped on the books. The publishers have obligated them¬ selves (in the contract providing a penalty for noncompliance) to sell them at the stamped prices. “The board endeavored to secure uniformity in text-books on terms the most ad¬ vantageous to the patrons of the schools. To date, so far, the scheme to secure uni¬ formity in the useof books at reduced prices has proven satisfactory to those upon whom devolve the expenses of purchasing them.”^ Prices of Louisiana State text-looks. Book. McGuffey’s Primer . . . . Speller . . First Reader . Second Reader . . . Third Reader . . Fourth Reader . Filth Reader . Sixth Reader . Eclectic Drawing Books; Nos. 1, 2, and 3 . . Nos. 4 and 5 . Nos. 6, 7, 8, and 9 . Eclectic Drawing Cards . . . Mitchell’s First Lessons in Geography . . New Primary Geography . . . . Intermediate Geography (State edition) , Reed & Kellogg’s Graded Lessons in English . Kiglier Lessons in English . Voting’s Government Class B ok . Webli’s Manual of Etymology . Health Lessons . How We Live . . . Tracy’s Physiology . . . Paul Bert’s First Steps in Seientilie Knowledge . . Worcester’s Primary Dictionary . New School Dictionary . Hansell’s School History of United States . Higher History of United States . Nicholson’s Primary Arithmetic . Intermediate Arithmetic . . Advanced Intermediate . Chamber’s Twenty Lessons in Bookkeeping . . Hansell’s Tracing Books . . . Series of Penmanship.. . Mason’s First Music Reader . . . . Second Music Reader . . Intermediate Music Reader . . Fourth Music Reader . . New First Music Reader . New Second Music Reader . . New Third Music Reader. . Abridged Fourth Music Reader . High School Music Reader . . . Girl’s High School Music Reader . Music Charts (four series) . Independent Music Reader . * Manual for First Chart and Reader., . Hymn and Tune Book for Female Voices. Hymn and Tune Book for Mixed Voices.. The following were recommended: Long’s Language Exercise ; Part 1 . Part 2 . Part 3 . . . Reed's Word Lessons (spelling) . Shaw English Literature . . . . Hart’s Composition and Rhetoric . Maury’s Physical Geography . Steele’s Chemistry . f., Physics . Astronomy . Botany . Geology . . . Zoology . . . Ex¬ change. Retail. SO. 15 SO. 10 .10 .18 .25 .30 .45 .50 ,20 .20 .30 .45 .50 .75 .85 ...each, . . do.., . ...do... .per set. .each, ...do... .each .20 .30 .70 ,30 .30 .60 >■ .75 .75 .67 .67 .67 .67 .10 .15 .20 .05 .40 .55 1.20 .40 .54 1.20 ,70 .55 ,90 .35 .10 .22 .24 .48 1.13 .30 .48 .48 .90 1. 14 1.50 10.80 .83 .72 .72 .20 1.50 1.25 1,20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 .67 1.20 .80 1.40 'jLa. Sch. Rep., 1888-’89, p. 3. 648 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1888-89. Prices of Louisiana State text-hooks — Continued. Book. Ex¬ change. Retail. $0. 40 SO. 70 .70 Second ( 'ourse . . .40 Advanced Course . .60 1.00 Super’s French Reader . . .50 .85 Gildersleeve’s Latin Primer . . 50 .75 Reader . . 50 . 65 .75 Grammar . l.GO Exercise Book . .50 . 75 Nicholson's Elementary Algebra . 1.00 Wentworth’s Plane Geometry . .90 Plane and Solid Geometrv^ . 1..50 Complete Algebra... . 1.68 Worcester’s Comprehensive Dictionarv . .88 .94 1. 50 Academic Dictionary . 1. 68 The State board of education, at a meeting heid June 24 and 25, 1889, resolved that it should be obligatory on all public-school pupils to use none other than the books adopted, aud it was made the duty of parish superintendents and the New Orleans city superintendent to “enforce the introduction and use of said books absolutely.” ^ MAINTE. Free text-books, — The following act was passed in 1889, to take effect August 1, 1890: “ Towns shall provide schoolbooks for the use of the pupils in their public schools at the expense of said town; and all moneys raised and appropriated for that purpose shall be assessed like other moneys. “School committees shall make such rules and regulations, not repugnant to law, as they deem proper for the distribution and preservation of schoolbooks and appliances furnished at the expense of the town.” ^ As to uniformity, etc. — Among the duties of superintending school committees of towns are the following: They shall “select a uniform system of text-books, due notice of which shall be given; any text-book thus introduced shall not be changed for five years unless by a vote of the town; any person violating this provision shall forfeit not exceeding $500, to be recovered in an action of debt by any school officer or person aggrieved. And when said committee have made such selection of schoolbooks they shall contract, un¬ der section 8, with the publishers for the purchase aud delivery thereof, and make such rules as they deem effectual for their preservation and return. State Superintendent N. A. Luce says of the Maine law: “The plan, it seems to me, is the only solution of the whole problem, giving uniformity so far as necessary, and yet securing to the people all the benefits of constant competition, securing prompt and full supply, and reducing expenses to the minimum.” ^ Circular of the State superintendent. The following circular, containing advice and suggestions as to putting the new sys¬ tem into operation, has been issued by State Superintendent Luce: State op Maine, Educational Department, Augusta — 1890. School committee or supervisor of - ; Gentlemen; The law relating to the selection and supply of school text-books in this State, under which you are to take action during the current year, is substantially as follows: Towns shall, on and after August 1, 1890, provide schoolbooks for the use of the pupils in their public schools, at the expense of said towns; and all moneys raised and appropriated for that purpose shall be assessed like other moneys. School committees shall select a uni form system of text-books, due notice of which shall be given; any text-book thus introduced shall not be changed for five years unless by vote of the town ; any person violating this provision shall forfeit not exceeding $500, to be recovered in an action of debt by any school ollicer or person aggrieved. And when said committee have made such selection of schoolbooks, they shall contract with the publishei's for the purchase and delivery thereof. They shall make such rules and regulations, not repugnant to law, as they deem proper, for the distribution and preserrationof schoolbooks and appliances furnished at the expense of the town. When a pupil in the public school loses, destroys or unnecessarily injures any sueh schoolbook or appliance furnished such pupil at the expense of said town, his parent or guardian shall be notified, and if the loss or damage is not made good to the satisfaction of such committee w' hin a ^La. Sell. Rep., 1888-89, p. 156. * Me. Sch. Law. ed. 1889, secs. 8 and 9, p. 6. ^ I bid., sec. 87, IV, pp. 30-31. *7th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., p. XXXI. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 549 reasonable time, they shall report the ease to the assessors, who shall include in the next town tax jof the delinquent parent or guardian the value of the book or appliance so lost, destroyed, or in¬ ured, to be assessed and collected as other town taxes. Your town having made appropriations for the carrying of this law into effect, it becomes your duty to take such action as its provisions require. You are to determine what books are to be used in your schools; to purchase the supply needed for the current school year; to contract for the future furnishing of such as may be needed from year to year; to make rules and regulations for their distribution to the schools, and for their care and preservation while in the hands of pupils and during vacations. To assist you, if I majq in this work, permit me to offer the following sug¬ gestions: 1. As to the selection of books. — That provision of law by which changes in text-books can not be made oftener than once in flve years without vote of the town was not amended or repealed by the actof 1880 requiring towns to furnish books at public expense. Hence, unless your town at its late meeting voted to authorize you to make changes, you can do so only in case of series of books which have been used in town five years or more. Your first step, then, is to determine what changes can be made, and what, if any, it is desirable to make. Changes, hojvever, should not be made save for very strong reasons. If the books in use in any branch of study are fairly satisfactory, they should be retained in use for awhile at least. The reasson for retaining are twofold : (1) That pupils desiring to do so may be able to use their own books without being compelled to purchase new ones — the law does notcompelauy pupil to use books furnished by the town, but does compel the town to supply all %vho wish to be supplied; (2) that books now in the hands of pupils, which are in good condition, may be purchased and made part of the town’s supply. If changes are deemed necessary, the new books should be selected with much care. The points to be considered in selecting are, (1) excellence of text and adaptation to the ends of instruction ; (2) mechanical qualities — whether firmly bound, of strong x)aper, and well printed; (3) price at which they will be furnished, both for first introduction and for a series of years. In the first of these particulars you will find less real difference between the later published books than pub- lisliers’ agents will try to make you believe. In the second you will find quite a difference, and that difference should be given considerable weight. Somewhat of difference in price, too, will bo found, and of course should be given due eonsideration. As between several series of readers, spellers, arithmetics, and geographies which could be named, mechanical make-up and prLe should govern in selection. In order to make selections as above, you should apply direct to publishers or their agents for specimen copies of the books you desire to introduce, and for terms at which they will furnish them for first introduction and for continued supply. If you shall consider it of any assistance to you, I shall be prepared in a few weeks to send you, on application, a list of books in the common school branches, which I would advise you to examine before looking further. The books to be selected are, as a. rule, to be uniform thi'oughout the town. Such is the letter of the law. But in one case the spirit of the law may be observed, and yet its letter saerificed to a higher good than that intended to be subserved by its literal observance. Wherever practicable it Avill be well to have two or more series of readers in use at the same time, taking care that there shall be uniformity in classes. By rotation of use from terra to term or year to year, pupils will, b.y this plan, have a larger amount of fresh reading matter than in case only one series be used. For instance. Harper’s may be used this term in one-half the schools and Butler’s in the other, and next term they can be changed about. The expense by this plan will be no more than if only one series were used, as it will be necessary to purchase of each series only half enough to supply all the schools. 2. As to purchasing.— Ka.v\n^ learned direct from publishers the prices at which they will sell you their books, both those which you propose to retain in use and those w’nich you propose to in¬ troduce, before you will be prepared to make purchases you will need to know very nearly how many books of each grade and sort you will be required to supply your schools. This you can ascer¬ tain with sufficient accuracy by requiring the teachers in your summer terms to furnish you lists of the number required in their several schools. As already intimated books in the possession of pupils, which are of the kinds you propose to have u.sed, should be brought up and made a part of the town’s stock. Only such, however, as are in excellent condition — as are sound, whole and clean — should be so purehased. You may assume, as the basis of price to be paid tor these, that books, except of the lowest grades, which have been carefully used a year, are worth four- fifths as mueh as you will have to pay publishers for new ones of the same kind. One having been used two years woulii be worth two-fifths the price of a new one. So, .also, books in the hands of the local dealer, if there be one, which are of the sort to be used, should be purchased at the same price as you would have to pay publishers for them. What¬ ever nuraberadditional, after making tliese purchases, is necessary to complete the needed supply, should be ordered direct from the publishers. When newly introduced books are to be purchased, before purchase is made the publishers should be required to enter into a contract fixing the price at which further supplies are to be furnished for a period of years, and giving assurance that the mechanical quality of the books will be main¬ tained. 3. As to preparation for use. — The books having been purchased, before they are ready for distri¬ bution to schools and pupils, they are to be labeled and numbered. On the inside of the cover should be pasted a label similar to that herewith sent, on which should be printed general rules for care of the books while in pupils’ hands, etc., and also the number of each book. These number.s should run from one up to the number of books of each grade owned by the town. For instance, if 200 primary arithmetics are owned, and 150 advanced, the primaries would be numbered from 1 to 200 inclusive, and the advance from 1 to 150. These labels can be procured at a very moderate coat by applying to Burleigh and Flynt, State Printers, Augusta, or they can be printed at any local office. 4. As to distribution to schools dhd care during vacations. — In these regards methods in towns hav¬ ing no districts, and in those having the district system, will differ somewhat. In the former it will be for the supervisor or committee to see that the necessars' supply of books is at the school- house in possession of the teacher, and ready for use the first morning of the term. In every school- house should be a proper case or closet in which they can be stored under lock and key during vacations, and when not in use. Such receptacles are practicable when the town owns the school- houses, and they are under the charge and control of the committee or some responsible party by them selected. Under the district system it will in many cases be impracticable to have proper re- cetkacles in which to store the books during vacations, and in all such cases they should be depos¬ ited at some central place of safety under the immediate control of the committee or their agent. In such cases the school district agent should be held responsible for seeing that the necessary sup¬ ply is .atthe schoolhouse at the proper time, and also for the transportation of them, at the close of terms, to the central depository. This is one of the matters to govern which committees are to make regulations. 550 EDUCATION EEPORT , 1888-89. 5, As to dia'ribufion to pupil/t and care during use. — Here' the teacher’s responsibiliiy comes in. He is (o act as the agent of the committee in seeing that every pupil is promptly furnished with proper books; that they are properly cared for while in use; tiiat they are i)romptly returned at the close of tlie term, except in cases where pupils are given, by the committee, special permis¬ sion to retain d iring vacation ; and that the committee are informed of all damage to and loss of books, for wliich payment is to be exacted under the provisions of tlie law. To this responsibility the teacher .should be strictly held, and should not be paid for services' until formal and satisfac¬ tory account of all books placed in his possession has been rendered. To this end, he should be required at close of term to ma'Ke a return showing what books were put into his hands at the be¬ ginning of or during the term ; what ones were used by each pupil ; what were returned in good condition, and what were damaged or lost. A blank for such return, in the form o! a supplemen¬ tary register, is in preparation, and will be furnished like other register blanks Ttie keeping and return of such supplementary register will be as much a prerequisite to the obtaining of pay as is the keeping and return of the register of attendaiice, etc. 6. As ti> rules and regulations. — Beside the regulations relating to the distributing of books to the several schools, and the care of them during the vacations, thecharacter of which will depend, as indicated above, upon local conditions, there are to be made certain general rules, touching the care of books v hile in pupils’ liands, their return at close of terms, etc. In addition to such spe¬ cial rules in this regard, as may seem needed by local conditions, I suggest the following: 1 Teachers siiall, once in two weeks at least, inspect or cause to be inspected, all books in the hands of pupils, and note their condition. 2. By permission of the teacher, any pupil may take books to his home for purposes of study. 3. All books are to be returned by pupils at the close of each terru, unless special written per¬ mission to retain has been granted by the committee, 4. Any scholar losing or materially injuring a book must replace it at once, otherwise its value will be collected from his parent or guardian in the manner provided by law, ,5, Any writing in, marking upon, or otherwise defacing of a book, will be considered a material injury for which such book must be replaced or paid for. "Very truly yours, N. A. Ltjce, State Superintendent of Common Schools. MARTI. AND. The text-book system of Maryland is thus outlined by State Superintendent M. A. Newell : ^ “I. At the beginning of the State school system (1885-6-7) the State board of edu¬ cation adopted uniform text-books for the State, contracted for them, paid for them, distributed them to the several county school boards, and received from these boards the cost of the books and the expense of distribution. The county school boards dis¬ tributed the books to the several schools and received payment from the pupils, with the exception of the indigent. “II. This S3’^steui was convenient and economical, but veiy unpopular. “III. On a change of political supremacy in 1888, the adoption and purchase of text¬ books and mode of distribution was lelt to the county school boards, who were at lib¬ erty to sell the books, mi/ them at a rate not exceeding one dollar a term (three months), or make them free. The books must be uniform throughout the county and be free from sectional or religious bias. ’ ’ DR. NEWELL ON FREE TEXT-BOOKS. [Read before the Joint State Teachers’ Association of West "Virginia and Maryland, July 1888.] Why should not the books needed in our common schools be free to the pupils? We have tree schoolhouses, free teachers, free stoves, free fuel, free desks, free blackboards, free wall maps; why not also free schoolbooks? There was a time when none of these things were free, and some were nonexistent. The teacher was paid so much a week and “boarded around.” The writer has seen, when he was a boy, a band of urchins trooping to the schoolhouse, each with his contribution to the fuel of the day under his arm. He has also in his capacity of teacher had a pupil come to him with his desk car¬ ried behind him by a colored man, because “such was the old custom,” as his father explained. Now all is free except the schoolbooks, and that tax remains as one of the relics of barbarism. But why should schoolbooks be free? 1. Because otherwise the schools are not really free. If any mone.y consideration is necessary to the enjoyment of school privileges, the name “free school ” is a mockery. 2. Because the cost of books keep some children out of school, and these perhaps the very children who need schooling the most. The parents are too poor to buy books and too proud to be willing to have their children enter as paupers. 3. Because the book tax introduces invidious class distinctions. Some children pay for their books; others are classed as “indigent” and do not pay. Here is a line of sep¬ aration that should not be tolerated in any American school. The pupils should meet in school on the same level, as they will afterwards do at the polls when they come to exercise the right of suffrage. 7th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., p. XXXIV. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 551 4. Because the work of the school can not he carried on promptly and efficiently un¬ less books can be furnished by the teacher on the day they are needed. A teacher wishes to begin a class in grammar. He tells them to bring the proper text-book on the next Monday. Monday comes, and only three pupils out of twelve have the book. The opening is postponed till the next day. Next day brings four books, and the opening is postponed till next week. Next week sees half the class furnished with books, and the teacher debates with himself whether to give up the class, or to go on with one-half the members, or to give them another week to procure books. This is no fancy sketch, hut a photograph from the life. 5. Because the want of free text books enables parents to nullify a law of the State. In most of the States a law has been passed requiring “temperance physiology” to be taught in all public schools, “with the use of text-books as other branches are taught,” But a parent by simply refusing or neglecting to purchase the text-book can virtually repeal the law — so far as his child is concerned — and set at naught the will of the ma¬ jority of his fellow citizens, expressed under constitutional forms. 6. Because free books are on the whole the cheapest. The State can buy at a much lower rate than a private individual. Nearly one-half of the present money expended on books might be saved by buying at wholesale; and the additional State tax rvould hardly ha felt by the majority of those who patronize the schools. 7. Because those communities that have tried the experiment of “ free books ” are perfectly satisfied and could not be induced to return to the old plan. 8. Because the arguments used against free books are the very same as have been urged, and are urged, against free schools. “People do not value properly what they have not paid for.” If I had a valuable horse given me by a friend, should I value him the less because he cost me nothing? Do we thiuk the less of a broad and smooth high¬ way, because there is no tollgate on it? Lastly, because free books would add 10 per cent, to the number of scholars, and 25 per cent, to the efficiency of the schools. MASSACIIIJSETTS. Free text-hoolcs. — Chapter 103 of the acts of 1884 provides that the school committee of every city and town shall purchase, at the expense of such city and town, text-books and other school supplies used in the public schools; and said text-books and supplies shall be loaned to the pupils of said public schools free of charge, subject to such rules and regulations as to care and custody as the school committee may prescribe. The advantages of the free text-book system are: 1. Economy in time and money. Under the present system the schools may be sup¬ plied, on the first day of the term, with all necessary means of study. This prevents the long delays that were formerly experienced in organizing the classes, and enables the teacher to make a better classification of his school. Experience has proved that the expense of hooks and supplies, by the new method of purchase, is reduced nearly one-half. 2. The new system furnishes a good occasion for training the children to take good care of those things not their own, but which they are allowed to use. 3. It seems, by the returns, to have increased the attendance upon the schools more than 10 per cent. 4. The public schools of the State are now literally free schools, offering to all, on the same free terras, the advantages of a good public-school education. Before the act of 1884 was passed, since 1873, sixteen towns in the State had volun¬ tarily adopted the free text-book system. In all cases the most satisfactory results followed.^ Changes of schoolbooks. — A change may be made in the schoolbooks used in the pub¬ lic schools in a town by a vote of two-thirds of the whole school committee thereof at a meeting of said committee, notice of such intended change having been given at a previous meeting.^ Important results of the Massachusetts free text-book law. — Massachusetts State hoard of education: The legislature of 1873 passed a permissive act granting authority to the cities and towns by ordinance or vote to supply the ijublic schools with all necessary text-books, which were to be the property of the towns, and to he lent to the pupils under such regulations as the school committees may make. A number of towns availed them¬ selves of the privileges granted by the act. The results were so important and satisfac¬ tory that in 1884 an act was passed which provided that the school committee of every city and town shall purchase, at the expense of such city or town, text-books and other school supplies used in the public schools, to be loaned to the pupils free of charge. ^ Mass. Sell. Law, with Annotations, Ed. 1888, pp. 41-2. 552 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. From the returns it appears that the law is producing important results in reducing the cost of books, in enabling the schools to organize on the first day of the term, in increas¬ ing the attendance upon the schools, in furnishing a good occasion for teachers to train their pupils to habits of neatness and order, and in making the public schools literally free schools. * * * The expenditure for books and supplies, under the free text-book law, increases the aggregate expenses returned by the towns. This item amounts forthe year to |427, 155.56. Though this largely increases the public tax, it entirely relieves individuals of what for¬ merly proved to many a heavy burden; and while it contemplates a more abundant supply to the individual, it makes a large saving to the public as a whole. MICHIOAK. District school boards prescribe the text-books to be used; those once adopted are not to be changed within five years except by a majority of the qualified district voters.^ Free text-hooke. — An act of 1889 required each district to vote at the next annual meeting after its passage upon the question of furnishing free text-books to all public- school pupils, the district school board being required to give ample notice that such vote was to be taken. In every district in which the vote was in favor thereof the school board was required to adopt a list of text-books, uniform throughout the dis¬ trict; to contract with some dealer or publisher to furnish them to the board at a price not greater than the net wholesale price of such books, and to loan them to pupils free of charge. Any district having once adopted or rejected free text-books may take further action on the matter at any subsequent meeting. School districts in cities under special charters are exempt from the provisions of the act. But the school boards of such districts may submit the question of free text-books to the voters thereof.'^ Provision is made for levying a tax in those districts which adopt free text-books to meet the additional expense. The act “requires the director of any district adopting free text-books,” says State Superintendent Estabrook,® “to note the fact on his annual report to this office. An ex¬ amination of these reports reveals the astonishing fact that 520 districts voted for free text¬ books at their last annual school meeting. When it is remembered that but two years ago the measure had such weak support that it was impossible to bring it to a vote in either branch of the legislature, the fact that more than 500 districts should adopt the plan at the first opportunity certainly indicates that it has been gaining friends rapidly. One good result is reasonably certain to follow this action, and that is uniformity of text-books in many districts that have previously been cursed with the evil of diversity.” MINNESOTA. [The following brief synopsis of the Minnesota State text-book law and remarks upon its operation are given by State Superintendent Kiehle:"^] The original law was approved February 23, 1877, and the contract with Mr. D. D. Merrill signed March 14, 1877. The first selection and introduction of books was made by the commission August 25, 1877. The law applied to all districts, excepting special districts as named in the bill, and independent districts under the ruling of the attorney- general. The leading features of the bill were: 1. The contract “for and during the period of fifteen years from and after the time when the books to be furnished in pursuance of the provisions of the contract shall be first introduced into the public schools of this State.” 2. The fixing of a standard of quality and a maximum price. 3. Naming a commission to select the series. 4. Making district clerks depositaries for the sale of books to pupils, and accounting for the sales to county auditor. 5. The payment of all orders for books made upon the State contractor out of the State treasury, the amounts to be charged to the respective counties from which the orders came, the counties in turn charging back to the several districts. 6. New books to be added as necessary, and revision made every five years in the dis¬ cretion of the superintendent of public instraction. * Mich. 8ch. Law, 1889, sec. 42. secs. 206-211. 3Mich.Sch.Eep., 1889, p. 19. Sixth Minn. Bi. Sch. Kep„ pp. 17-22. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 553 7. The law to be executed bj school districts under penalty of a forfeiture of school moneys payable to the districts. The ad ministration of the law through district clerks having proved cumbersome, wasteful, and inefficient, in 1883 the law was amended providing for county agents to be appointed by the boards of county commissioners. The county superintendent has been required to make requisition for the entire county, and distribute supplies among the depositories. The agent has sold books to pupils, and received a commission of 8 per cent, on all sales. This form of the law has continued and is still in force. * In the administration of the law it appeared from the first that the educational inter¬ ests of the youth had been partially sacrificed to a spirit of false economy, and text¬ books in most important branches had been placed upon the list that were unfit, and that were justly condemned by the good teachers of the State. For several years the children and teachers of our common schools had no relief. A merely technical revision of words and sentences would in no wise help the matter. The defects were radical in matter and method. The alternative presented itself whether these books should be allowed to remain in the schools the entire fifteen years — two generations of common- school life — or the law be given a more liberal interpretation in the interest of education, and the old books revised out by entirely rewriting them. After a careful consideration and a full conference with the county superintendents the latter course was adopted. This has given the State, with the exception of a single hook or two, a good and serviceable series. In the optcration of the law during these years the following results and characteristics have appeared: 1. The selling price of books has been very appreciably reduced. This statement is to be taken together with the facts that (1) gratuitous or unpaid service is rendered by the State department of education, the county superintendents, and county auditors; (2) a commission of 8 per cent, is paid by the county to the selling agent, and (3) a loss by the counties of various amounts of books superseded by the revision or for other reasons unsold. 2. There have been whatever advantages come from uniformity in counties and the State, except that special and independent districts being exempted from the operation of the law, pupils of the country coming to these schools are obliged to purchase new books as before. 3. The iudefiuiteness of the law as to revision, the addition of new books, and the prices which should be paid for them have made it difficult to decide what course would best satisfy the State, and therefore have given opportunity for a difference in judgment as to the proper course to pursue. 4. The duty required of the county superintendent to make requisition for the supply of books for the schools has been difficult and embarrassing. The law requires him to make an annual estimate and a single requisition for the entire county. It soon ap¬ peared that the superintendent had not tlie necessary data for a safe estimate, and many large and unwise orders were made at great expense to counties. Then followed the opposite extreme of making requisitions as agents gave notice of books needed. This re¬ sulted in multitudes of small orders on successive weeks and even days from the same superintendent. It increased the labor of the department beyond the ability of the clerical force provided, and greatly increased the cost of books in the added freight and expressage of the small parcels. Upon this the superintendents were requested to limit the number of their requisitions as much as possible, so that experience seems to have established the rule of quarterly or bimonthly requisitions. But while the county superintendent feels hound to provide books for the schools, he is subject to criticism by those who look only after the financial interests of the county for making, as they think, unnecessary orders for books. 5. The administration of the law has been embarrassed by reason of a feeling, more or less prevalent, that the State has by its authority taken from the individual communities and teachers the privilege of selecting their own text-books. I think this feeling was aggravated by the unsatisfactory character of the books first placed on the list, and with the revision to an acceptable series this feeling has not been wholly dispelled. And now for the future, this being a financial as well as an educational problem, I con¬ sider it wholly within the province of the people who pay for schoolbooks to devise from the financial standpoint their own best way to furnish them, with this kept clearly in mind, that the end for which all this expense is incurred is the education of our youth, and therefore that no scheme should be considered which forbids teachers and youth the use of as good books as the market affords. Assuming that the present contract will terminate in 1892, it. will devolve upon the coming legislature to make proper regulations for a supply of good text-books at fair prices after the expiration of the present contract. The imperative need of some kind of State, regulation in the supply of common-school books is; (1) Because of the large pecuniary interests involved, the expense in the State being about $200,000 annually; 554 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. (2) Those who pay for the books never select them. From the nature of the case, this devolves upon persons who have, or are presumed to have, expert skill, viz, teachers, superintendents, and school boards. (8) These large quantities of books must be dis¬ tributed amoug the individual consumers, scattered over hills and prairies, to the re¬ motest corners of tlie State. As a resultof these three conditions, competition for patronage is great, an l the strong¬ est influences possible are brought to bear upon those in authority to make changes that otten are not necessary and to no one’s permanent advantage but the party getting the patronage. Besides this, there is the additional expense of distribution through the usual channels of trade. This is rather a financial than an educational problem. Good books are abundant. The teachers of our youth are only interested in this, that the State make provision for the supply of its children from the list of good and approved books, and not, by its limita¬ tion ot prices, compel them to use interior books. Ours is 'a Slate. pul)lic-scbool system. The State provides in part for the cost of instruc¬ tion of its youth, and directs how the remaining expense shall be equally distributed. It confers upon local boards all the authority they exercise for the management of their local affairs. It is certainly as important that the State should exercise all necessary authority for the proper supply in so important a matter as text-books for the use of its schools. The plans which have been adopted are various, each of which serves a purpose. Of these I mention the following: 1. The supply of books by the State, as in Minnesota, California, and Indiana. 2. The selection ot books by the districts in open market, and the purchase by pupils, provided that no change of books be made in less than three or five years. 3. The purchase of books by the district in open market, and the sale or rental of them to pupils. This plan is confined to individual districts, usually cities, and insti¬ tutions. 'i. The purchase of books by the district and the use of them as a part of the neces¬ sary apparatus of the school. This is known as the “free text-book system,” and has been adopted by the States of Massachsetts and New Hampshire, and is made optional to districts in Wisconsin and a few other States. I am still of the opinion, as presented in my report of 1886, that no method so entirely meets the demands of both financial and educational interests as that of “ free text¬ books. ” From the financial side, purchases are made direct from the publishers and at lowest rates. The experience of other States and of many cities has been that the cost per pu¬ pil is reduced to about forty cents, so that the average cost to a district of fifty pupils would average about twenty dollars annually. From the educational side there appear the following advantages: 1. There is absolute uniformity for the district, which is all the uniformity that is necessary, the books being a part of the apparatus of the school. 2. The books are ready for all the pupils at the opening of the school. This is a great gain. It is no uncommon thing ior days and even weeks of the short term of a country school to be made almost useless because children have no books. 3. By this plan pupils can be put into classes best suited to them. 4. The attendance is much increased. It is not uncommon for parents of large but poor families to keep their children at home because they do not feel able to equip them with the necessary books. In the execution of this plan provision must be made by which teachers will be held strictly responsible to the district for the care of books, and exact reports made by dis¬ trict officers of the condition and cost of the text-bdok library. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 555 Ilinnesota prices for text-hooks. ■ The prices prescribed by law to be paid for text-books are as follows:^ Not to exceed — Present price. 50.15 .10 50. 25 licficjcr ....4. . . . . . . . . .20 S0COII vi I'i-GHXlcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 .45 Third litiiulcr . . . . . .30 .60 . . . . . . ■ .10 .90 First Oru-iuiuar . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 .60 Practical (Tramttiar . . .50 1,00 First A.rithiii6tic . . . . . . . .12 .25 .25 A ri( . . - . ,40 Third AritlinieLio . . . .50 .94 First Geogfraphy . .50 .80 j)h V . . . . . .80 1.50 Book of Histtjry . . . .60 1.50 Two free text-book bills were before the Miuuesota legislature in 1891. MISSISSIPPI. County uniformity. — An act approved February 22, 1800, requires each county school board to appoint every filth year a committee of teachers of recognized ability, who are to select a uniform senes of text-books for the county. These committees are to obtain from the leading schoolbook publishers samples of their text-books and price lists for exchange, introduction, and permanent supply, and from these select one text-book for each branch required by law to be taught in the public schools. The books so selected must be used in the public schools of the county for five years from the date of their adoption. The list adopted for each county must be published in some newspaper four consecutive weeks. The county superintendent is required to enter into written con¬ tract with the publishers. It is made unlawful to give instruction in any branch to a pupil who is not supplied with, the proper text-books in that branch. In towns. — In towns which are separate school districts it is made incumbent on the local school board to adopt for eath town a uniform series of text- books, to be continued in use four years, and to contract for the same with the publishers. Text-hooks m history. — The State superintendent, governor, and attorney general are constituted a committee to examine and recommend text-books in United States his¬ tory, to the end that such may be excluded from the publicschools, as are “ iuased, prej¬ udiced, and unfair,” or “that suppress lull, free, and candid presentations of questions and principles upon which the American people have been honestly divided, and in the maintenance of which they have acted according to the promptings of courage and honor. MISSOLTRI. There is no State law relating to text-books. The adoption and change of books are left entirely with the local school boards. Various bills have been introduced into the General Assembly providing for State control of text-books, or a commission to prepare, publish, and distribute text-books, and sell them at the actual cost. State Superintendent W. E. Coleman is strongly op¬ posed to any such action. He s^ys that “this is simply a craze that is going through the States and is destined to rebound with tremendous force in a few years, and that to the detriment of the schools of the State that tries it.” “State adoption of text-books is simply a gigantic monopoly susceptible of jobs, fraud, and corruption. No State will tolerate such a law for a decade. ” ^ [Since the above was written information has been received of the enactment of a text-book law by the Missouri legislature. This law “ provides for a school text-book commission of four, to be appointed by the governor. The State superintendent is ex officio a member of the commission. It is made the duty of this text-book commission to contract for text-books in the common branches to supply the schools of the State for a term of five years. In case of failure to contract the commission is empowered to com- ^ Minn.. Sell. Law, 1887, p. 103. 2 Acts of Feb. 22, 1890. Miss. Scb. Law, 1890, pp. 32—1, “Mo. Scb. Rep., 1889, pp. 17-21. 556 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. pile or have compiled fext-books in the common branches and contract for the publica¬ tion of the same, to be supplied to the schools at cost; and under no circumstances is the State to become liable lor any expenses beyond those of the salaries of the members of the commission. The publishing houses that secure the contract are obliged to es¬ tablish depots of distribution in all cities of the State containing a population of 10,000 and over. All dealers in these books are required to secure written authority from the county commissioner, and to pledge themselves to lurnish the books to patrons at not to exceed 10 per cent, profit on the contract price. No dealer is permitted to sell any other book than the one contracted for by the commission after September, 1891, and no school is permitted to use any other books after September 1, 1892.”^] MONTAIS'A. Statetext-boo'!:'?. — An act approved March 5, 1889, prescribed a specified series of text¬ books for exclusive use in the schools of Montana for six years. The act was not to take elfect until the puiilishers of the books named had filed their bonds to observe certain conditions as to the supply of books to dealers and school boards, especially for introduction and exchange during the first year of the operation of the law, to main¬ tain certain named prices and standard of excellence, and to provide a special map and text relating to Montana in the geography adopted. Provision was made for posting the authorized prices in each school room, and county superintendents were to keep themselves inlbrmed as to whether the prices were actually maintained. Any district noncomplying with the law forfeits one-fourth of its county school fund. All school officers and teachers are charged with the execution of the law.^ Opinion of State Superintendent John Gannon: “ I believe in a uniform series of books for use in the State, as children are continually changing residence, and expense of books for use in public schools is reduced to a minimum. * * * Our present series meets as a whole with popular approval.” ^ The text-books s])ecified in the Montana law, with the prices thereof, are as follows: Titles. McGulfey’a Revised Eclectic First Reader . Second Reader. Third Reader... Fourth Reader , Fifth Reader . Swinton's Word Book . Fish’s Arithmetic: No. 1 . No. 2 . Barnes’ Elementary Geography . Complete Geography . . . . Short Study in English, part first . Short Study in English, part second.. Harvey’s Revised English Grammar . Barnes’ Brief History, United States . . Barnes’ Primary History, United States . Child’s Health Primer . . Physiology for Young People . Steele’s Hygienic Physiology . Spencerian Copy Books: Common School Series . Short Course and Tracing . . . Eclectic Complete Bookkeeping . . . Bookkeeping blanks . Lovell’s Graphic Drawing Books . Civics for Young People . Retail price. Intro¬ duction price. Ex¬ change price. f0.20 to. 17 $0. 10 .35 .30 . 18 .50 .42 .25 .GO .50 .30 . 85 .72 . 45 . 25 .18 .10 . 35 .80 .15 .70 .60 .30 .75 .35 .25 1.35 -80 .60 .35 .30 .15 . 45 .40 .25 .80 . 65 .40 1.20 .80 .60 .70 .60 .30 .35 0 CO .15 .60 .50 .30 1.20 1.00 .65 .10 .08 .08 .06 .65 .50 .60 . 45 .15 .10 . .50 .40 KJEBRASKA. State Superintendent Lane writes as follows of the former law: ® “ The only law that we ever had and the one now in use gives very general satisfaction. Its provisions allow each and every local board to select the hooks to be used in the schools under their charge and to purchase books iu job lots and faruish the same free of cost to pupils. The school- district voters hold an aunual school meeting in June, at which time they elect local * Educational News, May 9, 1891. *Mout. Sch. Rep., 1889, pp. 56-61. 37th Bi, Tex. Sch. Rep., p. XXXV. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 557 school officers, an l vote upon the amount of tax they will levy upon themselves for the purpose of purchasing hooks and supplies for the schools. When no levy is noted at the annual district meeting for books, etc., then the board can not buy books for the pupils, but each pupil must provide for himself. I think this plan is the best of all plans m vonue. ” In 1886, out of 4,667 districts, 432 purchased text-books; in 1888, out of 5,664 dis¬ tricts 713 purchased text-books. The new law; free hooks compulsory upon aU school hoards. — By an act which takes effect August 1, 1891, all district boards are required to purchase all the text-books and sup¬ plies necessary for their schools, and to loan them to public school pupils free of charge; they are further authorized to enter into contract with the publishers of such books, for a term of years not exceeding five, under the usual “lowest price” limitation. The contract must be made directly with those publishers only who file bonds with the State superintendent.^ Nebraska is thus the fifth State to adopt compulsory free text-books, the other four being Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, and Delaware. NEVADA. The following statement is made by State Superintendent W. C. Dovey: * “The law of Nevada provides that the State board of education shall adopt a uni¬ form series of text- books for all the public schools in the State, to be changed not oftener than once in four years. * * * i think ours the best system, for the following reasons: “1. Greater uniformity in the work throughout the State. “2. Easier adaptation of one course of study in the several counties. “3. It minimizes the injurious effects of the transfer of pupils from district to dis¬ trict and from lower-grade schools to high schools, etc. “4. It tends to raise the standard of education by establishing greater uniformity in grades and promotions, and brings the common schools into closer relationship to the higher institutions of learning. “5. It tends to facilitate unity and harmony of State, county, and city supervision as members of one system. “6. It is a great aid to teachers, especially those of limited experience, who often must change districts or counties. “7. It is a measure of economy to parents and pupils in the less frequent purchase of new books. “8. It prevents the annoyance and confusion resulting from the frequent changes in text-books that may be made by local boards. “9. It protects parents, teachers, and school boards against the incessant annoyances of book agents and publishing firms. “ 10. It gives greater confidence to the public and all interested in education. “11. It shields school boards from the temptation to commit fraud, removes doubt and suspicion from their action, and restrains the fickle or iraudulent teacher who finds all new books superior to the old ones, if flattered or feed by the agent. “ 12. Better terms can be made with publishing houses for supplying a whole State for four years than can be by districts for an uncertaimperiod. “The argument that State boards may be dishonest or ignorant can be made with equal force against local boards, with a reasonable certainty that this danger is equally liable to be multiplied in proportion to the number of local boards in the State.” The law applies only to “text-books in the principal studies pursued in the public schools, to wit, spelling, reading, grammar, arithmetic, geography, and physiology.”^ NEW HAMPSHIRE. F)'ee text-hooks. — The following act was approved July 30, 1889, to take effect January 1, 1890: “The school committee of every city and town shall purchase, at the expense of such city or town, text-books and other supplies used in the public schools; and said text-books and supplies shall be loaned to the pupils of said public schools free of charge, subject to such rules and regulations as to care and custody as the school committee may prescribe: Provided, That in purchasing the first supply of text-books under this act the school committee may effect a change in the text-books previously and then in use upon any subject. > N. W. Jour, of Ed., May, 1891, p. 270. nth Bi. Tex. Sch. Bep., p. XXXVI. ^Nev. Sch. Law, 1889, Art. I, sec. 5. 558 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. “ Pupils supplied with text-books at the time of the passage of this act shall not he ' supplied with similar books by the committee until needed.” ^ Kegarding this law State Superintendent J. W. Patterson says: “This, I have no doubt, is the bestsystemfor supplying text-books to our public schools. * * Books can be furnished iinder the free text-book law at one-sixth less than v/hen bought at retail by parents.” Change 0/ text-hook. — Any text-book or series of text-books in use in any school shall be continued in use for a period of five years from the date of its introduction; no more than one book or series of books may be changed annually.^ NEW JERSEY. School .district boards of trustees are directed, in connection with the county super¬ intendent, to prescribe a unitorn series of text-books to be used in the school or schools under their charge. They must require all children to be furnished with suitable books, as a condition of membership in the school.'^ Text- books are furnished free in 179 out of 1,379 country districts, and in 20 out of 30 cities; 1,258 country districts have uniform text-books, and 121 no uniformity.^ NEW YORK. . Text-hooks, how designaied. — The school authorities of cities, villages, and union free- school districts are required to adop.; and designate text-books to be used in the schools under their charge. In other districts text-books are designated by a two-thirds vote of the voters at a school meeting.*^ Change of text-hooks. — No change of any book so adopted shall be made for five years, except by a vote of three-fourths of the local board of education, or of the district meeting.^ Several of the cities of the State have adopted the free text-book system. State Super¬ intendent A. S. Draper says that “so far as this system has been tried, the expression of sentiment seems to be strongly in its favor.”** Superintendent Charles W. Cole, of Albany, in recommending free text-books for that city, calls attention to the following special advantages offered by them: “The purchase of all books by the local authorities would tend to the use of the very best books only. Under the present system members of boards of control very naturally hesitate to order any change in text- books which would involve a considerable expense to the parents, and very often an inferior book is kept in use almost entirely from the reluctance of boards to create this additional tax upon those who must purchase the books. If the books were free, purchases could be made without direct tax upon any¬ body, and as a result the latest and most approved books and editions would be always in use. “The plan of furnishing all needed books would also enable the board to enlarge the scope of the text-book work, by furnishing different series of readers and similar books for use in all the grades. The importance of this plan has been felt for many years, but has not been carried into execution because the board did not feel it could ask the par¬ ents to buy so many different books, and it would have been difficult to convince the local authorities of the necessity of providing these books at public expense. NORTH CAROEINA. The law. — “The State board of education shall recommend a series of text-books to be used in the public schools for a term of three years, and until otherwise ordered: Provided, The county board of education shall take care that changes from books now in use to those recommended do not work great inconvenience or expense to parents, guardians, or pupils: Provided further. No sectarian or political books shall be used in the public schools: Provided aUo, The prices of the books recommended be fixed by the State board of education for the whole term for which they shall be used.’”*^ “The books recommended by the State board of education, in accordance with section 2539, shall be used in all public schools of the State, and the State board of education ‘ Nashua (N. H) Sch. Rep., 1889, pp. 14-15. ® N. Y. Sch. Law, Ed. 1889, p. 146. 27th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., XXXVI. ^ p. 147. ®N. II. Sch. Law. ed. 1886, Chap. V, secs. 12, 13, p. 67. ®7th Bien. Tex. Sch. Rep. p. XXXVII. 4N. J.Sch.Law,ed.l887,pp.l7, 18. 9 N. Y. Sch. Rep., 1891, p. 412, ® N. J. Sch. Rep, , 1888-89, pp, 73, 75, O. Sch. Law, 1889, sec. 2539, STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND S'i STEMS. 559 shall have discretion to recommend more than one series on such subjects as they may deem it desirable.”^ ^ y. ,, o The contract prices of the books now (1889) prescribed for use are as follows: Holmes’ First Reader, new edition . . . Second Reader, new edition . . . Third Reader, new edition . Fourth Reader, new edition . Fit til Reader . . . New History of the United States . . Maury’s Elementary Geography . . . . . . . . .••• . Revised Manual of tieography, North Carolina edition Sanford’s Primary Ar.aiytical Arithmetic..... . Intermediate Analytical Arithmetic . . . . Common School Analytical Arithmetic . Higher Analytical Arithmetic . Worcester’s Primary liictionary . New School Dictionary . . Com rehen-ive Dictionary . Academic Dictionary . Octavo Dictionary . Webster’s Primary Dictionary . . Common School Dictionary . . Iligli School Dictionary . Academic Dictionary . . . Counting-house Dictionary . . . McGuRey’s Revisecl Eclectic Primer . Harvey’s Revised Elementary Grammar and Composition . . Harvey’s Revised English Grammar . Eclectic (Elementary) Copy Books . Flclectic Copy Books . Goodrich’s Child’s History of the United State.s . Stephen’s History of the United States . Swinton’s Language Primer . Harrington’s Spelling Book . . . Harjier’B New Graded Copy Books : Primary, seven numbers . Grammar School, eight numbers . Page’s Theory and Practice of Teaching . Steele’s Abridged Physiology . James’ Southern Selections . North Carolina .Speaker (10 cents, paper) . . Moore’s History of North Carolina . . . North Carolina Writing Books . .perdozen... . do . .per dcz... . do . .per doz... SO. 1.5 .25 .40 .50 .80 1.00 .60 1.28 .64 1.00 .48 1.40 1.50 3. 40 .48 .72 ,98 1.50 2.50 .10 .45 .70 .80 1.08 .60 1.08 .20 .80 1.08 1.00 .50 1.10 .75 .85 1.00 State Superintencleut S. M. Finger discusses the question as follows:^ “The books recommended bj tlie State board of education, wliich are required hj statute to be used in ail the public scliools of the State, are now largely used in the country schools. The histories, geographies, and arithmetics are almost exclusively used, and the others are rapidly going in, so that the Stale is almost uniformed, and much money is saved the children by the use of these books. “More than one-half of our list in value is published by the University Publishing Company, and about one-lourth (the arithmetics) by the J. B. Lippiucotfc Company. These books are all of Southern authorship, as are also our North Carolina histories, pub¬ lished by A. Williams & Co., and our United States histories. These are all good books, and free from anything objectionable to our people. “One of the most serious questions that confronts the South is the character of school¬ books. The book houses are making a great light over the introduction of books, some of them going so far as to make combinations, or syndicates, or trusts, and to offer to swap even for all old books, and, indirectly, if not directly, to use money to control the judgment and action of school boards and teachers. If our Southern people are wise they will look carefully after the books that are put into the bands of their children. “So far as the distribution of the books is concerned, our law contemplates that each child shall own his books, I believe this is better than any other plan that can be adopted. The possession of a book causes the child to take better care of it, and really to take more interest in studying it than be would if it were lent to him by the school committee for the term, or distributed daily in the schoolroom from a common stock. Besides, there are other objections to the promiscuous use of books by dilfereut children, cdunected with their health and cleanliness. “It might be well for the statute to allow committees to donate books in the elemen¬ tary branches to a few children that, in their judgment, are not able to purchase them, but I would go no further.” » N.C.Sch.Law,1889,p.48Cactofl889). ^ N. C.Sch. Rep., 1889-90, pp.xxv-vi. 560 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. ?^ORTH DAKOTA. The Territorial law authorized district boards, “if they deem it advisable, to purchase class aud text-books aud stationery and other necessary articles required by pupils in their school work, and soli and rent them to the pupils in the schools under their con¬ trol and management.” This provision was omitted from the new State law, so that it is doubtful whether it is in force. State Superintendent W. J. Clapp recommends that it be reenacted aud discretion given to school boards to furnish free text-books.^ A bill is before the legislature (1891) providing for a State contract with publishers for a uniform series of text-books, to be furnished free to pupils by districts. OHIO. Views of the State school commissioner. — Hon. John Hancock, State school commissioner, under date of March 24, 1890, and previous to the enactment of the law given below, wrote as follows to State Superintendent Cooper, of Texas : “We have never had but one system of school text-books in Ohio. The question of what text-books shall be used in the schools of the State is left exclusively to the school boards of the several districts. The pupils obtain these books from book dealers, or from the boards, which are authorized to purchase from the publishers direct and sell to the pupils at cost. Until quite recently this plan seems to have met the wishes of the people, barring a chronic grumbling as to price. Within a few years many bills have been introduced into our legislature to involve the State to a greater or less degree in publishing text-books or purchasing and selling them, or both. But such bills have not as yet succeeded in getting themselves made into laws. Our whole school system is based on the autonomy of the district, and any scheme that undertakes to take from the district board the choice of text-books to be used in the schools of that board will be sure to meet with decided opposition. “ I do not know that there is any better system than our own in our country. If that were to be abandoued I suspect that free books, to be selected by the local school boards and distributed under their direction, would come nearer meeting the views of the people than any other, though I do not think they are ready for such a step yet. “ There are now four different bills involving State control, to a degree at least, over this text-book matter in the legislature. What will be the outcome of it no one can say. “As you may infer, I now believe in leaving the whole question to the school boards; but I am studying the question of free books. I have as yet a theory of social science that stands very stubbornly against my yielding to this plan. I believe the State should do nothing for the citizen that he can do for himself. The opposite theory, as I look at the matter, tends toward the patriarchal system of government and socialism, to which I am opposed.” ^ The new Ohio law. — The following is a synopsis of the Ohio law, passed April 28, 1890: The governor of Ohio, State school commissioner, supervisor of public printing, and two other persons to be appointed by the governor, are constituted the “Schoolbook Board.” This board is to fix a maximum price at which each of the text-books now in use and each new text-book may be sold to district boards of education by publishers, said price not to “exceed 80 per cent, of the present lowest price thereof, at which such book is now sold by the publishers thereof to dealers.” Publishers are to be invited to submit proposals for furnishing these text-books for periods of live years, the prices not to exceed those so fixed by the board. If these offers are found by the board to be satisfactory they are to accept them and enter into con¬ tract with the proposers accordingly. The State commissioner is then to furnish each board of education throughout the State with a list containing the name of each text-book contracted for, publisher, price, etc. Each district board is to determine what text-books from the list it shall adopt, such books not to be changed for five years without a three-fourths vote of all the mem¬ bers. All branches are to be taught in the English language. Boards of education are to order books direct from publishers, and make arrangements for their distribution to ijupils, the expense of such distribution not to exceed 10 percent, of the cost price; and the books are to be sold to pupils at the price paid the publisher and not exceeding ^Ist Bi. N. Dak. Sell. Kep., p. 31. 3 7tli Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., p. XXXVIII. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 561 10 per cent, tnereof added. It is the duty of boards to secure books below the maxi¬ mum price if possible. They may contract with local retail dealers to furnish books at prices speciSed, such dealers becoming responsible to the publishers for all books pur¬ chased by them. In case no satisfactory proposals are submitted by publishers on the basis designated the board is to advertise for proposals to be received not later than six months after the passage of the act as follows: First. From publishers of schoolbooks for furnishing books for five years under the same price limitations as before. Each bid was to be accompanied by a bond in the sura of $10,000 to secure the bidder’s entering into a contract if his bid should be suc¬ cessful. Second. From authors of schoolbooks for their manuscripts and copyright; Third. From persons who are willing to undertake the compilation of a book or books, or series of books, giving prices for the same with details. The board is then to report to the adjourned session of the general assembly their bids, together with a statement of number and kinds of books necessary to supply the schools of the State, itemized cost of printing them, etc. Report of the Ohio Schoolbook board to the general assembly. From a report of the schoolbook board, made January 20, 1891, it appears that in compliance with the foregoing law the “State commissioner of common schools sent out, May 1, 1890, a request to schoolbook publishers for copies of all the books pub¬ lished by them used in the public schools of the State, and that these copies be accom¬ panied by a statement of the lowast wholesale price of tlie sime. Thirty-seven pub¬ lishing firms complied with this request. All these firms expressed a willingness to bid under the provisions of the law on the condition that tlie maximum limitation of price fixed by the law was to be understood as meaning 80 percent, of the lowest whole¬ sale list price.” After consulting with the attorney-general and members of the legislative commit¬ tees on common schools, the board came to the decision that it was “authorized by the act to contract for schoolbooks at 80 per cent, of the lowest price at which the book is sold to dealers by the publishers, and not 80 per cent, of the lowest price at which the book is listed to the dealers by the publishers.” “As it was not possible to ascertain the lowest price for which a book may sometimes be sold to a particular dealer in the State, the board agreed that a deduction of 16f per cent, from the publishers’ wholesale list prices would fairly represent the net prices to dealers, thus requiring an aggregate reduction of 38;} per cent, from publishers’ whole¬ sale prices. This, of course, fixed the maximum limitation at v/hich the board could receive bids at 66| per cent, of the publishers’ list prices. The publishers who had sub¬ mitted books were immediately notified of this action, and, with a single exception, they respectfully declined to bid, on the ground, as stated by themselves, that with such a reduction in price they could not maintain the quality and excellence of their several publications and afford themselves a reasonable profit in their business.” Such proposals as were received were not accepted by the board. It accordingly be¬ came incumbent on them, under the terms of the law, to advertise for proposals under the same restrictions as to price as before. But it was apparent to the board that the matter was now in that respect “in precisely the same condition it was in when bids were called for the first time, and as publishers would be required, in addition to their bidding under the old price limitation, to give bonds to accompany their bids under most uncertain conditions, it was concluded by the board that it would be useless, and an unnecessary expense, to advertise, asking bids from them a second time. And in view of the fact that a report was to be made to the general assembly the board did not consider it advisable to invite proposals from authors in regard to manuscripts or copyrights for the reason that such propositions could only be tentative and could not, before the meeting of the legislature, secure any practical results.” - After narrating the results of State publication in California the report goes on to say: “In the adoption of schoolbooks two things should be considered — cheapness and excellence. All will agree that the latter should never be sacrificed to the former, for it is greatly more important that a book s’aould be good than that it should be cheap. Of course the two qualities should be combined as far as practicable. But the question remains whether State authorship and State publication is the best way of securing such a union. A good text-book is a thing of growth. The wisest of men have again and again made serious mistakes in their efforts to make text-books, even in their own specialties, and their productions have fallen stillborn from the press. The final test of a text book is its use in the schoolroom. To purchase the manuscript of a book with the unavoidable uncertainty as to what its practical merits may prove to be, adopt ED 89 — -36 562 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1888-89. it as ths text-book for the whole State, and compel school authorities to use it in their schools exclusively for a series of years, whether they like it or not, or whether it proves a success or not, seems neither ia conformity with the spirit of our institutions nor with the best interests of popular education. Local self government is the underlying prin¬ ciple of all the school legislation of our State. Great and varied powers are placed in the hands of our local boards of education and with entire safety from abuse, as such boards are directly responsible to the people who elect them. We are confident, there¬ fore, that no law will be acceptable to these boards that takes from them all voice in the selection of the text-books to be used in their respective schools; and this for the reason that books well adapted to the wants of one community may be far from the best for a community differently situated.” The board estimates in detail the cost of a new and complete outfit of books in the common branches on the basis of furnishing them to pupils at 20 per cent, discount from publishers’ wholesale list prices with 10 per cent, added for expense of carriage and distribution. The total foots up to ^1,023,330. “The whole number of pupils enrolled in the schools last year was 797,439. Of these, 36,492 v;ere enrolled in the high schools, leaving the enrollment in the elementary schools 760,947. It will be seen, therefore, that the average cost per pupil in these ele¬ mentary schools for a new and complete outfit of books would be 111.35. “If we add to the books mentioned those used in the high schools, we may assume that we will be within the mark in saying that the schoolbooks in the hands of the youth of the State have cost, at the retail prices paid for them, $1,259,000. Any law or plan, therefore, which would necessitate a complete change of schoolbooks through¬ out the State and would displace satisfactory books to the above amount would require about a million dollars’ worth of books to replace them, thus entailing an aggregate ex¬ pense upon the people of over $2,000,000 in a single year. In the advocacy of a law involving such a change legislators will of course take into consideration v/hether, in supplying schoolbooks under its provisions, even for- a long term of years, the saving would counterbalance the direct and immediate loss. “Of course when a complete outfit of books is once in the bands of pupils these books are not all renewed each year — probably on the average not one-third of them. Accord¬ ing to the statement of the supply agent for the St. Louis public schools the cost of books purchased by the pupils enrolled in the elementary schools of that city for the year ending July 1, 1890, was a trifle over 37 cents per pupil. From this statement of facts we think we shall be warranted in saying that upon the price standard taken for our estimates (80 per cent, of the publishers’ wholesale list prices) the average cost a year per pupil in the elementary schools will come within 40 cents, or a little over $300,000 a year for all the pupils in that class of schools. ” “ The time for carrying the law into execution. — So radical were the changes contempla¬ ted by the law as to the adoption, purchase, and distribution of schoolbooks, that the time given in which to make these changes was totally inadequate for the purpose. If satisfactory bids had beeu received by the board, it would not have been possible to have had the adopted books placeil in the h§.nds of pupils at the opening of the schools in September. And as it would work disastrously to the interests of the schools to intro¬ duce new text-books at any other time than the beginning of the school year, another year should have been given for carrying out the objects of the law. “ The limiiationfor bidding. — The experience of the board indicates that the maximum limitation of price for schoolbooks as fixed by the law was too low. If that limitation had beeu 80 per cent, of the lowest wholesale list price, the board had assurance every schoolbook firm in the country was prepared to bid. But, as has already been stated, when this limit was brought down to 33\ per cent, below the wholesale list price, these firms, with the one exception, declined to bid. “ Suggestions. — No other State than ours has included high school text-books within its plan for securing cheap schoolbooks. Such a high order of talent is essential to the production of this class of books, and comparatively so few of them areus-^d, that it has heretofore been deemed wise to leave their adoption to the unrestricted choice of boards of education. But if Ohio Should deem it well to depart from this universal precedent — and it is the opinion of this board that some limitation of price is desirable — it might be well to consider whether, in fixing this limitation of price on bigh-school books, it should not be somewhat higher than on the text-books in the common branches. “And if the general assembly should determine to continue the plan sought to be carried into effect by the law of last winter’s session, it is further suggested, whether, for the sake of definiteness, it would not be better that the bids by publishers should be based on their wholesale list prices, which can always be readily kn »wn by the public. “It is also suggested whether, if the schoolbook board should lailto obtain satisfac¬ tory bids on a full series of books, the board should not be empowered to submit partial lists to boards of education for adoption. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 563 “Nothwithstanding the board has found it impossible, for reasons set forth in this report, to carry into execution the provisions of the schoolbook law, it is believed this law has not been altogether without value. We are convinced it has been an influential agency in enabliag the people to procure schoolbooks at a considerable reduction in price, many pubiishefs no w agreeing to contract with boards of education to furnish these books at a reduction of 20 per cent, below wholesale list prices.” Report of the Ohio State printer. The schoolbook board assigned to Mr. L. Hirsch, supervisor of public printing, the “duty of estimating the cost of the schoolbooks necessary to supply all the pupils enrolled in the elementary schools of the State.” Mr. Hirsch’s report is as follows: Text-books. Text-books: Spelling I3o(.k . First Reader . Second Reader . Third Reader . Fourth Reader . Fifth Reader . Sixth Reader . Arithmetic : First Book . Second Book . Geography : First Book . Second Book...: .... Grammar : First Book . Second Book . Physiology : First Book . Second Book . United States History Total. . . ; . Num¬ ber re¬ quired. Estimated cost. Per copy. Total. Cents. 600,000 9 S54, 000 170, 000 10 17, 500 15(1, 000 16| 25,000 125,000 25 31,230 100, GOO 30 30, 000 90, 000 40 36, 000 50, 000 50 25,000 300, 000 15 45, 000 30,000 30 90,000 175, 000 35 61,250 175, 000 70 122,600 60,000 25 15, 000 165, 000 40 66,000 50, 000 25 12,500 180, 000 40 72, 000 130,000 GO 78, 000 783, 000 Exclusive of the cost of authorship, compilation, and illustrative designs. In making the foregoing statement of the cost of publishing a certain number of school text¬ books equal in kind and quality to those adopted as a standard of comparison and calculation, I have endeavored to make conservative and i-easonable estimates. In doing this it- is proper to understand that the manufacture of schoolbooks is a .separa' e and distinct branch of the publish¬ ing business, and involves many special processes andMetails, the exact cost of which it is difficult to obtain and calculate. It is comparatively easy to estimate the ordinary mechanical cost of making a schoolbook, in¬ cluding such items as presswork, materials, and binding. But these are really not the most im¬ portant or expensive factors in correctly estimating the total cost of publishing any given number of schoolbooks. It is the preparatory work before a single copy of a schoolbook can be printed that require.s the largest outlay of time and money as well as the most skill and experience. When the manuscript of a schoolbook proposed for publication has been duly prepared and arranged, the matter must be set up in type, and tlie type used in the composition of a schoolbook must be especially cast for that purpose, as it must represent the diacritical marks and technical signs or characters required in teaching. And schoolbooks as now made are embellished with copious illustrations, and histo-ries and geographies must contain full and accurate maps. These must all be drawn by competent artists or expert cartographers, and after certain processes must be en¬ graved by other skilled artists. All this work requires peculiar talent and skill and constitutes a large part of the expense of making scho dbooks. The composition and preparatory work for printing a schoolbook requires the most careful and painstaking proofreading, and often whole pages must be recast. This editorial supervision and proofreading is no small item of expense. After the text of a schoolbook is set up, its pages of composed and corrected type are then electro- typed. These elect I’otype plates must be in duplicate, called “ pattern plates ” and " running plates,” and five or more distinct plates, called “ color plates,” are required for printing maps. These plates must continually be kept in good condition and be frequently renewed, it being considered desir¬ able to renew the plates of any schoolbook after printing 100,000 copies. After the work of preparing plates of the text, maps, and illustrations of a schoolbook, it is then ready to be printed. The printing of a schoolbook, especially those containing illustrations and maps, requires skilled labor and particular care. Maps must be run through the press as many times as there are colors to be printed in the map. When the printed sheets come from the press they pass through several different stages or processes, each one requiring separc.te manipulation by ilie hands of skilled labor. Indeed, it is labor, professional, skilled, and artistic, and not the materials or mechanical processes which constitutes the largest part of the cost of publishing school- book.s. In view of these facts, which I have found in my experience and from my investigation of the subject during the past year to be true, I have endeavored to make safe and reasonable estimates 564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. of what it would probably cost the State to manufacture a given number of text-books for the sup¬ ply of the schools of this State. In doing this 1 have examined into the results of the experiment of California in making and publishing schoolbooks, and have found, by reference to official re¬ ports, that the State printer of that State made estimates for publishing schoolbooks as follows : Speller . First Reader . Second Reader . Third Reader . Arithmetic . Grammar . History . Cents. .... 18 .... 24i .... 281 .... 20i .... 29i On the basis of these estimates, made to the legislature in 1883, that State was led to engage in the experiment of publishing schoolbooks. At first only a speller and three readers were pub¬ lished, and as the books were required, by the provisions of the law, to be sold at the cost price, such prices were fixed as follows : Cents. Speller . 20 First Reader . 15 Second Reader . 30 Third Reader . 40 But even these prices were found not sufficient to cover the cost of their manufacture. In 1888 the State printer, in his official report to the governor says : “After a few weeks’ work upon the text-books I became satisfied that the price at which they were being sold was much less than their cost of manufacture, etc.” Afterwards the following prices were established by the State board as cost prices for furnishing the books at the State printing house : Speller . . . First Reader . Second Reader . Third Reader . Primary Number Lessons Advanced Arithmetic . Lessons in Language . English Grammar . Elementary Geography . United States History . Cents. .... 25 .... 15 .... 33 .... 54 .... 20 .... 42 .... 25 .... 42 .... 50 .... 70 It must be remembered that these are actual cost prices for manufacturing the books by the State, and that California had the advantage of a large printing establishment and plant to begin with. At the same schedule of prices it would cost over SI, 000,000 to simply manufacture enough books to supply the schools of Ohio with the first outfit. But to the net or manufacturing cost of the California State books as given an additional sum is added or charged for distributing and hand¬ ling the books, which makes the prices to the schools and school patrons as follows : Text-books. By mail. By retail dealer. Cents. 31 Cents. 30 20 40 First RrCJidcr. . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Second Reader . . . . . . 41 'J'hirH . 66 65 25 “Primary Number TiCSSons . . . 25 Advanced Arithmetic . 50 50 T.Aa«r\nein T n.O'Pi . . . ... , . . . 30 30 50 Eno-lish Grammar . . . 50 Elementary Geography . . . GO 60 United States History . . . . . 82 82 These prices, which I have compiled from official sources, show the actual cost of manufacturing schoolbooks by State patronage and machinery, under favorable conditions, and demonstrates that books of a better grade and quality can be furnished by private publishers at less cost. I am free to state that this is my deliberate conclusion, and while I have at your request made the foregoing estimates, I wish it understood that I do not recommend that the State should undertake the busi¬ ness of making schoolbooks, believing that it is wrong in principle and would prove a failure in practice. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 565 Estimate of cost of schoolbooks at California prices. Text-books. Number required. Cost. 1 Amount. 600, 000 Cents. 25 $150, 000 175, 000 15 26, 250 90, 750 Second and Third Readers . . . 276, 000 240, 000 300, 000 300, OOO 60, 000 165, 000 33 Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Readers . . 54 129, 600 60, 000 Arithmetic: Fir.st Rook . . . 20 Second Rook . 42 126, 000 Grammar: Fir.st, Rook . 25 15, 000 Second Book . 42 69,300 United States History . 130, 000 70 91, 000 Geography : First Book . . . . 175, 000 50 87, 500 Second Book* . 175, 000 50, 000 180, 000 70 122,500 Physiology: First Book* . 25 12, 500 Second Book* . i . 40 72, 000 Total . 1,052,400 ^Estimated at Ohio prices. Respectfully submitted. L. HIESCH, OREGON. The State superintendent is required every sixth year, under the direction of the State board of education, to procure proposals from the publishers of text-books, and submit a list of such books, with their prices, to State examiners and county superintendents for their votes. The books or series of books in each branch receiving a majority of all the votes must be adopted for all the public schools of the State for a period of six years. Publishers of the books selected must file bond to fulfill agreements, and must place a card in each schoolhouse showing the prices of books. Any district failing to introduce the authorized State books forfeits its proportion of the school fund. School boards of districts having a school population of 1,000 or more, however, are authorized to select books for the high school only. Provision is made for taking a special vote when any book or series in use is sup¬ plied at an unreasonably high price, or is found to be excelled by more recent pub¬ lications, or for any good or sufficient cause. ^ State Superintendent E. B. McEiroy says: “This system is satisfactory to the public generally, so far as I know. My opinion is that county uniformity would perhaps meet all demands best.”^ PENNSYLVANIA. Adopfion of text-hooks. — The school board of each district {i. e., in general of each township, borough, or city) is required to select annually, in consultation with the teachers, a series of text-books in the different branches to be taught during the ensuing school year.^ A majority vote of the whole board is necessary to decide upon any series of books.'* No book or series of books may be changed often er than once in three years. ^ Free text-books authorized. — School boards are permitted to purchase text-books out of the public funds and furnish them free to pupils.® “This plan is entirely satisfactory where it has been adopted, and is growing in favor throughout the State, ” writes Deputy State Superintendent John I. Stewart.^ * Oreg. Sch. Law, 1889, pp. 9-11. *7th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., p. XXXVIII. s Pa. Sch. Law, ed. 1890, LXXXVI, p. 60. *Ibid., LI, p. 32. 6 26id.,LXXXIX,p. 61. « LXXXVI r,p. 61. 77th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., p. XXXIX, 566 EDUCATION REPORTj 1888-89. RHODE ISEA^^^D. Text-looks, liow supplied. — District trustees shall see that scholars are properly supplied with books by parents or guardians; and in case they are not so supplied trustees shall provide them out of the district school funds and make out a tax bill for the cost thereof against the parents who have neglected to furnish them.^ Uniformity. — The State commissioner is directed to “recommend and bring about, as far as practicable, a uniformity of text-books in the schools of all the towns.” Changes. — Changes may be. made in the schoolbooks of any town by a vote of two- thirds of the whole school committee (in Providence a majority). No change may be made in any text-book, however, oftener than once in three years, unless by consent of the (State) board of education.^ Woonsocket and Bristol furnish text-books free to pupils. State School Commissioner Thomas B. Stockwell writes of the text-book system of Rhode Island as follows: “Rhode Island has never had but one system, that is that of compelling the pupils or their parents to furnish their own books, save in cases of extreme inability, when the town or district is authorized to supply them. The decision as to what text-books shall be used is wholly in the hands of each town or city school committee or school board. “So far as the determination of what books shall be used, I do not know but that the plan works as well as any that could be devised. The only demand I find that really exists among the people is for a uniform series of text-books for the whole State; but the only reason ever given is that when families move from one town to another they need not be compelled to buy new sets of books. Seldom, if ever, do I hear any com¬ plaint about the books as such. “I am in most hearty accord with the Massachusetts plan of having each town and city determine its own books and then furnish them free to the pupils. On the first point, I believe that competition will make and will keep very nearly all the books equal in merit; at least the differences between books of nearly the same age are seldom great enough to make much difference in their value. What one lacks in one direction it is very apt to possess in another. I have never seen the ‘ best ’ book yet in any line. I believe such a plan leaves the business in the shape least likely to give rise to jobbery and hostile criticism, and most likely to fnrnish the schools at all times with the most valuable and desirable books. “ The second point provides the factor in securing the child’s education that is too often wanting, and that often prevents its acquisition. It is the ‘missing link’ in the system. When you have provided schoolhouses, desks, blackboards, and teachers, all you need to complete the equipment is the books, and then you can go ahead. “I have watched the development of this question during the past fifteen years, and I am very clear that no system of State uniformity or even county uniformity by contract for a term of years or State publication is of advantage. Somebody undoubtedly gets rich harvests out of such schemes, but the schools are not the fortunate parties.” SOUTH CAROUINTA. The laic. — The State superintendent “shall secure, by and with the advice of the State board of examiners, uniformity in the use of text-books throughout the free public schools of the State, and shall forbid the use of sectarian or partisan books and instruc¬ tion in said schools. ” ^ The State board of examiners is authorized “to prescribe and to enforce, as far as practicable, the use of a uniform series of text-books in the free public schools, except in the city of Charleston: Provided, That the State board of ex¬ aminers shall not have power, without permission of the General Assembly of the State, to change a text-book within five years from the date of its adoption.” ^ Operation of the law. — According to State Superintendent James H. Rice, in a letter to State Superintendent Cooper, of Texas, “the State board of examiners adopts a uni¬ form series of text-books for use in the public schools. For ten years from the estab¬ lishment of the board a multiple list of books was adopted, and the teachers were allowed to select therefrom books for use in their schools. This plan was found to work badly, for the reason that whenever there was a change of teachers a corresponding change of books was inevitable, thus putting parents to great and unnecessary expense. At the last adoption, therefore, a change was made, and the plan set forth in the ini * R. I. Sch. Law, ed. 1882, chap. 55, secs. 3, 4. ^Ibid., chap. 48, sec. 4. ^Ibid., chap. 56, sec. 22. « 7th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., pp. XXXIX-XL. ® S. C. Sch. Law, 1889, sec. 987. ^Ibid., sec. 996. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 567 closed circular [the resolution given below] was adopted. This arrangement has been found to work wmll.”^ A resolution by the Slate hoard of examiners to secure uniformity and prevent needless changes in the use of text-books in the public schools of South Carolina.^ Resolved, That the peculiar condition of affairs in this State, by reason of which, not only in each county, but in each school district, there are teachers and pupils of different classes and races, possessing diffei'ent capacities to teach, learn, and purchase books, it would be injurious to educa¬ tional interests to adopt a single list of text-books for the State. That, in order to secure flexibility in the system, and to meet the varying wants of the schools, and, at the same time, to prevent frequent changes in text-books in a school, which impose vex¬ atious and unnecessary expense upon parents, the State board of exaffainers hereby adopts the following rules and regulations to govern the use of text-books in the public schools of the State : The fist of text-books to be adopted by the State board for use in the public schools shall be elective in character. On or before Thursday, October 25, 1888, the county board of examiners in each county shall, from said State list, adopt a single series for use in the public schools of their respective counties, provided that upon application from the teacher and trustees of any school, within thirty days after said county adoption, or thirty days after the establishment of any new school, on good and sufficient reasons being shown, the county board may allow the substitution in said school of any other book on the same subject from the list adopted by the State board. A series once adopted shall not be changed during the period of adoption by the State board without permission from the said board. This shall not, however, prevent the use in schools where the same may be needed, by and with the consent of the county board of examiners, of two series of readers on the State list to be used alternately, or of proper supplemental reading. The series adopted shall be put in. force according to the commencement of the schools, not later than the fall of 1889. All resolutions by the county board of examiners pertaining to the adoption of text-books shall be recorded by the county school commissioner in a book kept by him for the purpose, and copies of the same forwarded by him, within thirty days, to the office of the State superintendent of education. Any teacher who. while receiving public-school funds, uses text-books in the course of study prescribed for public schools that are not on the State list, shall forfeit his pay from the public- school fund for the time he used them. Any teacher may refuse to teach any pup'il who is not sup¬ plied with the text-books prescribed for said school. Pupils passing from one school to another must conform to the list adopted for the latter. The trustees, or, in their default, the county board of examiners, shall enforce these provisions. The county school commissioners shall withhold approval of pay certificate of any teacher not con¬ forming thereto ; and the teacher persisting in violating the same shall be deprived of his certificate of qualification. It is advisable that there be adopted, as far as possible, the same books for schools of the same class and grade within the county, in order to secure, as far as practicable, county uniformity. It shall be the duty of the county school commissioner to report to the State board any attempt on the part of any publishing house, whose books are on the State list, to induce any change from the list regularly adopted for any school. As these provisions are in the interest of economy, parents are requested to cooperate in secur¬ ing their enforcement. TEINXESSEE. County superintendents are required to keep themselves “informed as to the merits of text-hooks and to suggest to the district directors such changes as may from time to time be advisable, with a view to securing uniformity in the course of study through¬ out the county, when it can be done without increased expense to the parent.’’^ TEXAS. In the absence of any statutory provisions regulating text-books, State Superintendent Cooper has instructed school trustees as follows: “It is the right and duty of each board of trustees to prescribe the text-books which shall be used in the district or community under their control. This duty requires much care. When books have been adopted they should not be changed without strong and evident reasons for change. Trustees have the right to exclude from the schools all books not prescribed by them for use in the schools.” Under these instructions, trustees have been called together in county meetings in several counties and have adopted books for the county, pledging themselves to ratify in their several boards the action of the county convention of trustees. So far as the State superintendent has been able to ascertain, this course has given excellent satisfac¬ tion Mr. Cooper sums up his examination of the question as follows: “A careful study of this text-book question leads me to the conclusion that its final solution will be free text-books, that is to say, the school authorities of each school dis¬ trict will be authorized or required to purchase the books from the district school funds * 7th Bi. Tex. Seh. Ren., p. XL. 2S. C. Sch. Law, 1889, pp. 33-4. *Tenn. Sob. Law, 1889, sec. 9. ‘‘Gth Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep,, p. 23. 568 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. and furnish them to the children free of cost. The argument for free text-books is un¬ answerable. It has been tersely and conclusively stated by Mr. Wickersh^m as follows: ‘ To make a school free you must make all free that belongs to it. To the school be¬ longs the house, the furniture, a teacher to impart instruction, and suitable apparatus to aid him in the task. In the same category must be placed text-books, for they are the necessary tools with which the teacher works. A free school, therefore, implies free text-books as well as a free schoolhouse, free school furniture and apparatus, and free tuition. From the standpoint of a free-school system, no line can be drawn that will place text-books on one side to be purchased by private individuals, and all else belong¬ ing to the school on the other, to be bought and paid for by the public. The pupil needs a book with which to prepare his lessons about as much as he does a seat to sit upon or a map or blackboard to aid him in his studies. The principle upon which free-school systems are based absolutely demands free text-books. The logic of the case is without a break. ’ “Texas is not yet ready, however, for a general law providing free text-books. A permissive law authorizing city school boards and the school boards of districts that levy local taxes and are supplied with adequate schoolhouse facilities to provide text-books from the public funds is practicable. Beginnings have been made in this direction by several cities in this State without any law. Houston furnishes supplementary readers for all grades where they are used, and many cities furnish school supplies of various kinds. “The best law that could be passed at present in this State would be one requiring district school boards to adopt books for a period of not less than three years, and au¬ thorizing school boards of districts that levy local taxes to buy books to belong to the district and be supplied to the children according to their needs. A law of this kind will offer no obstruction to the inevitable transition to the free text-book or library sys¬ tem, which is superior in economy and efidciency to any other system.” ^ VERMONT. County uniformity. — County boards of education are required to make a selection of text-books, ‘ ‘ one book of a grade in each study, ’ ’ every fifth year. The use of any other text-books in the studies prescribed by law is prohibited. County boards must enter into contract with the publishers of the books selected, while the chairmen of such boards are directed to arrange with one or more persons in each town to keep for sale the authorized text-books, who shall receive on the sale thereof not more than the freight and express charges and 10 per cent, advance upon the contract price. ^ Bootes on physiology., etc. — Text-books on physiology and hygiene must be furnished to all pupils at the expense of the State until July 1, 1895. ^ Free text-looks authorized. — Any town or district may purchase and hold text-books for use in its schools, if it so votes in a meeting warned for that purpose.^ Views of the superintendent. — State Superintendent E. F. Palmer is of the opinion that text-books should be furnished free, and that the State should assume the entire expense of supplying them, as long as there is no State tax. “Eqxial taxation, economy, the highest success of the schools, and experience of other communities all concur in de¬ manding not only free schoolhouses, but free text-books for the children of the State. The reason for insisting that the State, instead of the towns or school districts, should furnish the text-books is that it would tend to a more perfect equalization of taxes. “It would be more convenient for the towns to furnish the text-books, and would be preferable, if a State school tax is imposed by the legislature, as recommended in an¬ other part of this report. ® Some districts are refusing or neglecting to use the new books, but as there is no pen¬ alty attached to using prohibited books, the superintendent does not see how the courts could impose forfeiture of wages or of school funds. VIRGINIA. The law. — “Uniformity of text-books * * * shall be provided for on some gradual system by the board of education.”® Begtilations of the State board of education. — County school boards are required to select text-books from a list prescribed by the State board, but are forbidden to adopt more than one book of the same grade in any branch (which gives county uniformity). Provision ’7th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., pp. xniii-xniv. 2 Vt. Sch. Law, ed. 1888, chap. 10, secs. 171-5, p. 30. 8 16zd., sec. 178. ^Ihid., sec. 186. 6Vt. Sch. Rep., 1889-90, pp. 312-13. ® Va. Sch. Law, 1883, sec. 114. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 569 is made for an advisory committee of teachers in each county to recommend hooks to the county board for adoption. The State board contracts with publishers to supply the books for 4 years, and the county boards arrange with the publishers for their in¬ troduction at contract prices. As soon as any county board has determined upon the books to be used for a term of 4 years, due public notice is to be given of the names, prices, and mode of obtaining the books, and ol the regulations of the State board requiring ev^ry pupil to be sup¬ plied with the proper books before admission into any public school.^ In cities. — City school boards are authorized by law to adopt other text-books than those contained in the State lists for schools above the primary grade; and the school boards of Richmond, Petersburg, and Norfolk may adopt other text-books for primary schools with the consent of the State board. ^ Nexo construction of the laic. — The recently appointed State superintendent, Hon. John E. Massey, discusses the subject as follows:^ “The school law of Virginia providesfor the adoption of text-books by the State board of education, and has been construed by some of my predecessors to authorize an open list of two or more series in each depart¬ ment, leaving it for county boards to select from books adopted by the State board at their own discretion, and providing only for a county uniformity in one of the adopted se¬ ries, and that system is at present in operation. My own decision, however, is that the law requires the one book list, and I think our board will adopt the one book list and enforce its use, because it is clearly, in my judgment, the meaning of the law. * * * * “I am a firm believer in home rule and government by the people, and when legisla¬ tion has provided them the adoption of a uniform series of text-books by the unit or¬ ganization, leaving it for local boards to contract for the best books on the best terms, the legislature has accomplished its full mission in this respect. * * * “So far as my knowledge extends, education is most progressive, teachers are most enthusiastic, and the people most generally satisfied where there is flexibility and free¬ dom in the selection of text-books. I would not therefore advocate State uniformity, but I would advocate county and local uniformity. I would not advocate State con¬ tract, but I would advocate local contract, and would throw the door wide open for free competition to all.” WASHWGTON. Slate scries of text-hooks. — The State board of education is empowered to adopt a uni¬ form series of text-books for use in all the common schools including the graded schools. Before making any adoption, the State superintendent is required to advertise for pro¬ posals, the advertisements naming all the kinds of books for the supply of which pro¬ posals are invited, and stating also the exchange, wholesale, and retail prices that are t > be maintained. The exchange price is not to exceed two-fifths of the contract retail price of the books in use. The books adopted are not to be changed within five years.^ Any district using other than the State books forfeits one-fourth of its State school ap¬ portionment.^ Boards of education in cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants may pre¬ scribe text-books in addition to the State serie.s.® The law requiring uniform text-books throughout Washington has been in force for manyyears. State Superintendent R. B. Bryan states that it “ has given very general satis¬ faction, so much so that our legislature, which has just adjourned, readopted it as a part of our State code. * * * j; think no better system could be adopted for our use than the one referred to. We are new; there is much immigration and changing from place to place, and will be for some years, so that State uniformity is certainly desira¬ ble.'' WEST TIEGIOTA. A certain specified series of text-books, uniform throughout the State, was adopted by act of legislature in 1870. A few changes have since been made.® In 1879 an act was passed regulating the prices of the text-books. This act made it the duty of the State superintendent to contract with the |)ublishers of the State text¬ books that the books should be sold to the pupils and patrons of the schools at a special retail price, not to exceed the lowest wholesale price at anytime, and to any State, firm, or person; and that they should be furnished to dealers at 16f per cent, discount from such special retail price. The contract retail price of each book was to be printed on * Va. Sch. Law, 1883, secs. 401-413. Hit?. , sec. 23. * Ibid. , sec. 339. e Act Mch. 26, 1890, sec. 19. 37th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., p. xn. ’'7th Bi. Tex. Sch. Rep., p. XLII. ‘Wash. Sch. Law, 1890, sec. 8. » W. Va. Sch. Law, 1887, sec. 58, gives amended list. 570 EDUCATION REPOET, 1888-80. the outside of it, and price lists were to be posted in each schoolhouse and at each place where books were sold. Any dealer charging more than the contract price became sub¬ ject to a fine. District school boards are authorized, by an amendment ot 1885, to pur¬ chase and keep on hand a supply of books for sale to patrons and pupils.^ State Superintendent B. S. Morgan remarks upon the law as follows; ^ “We have never known any other system of supplying the schools with class books than what is understood as State adoption and uniformity. This system has been modified to this extent, that a number of our largest towns which have been allowed the privilege of selecting their own schoolbooks, for which the State makes the contract with the publishers. Since 1879 the State has by law contracted through the State superintendent for all public schoolbooks, and fixed the maximum prices at which these books shall be purchased from the publisher and sold by the retail dealers to the people throughout the State. This system gives our people uniform books at a uniform price. “ This system just described is at the present time in operation in this State, and in my judgment gives very reasonable satisfaction. The obstacles in the way of making it entirely satisfactory are that in remote sections of the State the per cent, of profit to retail dealers does not offer sufficient inducement to handle the books, and so the people do not always find a convenient supply at hand. When these obstacles are removed and some other changes made, I believe our system will render almost entire satisfac¬ tion. “I am not prepared to say just what is the best system pursued in the United States, as I am not familiar with the plans adopted in all the other States. The essentials to be aimed at in any system are, first, the best books; second, the lowest price at which they can be supplied to the people; third, a system by which the people can obtain these books with the least trouble and inconvenience. “It seems to me that State adoption and uniformity, thus offering a large business to publishers, should secure the minimum price for books. I believe the best method of distributing the books is by means of the retail merchants of the towns and coun¬ try. I also think the State should regulate the retail prices to the people.” And the State superintendent further sajiS in his own report;^ “ The present contract for supplying schoolbooks to he used in the public schools of this State will expire in 1890. Having taken special pains to inquire into the different plans in practice in other States, and in cities, for supplying books to patrons and pupils, I am convinced that no one with which I am familiar is more advantageous and economical for the people, and better calculated to secure protection from all imposition by way of excessive charges. I therefore most earnestly urge its continuance. Should merchants fail or refuse to keep on hand a sufficient supply of books for the schools in their vicinity, on account of the rate of profit allowed, as has perhaps occurred in a few cases, and which has been urged as an objection to the law, boards of education are empowered by law to purchase and keep on hand in the office of the secretary of the board a supply of schoolbooks for the pupils of the district. This law will prevent any failure in secur¬ ing the necessary supply of schoolbooks, and very conveniently supplements the pres¬ ent plan of securing schoolbooks. “ As to the schoolbooks now adopted for use in the public schools of the State, they are among the best published, and, so far as I am informed, are giving very general satis¬ faction. Great care should be used in the selection of text- books, but when good books have once been adopted and introduced into the schools it is very unwise to make fre¬ quent changes, not only on account of the confusion produced in the schools, but also on account of the great and needless expense to patrons and pupils. It should also be understood that it is far more difficult and expensive to efl:ect a change of schoolbooks in country schools than in city schools. I see no need for any change of schoolbooks adopted and now in use in this State.” Opposition of the governor to renewal of the contract. — Governor E.W. Wilson sent to the legislature January 28, 1890, a special message protesting against a renewal of the con¬ tract which was to expire in 1890. He commended favorably the new Indiana law (see *W. Va. Sell. Law, 1887, pp. 52-55. 27tli Bi. Tex. Sch. Eep., p. XLII. * W. Va. Sch. Eep., 1887-88, pp. 19-20. STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 571 p. 543), and compared the contract prices in West Virginia with the maximum prices established by the Indiana law, as follows: Book. Indiana. West Virginia. First Reader . . . . . $0. 10 .15 .25 .30 .40 .30 .75 . 05 .35 .45 ■ $0. 17 .30 .42 .50 .72 .54 1.20 (* *) ( .15 \ .25 .50 Seenrid Rea.der . . Third Reader . . . Fourth Reader . . . . Fifth Reader . . . Elementary Geography . . Complete Geography . . . Copy Books, each . . . . . . . . . Elementary Arithmetic . . . Complete Arithmetic . *No contract. “Here then [he went on to say] is the fact that we are payine: over 35 per cent, more for the books named than the State of Indiana is paying for books of a like character, as good in every way as ours; and we are assured by the manager of the Indiana house that the same books can be furnished to us at the same prices. ' “I have secured a complete set of the Indiana books for your examination and com- iwison with those now in use in this State, and they amount to a demonstration of the extortion that has been practiced upon our people under cover of an unwise law which compels the exclusive use of a particular series of books, and annihilates all competition. “If the legislature fail to act in this matter at the present session then the State superintendent of free schools will be compelled to enter into a five-year contract for the books named in section 58 [of the school law]. * * * “Is it possible for the law to subserve the interests of monopoly more completely? Can such laws be justified upon any principle or reason whatever? I have no special series of books to recommend. The law should not name the books. Let there be a competent commission appointed who shall advertise and receive proposals from pub¬ lishers, authors, and others, and, when the proposals are all in, if satisfactory books be presented, select and adppt a series for this State, within maximum prices to be fixed by the statute. * * * “No argument, no sophistry can justify a continuance of the present obnoxious, op¬ pressive monopolistic laws which, unwittingly, have been fastened upon the people, and which compel them to pay from 35 to 50 per cent, more for schoolbooks than they are reasonably worth. ” It appears that the schoolbook contract was finally renewed for one year from 1890.^ AYISCONSIK. District boards determine text-books to be used, and must keep a list thereof posted in the schoolhouse. When once adopted they are not to be changed for three years, and not then unless authorized by a vote of the district at a regular meeting; notice that the question of a change of text-books will be submitted must be embodied in the call for the meeting. In cities analogous provisions are in force,, any change of text-books being subject to the approval of the common council or board of aldermen.^ Any district may by vote authorize its school board “to purchase books, and loan them to pupils for a stipulated rental per month, term, or year, or sell them to pupils at cost or more, or furnish them for use Avithout charge.” ^ Free text-bookf<. — A law of 1887 requires every school district to vote, at each annual meeting after its passage, upon the question of providing free text-books for pupils, and levying a tax to meet the. expense. * W. Va. Sch. Rep., 1888-90, p. 23. * Wi3. Sch. Laov, 1890, secs. 410, 514. 3 Ibid., p. 32, and sec. 430,13, * Ibid., p. S2o 572 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1888-89. FURTHER OPINIONS ON THE TEXT-BOOK QUESTION. The sohif ion of the text-JjooTc problem. — Superintendent L. S. Cornell, of Colorado: The solution of this problem, I believe, will be found in free text-books owned by the local hoards. When this plan has been adopted the question of uniformity is no longer dis¬ cussed. Its advantages are that it secures absolute uniformity within the school, that it opens the doors of the school to the very poor, and that it is the most economical method of supplying the children with books. It secures uniformity. Whenever it is decided that a certain kind of book is needed, a sufficient supply for the whole school is purchased. There is no waiting until parents find it convenient or can afford to buy. Ail are equally well supplied, rich and poor alike. Many a child now remains out of school until late in the term, or does not at¬ tend at all, because his parents really can not afford to purchase the necessary books, or think that they can not. With books supplied, the school becomes indeed free. It is the most economical. The books are bought in large quantities at wholesale or publishers’ prices. Each book is used again and again until it is worn out. It is the general testimony that books owned by the school are better cared for and last longer than those belonging to the pupils. If books are adopted for a term of three or four years many of them would last through the entire time instead of being laid aside or destroyed after a few weeks’ service, as is often the case when they are owned by the individuals. Again, this plan gives a free field to private enterprise and competition. If an edu¬ cator has written a book that he regards as superior to those in use, and has found a publisher, he has every opportunity to secure its adoption and have it tested. Or if a publisher is enterprising he can make his books artistic and attractive in appearance, assured that he will be rewarded by larger sales. This freedom of competition will in¬ sure progressively better and cheaper books. I would insist, then, on these three things: First. That the selection of text-books should be left entirely in the hands of the local authorities. Second. That when a book is once adopted it should not be changed in less than three or four years. Third. That the books should be owned by the school and furnished free of expense to all pupils. Free text-book^ not a charity. — Superintendent Thomas Tash, of Portland, Me.: The objection has been raised that the State may as well relieve parents by requiring towns and cities to furnish the clothing of school children as to furnish text-books in the schools. One making this objection deserves to have lived among the ancient Spartans, where the objection could hardly have been raised. Such an objecter evidently looks upon the free school as a magnificent charity, and not as a political necessity. Text-books are a necessity to common-school education which the State, for her own preservation and welfare, has undertaken to supply; clothing is a necessity to the individual’s physical welfare, over which the State has not yet assumed full control. The State imposes upon municipalities the duty of raising taxes to defray the expenses of procuring lots, erectii}g and repairing schoolhouses, providing school furniture and fuel, and furnishing suitable instruction. The right and wisdom of the State thus to provide for the education of her citizens is beyond question; it is, therefore, not only a proper but a wise economy to add to these expenditures all that is essential to tender her schools in a high degree effective. If the furnishing of the desks of schoolhouses with suitable text-books will largely increase the efficiency of the schools, while it diminishes their cost to parents far more than is its expense to the public, it becomes a public good, and may, with great propriety, be done. The text-books may as prop¬ erly be supplied to the school as the fuel or the desks even. A thread which should not be severed. — Superintendent R. W. Stevenson, of Columbus, Ohio: The principle underlying free text-books is w'rong and must result in evil. The government is the best which gives the people the power and opportunity to do the most for themselves. There can be no cooperation without co-interest; to be inter-, ested in anything tbe person must have a share that has a value — that it costs something to secure — even in education. There are therefore limitations beyond which the State, for its own safety, should not go. The State which supplies those wants of its people that by common industry and enconomy they can supply for themselves encourages idleness and dependence. The wisdom of the State’s expenditure of money for education depends upon the good that will result therefrom. The people are less inclined to pay for teaching- power than for text-books. The State should therefore increase its expenditures for teaching- talent and qualifications, and put upon the shoulders of the people the burden of text¬ books. * * * But is the offer of free text-books a proper incentive to secure a larger attendance? Is not the effort which a poor boy is compelled to put forth to equip himself for school STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 573 as good training as he will get in the school itself? Working and saving to be able to purchase his text- books, accompanied by the feeling of absolute ownership, will be quite as valuable in the formation of character as anything the school will do for him. It may be said there are other things by which the boy may learn this lesson; yes, but none binds him as closely to his school and impresses him so deeply with the feeling that he has a part to perform. It often happens that a parent who has been at the expense of purchasing text-books will insist upon his child attending school for this reason alone. It will not be amiss to inquire into the cost of schoolbooks and supplies to ascertain definitely if possible the actual burdens their purchase imposes. The course of study in city systems of schools below the high school embraces a period of about eight years. In the city with which I am most familiar, text-books and supplies are purchased by the pupils of retail dealers. The average annual cost per capita for four years, primary grades, is $1.27; for four years, grammar grades, $4.08; or for eight years, pjrimary and grammar, an average cost per annum for each pupil of $2.67J. This includes the fol¬ lowing items: Text-books — 6 different readers, 2 grammars, 2 arithmetics, 3 geogra¬ phies, 3 music readers, 1 United States history, 1 science primer, 10 copy books, 12 draw¬ ing-books, 6 blank composition-books. Supplies — 2 slates and pencils, lead pencils and pens, penholders, sponges, erasers, drawing instruments, metric ruler, and drawing and copy book covers The whole expense to the pupil for the eight years’ course is $21.40. Should text-books and supplies be purchased by boards of education at whole¬ sale and not retail dealers, the cost per pupil for eight years’ course would be $16.05, or $5.35 less, which would be an average cost per year for each pupil of $2. Should boards of education purchase the supplies, and require the pupils to purchase their text-books, the cost per pupil for eight years would be $12.77. At the highest prices the burden is not heavy for even a day laborer. The expense for the entire school course for eight years is but a little more than the amount necessary to keep a healthy boy in shoes one year. It is barely large enough to remind the parent that he has some share in the educa¬ tion of his child. In many cases it is the only thread that holds the parents and the schools together. This should not be severed. It is quite natural for people to interest them¬ selves in nothing unless in it they have a money interest. The only advantage that I can see that would come out of a system of free text-books is that it would stop for a time the mouths of grumblers. The same people will demand more. Take the children of some people, clothe, feed, shelter, and educate them, and they will still grumble. Every step taken, by legislation or otherwise, to lighten the responsibility of the people in the education of their children weakens the system and lessens interest in the schools. On the contrary, every dollar spent by the State for greater teaching ability and better scholarship will strengthen the system of public education. Objections to jree text-hooks. — State Superintendent E. E. Higbee, of Pennsylvania: Some, assured that a uniformity of text-books can never render teaching less vague and more consistent, as it has no power to render uniform either teachers or communities, but on the contrary serves only to make school work more mechanical and routinish and less individual and free, yet willing to take into account the element of expense, have thought it best that the children of the schools should be supplied with books by the directors free of all cost, which would obviate all expense growing out of change of residence from school to school, and at the same time keep the school work free from the dangers and temptations of a uniformity determined by authority external to the directors and teachers themselves. Even this course, which has the full sanction of Massachusetts, and is allowed in Pennsylvania, has many serious objections. It weak¬ ens with parents, it is felt, that sense of responsibility for the culture of their children so necessary to an intelligent family life; it carries away from the household library the endeared treasures of well-conned childhood books; it dulls the feeling of ownership upon the part of the children themselves, which is felt ethically to have great educa¬ tional value; it gives countenance to a neglect of the higher intellectual enterprise of the people, who, by being challenged to give only bread-and-butter support to their children, become indifferent to anything beyond; and it dullssympathy with that whole¬ some American habit of business, which rightly allows to individuals and families and subordinate municipalities the utmost swing for free impulse and activity. Attended with excellent results. — Dover (N. 14.) school board: The introduction of free text-books into our schools, as recommended in our report of one year ago, has been at¬ tended with excellent results. The difficulties which many feared would attend the free supply of books have not been realized; they are well cared for by the pupils gen¬ erally, and the teachers express the opinion that the books are preserved in better con¬ dition than they would be were they owned by the children. Has well repaid all extra work and expense. — Report of one year’s experience of free text¬ books in Ac worth, N. H. : The superintendent has taken entire charge of the text-books, requiring each teacher to keep a complete list of ail the books furnished and the names of the pupils using them, and to see that none were lost or destroyed. While the car© 574 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. of tlie text-books has greatly increased the duties of your superintendent, it has well re¬ paid all extra work and expense in the greater ease with which a perfect uniformity of books has been maintained, and the lact that every pupil has had all the books needed, while under the former custom one book would frequently be expected to meet the re¬ quirements of two or three pupils in the same family. The entire expense ior the books the past year has been only Si 111. 50. Has silenced opposition. — Superintendent E. N. Jones, of Saratoga Springs, N. Y. : The operation of the free text-book system, which went into effect at the beginning of the year covered by this report, appears to have silenced whatever opposition to it there may have existed at the time of its adoption. There is every indication that the advantages claimed for it by its advocates are being realized. There is no doubt that the marked increase in attendance during the past year is one of its beneiicent results. Effect of text-hoolus on the eyesight, — Superintendent Henry Sabin, of Iowa: In the prepa¬ ration of text-books great care should be taken to relieve from undue exertion the eyesof those using them. It is said by those who have investigated the subject that defective eye¬ sight is on the increase among our youth. It is unquestionably true that poor paper, bad impressions, broken and worn-out type, and tine print in our books have had much to do with injuring the sight of school children. The paper used in our schoolbooks should be thick and firm in its texture, so as not to be transparent; it should be white, forming a sharp contrast with the black letters, and without any gloss to dazzle the eyes. The ink is a matter of importance. The type should be of a proper size and form so as to give a perfect impression, and the general arrangement of the page should be such as to render each letter and word legible without any conscious effort of the eye. The eyesight of the child is his most precious heritage; more precious even to the chil¬ dren of the poor than to those of the wealthy, as its use is one ol the means by which they are to obtain a livelihood. A text- book which is not made in accordance with the latest scientific discoveries, calculated to preserve and strengthen this sense, should not be allowed in the school room. Such mechanical perfection is not the result of accident. To produce it requires expenditure of money, scientific research, and the employment of skilled labor. • The limit to uniformity. — Superintendent E. W. Stevenson, of Columbus, Ohio: A uniformity of text-books within certain limitation is desirable. It is perhaps well for a system of schools under one board of education and one superintendent to have uni¬ formity of text-books, but the instruction will be broader and better in many subjects without uniformity. For example, a class in history of the United States, or general history, or in geography, will do better work if every member o! the class has a book by a different author. From an educational standpoint. State uniformity is clearly against progress. I do not know that this scheme has a friend among prominent edu¬ cational men anywhere, east or west; and yet it would be one of the results of the State going into the publishing business. The difference of conditions between the country schools and the city schools would not be considered. No opportunities would be offered for the profession to improve its own method of instruction. The selection of text-books for the State would be necessarily put into the hands of a commission ap¬ pointed by the legislature or the governor. The people would have no recourse, no ap¬ peal from its decision or contracts. The publishers of the books adopted would have a general monopoly, and if the prices were low it would be easy to make the quality of paper and binding to correspond. The adoption would have to be for a long period, and the saving in expense to the people on this account would be lost in the improvement of methods as suggested by the most recent text-books. No one would dare say that a commission made up of even scholarly men, and men of experience as educators, would equal in their combined wisdom and knowledge the local boards of education which come direct from the people. The scheme is contrary to the genius of our republican form of government. The uniformity of text-books if desirable at all should be to the unit of the school system ol any State. If the unit is the township, uniformity in the text-books should be limited to the township; if the county, then the county should be the limit. A Visionary and impraciicahle scheme. — Superintendent R.W. Stevenson, of Columbus, Ohio: But is it possible for a State to produce a text-book for schools, without competi¬ tion, of equally as good quality and as cheap as individual publishers with competition, subject to the tests of scholars and educators rather than politicians ? Is it possible for a hired commission to produce text- books as acceptable to the progressive teacher as books would be that come from authors whose knowledge and experience have given them clear notions of what text-books should be ? Is it advantageous to a State to shut out all text-books not only not purchased within its domain, but to limit their production to a commission the test of whose qualifications is personal and political favor with the powers that be ? The teacher who has an ambition and an inspiration to write a text¬ book is generally a good teacher or believes himself to be such. He should have the STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS, 575 opportunity snivel! him to p;ratify this ambition, which he can not have unless he goes to another State m;)re liberal, where machine books would not be tolerated. No scheme that has been devised for cheapening the cost of text- books is so impracticable and vis¬ ionary as the one which proposes the preparation and publication of text-books by the State. Slate control of text-1) 0 oh. — Superintendent A. P. Marble, of Y/orcester, Mass: These attempts at State interference with that which does not belong to the State' have not been successful. Naturally they have created evils greater than those which they are intended to cure. They are contrary to the genius of our institutions; for these insti¬ tutions recognize the people as the source of power, and not some central authority, as in llussia. State decree is usurpation; it abridges unnecessarily the natural right of a community to secure in its own way the results which the State may properly demand; it almost inevitably breeds corruption. State contract, the next step towards Kussia, is a further usurpation; it perverts the fujiction of the State from government to business, from making laws for the general good to selling schoolbooks, with a purpose, by no means ac¬ complished with any certainty, ol saving a few cents yearly to the individual citizen. These two having failed to secure what they aimed at — and quite naturally they fail, because the State is assuming an incompatible function — a third remedy is proposed in State publication. An American familiar with his country’s history, and with the development of our institutions, finds it necessary to reconstruct his idea of what a State is, and to attach to it new and unusual 1 unctions, betore he can contemplate the idea of a State’s making schoolbooks. Such a work is in harmony with the imperialism of Russia, but is utterly foreign to American democracy. A paternal government, which undertakes to regulate everything about the lives of its subjects, may make the schoolbooks which they use, and even prescribe the medicine which they shall take when sick. Our Government was founded on the theory that every man can take care of himself, and that he has the right to select his own pills when he is sick; and for making schoolbooks the State has not the necessary machinery any more than for making poetry. Uniformity recommended in Idaho. — Superintendent C. C. Stevenson: A series of text¬ books haviJ3g been once adopted by the board of county commissioners and county superintendent, must remain in use and are not subject to change for four years. No two counties in the Territory have the same books in use, and some are using inferior works for the reason that the county commissioners were nor qualified to make such selections. It would be much better if we had the same provision now in operation in many of the States — of one universal system for the whole Territory. Some facU out lext-hoohs. — State Snperiutendeut W. E. Coleman,, of Missouri: The question of schoolbook legislation has been agitated to considerable extent in recent years, and numerous bills introduced into the last three General Assemblies for the purpose of settling this vexed problem. There appears to be a general belief that somidhing is radically wrong; that schoolbooks cost too much money, and that too many changes are made in text-books, thereby entailing unnecessary cost to the patrons of the public schools. No doubt this is true; but, granting this to be so, what is the remedy? In this matter, as in many others, the tendency is to go Ifom one extreme to another, therefore men have rushed to the conclusion that the only remedy is in legis¬ lation; that the State should enact a law, appoint a commission to prepare, publish, and distribute the text-books and sell them at actual cost. This sounds very well to talk about, but bow would it work? * * * Facts are stubborn things to deal with in a case like this, but a few are here given for the benefit of those who are clamoring for legislation upon this snbject. 1. Why are these changes made in text-books? Answer. For the following reasons: School boards have been too careless, negligent, or cowardly to comply with the law and execute its provisions. While the law pro¬ vides that the school board, in any given district, shall fix the grade of the school, pre¬ scribe the coarse of studv, and designate the text-books to be used, the board has simply turned the whole matter over to the new teacher — for new teachers cause most of this troul)le — and this new teacher, desiring to teach the books he studied in school (not being qualified to teach those already in the school), immediately inaugurates a war on the books now in use in said district, and sets to work to have a change made; the board simply does nothing, the change is made, throwing out better books than are put in, and general conlusion is the result. All this could have been remedied by the hoard doing its duty by adopting the hooks to be used and requiring the teacher to use them, allowing no change except when necessary, and then making the change “by order of the hoard.” * * '2. Why do schoolbooks cost such enormous prices ? Answer. The regular prices of schoolbooks, while perhaps too high, are not enormous, 570 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. if judgment is exercised in purchasing them, as is manifested in buying other articles of necessity. The retail dealers sell these books for 20, 30, and 40 per cent, more than the advertised retail price as given by the publishers. * * * 3. Can these evils be remedied by our present law ? Answer. They can, most undoubtedly, and all that is required to remove all the fric-, tion and secure books at reasonable figures, is for the board to execute the law faithfully, as follows: Let the board, “by order of the board:” (a) Pass upoa and adopt the rules and regulations to govern the school. (b) Outline the course of study to be pursued in the school. (c) Adopt the books to be used and allow no others used except for supplementary work. (d) Change books only when they can be superseded by better ones; and then the change should be effected through the publishers of the books to be used at the exchange or introductory prices. (e) When individuals desire to purchase they can order direct from the publishers and save 20 or 30 per cent., or the secretary or clerk of the board can order books for a whole class at the wholesale prices. (/) Allow no teacher to adopt or change a text-book. By following the law as laid down in the foregoing suggestion unnecessary changes will be averted and the cost of schoolbooks, to any district, greatly reduced. * * * What does State adoption mean ? It has been tried in California, Minnesota, and Indiana, therefore the question can be answered with some degree of accuracy: 1. It will require five years for the State to prepare, publish, distribute, and place these books in the public schools of the State. 2. It will necessitate the loss of all the books now in use, for they must be displaced in order to introduce the State books; this will necessitate an expenditure of one and a half million dollers to be paid out directly by the patrons of the public schools. 3. It is a hazardous business to intrust the preparation of text-books to any four or five men the legislature may designate. What guaranty have you that the books will be as good as those now in use or that they will be furnished at any less cost than you now have to pay ? Regulation and control of sclioolboohs. — Superinten dent J. M. Greenwood, of Kansas City schools (writing in February, 1891): Since the systems of public-school instruction are not at all uniform in the various States of the Union, it is evident ai; the outset that no one law will be found best for each one of the States. It is also evident that the law will be best which brings directly to the people at their homes the books which they desire at the lowest possible cost, and that some degree of uniformity is necessary in order that books may be used in the schoolroom with the greatest economy of time. Uni^rmity of schoolbooks is and should be dependent upon a uniform course of study, and should, therefore, be controlled by the local officers, who have charge of the business affairs of the schoolroom, such as employment of teachers, the regulation of school hours, the laying down of a course of study, and the providing of standards for examination. In some States this control is vested in the district, in others in the township, and in a few in the county. In no State in the Union has the entire State been placed under the control of one board with respect to all these particulars. The only ground for State or county uniformity has been to provide for the people who move from one locality to another. This is legislating for the minority at the expense of the majority. The number who move in any given year constitute much less than 1 per cent, of the popu¬ lation. A law based upon such ground is manifestly indefensible, and no other ground has ever been urged that is worthy of consideration. * * * A few States have contracted for series of books for the whole State. These are Min¬ nesota, Indiana, West Virginia, Virginia, Louisiana, and perhaps some others. In two of these States the expense of distribution is borne by public taxation, and the nominal cost of books to the pupils is reduced by such taxation. That is, the pupil pays a cer¬ tain proportion of the cost and the taxpayer bears the rest; and when the taxpayer’s proportion is added to the prices paid by pupils it is easily demonstrated that I he ag¬ gregate cost of text-books is considerably more than the prices paid where no such law exists. This is the Indiana plan, and in the past year the total expense of text-books for that State has been 10 per cent, larger than it ever was in previous years, and only two-fifths of books are yet supplied under contract. No scheme of State contract has ever prevailed continuously in any given State without giving rise to scandals, abuse, and discontent. Another objection to a State uniformity plan as governed by State contract is found in the fact that since no uniformity exists naturally, any establishment of uniformity in¬ volved the throwing away of the vast accumulation of schoolbooks in the hands of the people. It has been calculated and certified by the official people of legislative com- STATE TEXT-BOOK LAWS AND SYSTEMS. 577 mittees that the total supply in any given State is more than five times the supply purchased annually. In order to give any real saving, therefore, by the establishment of uniformity, it is necessary that this saving shall be more than 50 per cent, of present cost. This is manifestly impossible. It is desirable, therefore, in any law, that the people shall be enabled to save the books already in use, represented in each State by a sum of money which may roughly estimated by multiplying the pupils enrolled by two, as the amount of books in each pupil’s hands is estimated at two dollars. It must be remembered that the average annual supply purchased by each pupil has been ascer¬ tained to be less than forty cents (see report to Ohio Legislature, February, 1891). In order to produce the least expense, a law must therefore provide for local control, and, if necessary, for local contract, by the public authorities in each locality. By local con¬ trol, they can retain the use of the books already adopted, if this seems desirable. By contract, they can obtain from any publisher in the United States their supply of books at precisely the same rates given to any State contracting for the same; that is, the smallest school district can contract on as favorable terms as the largest State in the Union. Each community having selected its books and made a contract, if such seems desirable, should then have the option either to supply the books by direct handling, or by transfer of the contract to a local bookseller under limitations as to selling price; and it should be made the duty of the local authorities to see that these prices are not exceeded. If it is thought best by local authorities to furnish the books by public taxation and to loan them to pupils, this authority should be given only by vote of the people in the locality. The American .people should always be free to determine their own taxation. This method of supply by public taxation has been miscalled the “free book system,” and great claims have been made for this method as being cheaper than any other. This claim has been sustained only by an absolute misrepresentation of the average expense of purchase in the open market. It has proven that under the direct purchase plan the expense has been less than forty cents per pupil; whereas in the case of Springfield, Mass., a year ago it reached eighty cents per pupil by the “free book plan)” being twice the average cost per year under the usual conditions of demand and supply. A recent article in the Nebraska State Journal, February 11, 1891, pertinently states: “The objections to furnishing schoolbooks free are, first, that it will result in extrav¬ agance and wastefulness, as it is not human nature to take good care of property that costs the user nothing; second, that it discourages independence and individuality. It is a step in the wrong direction. The best results to humanity are secured by laws that presume that every citizen is normally capable of supporting himself and providing for his family, and that interposes public charity only when the individual fails through illness, misfortune, or congenital worthlessness to measure up to the common standard of efficiency. The aggregate cost of education is reduced by our public free-school sys¬ tem, and at the same time the opportunity is made very nearly universal. But there is no moi^ econorav in the proposition for the State to furnish text-books for the schol¬ ars than there would be in the State furnishing them the clothes in which to appear. The blessing that costs nothing is not the one most highly appreciated.” The ideal law with respect to school supplies is the one that brings the purchaser and producer nearest to one another, and prohibits unnecessary changes oftener than once in five years. The least possible intervention of official meddling, public taxation, or official handling will be found cheapest. The more open the competition, the better will be the results. The American people are capable of self-government, and this principle of self- government is as efficient in local government as in larger organizations. The people in each district, in each township, and in each county are as capable of deciding what they want as are their representatives when assembled in State or in Congress. Under existing conditions, as before stated, the smallest school district can purchase as cheaply as the larger one, and there seems to be no good reason whatever for the enactment of any law looking to the purchase under contract for State or county supplies on the plea of a saving in expense. At no time and under no circumstances will it be possible to establish a monopoly in the supply of schoolbooks, except by direct act of legislation, contracting for one series for a State and excluding all others. If all the publishers in the United States were to be joined to-day, new ones would rise up to-morrow to fight the combination. American people will not submit to any continuous domination from monopolies, and the schoolbook publishers are fully aware of this fact. Open compe¬ tition, a free appeal to the people in each community, a fair examination of qualities, and a candid comparison of prices are what every honest schoolbook publisher desires. Wherever the matter of contract or adoption has been removed far from the people in¬ terested it has been found that price alone becomes the ruling element, and quality or adaptation to use is ignored. Schoolbooks, good, bad, or indifferent, cheaper dear, can be obtained by any locality desiring them at fair prices without the necessity of a mo- ed 89 - 37 578 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. nopoly law. A law adapted to any State should, therefore, have the following elements: 1. It should provide for adoption by local officers and uniformity for each school. 2. It should provide for contract and sale by public officers, or for a contract and assignment of the same to some local bookseller, under conditions satisfactory to the board and to the people. 3. It should provide for the continuance of the adopted books for at least five years. Under such conditions competition would be active, constant, and the people would have the decision of such matters as should be left to their control. Eow far uniformity is desirable. — Hon. L. S. Cornell, State superintendent of Colorado: 'Uniformity of text-books did not always have the meaning that these words now convey. Some of us can remember when each child came to school supplied with such books as had come down to him through the careful hands of two or three generations, or had been given him by some kind-hearted neighbor. If perchance he owned a book pur¬ chased for him, it might be any one of several varieties on sale in the village store. A country teacher with fif ty or sixty pupils of all ages thus eciuipped could have but one opinion on the desirability of uniform text-books. That chaotic condition of things, so wasteful of the teacher’s energy and so opposed to orderly, systematic work, is past. Children of the same grade in a school use only one kind of book on each subject. Not only is this true, but, pleased with the results of their work and apparently acting on the principle that ‘ one can not have too much of a good thing, ’ the reformers have secured the adoption of uniform series of books in town¬ ships, counties, and States. Whether this is another case of pendulum-like swinging from one extreme to the other is, perhaps, still an open question. Township uniformity is, no doubt, desirable when the township is the unit of the system and the schools are all under one management. The same may be said of county uniformity when the schools are thoroughly organized and the county superintendent is in fact a superin¬ tendent of schools. But beyond that it seems to me that the most of the valid argu¬ ments fail. If there were a book on each subject absolutely superior to all others, and if we had infallible officials to select these books, there could be no question ; but with both these conditions unfulfilled it seems to me that State uniformity is wrong in theory, as it is .unsatisfactory, often abominable, in practice. CHAPTER XX. POWEKS OF CITY SCHOOL BOAEDS AVITH EEGAKD TO SCHOOL SITES AND BUILDmOS. The following pages contain a brief statement of the powers granted by State laws to city school boards regarding the selection and purchase of school sites and the erection of school buildings; and in cases where such boards are invested with authority in the matter of sites and buildings, there is added a brief synopsis of the law showing the ex¬ tent of control they have over the school finances, i. e., the means they possess of making their powers effective. The school systems of the more important cities in many of the States, of nearly all the cities of some States, are organized under special laws or provisions of their charters. • A number of such cities are noted in the following summary, though it has not been practicable to make the list exhaustive at the present time. Alabama. Township superintendents, at a meeting of parents and guardians and in consultation ■with them, fix the location of schools. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 967.) An appeal lies to the county superintendent. (Sec. 970). Schoolhouses are built by local taxes; all local funds are expended as the township superintendent or other local authority provided by law may prescribe. (Sec. 1016). Mobile County. — Theboard of school commissioners has “powerto purchaseor lease such property for school purposes as in their judgment may be necessary for the proper ac¬ commodation ” of pupils and teachers. The board has power to levy and collect taxes. • Birmingham. — Board of education has “power to build upon the property of the city suitable houses for the use and accommodation of the public schools.” Board levies a tax not exceeding 15 cents on $100, which must be collected and disbursed as they direct. Montgomery. — Board of school examiners have no power over school property; this . power is vested solely in city council. Tuscaloosa. — The “ board of education shall have power, with the approval of the board of mayor and aldermen, to build upon the property of the city suitable houses for use and accommodation of the public schools of said school district. ” Mayor and aider- men levy local tax. “No contract shall be entered into and no disbursement of any ■ money or funds under the provisions of this act shall be made except by the consent and under the direction and control of the board of mayor and aldermen.” Troy. — Same as Tuscaloosa. Aekansas. Boards of school directors of incorporated cities and towns organized as single districts locate and establish schools. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 6266.) , They “have power to purchase or lease schoolhouse sites, to build, hire, or purchase schoolhouses, ” etc. (Sec. 6265.) “But no tax for any purpose can now be levied by the county court without a vote of the electors of the district,” specifying the rate. (lb., note, and sec. 6262.) City school boards, however, may apply any part of the fund belonging to the district not otherwise appropriated to “ building and purchasing a schoolhouse, irrespective of the source from which such fund came.” (Opinion Att’y-Gen., p. 73.) 579 580 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. California. Boardf? of education in cities have power, “when directed by a vote of their [city] district, to build schoolhouses or to purchase or sell school lots.” (Sch. Law, ed. 1888, sec. 1617, COLOllADO. Boards of school directors in districts containing a school population of more than 350 exercise certain powers given the electors of districts of less than 350. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 41.) This includes power “ to fix the site for each schoolhouse,” and to order such tax on taxable property of the district as they shall deem sufficient for pur¬ chasing sites and building schoolhouses, etc. (Sec. 63.) County commissioners must levy tax, and the amounts collected are held subject to the order of school board. (Sec. 67.) Connecticut. A schoolhouse site may be fixed or changed only by a two- thirds vote of a district meeting. (Sch. Law, ed. 1888, sec. 117.) “No new schoolhouse shall be built except according to a plan approved by the board of school visitors ["or town school committee] and by the building committee of such district; nor at an expense exceeding the sum which the district may appropriate there¬ for.” (Secs. 116, 129.) Towns may constitute themselves a single district. (Sec. 124.) Delaware. District school committees have power “to determine the site, lease or purchase the necessary ground, and build or procure a suitable house” for the district. (Sch. Law, ed. 1881, Art. IX, 1.) “To receive and collect all money belonging to, appropriated, or resolved to be raised for the district, and to apply the same justly.” (7Z>., 4. ) A tax for a schoolhouse can only be levied by vote of a district meeting. If it ex¬ ceeds $500, special authority must be obtained from the State legislature. (Art. VI.) The districts of eighteen cities, towns, or villages have been consolidated and in¬ corporated by special acts of the legislature. (Art. V. ) Wilmington. — The board of education “shall have control and authority over all the public schools,” and “shall increase the number,” etc., “and do all acts necessary for establishing and maintaining said schools as they shall deem judicious and expedient.” “ They shall have no banking power.” (Act Feb. 24, 1871, sec. 4.) The city council shall every year “determine according to a computation to be laid before them by said board the sum necessary to be raised ’ ’ for the above purposes. (J6., sec. 6.) In 1877 a committee of the board reported that the city council had “ uniformly -re¬ fused” to “appropriate the amounts asked for,” with one or two exceptions, though the city solicitor gave it as his opinion that the demand was legal. (Several acts affecting Wilmington have since been passed.) Florida. County boards of public instruction are authorized and directed “to select and pro¬ vide a site for each schoolhouse * * * in the villages or cities; ” and “to do what¬ ever they may judge expedient with regard to purchasing or renting school sites and premises; constructing, etc., schoolhouses,” etc. (Sch. Law, ed. 1885, sec. 20, fifth and sixth. ) County boards have charge and management of common-school moneys. (/&., second.) Their tax estimates for 1881 and 1882 were not to'^exceed four mills on the dollar, and were subject to the approval of the county commissioners. (Act March 7, 1881.) sr ^ Georgia. . v» County boards of education locate schools (act of 1887, sec. 20); have power to purchase sites and build schoolhouses; they may provide for same “either by labor on the part of the citizens of the subdistrict to be served or by a tax on their property, as maybe hereafter provided.” {lb., sec. 21.) Nearly or quite all important cities and towns are governed by special laws, for in¬ stance: Atlanta. — Mayor and council are empowered to maihtain, regulate, etc. , schools. City ordinance confers on board of education “control of the whole subject of public schools POWERS OF CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 581 in the city,” specifying among others the power “to contract, lease, or purchase build¬ ings for schoolhouses.” (Ordinance 1879, sec. 471.) Board treasurer receives and pays out all money, from whatever source derived. (Sec. 474. ) Mayor and council determine tax rate and appropriations of money. (Sec. 480.) Awjusta {forms part of the Richmond County school system). — State law invests county board of education with all power to control, lease, sell, or convey school house sites or other school property as they may deem best. (Act of 1872, sec. 3.) “County board of etlucation shall control the tinaucial department of the public-school system. ” (Sec. 5.) They shall levy, by a two-thirds vote of all members, “such tax as they may deem neces- sarv for public-school purposes,” which must be collected and placed to their credit. (Sec. 16.) 3Iacon {part of Bill) Comity system). — County board of education has essentially the same powers as those given above for Richmond County, except that their tax levy must be approved by county commissioners. Snvayinah {part of Chatham County system). — County board of education have authority to purchase real estate and provide schoolhouses. (Acts of March 21 and December 18, 1866. ) They have control of all school funds of the State and county or appropriated by the city council of Savannah, and expend the same at their discretion, {lb.) Illinois. Boards of education of districts having a population of over 1,000 and le.ss than '100,000, and not governed by a special act, have power “to buy or lease sites lor school- houses, with the necessary grounds: Provided, It shall not be lawful for such board of -education to purchase or locate a schoolhonse site, or to purchase, build, or move a schoolhouse,” unless authorized by a vote of the district. (Sch. Law of 1889, Art. V, sec. 10, fifth.) Boards of education of cities having a population exceeding 100,000 “have power, with the concurrence of the city council,” “to erect or purchase buildings suitable for schoolhouses,” “ to buy or lease sites for schoolhouses. ” (/&., sec. 21. ) Each township is a school district. {Ib., Art. Ill, sec. 1.) Incorporated cities and vil¬ lages, not under special acts, are parts of the school townships in which they are situ¬ ated, and subject to all the above. {Ih., Art. VI, sec. 1.) General law regarding special districts. — In all cities in which, by the provisions of any general or special law heretofore passed, the members of the common council nave been made ex officio school directors, such ex officio school boards are superseded by dis¬ tinctive boards of education, which have “all rights, powers, and duties heretofore exer¬ cised by and devolved upon the members of the city council ” as ex officio school directors. They certify annually to the city council the “amount of money required to be raised by taxation for school purposes” (subject to the restrictions of the general school laws as to amount), and the city council is required to levy and collect it. (Law of 1879, amended 1889.) Indiana. “Before the school trustees of any incorporated town or city in this State shall pur¬ chase any ground for school purposes, or enter into any contract for the building of any school building or buildings, they shall file a statement with the trustees of such incor¬ porated town, or common council of such city, showing the necessity of such purchase mf ground, or the erection of such building or buildings,” together with an estimate of the cost of land and buildings; and they are not to make any purchase or enter into any •contract until such action is approved by said town trustees or common council. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 4491.) In all cities having a population of 30,000 or more by the census of 1870 the board 'of school commissioners is authorized to purchase grounds and construct school build¬ ings; also “to levy all taxes for the support of the schools within such city,” not ex- ‘ceeding 25 cents on 8100 for sites, buildings, and supplies, and to disburse through their treasurer all school moneys; also to issue bonds, not exceeding 8100,000 in the aggre- :gate. Indianapolis is the only city with its schools organized under these provisions. >(/&., sec. 4460.) Iowa. 'Cities, towns, and villages of not less than 200 inhabitants may be constituted inde- ■pendent districts. (Sch. Law, ed. 1888, sec. 1800.) Such a district “may have as many :schools,” and be subdivided iptp wards or other subdivisions, as the school board may •deem proper, and shall be governed by the laws regulating district townships so far aa ^applicable (sec. 1806), which would fix the law as follows: 582 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. The power to vote taxes for sites and school buildings belongs exclusively to the’ electors of a district township or independent district. (Sec. 1717, 3, and sec. 1807 (a).) The school board makes “all contracts, purchases, payments, and sales to carry out any vote of the district, but before erecting any schoolhouse they shall consult with the county superintendent as to the most approved plan of such building.” (Sec. 1723.) Kansas. In all cities of over 15,000 inhabitants boards of education “exercise the sole control over the public schools and school property” (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 154 and sec. 181); determine annually, within the legal limits, the amount of taxes necessary to be raised, including for the payment of school bonds, which tax must be collected by the county treasurer and is subject to the order of the school board (sec. 164); may sell prop¬ erty by a two-thirds vote of all the members (sec. 168); and, by a two- thirds vote, may issue bonds for purchasing sites or building houses up to |160,000 outstanding at one time. (Sec. 174.) In all cities of from 2,000 to 15,000 inhabitants boards of education hgve the same powers as in those of over 15,000 inhabitants, except as regards the conveyance of prop¬ erty and issue of bonds. Any proposed issue of bonds must be submitted to a vote of the qualified electors. (Secs. 197, 205, 211, 214.) Incorporated cities of from 250 to 2,000 inhabitants are governed by the general laws relatingtodistrictschools, ortounionorgradedschools. (Sec. 221). These provide as fol¬ lows: “The district board shall purchase or lease such a site for a schoolhouse as shall have been designated by the voters at a district meeting in the corporate name thereof, and shall build, hire, or purchase such schoolhouse as the voters of the district in a dis¬ trict meeting shall have agreed upon out of the funds provided for that purpose, and make sale of any schoolhouse site or other property of the district, and if necessary, ex¬ ecute a conveyance of the same in the name of their office, when lawfully directed by the voters of such district at any regular or special meeting, and shall carry into effect all lawful orders of the district.” (Sec. 75.) The district by vote levies taxes and is¬ sues bonds. Kentucky. A city or town that maintains an adequate system of common schools is deemed one district and is withdrawn from the control of the county superintendent; otherwise it is subject to the general law. (Sch. Law, ed. 1886, Art. VII, sec. 6.) The school trustees of such a district may “take land, by purchase or donation, for the purpose of erecting thereon a schoolhouse, provide for and secure the erection of the same; ” “ they may change the location of the schoolhouse, sell or dispose of the old site and use the pro¬ ceeds thereof towards procuring a new one.” (Art. VIII, sec. 6.) District board may order a tax for purchasing a site or building a schoolhouse. (Sec. 7. ) The following are examples of cities under special laws or charters: Covington, — School board has “ full and exclusive control of all the school property and school money and funds ’’(Charter, sec. 289); has “ all the power and authority here¬ tofore conferred upon the city council in reference to common schools or school prop¬ erty.” (Sec. 295.) No money can be drawn from the school fund unless appropriated by school board. (Sec. 299.) School board may borrow money for building and issue its bonds. (Sec. 310.) City council shall levy and collect such taxes as school board may require. (Sec. 315.) Newport. — Control and management of school property is vested in the board of edu¬ cation. The board may purchase and dispose of real estate, the board of councilmen concurring therein. (Charter, sec. 11.) General Laws, chapter 710 (1882), authorizes a special tax of 5 cents on $100 until 1893, to be paid over to and used by city board of education for building new schoolhouses. Louisiana. Parish (county) boards of school directors may receive land by purchase, and provide for and secure the erection of schoolhouses, and determine their location. (Act of 1888, sec. 7. ) They may, by a two-thirds vote of the whole board, change the location of a schoolhouse, sell the old site, and purchase a new one with the proceeds. (/&.) No special provision is made for taxes for school sites or buildings. * The foregoing applies to all parishes, including the parish of Orleans, as no special powers in this respect are given to its board of directors, or building fund provided for. POWERS OP CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 583 Maine. School districts and towns which have abolished the district system at any l^gal meet¬ ing may raise money for purchasing school sites and erecting buildings, and may deter¬ mine where schoolhouses shall be located. The plan for the building so voted must be approved by the school committee. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, secs. 48, 66. ) No school money may be paid out of a town treasury except upon the order of its municipal officers. (Sec. 17.) Maeyland. Boards of county school commissioners are required to select and purchase sites (Chap. VI, secs, land 2, Sch. Laws, ed. 1877), and to build schoolhouses. (Chap. IV, sec. 4.) Every schoolhouse must be built and furnished according to the plans of the county school board. (Chap. VI. sec. 5). This board has authority to prescribe to the county commissioners the tax to be levied for the maintenance of schools, bnt no tax for build¬ ing is specifically provided for. (Chap. IV, sec. 5.) In Baltimore the mayor and city council have full power in school matters, and are authorized to levy and collect taxes to meet all school expenses. They may delegate to the school board only “supervisory powers and control.” (Chap. XVI.) Massachusetts. “A town, at a meeting legally called for the purpose may determine the location of its schoolhouses, and adopt all necessary measures to purchase and procure land for the accommodation thereof.” (Sch. Law, ed. 1888, sec. 47.) This applies to cities, unless otherwise provided in their charters. (Sec. 51. ) Michigan. The qualified voters in any school district have power to designate by a two-thirds vote, schoolhouse sites and change the same when necessary. “ When no site can be established by such inhabitants as aforesaid,” the township school inspectors shall deter¬ mine the site. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 27, Fourth^ and sec. 89.) The voters, as above, also have power “to direct the purchasing or leasing of a site or sites lawfully determined upon; the building, hiring, or purchasing of a schoolhouse or houses,” etc. (i&.. Fifth.) Also to vote such tax as they may deem sufficient for purchasing sites or building within specified limits. (76., Sixth.) The district school board is to purchase sites and construct buildings when lawfully directed by the quali¬ fied voters. (Sec. 35. ) The above applies to graded school districts. (Chap. X. ) Minnesota. The board of education of any city or town organized as an independent district, and not under a special law, has power, “ when authorized by a vote or the distriet to pur¬ chase or erect one or more schoolhouses and purchase sites for the same.” (Sch. Law, ed. 1887, sec. 150, Third.) The district school board may call a meeting of the voters for passing upon this ques¬ tion, and upon the amount of money to be raised for a site and building. (Sec. 148.) Mississippi. , I “A city or town constituting a separate school district shall have power to levy and collect a tax for the erection or repair of its school buildings.” (Sch. Law, ed. 1890, sec. 47.) » Missouei. Boards of education of cities and towns organized as single school districts, when the demands of the district require more than one public school building therein, are required, “as soon as sufficient funds have been provided therefor,” to select and pro¬ cure sites and erect suitable buildings thereon. The board may sell school property no longer required for use, and must, place the proceeds to the credit of the building fund. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 8088.) “ The board has no power to purchase site and erect a building thereon until the peo¬ ple have voted sufficient funds therefor. * * * The board can not select the first school site, nor can it change the same; these two acts must be voted by the people.” (76., Instructions on p. 72.) 584 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. In single school districts, of the character referred to, that have a population exceed¬ ing 5,000 and not exceeding 100,000, the school board has full power, by a two-thirds vote of all its members, “ to locate and direct and authorize the purchase of sites for schoolhouses, libraries, and school oSdces, and by a like vote to direct and authorize the sale of any real estate or other property belonging to such school districts. (Sec. 8099. ) St. Louis. — The board of education has power to purchase and hold property, real and personal, and has charge and control of all public-school property. (Act of 1833.) It has authority to determine annually the rate of school tax, not to exceed one-half of 1 per cent, for all purposes; and the county collector is required to collect the same, the proceeds being paid over to the school board. (Act of 1865.) . Nebeaska. Each “ incorporated metropolitan city” constitutes one school district. (Sch. Law, ed. 1829, Sub. XV, sec. 1.) Its board of education is required to report annually to the city council an estimate of the amount required for the support of the schools, pur¬ chase of sites, erection of buildings, etc., and the city council is required to levy and collect the same. If, however, the estimate calls for an expenditure for sites and build¬ ings greater than $25,090 in any one calendar year, the question must be submitted to a vote of the electors, in which they will vote on a specified site or sites and cost. (Sec. 25.) The aggregate local tax is limited to 2 per cent. (Sec. 26.) The proceeds of all public-school taxes are subject to the order of the school board. (Sec. 27.) Any issue of bonds must be submitted to a vote of the electors. (Sec. 28.) School property may be sold by a two-thirds vote of the school board. (Sec. 23.) Nevada. Each town or incorporated city constitutes but one school district. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, Art. VII, sec. 1.) It is made the duty of any board of district trustees, “when di¬ rected by a vote of their district, to build, purchase, or hire schoolhouses;” they may convey by deed any schoolhouse or site directed by the district to be sold. All plans for schoolhouses must be approved by county superintendent. (Art. V, sec. 2.) New Hampshiee. School districts have power at any legal meeting to raise money for purchasing sites and building schoolhouses. (Sch. Law, ed. 1886, Chap. IV, sec. 1.) They “may de¬ cide upon the location of their schoolhouses, by vote or by a committee appointed for that purpose, and purchase or procure land for the same, and may choose committees with power to carry their votes into effect.” (Sec. 2.) The school boards, therefore, have no original authority in the matter, though an appeal lies to them as to location of site. (Sec. 4.) In case of nonagreement of the district upon location, it may be re¬ ferred to school board. (Sec. 5.) A fi.nal appeal may be made to county commission¬ ers. (Sec. 6. ) New Jeesey. •( The corporate authorities of any city, upon request by the board of education, are empowered to purchase lands and erect schoolhouses thereon, from time to time, as the increase of population in the city may demand, provided that the expense in any one instance shall not exceed $40,000, or that the annual expenditure for public improve¬ ments is not limited by city charter; also to issue temporary loan bonds and levy taxes to raise the necessary funds. (Act March 31, 1882. ) Governing body of city may mortgage school property to build schoolhouses, if deemed necessary and expedient by school board to provide additional accommodations. In case the title to lands on which public-school buildings are now erected is vested by law in the school board, such board and not the governing body of city shall have power to borrow money and secure loan by mortgage. Not more than one school build¬ ing may be erected in any one- year under this aet. (Act, sarfie date.) Cities, through their governing bodies, may issue bonds to raise funds for school sites and buildings. In cities, however, having a board in control of the public schools other than the common council, “the purchase of land, erection, furnishing, and fitting up of a schoolhouse or schoolhouses with the money so borrowed shall be made in the same manner as heretofore provided by law for the city borrowing money by virtue of this act.” (Act April 20, 1887. ) The following are instances of special laws: In Elizabeth the board of education prepares estimates, including amounts required for purchasing sites and buildings, which the city counciliis required to raise by tax and ap¬ propriate, or raise by sale of bonds. But if the city council deem the estimate excessive POWERS OF CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 585 they may refer it to a joint commission. All school moneys shall be expended by the board of education. It has power to purchase real estate for school purposes and erect buildings thereon. (Act approved 1873.) Jersey City. — Board of education may purchase a site in name of mayor and aldermen, and erect necessary buildings, according to board’s -plans; the board are forbidden to enter into contracts for these purposes requiring the payment of more than |20,000 in one year, which may be increased to ^30,000 by authority of board of aldermen. The board of aldermen are required to appropriate from time to time such sums as are re¬ quired by school board for the fulfillment of their contract, to be subject to their draft. New Yoek. Boards of education of incorporated villages and cities cannot have tax levied for pur¬ chasing school sites and erecting buildings but by the approval and consent of the cor¬ porate authorities, though the corporate authorities have no power to refuse to raise the sums declared by the board of education to be necessary for teachers’ salaries and con¬ tingent expenses. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, Title 9, secs. 8 and 9.) North Carolina. District school committees are empowered to purchase sites for schoolhousesand erect buildings thereon. The purchase of a site is subject to the approval of the county board of education. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 2583 and note.) North Dakota. Boards of education of cities and incorporated towns organized as special school dis¬ tricts (except cities governed by special acts) are empowered to purchase and sell school lots and to build schoolhouses as they may deem proper. (Sch. Law, ed. 1890, sec. 181, Fourth and Fifth.) Said boards are required to levy annually a tax for the support of schools, including any expenditures allowed by law, and not exceeding thirty mills on the dollar, which tax the treasurer of the county is required to collect and pay over to the treasurer of the school board. (Sec. 185. ) A school board can issue bonds only when authorized by a vote of the electors. .(Sec. 200.) ' Ohio. The board of education of any district (including city districts) is empowered to build the necessary schoolhouses and purchase the sites therefor. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 3987.) Each board is required to estimate annually, within a certain maximum, the amount of funds necessary for school purposes, including for sites and buildings, and the county . treasurer is required to collect it and pay it over to the treasurer of the district. (Secs. 3958-60. ) The latter may pay it out only on the order of the school board. (Sec. 4047. ) In all districts, except city districts having more than 10,000 inhabitants, the ques¬ tion of levying for sites or buildings a greater tax than that authorized by law, for a period of years, must be submitted to a vote of the electors. If the vote is in favor of the levy the school board may anticipate the money to be raised by it by an issue of bonds. (Secs. 3991-93. ) In city districts of over 10,000 and less than 250,000 inhabitants school boards are authorized to issue bonds in anticipation of income from taxes to be levied,, the issue in any year not exceeding in the aggregate a tax rate of 2 mills. (Sec. 3994.) " Oregon. Cities and incorporated towns containing 10,000 inhabitants are constituted one school district. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 76.) It is made the duty of school boards of such districts “to lease and build school- houses, to buy and lease lands for school purposes,” and to sell school property not needed. (Sec. 82, Sixth.) The school board of such district is “authorized to contract an indebtedness for the district lor school purposes,” at no time exceeding in the aggregate $100,000. (Sec. 90.) The power to levy taxes and make appropriations for schools resides in district meet¬ ings. (Sec. 41.) “Districts can not levy a tax for any purpose unless the notice call¬ ing the meeting states this to be the object.” (Sec. 45.) Taxes are assessed and col¬ lected by school boards, and the proceeds can not be paid out without their order. (Secs. 62-4 and 37, Fifteenth.) These are general provisions, applicable to all districts. (See sec. 94.) 586 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Pennsylvania. In cities where the school property has been vested in the board of school controllers, such board is invested with all the powers and duties of school-district directors. (Sch. Law, ed. 1890, III.) They are accordingly required to procure suitable lots of ground and erect, purchase, or rent suitable building for schoolhouses. (.LII, LIX.) “The board is not bound, by a vote of the citizens of the district, on a question of location.” (Sec. 81.) They are also required to levy, within the legal limits, assess, collect, and disburse all taxes rendered necessary to perform the foregoing duties. (Ill, CV, et seq,) They are authorized to borrow money up to a certain amount for sites or buildings and issue bonds therefor. (LXVII, et seq.) In cities where the school property has not been vested in the board of school con¬ trollers, the boards of school- ward directors have the above powers and duties. (III.) Under an act of 1889 cities of less than 100,000 inhabitants thereafter incorporated were constituted one school district, the school board having powers and duties as above. (CLIX.) Rhode Island. “The school committee shall locate all schoolhouses, and shall not abandon or change the location of any without good cause.” (^Sch. Law, 1882, chap. 56, sec. 4.) The power to purchase lots and build schoolhouses resides in tl^e school districts, “provided, that the erection and repairs of the schoolhouse shall be made according to the plans approved by the school committee or, on appeal, by the commissioner of pub¬ lic schools.” South Caeolina. District boards of trustees have power and are required to provide suitable school- houses, “so as best to promote the educational interests ” of their districts. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, sec. 1012, First) Local taxes, however, can not be levied under the general law, but by a vote of the taxpayers. (Act of 1888, sec. 2.) School funds, including those raised by city separate school districts, are disbursed by the county treasurer on the order of the district school trustees. (Sec. 1023, and act of 1888, sec. 2.) Charleston and certain other cities are under special laws. * Tennessee. The board of mayor and aldermen of any municipal corporation “may procure a suit¬ able school house or houses, either by erection or purchase.” The board of education is only given authority to manage and control the schools, employ teachers, etc. (Act of 1885.) Texas. In such cities as have voted to assume exclusive control of their schools, and to place this control in charge of a board of school trustees, such board has the same power, con¬ trol, etc., as has the council or board of aldermen in those cities in which said councilor aldermen have been invested with the control. (Sch. Law, ed. 1889, Chap. XV, secs. 3 and 7.) This includes the power to purchase building sites and construct schoolhouses. (Sec. 13.) School trustees in cities which have not voted to assume exclusive control of their schools appear to be subject to the general law relating to school- district trustees, which requires them to determine at what points schools shall be located, but gives them no powers as to purchasing sites or building. (Chap. X, sec. 7.) In every incorporated town and city, whether it has assumed exclusive control over its schools or not, the authority to issue bonds for building purposes, and to levy a tax to pay the principal and interest thereof, resides in the city or town council. (Chap. XV, I, sec. 31.) Veemont. In any town under the district system the school districts, by vote of the electors, select schoolhouse sites, or the selectmen of the town in case of nonagreement. (Sch. Law, ed. 1888, secs. 248-9. ) The districts purchase sites and build schoolhouses, which they may do through committees appointed lor that purpose. (Secs. 245-6.) In towns under the town system the “ town shall provide and maintain suitable school- ' houses, and the location, construction, and sale of the same shall be under the control POWERS OF CITY SCHOOL BOARDS. 587 of the board of school directors.” (Sec. 138.) This does not apply to a graded-schopl district incorporated by act of legislature, unless the voters thereof elect to come within the town system. (Sec. 139.) ViEGINIA. Boards of school trustees in cities of 10,000 inhabitants and upwards are charged with the location and construction of schoolhouses. (Sch. Law, ed. 1883, sec. 338.) City councils (except in Richmond) have no power to withhold the sums deemed necessary by school boards for the maintenance and growth of schools within specified limits. (Sec. 340.) Washington. It does not appear that boards of education in cities of 10,000 inhabitants or more have any authority in the matter under consideration other than that given to all dis¬ trict boards of directors, which is, “ to build or remove schoolhouses, purchase or sell lots or other real estatej when directed by a vote of the district so to do.” (Sch. Law, ed. 1890, sec. 26, fifth.) County commissioners, in their annual levy, are required to levy and collect the amount estimated by the school board of any city of 10,000 people or over as required for purchase of sites, erection of school buildings, and payment of interest and principal of school bonds. (Act of Mar. 26, 1890, sec. 30. ) The school moneys of such city are to be paid out only on the order of the school board. (i6., sec. 15.) West Vieginia. District boards of education are authorized to purchase sites and build schoolhouses. If unable to agree on a location, the county superintendent decides. (Sch. Law, ed. 1883, sec. 34.) No schoolhouse can be erected unless the plan thereof is approved by county superintendent. (Sec. 35.) Boards of education are required to levy annually a tax for providing schoolhouses and grounds, paying existing indebtedness, etc., unless the district votes “against school levy.” The proceeds of this tax form the “building fund.” (Secs. 2 and 38.) Wheeling. — Governed by a special law. Board of education has same powers as above, and further, is not restricted by an appeal to county superintendent or by a vote on school levy. Wisconsin. School-district voters, at a legal meeting, have power to designate schoolhouse sites and Vote taxes for purchasing sites and building schoolhouses. (Sch. Law, 1890, sec. 430.) “The district board, in their corporate dame, shall purchase or lease snch a site for a schoolhouse as shall have been designated by the district, and shall build, hire, or pur¬ chase a schoolhouse out of the funds provided for that purpose.” The district board may be required to build a schoolhouse according to plans and specifications furnished by the district. (Pp. 59-60. ) The school boards of cities not under special laws are subject tp the above. (Sec. 515.) Among the cities under special laws are the following: Chippewa Falls. — Board of education lay before city council estimate of cost of site and building and plan of building. City council are required to raise a tax for same unless there is a two-thirds vote against it. When such tax has been levied or authorized the board of education must enter into the necessary contract. La Crosse. — School board submits plans and estimates to city council, which body shall, “ if it deem best,” have the site purchased by the school board and buildings con¬ structed by and under the direction of board of public works. Madis m. — School board has power to purchase sites; also to erect schoolhouses thereon as they may deem advisable. The common council are required to raise the amounts necessary for the same (not exceeding $5,000 annually in 1870) when duly certified to them by the school board. Milwaukee.^’Xhe common council shall erect buildings and purchase lots. (Sec. 3 of charter.) No lot may be purchased nor schoolhouse erected “without an ordinance or resolution duly passed by the common council.” (Sec. 4.) Oshkosh. — Same as Madison, except that no site may be purchased without the ap¬ proval of the common council. CHAPTER XXL BISOUSSIONS OF EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS, CHIEFLY BY SCHOOL OFFICIALS. I. Civics Inslraetion. — II. Country Schools. — III. Education. — IV. Education as Related to Crime. — ■ V. Evening Schools. — VI. High Schools. — VII. Physical Training. — VIII. Private and Parochial Schools. — IX. Public Schools. — X. Religious a)id Moral Training. — XI. Revenue and Taxation. — XII. School Hygiene. — XIII. Science Teaching. — XIV. Sex in Education. — XV. Supervision.— XVI. Towov- ship System. Civic Ikstruction. Tlie teacher and political morality. — Superintendent W. C. Hewitt, Union City, Mich.: Excepting the comfort which comes to one from knowing something of the Constitution as unrelated knowledge, the study of civil government as commonly pursued affords no new field of information and no completer rounding of the faculties than is given by its sister subjects, history and geography. It is true that the grammatical study of the clauses of the Constitution, together with those questions which are based upon it, develop a kind of sharpness which, while it lasts, justifies the causes of its existence. Yet its influence is but temporary, and long before the period of the franchise comes time has destroyed all traces of the constitutional gymnastics. A boy might better view the Constitution through the dim mists of a curious ignorance rather than, knowing it closer, to be repulsed by the irksomeness of its unmeaning details.^ . If the Constitution is to be made an inspiration the teacher must possess that generous scholarship which will enable him to choose the materials of instruction with judgment; he is not teach¬ ing a completed growth, a dead law, but an instrument in which is contained the wis¬ dom of his race. Many' clauses of the Constitution are rich in history, others are made sacred by the blood of sacrifice, and through all there is a progressive national conscience. Year after year we have the discussions, ad nauseam., of “How to teach history,’’ “How to teach arithmetic.” And on the hypothesis of a poorly educated body of teachers these questions always will be asked, always unanswered. If, now, the majority of teachers were men and women of culture, four-fifths of all the drivel of “how ” would disappear. The question usually is, “ How shall incom¬ petence teach?” It should be, “ Shall incompetence teach at all? ” Any improvement in teaching that does not look for a higher scholarship in the teacher can be only temporary in its effects. The teacher in civil government, then, must know something of the great works of Kent, Curtis, and Story; if he would under¬ stand the constitutional growth of his country, he must know something of Von Holst; and because the Constitution, studied out of relation with the past, is almost meaning¬ less, he must read some such work as Lieber’s Civil Liberty. Just as in history the text-book is only one of the factors of successful instruction, so in civil government biography, history, and law must all unite in supplementing the work of the recita¬ tion. But if it be said that it is idle to expect such preparation on the part of the teacher, then civil government, otherwise taught, is filling no want in the educational system of to-day, and the 3, 000 school districts [in Michigan] \vhere it is not taught are philosophically correct in keeping it from their courses of study. In most schools we find subjects best taught which are fixed in their nature and nail upon the teacher for but little more knowledge than from the pupil, while subjects that are progressive are either not taught at all or only indifferently. We find many a man teaching for the rest of his life branches of study on work done in the prehistoric times of his life. But civil government is one of the branches of study that can not be taught successfully on any such foundation. * * * In any correct system of civic instruction knowledge must form the basis, yet knowl¬ edge alone is not sufficient. The welfare of the State demands kinetic, not poteotial energy. This sentiment is shown in the singing of patriotic songs, the increased publi¬ cation of patriotic literature, and the hoisting of the flag upon the schoolhouses of the State. However much men may differ as to the interpretation of that term “patriot¬ ism,” all must agree that it does not consist entirely in feeling, but finds its best ex- 588 CIVIC INSTRUCTION. 589 pression in action. A man may thrill with the music of the Star Spangled Banner and remain a clod forever afterward; a boy may be moved by the swelling periods of liberty and union and show himself unworthy of liberty when left in a room without his teacher. Many pupils associate patriotism with some form of physical prowess; and indeed they have cause, for our patriotic literature is full of saber strokes and sulphur smoke. It is here that the teacher can show that patriotism is not for the battlefield only, but that it lies in being a useful and high-minded member of the commonwealth. The pupil may never shoulder a musket, but by learning a useful trade he may add to the credit of his community; he may not adorn the legislative halls, »“ th’ applause of listening senates to command,” but by a careful and conscientious study of his civil rights, he may set the example of duty just as inspiring as the duty of the tented field. His influence maj^ be small, but it can go through a life, and it may shame vice and exalt virtue. * * * Born as man is, with the poison of fallibility in his veins, and surrounded on all sides by influences that check the growth of mind, it is not strange men find the fight against public wrong hard, and are tempted to give up their independence. But not only is eternal vigilance the price of liberty, but intellectual vigilance is the price of manhood. And the pupil should be taught, through all his school course, to feel that he has not well acted, unless it is in the light of the fullest knowledge and for the highest purposes. He should be taught that the world is full of solemn questions that are to be settled only through the intelligence and integrity of such men as himself. And from his school he should receive such knowledge as will cause him to view his public acts with as much solicitude as the duties of his private station. It is here that the educated teacher' finds work, not only in teaching the philosophy of the past and the practical duties of the present, but in founding both on the rock of a conscious integrity. The school is but one of the influences that lead toward a higher morality, but the possibilities of the educated teacher may well cause us all to question anew our fitness for the work. If this is done in the spirit of the broadest patriotism there will be no need to ask if civil government is of value as a study, but men, seeing its fruits, will crown it with a diadem of imperial worth. Value of classic American literature. — Horace E. Scudder: I have not cared to divide my argument; to show the power of humane literature in enlarging and enriching the common-school sytem, and then to demonstrate that American literature is the most fit instrument to this end. I have preferred to postulate what is inescapable, that American literature of some sort our schools will have, and I call you away from the cheap, commonplace, fragmentary American literature of our school text-books, which have so long done disservice, to the inspiriting, noble, luminous, and large-hearted Amer¬ ican literature which waits admission at the doors of our schoolhouses. The volume of this literature is not very great, and it is lessened for practical purposes by parts which are inappropriate for school use; but it would not be difficnlt to replace the volume of reading matter otfered in the reading books abovp the grades of the elementary by an equal volume ofAmerican classic literature, and thegain would beenormous. If, according to the common practice in our schools, the child were reading over and over and over again the great literature which he would never forget in place of the little literature which he will never remember, how immeasurable would be the difference in the fur¬ nishing of his mind. Nor do I fear that such a course would breed a narrow and parochial Americanism. On the contrary, it would destroy a vulgar pride in country, help the young to see hu¬ manity from the heights on which the masters of song have dwelt, and open the mind to the more hospitable entertainment of the best literature of every clime and age. I am convinced that there is no surer way to introduce the best English literature into our schools than to give the place of honor to American literature. In the order of nature, the youth must be a citizen of hig own country before he can become naturalized in the world. We recognize this in our geography and history; we may wisely recognize it also in our reading. Patriotism should he inculcated. — Superintendent Henry Sabin, of Iowa; It is especially necessary that patriotism, love of our native land, should be inculcated. The flag should be displayed in every schoolroom, and children should be taught what it signifies. The singing of national songs and the recitation of patriotic pieces should be encouraged. To assign the public schools a place in the observance of Independence Day or of Me¬ morial Day, has a tendency to keep the deeds and sacrifices of their fathers alive in the hearts of the children. The growth and resources of this country, the history of the past, and the possibilities of the future, should be so impressed upon the child that he may be proud to say: “I am to be an American citizen.” Should permeate allthe work ofth^ teacher. — W. E. Sheldon: It may not be necessary to make any special change in or addition to the school curriculum to secure the teaching 590 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. of what is essential to enlightened citizenship. The essence of this kind of instruction should permeate all the work of the teacher. The facts and principles of good citizen¬ ship should be so presented as to become the life, the soul of the school. The pupil should absorb the love of country as freely as he breathes in the pure air. It should surround him in the teaching atmosphere of the school. II. — CouNTEY Schools. Trained teachers needed especially in country schools. — Superintendent Henry Sabin, of Iowa! The trained teacher who thoroughly understands her vocation, who is fruitful in expedients to interest children and arouse their ambition, is needed in the country school more even than she is in the city school. In the country district the school depends very largely upon the teacher; she is subject to but little supervision; sheisnot often brought in contact with other teachers, and in her little domain she reigns almost supreme. Out¬ side of and beyond their daily lessons, her influence over her pupils ought to make itself felt for their good. In hiring a person to take charge of a school in an isolated country district the personal character, the skill, the training, and the education of the applicant, should be considered as of first importance, and the matter of wages per month should be so adjusted as to obtain the services of a teacher fitted for that important position. Here, as elsewhere, “ money should not be weighed against the welfare of the child.” No tetter place to educate a child in the common tranches. — P. A. Latta, Allegan County (Mich.) superintendent: We hear much in these days about the poorquality of instruc¬ tion in the rural district schools. In fact, there is a tendency to belittle the important work they do. I think that much of this opinion arises from a lack of knowledge of the quality of work that these schools actually accomplish. During the last year while visiting the rural schools I have observed some excellent school work. Almostinvariably, where the conditions are favorable to good school work, I have found effective and faithful teaching. I am convinced from long observation of the work of both graded and rural schools that the average rural school-teacher is as efficient as the average graded school-teacher. In the work of the rural school-teacher there is less that is perfunctory, less of routine, more flexibility in the classifications and more adaptation of the instruction to the in¬ dividual needs of the pupils. These considerations lead me to believe that there is no better place, under proper conditions, with the necessary appliances, to educate a child in all the common branches and some of the higher English than a good rural district school, when conducted by a skilled teacher. Obstacles to the success of country schools. — State Superintendent W. E. Coleman, of Mis¬ souri: The country schools constitute the great educational force in any State; if they are well conducted, the results are good all along the line; if they are poor the pupils suffer thereby throughout life, for there is certain work which if not done in early childhood is never satisfactorily accomplished. Among these schools can be found some as noble, true, and grand men and women as ever assumed the responsibility of teaching children; and their labor will tell for good in the communities in which they teach, in the lives of those instructed and in the State at large. What a glorious thing it would be if all our schools were of this order, but suqh is not the case. Do you ask “Why are they not all thus?” The answer is not difficult; but how to remedy the existing evils is a question of far greater moment and though answered will be harder to execute. Huh- dreds and thousands of the children of Missouri have been starved, educationally, on ac- account of the penuriousness of patrons and school boards that they elect. A good school begets a good, wholesome influence in the community, favorable to education; this in turn, is met by liberality on the part of the patrons, and they freely and cheerfully vote for a long term of school and fair wages; the result is just what might be expected; true, ’ active, energetic men are chosen to control the school interests of the district; well- qualified teachers are employed; the school district soon becomes noted for its liberality, thrift, and influence. There are several factors that enter into the successful prosecu¬ tion of this work, viz: the public, the county superintendent, the board, the parents, and the teacher. Each of these occupies a prominent position, and is an important factor that can not be ignored in endeavoring to have a well-regulated school. There is no use laying the blame on the teacher, when the board has employed a young, in¬ experienced boy or girl, at the enormous salary of twenty-five or thirty dollars per month ‘for four or five months, and expect the same results as are secured in a district in which an experienced teacher is engaged for eight or nine months at a salary of fifty or sixty dollars per mouth. Neither is the fault altogether that of the board, for the people have not furnished the money nor voted the time that is necessary to secure the results desired; therefore, the board has to take a cheap teacher for a short term, and the supply is equal to the demand; the result is failure. COUNTHY SCHOOLS, 591 Course of study for ungraded schools in Germany. — John T. Prince, agent of the Massa¬ chusetts board of education: The elementary schools of Germany are required to give instruction in religion, including Bible and church history and the catechism ; geometry, elementary science, ancient history and gymnastics — all of which are seldom or never systematically taught in corresponding schools of this country. The course in arith¬ metic does not embrace so many subjects as with us, and there is less of the geography of foreign countries and more of home geography than is given in our schools. In other respects there is not much difference in the subjects required to be taught in the elemen¬ tary schools of the two countries; always remembering that with us the requirements concerning subjects of instruction here are not always observed. In mixed or what are called one-class schools, in which are pupils of all ages, two plans of classification prevail, neither of which resembles our classification of such schools. By one plan, the older pupils, or those from ten to fourteen years of age, constitute a single class, and are separated in some studies into two or three sections. These pupils attend school four hours each forenoon, except Wednesdays and Saturdays, when they attend 'two hours. The younger pupils constitute another class, dividedf also into two or three groups or sections. These attend afternoons three hours daily, except Wednes¬ days and Saturdays, when they attend two hours in the mornirig. The recitation period, as in the graded school, is about fifty minutes in length; and, when the class is separated into sections, each division is given somewhat different work to do, although all are supposed to be reciting during the period. By this arrangement there are about eighteen recitations a week with the older pupils, and twelve with the younger. In a school of this kind near Leipsic the following daily programme was followed: 3Iorning. Hour. Monday. Tuesday. Wednesday. Thursday. Friday. Saturday. First . Catechism Bible stories and expla¬ nations. History . Catechism... Bible his¬ tory and expla n a- tion. Physics. Second . . Language and read¬ ing. German sentences, etc. Arithmetic and geom¬ etry. German and writ¬ ing. German . Singing. Third . Arithmetic.. Geography.. II. Observa¬ tion 1 e 8- sons,home geography and sing¬ ing. Arithmetic.. Drawing . II. Num¬ bers. . Writing . II. Read¬ ing and writing. Reading and writ¬ ing. II. Reading and writ¬ ing. • Afternoon. First . Bible stories Bible stories Bible stories Observation lessonsand home geog¬ raphy. Second . Reading and writ¬ ing. Reading and writ¬ ing. Reading and writ¬ ing. Reading and writ¬ ing. Third . Numbers..... Numbers... . 1 From this programme it appears that the older pupils lAve 18 recitations a week, of which 6 are in language (including reading, writing, and language or grammar), 3 in arithmetic and geometry, 4 in religion (Bible history, catechism, etc.), 1 each in geog¬ raphy, history, drawing, singing, and physics. The younger pupils have 14 recitations 592 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. a week, of whicli 6 are in reading and writing, 3 are in numbers, 3 in Bible stories, and 2 in observation lessons and home geography, giving a short time one day to singing. Such an order of recitations would hardly be tolerated in the schools of many of our rural neighborhoods, where it is thought that a teacher is seriously neglecting his duty who fails to hear every pupil recite in every branch of the curriculum at least once a day. The second plan of classification for country schools is to divide the entire school into three sections in most subjects, a class in each subject reciting about fifty minutes, as in all other schools. Both of these plans of classification are in strong contrast to the classification of our ungraded schools, by which there are frequently more classes heard in a day than there are pupils, and but five or ten minutes given to each recitation. Some modification of our present custom in the direction of the last-named plan would be an improvement. Consolidation of ungraded schools. — George H. Martin, agent of Massachusetts board of education : The majority of these [ungraded] schools are not furnishing the children with the education which the times demand. Nor can they do so. There can not be a good school without a good teacher, and these schools can not attract and hold good teachers. The isolation, the difficulty of finding boarding places, the smallness of the schools, affording little stimulus to the ambitious and little scope to the enterprising, the dullness and backwardness of many of the pupils, the lack of intelligent and sym¬ pathetic interest on the part of parents, the prying and captious spirit which pervades many of the districts — these, singly or combined, repel the very class of teachers who only could improve the schools. * * * More money for higher salaries would buy better services for some of these schools; but many of them are now the most expensive luxuries which the State indulges in. . In some the cost per child is from thirty to fifty dollars a year, and many of the towns are now raising as much money as they can afford. Superintendents could make these schools better. Some of them they might even make good, but the improvement would be at an expenditure of time entirely unnecessary. For the State to give more money to the towns, under existing conditions, is to put it into a bag with holes. More effective than any of these measures, because striking at the root of the evils, would be consolidation of schools. Even in the larger towns, with their only partially- graded schools, there is a waste of energy by scattering it. The attempt in such towns to maintain several schools of the same grade at no great distance from each other means low salaries for all the teachers and frequent changes. In one of these towns, in each of four grammar schools having male teachers, there have been five principals in the last six years. There are but nine male teachers in the county who were teach¬ ing in their present schools on my previous visit. Consolidation of schools would allow closer grading, would secure a much more effective division of labor, and would niake it possible to employ a man competent enough, and to retain him long enough to be¬ come identified with the community and to exert an enduring infiuence through the continuity of his services. * * * The consolidation of schools means building commodious schoolhouses, centrally lo¬ cated, and carrying to them the children from the more remote parts of the town. Many of these children are now walking one or two miles to school, and they are away from home during the whole day. If carried to a central school they would be away from home no longer, and would be much less exposed in going and returning. Many chil¬ dren would have little further to walk to a central school than they now have to the district school which they are forced to attend. Wherever the experiment has been judiciously tried of uniting the small schools it has been attended with gratifying success. The town of Concord has tried the experi¬ ment on a more generous scale, having gradually consolidated all its schools in two buildings, one in the central part of the town and one in West Concord. The plan was so wise and so wisely executed and the results have been so gratifying as to make the town a second time historic. No new legislation is needed to make the plan practicable everywhere. The high estimate of education and the earnest purpose to furnish the best, which have helped to make our schools as good as they have been, must be looked to to adapt them to exist¬ ing conditions. Enlightened public spirit may be depended on to devise ways and means to put every boy and girl of school age into a good school, under a good teacher. III. — Education. Character is the thing soughf. — Journal of Education: For a child to read and write flu¬ ently, spell and cipher correctly, know all the bays, capes, and rivers of the world, will not insure his prosperity, happiness, or peace of mind. The school is responsible for in¬ tellectual discipline * * * not for the sake of such discipline, but for its effect in EDUCATION. 593 domestic, social, industrial, and professional life. Nor are these the real ends in view in education. They are but incidental to higher ends. Character is the thing sought — character in its broadest, highest phases, character upon which a man can bank in time and eternity. The school must do all its work in such a way as to develop incidentally, but eflectually, all the essential negative and positive virtues. It must be easier for a boy from the schools to be sober, industrious, honest, upright, virtuous, than it would have been otherwise. The tendency in his life must be away Irom personal abuse, social demoralization, physical neglect, idleness, and political vagabondism. It must help him to endure hardship, acquire patience, cultivate hope, attain peace of mind and buoyancy of spirit. We do not teach discipline for its own sake, but . for the results of discipline in everyday life, in every sphere of life. The prime aim of instruction. — Matthew Arnold: The aim and office of instruction, say many people, is to fit a man to get on in the world. It is not this, and the modern spirit more and more discovers it not to be this. This is, at best, but a secondary aim of instruction. Its prime, direct aim is to enable a man to know himself and the world. Such knowledge is the only sure basis for action, and such basis it is the true aim and office of instruction to supply. The very corner stone of an education. — John Stuart Mill: The very corner stone of an education intended to torm great minds must be the recognition of the principle that the object is to call forth the greatest (luantity of intellectual power, and to inspire the intensest love of truth; and this without a particle of regard to the results to which the exercise of that power may lead, even though it should conduct the pupil to results diametrically opposite to those of his teachers. Infinitely above all other influences. — James S. Barrell: But infinitely above all other influences combined for the moral training of children in school is the personality of the teacher. Consciously or unconsciously he must influence them for good or for evil. That influence is probably always greater than we suppose. Who of us can not to-day recall some teacher of our childliood whose memory is fragrant with ali that is beauti¬ ful, good, and true? The motives which should be appealed to. — Dr. Larkin Dunton: We must begin with the child as we find him, a pretty selfish little lump of humanity. We must bear in mind, too, that to be of use to others he must become a man of wisdom and power; hence, he must at once be made active. Hence, an appeal must be made at first to such motives as will move him to the doing of what he ought to do. His curiosity is to be aroused, his love of the wonderful and the strange is to be excited, his desire to be and do like others is to be stirred, and if need be his fears are to be appealed to. In a word, he is to be made to practice the virtues of civilized life from the start. Among the most im¬ portant of these virtues which the school should strive to inculcate are regularity, punc¬ tuality, silence, industry, benevolence, and obedience. Let the pupil’s moral training begin with the practice of these and similar virtues. Secure this by the use of the high¬ est available motives, but secure the practice of these virtues. If they are constantly observed the very observance will create a tendency of the mind to continue the practice. If, now, this tendency is reinforced by the presence of higher motives the necessity of the lower motives will be correspondingly diminished. Hence the need of awakening the higher motives. This can only be done by imparting such knowledge of the effects of conduct as alone has the power of quickening the con¬ science. And here rve may learn much from the young mother. Would she make her child feel the power of moral obligation to relraiu from a course of conduct, she shows him the bad effects of the same. This is the universal law. A knowdedge of right or wrong in conduct is gained through the perception of the efi’ects of conduct. The true method of giving moral training ,then, as I see it, is to secure the right con¬ duct of the child through the use of such motives as he can be made to feel; then to re¬ place lower motives with higher as fast as the habit of doing the rightand the develop- meiff of higher motives will allow, until, finally, the supreme, the all-controlling motive of the pupil is the power of the sense of duty arising from an enlightened intellect. Obedience, immediate and absolute ? — Superintendent George Howland, of Chicago: In a well-ordered school the discipline should make a small demand on the teacher’s time or strength; should not be, as the same writer states, “the most painful part of the teacher’s work,” hut kindly, loving, winning. What more pleasing than to observe with watch¬ ful care the daily development of the mind, the will, the character? “Obedience, im¬ mediate and absolute?” For the soldier on the battle’s^dge, yes; but lor the child with his instincts of selfhood, his budding reason, his untrained w’ill, and his intuitions of freedom, the thing is unreasonable, absurd, and impossible. Which of us can at all times control his will or command his attention to a dull discourse, a stupid book, or an uninteresting recital? 15P 89—38 594 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Prompt and cheerful compliance I admit, but “immediate and absolute ” — the words savor of the drillmaster, the martinet, the tyrant, the despot, rather than of the teacher and guide of youth, and are destructive of all true education and worthy development. The sum of the virtues which schools should implant. — C. B. Gilbert, of St. Paul; It has been held from time immemorial that obedience, implicit and unquestioning, is the first and most important virtue to be implanted in the minds of the young as the foun¬ dation of all other virtues. This is largely held, and is made the basis of our systems of discipline, so called, whereas I hope to show that it is really their bane. Obedience is not only not the highest of virtues; it is not a virtue at all. A virtue is essential, and is always a virtue. Obedience may be, and olten is, a vice. It is the foe to prog¬ ress, the secret of i)ersecution, the bulwark of priestcraft and imperialism. It is safe to say that out of unwise obedience to human authority and its unwise enforcement have grown more evils than the disobedience of all the rebels of history has begun to cause. The former is the father of lies and hypocrisy; the latter of intolerance, oppression, per¬ secution. I do not deny the usefulness nor even the necessity of obedience. Society must exact it, schools must have it, not because it is virtuous, but because it is expedi¬ ent. But it must be dethroned from its lofty place in our schools, as it has already been in our American social and political system. Indeed, in schools it will usually take care of itself. Nothing needs be said about it, and very little thought about it. As with the laws of nature, children will soon find out alf that is of importance in it. When necessary it should be enforced, but it should be seldom necessary. Teachers need not tremble at the thought as though about to lose their authority. Such a treatment of the matter will not cause anarchy, but order; will not render students disobedient, but more than ever obedient. We need not be afraid of truth ; it never yet destroyed a good. Young people in school are very hard to hoodwink. Moral distinctions that puzzle theo¬ logians are often quite clear to them, not because of their superior wisdom, of course, but because of their freedom from sophistry and the power of tradition. Ordinarily, the boy or girl iu school, as much as his elder in society, has a perfect right to know the reason tor commands to which be must submit; and the wise teacher, while not brook¬ ing insolence, will yet recognize the right and will not provoke to wrath for the sake of proving authority. More than that, the proper development of the child’s character requires that he should know some reason for his conduct as soon as he is able to com¬ prehend, and should base his actions upon this as a motive rather than upon the will of another. This is not Russia, but free America; and if our schools are to make citizens capable of perpetuating free institutions they must inculcate something higher than a spirit of obedience, something broader than all mere expedients. The first, then, for us to seek to in the child is self-control for wise ends, subordination of his passions and his actions, not to the will of another, but to his own, and this for good ends clearly understood. It involves two elements, wisdom and power, the former to be gained somewhat by precept, but more by experience in a proper environment, the latter to be acquired wholly by exercise. For the wise man whose motives are noble and whose self is under the control of his will, law is unnecessary. Law, in the sense of restraint, is for would-be criminals. Vf e need citizens who need no law. Law is also necessary for the ignorant, including children, as a guide and a teacher during development. To this end laws should be as simple as possible and of such a nature that they will never be felt or consciously obeyed after the moral sense is .sufBciently developed to be in itself a guide to right action. It is a wise provision of nature that a law not evi¬ dently for the good of those subject to it irritates the mind. This should be taken into consideration in the management of the young. There is still a higher virtue than self-control essential to the perfect man and perfect citizen — self-sacrifice. This is simply an outgrowth of the former, and is merely a con¬ trol of self for the good of the community. This sacrifice of the one to the good of the many is, and must be to a limited degree, enforced by the State; but thus enforced it is not a virtue and offers no bright outlook except as it indicates a majority of self- sacrificing citizens sufficiently large to control the self-seeking minority. Control of self for the general good, particularly and practically known as public spirit, is the highest virtue of the citizen, and is developed “not under law but under grace.” These two principles, which are really one, constitute the sum of the virtues which schools should implant and cultivate in the youth. Do our public schools make such men? My answer would be, only partially. AVhile perfect success may not be looked for, still I feel confident that a much higher degree could be reached under a more en¬ lightened system, a system more nearly in consonance with the social and political sys¬ tems in vogue in this country. EDUCATION. 595 The ethical must not he neglected. — Dr, W. T. Harris: Of tlie five classes into whicti the world of knowledge may be divided, three tower above all others: man as a body, man as a soul, and nature or the world of things. In tlie study of nature students should know two great lines, organic and inorganic. The study of man should be made with respect to psychological relations, and with the purpose of developing his intellectual, ethical, and ajsthetical sides. No matter what may be said to the contrary, the ethical must not be neglected. The theory that a knowledge of the means of self-preservation is the most important is fallacious. It is not so necessary that a man should live as that he should live in accordance with ethical law. Even the civil law considers this the correct view. In other words, that which deals with man as a soul is more impor¬ tant than that which looks upon him as an organic being. The equable development of the whole human being. — Jerome Allen: No man will dare to say that the equable development of the whole human being is not the grandest work in which any person can engage, and no one will dare to deny that in the development of this man — soul, body, and mind — there must come in forces to make quick and accurate the action of all the senses, and bring to its highest development the hearing, the see¬ ing, the smelling, the taste, and the feeling, so that the man may receive and give im¬ pressions both accurately and rapidly, and that the thinking machine within us may work up the objects of sense-perception into highest objects of thought-production. An examination of the harmonious development^' definition of education; what education is. — Dr. W. T. Harris: It has been fashionable in educational treatises since the days of Pestalo?:zi to define the province of education as “the full and harmonious development of all our faculties.” This is, however, a survival of Rousseauism, and like all survivals from that source is very dangerous. It is of first importance to consider this definition in the light of psychology. At first glance we see that it makes no discrimination among the faculties themselves; all have a right, each has a right to cultivation, and the only limitation of this cultiva¬ tion is found in the word “ harmony.” What the harmony should^be is not said. It is implied, however, that the harmony once reached, there would be a perfect human being. Harmony implies a sort of balance, and that there is no faculty of the soul which may be developed supremely, no faculty like that of divine charity, for example, which should be supreme. Again, this definition ignores the great distinction'between our higher and lower fac¬ ulties, between our faculties that are means to ends above them and those faculties which are ends in themselves. Sound psychology, for example, looks upon ethical in¬ sight as higher than insight into what is useful as a means to an end. The adaptation of means to ends — the use of physical strength, industry, eating and drinking, any sort of bodily training, is subordinate to the question of the end for which it is used — moral purposes being esteemed higher. Moral faculty is supreme as regards all such things, and is not a cobrdinate factor. ^Esthetic faculty, taste for the beautiful, is not regarded as coordinate with moral fac¬ ulty by any people since the Greeks or before the Greeks. Gracefulness was the su¬ preme end of life and esteemed to be even higher than morality in Hellenic art. It was in the Greek thought that this notion of harmony arose as a symbol of perfection. For in Greek art alone the physical and psychical are in perfect balance; not so in Christian art, and far otherwise in the Christian religion; for Christianity teaches that food, drink, raiment, or creature comforts of all sorts, yea, life itself is infinitely beneath coiisideration when weighed against the spiritual service of humanity. Bodily health and vigor, sound digestion, good sleep, keen sense-perception, are all good if rightly used or subordinated to higher faculties; but to speak of them as forming a harmony with the higher is placing the soul and body on the same plane, and this is a fundamental error in educational psychology. In the third place, the definition ignores the distinction between man as an individual and man as a social whole, the State, the civil community, the church, the family. It fancies man the individual to be something complete in himself and without relation to society — just as we can speak of a clock or any piece of mechanism as complete when all its parts are present and properly adjusted. Man has two selves; one his natural self as a puny individual, and another his higher self embodied in institutions. This is the worst defect in the definition, because it leads the thought of the educator away from the essential idea of education, which is this: Education is the preparation of the individual for reciprocal union with society; the preparation of the individual so that he can help his fellow-men and in return receive and appropriate their help. The “ harmony ” definition is abstract; this definition is concrete. An abstract defini¬ tion is liable to misinterpretation; the concrete one is not. Reciprocal help of social whole and individual in the first place implies both special and general education. To help one’s fellows one must get skill in some useful occupation. This may be in any realm of human labor, physical or intellectual. But to be able to receive the help of 596 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. one’s fellow-men implies general education, tile capacity to receive and appropriate the help of institutions — the spiritual help ot the race in science, art, literature, and moral and religious ideas, as well as in the matter of creature comfort. The world market yields to the individual man for his day’s labor a share in the productions of the world; neces¬ sary food, clothing, and shelter, luxuries, amusements, churches, libraries, lectures, news¬ papers, and books. The prudent man buys wisdom and developes his lower faculties only to the extent that they are means to this higher end of acquiring wisdom and dis¬ pensing it to others. The supremest folly. — Samuel B. Capen: The highest bodily development is that which cares for each and every part in its proper proportion. If a single organ is omitted the whole body suffers. Going one step higher, we consider it supreme folly to care for the body and neglect the mind ; to train that which is only animal at the expense of the in¬ tellectual. But the supremest folly must ever be that which, caring for the body and mind both, neglects that which is spiritual and eternal. What human life and experience are made up of. — Horatio Stebbins: There is, it seems to me, some confusion, and in provincial minds some conceit, about what is called ex¬ act knowledge; and the nature of the evidence with which we have to deal in the different departments of study is often exaggerated. The area of “certainty,” as it is called, is surely much smaller than some people think; and human life and experience are not made up of the demonstrable, the exact, and the delinita, but of judgments, opinions, probabilities, presumptions. “We walk by faith and not by sight ” is as profound philosophy as it is pure religion. Life is more poetic than mathematics; the apprehended plays a larger part than the comprehended; and if we had nothing but understanding we should understand very little. Science means right knowledge of what is; and it comes in many ways. The mathematics must ever hold a high rank in human studies as an instrument of the mind. As a training they are limited to one kind and one degree of evidence. They have no part in forming the judgment. Those who are ignorant of the real nature of mathematics’ think them to be the key of all reasoning, the perfection of training. But they no more teach reasoning in the common every-day sense than riding in the cars over Siskiyou Mountains teaches the miner to thread the forest on a mule. Not knowledge merely. — Horatio Stebbins: We count a man educated in proportion to the exactness, breadth, and nobleness of his ideas. What is needed to elevate, refine, and give power to man’s nature is not that he shall be an encyclopedia, but that he should have great ideas based on knowledge and thought. Studies and thought inspire the mind if they are brought into relation with a mind that responds to their touch. A knowledge of the child-mind at work wanted.. — W. S. Jackman: Perhaps the most grievous lack of young teachers is practical knowledge of the child-mind at work. This knowledge can be gained only by systematic observation and careful study of the child itself. Memory serves the teacher but poorly in recalling the effects, adverse or other¬ wise, that lessons and objects made upon him in childhood. His training has hitherto been largely a theoretically prol’essional one. The child’s mind has been described in the text-books, and its peculiarities jotted down as so many shoals and reefs upon the teacher’s chart. Stuffed with the psychology of old minds and impressed with the dig¬ nity of his profession, the luckless teacher has too often entered the schoolroom in the unfortunate condition of having “ put away childish things.” In the inevitable and dis¬ tressing conflict between his methods wrought out in the study and the child’s mind instinct with nature, it too frequently occurs that the child and not the methods is thought to need revision. Every child in the practice school must be an object lesson in psychology for the teacher. The teaching of psychology as to the aim in education. — Nicholas Murray Butler: Our endowments are qualitatively alike, quantitatively different. No perfect human mind is without the power to know, to feel, and to will, but no two minds have these powers in equal degree. Mathematics takes four elements and proves conclusively that the number of their permutations and combinations is limited. Each one of them can be determined. Nature’s methods are far different. The four influences of the original capacity, hereditary tendency, natural environment, and social environment combine to form countless millions of minds, no two alike. We may be born free and equal before the law, but we are not born free and equal mentally. Each has his own talents and each his own corresponding duties and responsibilities. That each is accountable for his abilities and for no more and no less than his abilities the parable of the talents illustrates. He who had five talents was not required to return the product of ten, nor was he who had two punished because he returned less than he who had five. Each v.ms accountable for his own. And this is the teaching of psychology, and of ethics through psychology, as tp the aim in education. It is the best^ alike for all. and yet to EDUCATION. 597 no two the same. We are not to envy others, not to despair because we can not reach their level. Oar j3roportionate ideal is within reach of each of us. When we are hearing so much of the power of reason and mind, and when the one goal of perfect knowledge and absolute command over nature is being emphasized by some philosophers as that which is to be reached by all men alike, it were w'ell to remem¬ ber that there are limits to what the mind can accomplish. It were well to recall the fact that in the eighteenth century the extreme claims made for the reason resulted in exposing the whole fabric of knowledge to the bitter attack of the most thoroughgoing skepticism that the world has ever seen, and that in consequence the most powerful thinker of modern times made it his chief aim to demonstrate, not the power, but the weakness of human reason; for in this way could he perform the greatest service alike to philos¬ ophy and to science. Amiel, whose mysticism is remarkable for its subtle psychologi¬ cal analysis and its profound philosophic insight, emphasizes the moral and religious aspects of this truth in his Journal Intime (p. 83). These are his words: “We must learn to look upon life as an apprenticeship to a progressive renunciation, a perpetual diminution of our pretentions, our hopes, our powers, and our liberty. The circle grows narrower and narrower; we begin with being eager to learn everything, to see everything, to tame and conquer everything, and in all directions we reach our limit, nonplus ultra. Fortune, glory, love, power, wealth, happiness, long life, all these blessings which have been possessed by other men seem at first promised and accessible to us, and then we have to put away one dream after another, to make ourselves small and humble, to submit to feel ourselves limited, feeble, dependent, ignorant, and poor, and to throw ourselves upon God forall, recognizing our own worthlessness and that we have no right to anything. It is in this nothingness that we recover something of life; the divine spark is there at the bottom of it. Resignation comes to us, and, in believing love, we reconquer the true greatness.” What man is wise ? — Huntington Smith: Wisdom does not consist in the ability to heap up facts, although our school instructors seem to think it does. Wisdom is concerned with something far higher than facts; it is concerned with the true, the eternal, the un¬ changing relations of things. The man who has grasped a few of the elementary truths of existence and governed his life in accordance with them is wise, even if he can not read a line of Latin or solve a problem in algebra or work out a sum in the rule of tliree. The real object of school education. — New York Evening Post: The history of education in this country for the past fifty years has been a history of crazes — the method craze, the object-lesson craze, the illustration craze, the “memory-gem” craze, the civics craze — calling upon children of eight to ten for information as to custom-houses, post- offices, city councils, governors, and legislators — the story-telling craze, the phonics craze, the word-method craze, the drawing and music craze, besides the craze for letters and business forms, picture study, and physics. Now arrives manual training. Happy is the community where those in charge of the schools have maintained their clear judg¬ ment above all these fluctuations, shiftings, and tinkeriugs, and have kept in view the real object of school education, “to give a knowledge of self, to promote morality and refinement through the teaching of discipline and self-control, and to lead the pupils to see that the highest and only permanent content is to be obtained, not in the valleys of Sense, but by continual striving toward the high peaks of Reason.” Why new ideas do not take roof. — Felix Ellarka, in the Journal of Pedagogy: What was it that killed object lessons? What was it that led the kindergarten movement into the quicksands of quackery? What was it that led so many excellent educational ideas to so early and ignoble a death, the death of failure in indifference? Take auy one of those “crazes” so skillfully enumerated by the Post — is not everyone of those failures directly attributable to one and the same cause, want of teachers prepared to take hold of new ideas, prepared to test them in the testing crucible of pedagogical principles, pre¬ pared to use them with discretion? American life is wanting in that repose which is absolutely necessary for the sound development of the teacher’s practice in strict accord¬ ance with principles. “Was sie gestern gelernt, wollen sie heute schon leliren. Ach was habeu die Lente fuer ein kurzes Gedaerm ! ” (What they learned only yesterday the.y intend to teach to-day. Ob, what a short alimentary canal these people have ! ) said Goethe, and he may be credited with knowing what he said. Had he lived in the last decade of the nineteenth century he would have substituted “never” for “only yesterday.” * * * Look toward New York. With the stroke of the pen it was decreed to introduce manual training into the public schools of a city that has over three thousand teachers. I am morally certain that the recording angel wept a silent tear when he recorded this outrage. Did the teachers of New York know anything of manual training? The aver¬ age New York teacher knew no more about it than did my dog Bowser. Had they a 59 S EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. preparation for what they were to undertake ? It was not supposed that they had, unless God gave it to them in their sleep. Yet the powers that be “introduced manual train¬ ing.” No wonder it is fast becoming a craze. It is the natural sequence of intrusting a new departure to persons unfit for tfie task. Catchwords and a few tricks are sufficient for the purpose of deception, and they are used. * * * Understand me right: I am not preaching against them (these “crazes”), but calling a halt to having them handled by untrained, unskilled, unprepared, and inexperienced, hence irresponsible and even unscrupulous persons, calling themselves teachers and going by that name on the pay roll. That is the cause. The effect is, has been, and ever will be, that new methods such as mentioned above and old principles conceived and born into the world ages ago by master minds, are run down and into the ground. * * * It won’t do to copy our cousins across the water, the Germans, in everything they do; but notice how deliberately, how carefully, how cautiously they introduce new ideas, new devices, new methods, by first training a generation of teachers up to them. Gar¬ field’s metaphor of the Democratic graveyard of dead and buried issues has its mate in the' garden bed of the American school in which every bud is pulled open, and when the sun rises and in the fullness of noontide looks down upon it, there is nothing to see but withered and shriveled-up fiowers. The proper education of to- day. — C. M. Woodward: The proper education of to-day is a preparation for the duties and responsibilities of life. Our students must therefore come* out of school with the elements of high character, with a vigorous, healthy body and mind, able to put both hand and brain to work, to enter readily into sympathetic co.- operation with the institutions of their country and time. Practical accomplishments are essential to a good education, though they are not the whole of it. While training to the full the faculties of the individual, including his mechanical powers, and fitting him to act his part as a citizen, a home-builder, and a bread-winner, we must not fail to set high value on the finest products of the human mind and to give fair introduction to the great fields of art and philosophy. The ideal early education can he conducted in the family alone. — William Chauncey Lang- don in the Century: For real education is the development of distinct personalities, the fitting each one severally for his or her own life’s work. This is not a result to be ef¬ fected by contract or in the aggregate. In the family alone, and by or on the immediate responsibility of those parents by whom were imposed upon each child from before its birth the physical, mental, and spiritual conditions on which all true after-education must be based, can an ideal early education be conducted. If, then, in practice it pass into other hands — into those of the nursery governess, the school-teacher, or the col¬ lege — it is and it can be only because of the inability, at some stage of the advance, of those individual parents or of that family for its best further discharge. The actual agent, whoever he may be — even though it be the State assuming, for reasons of public policy, the partial discharge of a responsibility which would otherwise go undischarged- can be regarded only as the representative deputy or the substitute for the family. Development of genius hy education. — Prof. J. E. Buchanan in the Arena: And has this godlike element [genius] anything to do with education, and with schoolhouses or universities, which in the past have ever barred their doors and even their windows against it? Can these doors be unbarred and the old temples of memory and conserva¬ tism be made nurseries of the divine element which is latent in all human souls? It would be wrong to doubt, for it seems to us an axiomatic truth that there is no ele¬ ment in man which is not capable of culture and development. As genius is the power that relies upon itself and explores the unknown in fearless independence, the first thing to be done in its culture is to commence the exercise of self-reliance and acquisition of knowledge by the independent power of the pupil. Let him begin as if on the assump¬ tion that he is a born genius and must live the life of original, self-reliant manhood, competent to live alone and to lead. It is not proposed to pamper egotism by asserting the superiority of the juvenile pupil to his comrades and seniors, but to put him to work upon the problems which others have mastered and let him realize the modesty which is produced by the presence of apparently insurmountable obstacles and impenetrable mysteries, which he must resolutely attack and conquer, because they have long since been conquered by human energy, and he, as a human being, must not shrink from doing what others have done, learning what others have learned, and contributing his own fair share of labor in enlarging the world’s stock of knowledge. He should not be fed with knowledge when he can gather knowledge for himself, nor guided along any road which he is competent to explore by the use of his own faculties. In his very infancy he must be made an independent observer and encouraged to learn, understand, and describe everything going on around him by questioning him so critically that if his observation is incomplete or inaccurate he will be stimulated to make it complete and perfect. In¬ terrogation is the chief agency of intellectual education, for its function is to compel EDUCATION. 599 thought, and it was wisely .selected by Socrates for that purpose. From infancy to manhood it should ever be present as the driving and compelling power — compelling to observe, compelling to investigate, compelling to reason, and compelling to remember. Men wanted^ not mere scholars; the work of general education must he effected early. — President Timothy Dwight in the Forum: The evil to be greatly apprehended, by rea¬ son of the tendencies of opinion in the popular mind of late, is, as it seems to me, that we shall bring forward a generation of imperfectly educated specialists in this country. I mean by this expression — which I use in the less restricted rather than the more re¬ stricted sense — not specialists who are half trained in their own particular department, but specialists who are imperfectly educated as men. No result within the limts of admitted progress beyond the time of the fathers is, in’my judgment, more to be dep¬ recated than this. Indeed it may be doubted whether, in every sense, such a result could properly be regarded as progress at ail. The fathers had at least a wide outlook as far as their field of vision reached. They believed in men, not mere workers in the great human workshop. They believed in individual men, full grown and matured in their whole manhood, and not in mere scholars or practitioners in some one section of life or knowledge, whose mental culture should be limited to that one section. Men are what we need in this country, not lawyers, or physicians, or ministers, but men — men who, whatever may be their profession, are more than their profession; men who, whatever may be the extent of their knowledge in their own peculiar science, know much that is beyond their science and see the glory of all knowing and of all truth. Education, according to the true view of it, is like religion. It seeks the individual that it may bestow upon him, in himself, the fullness of its blessing. It strives to per¬ fect the world in its own sphere by making perfect the individuals who form the world. It desires and tries, therefore, regarding this as its first and foremost work, to give com¬ pleteness to each one whom it approaches. But this work of developing the individual on all sides must, in the sphere of which we are now speaking, be largely done in the early season. The necessities laid upon us in the subsequent years bring limitations with them, and wemustgain our general education, in great measure, at the beginning because of the particular demands of the life after¬ ward . In the consecrated period of the school and college course — consecrated to studies which work simply to the end of mental growth and of preparation for intelligent man¬ hood — the forces must be set in motion which will keep the wider thought and wider education alive through all the narrowing influences of the future and its special occu¬ pations and duties. These forces are the knowledge of the wide-extended field, acqui¬ sitions large enough to make secure the possession of the knowledge, and an ardor that can not be quenched. This period which is consecrated to the more general education, does not end, according to the view, of many among us, and, I may say, according to my own view, until an age later than that of which I am no w speaking [eighteen years]. It does not in the opinion of any wise educator in the lines of the higher education, as I suppose, end before this age. We all may unite, therefore, in the thought that the progress which I have indicated should be in the line of an open-minded, large-minded, rapid, enthusiastic movement of the intellectual powers until the youth is eighteen, and that what he should know then is what, by means of the best teaching and the best op¬ portunities, he can know at that age in all the various departments. * * * if j am asked, therefore, what a boy who has the best chances ought to know at eighteen, my answer is — of course, bearing in mind the limitations which my thought and the nature of the case suggests — he should know everything. This is the richness of the blessing which education has to give, and which it may give — the richest of all the blessings which our human life knows or can know, except that of the personal union of the soul with God. By education we go out heyond ourselves.—Di. W. T. Harris : As natural beings, as animals, we live but do not know our living. Only as educated beings do we live a conscious life in the high sense of the word. Only by education do we go out beyond ourselves as mere individuals and enter into our heritage of the life of the race. The uneducated consciousness of the mere animal does not enable him to take up the experience of his fellow animals and appropriate its lessons in the form of moral and scientific ideas. Only to a small extent does he avail himself of the lives of others. Only the species lives on while the individual metamorphosis ot life and death takes place. But the animal capable of education can go beyond his individual experience and avail himself of the lives of all. For the educated there is vicarious experience. He may live over in himself the lives of all others as well as his own life. In fact, each lives for all and all live for each on the plane of educated being. On this plane the in¬ dividual may be said to ascend into the species, and we can no longer say of him what we say of the mere animal — the species lives and the individual dies. For individ¬ ual immortality belongs to the being that can think ideas, because ideas embody 600 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. the life experience of the race and make possible this vicarious life of each in all. The religious mystery of vicarious atonement, is, we may see, adumbrated in the deepest fact of our spiritual existence. The mistakes and errors of each and every man as well as his achievements and successes all go into the common fund of experience of the race and are converted into ideas that govern our lives through education. The human race lives and dies for the iuviividual man. All the observation of the facts of the universe, all thinking into the causes of those facts, by this process is rendered available for each man. He may reenforce his feeble individual might by the aggregate feeling and see¬ ing and thinking of all men now living and all that have lived. IV. — Education as Related to Ckime. The making of a successful rogue. — The Churchman: It is noteworthy, though it is per¬ fectly natural, that absconding clerks and other defaulters are mostly men who have re¬ ceived such learning as they possess from the public schools. That the public schools do turn out a la.rge number of smart men is indisputable, but their neglect of moral teaching and training, which is confessed by their best friends, makes them quite as likely to turn out smart rogues as competent citizens. * * * It is greatly to be feared that the indirect efiect of the methods of teaching in our schools is distinctly and unequivocally immoral. In nearly all secular schools the one thing which is always kept before the mind of the scholar is the indispensable necessity of getting on. The stimulus of emulation is constantly applied. Year after year children are impressed with the thought that the first duty of life is to get ahead of other people. Why should one wonder that the practical outcome of many years of such training should prove to be disastrous to morality? Teach a child that success in getting on is the supreme ob¬ ject of all his efforts; teach him little or nothing of the conditions of right success; prac¬ tically ignore duty as the guide of every step in life, and then why should you wonder if the result of your fine system of education proved to be the making of a successful (or unsuccessful) rogue ? Probity without school education. — E. Sartorius, a German resident of Mexico: Every one who has lived in Mexico for any length of time and has been in contact with all classes ought to bear testimony that the people in general are good, acute, dexterous, laborious, ingenious, and disposed to any improvement. When it be considered how little has been done or is doing to give them an adequate moral and intellectual educa¬ tion, we can not avoid being surprised at the good fund of probity that prevails amongst all classes. I have lived for many years among the Indians and mixed race, and never have I enjoyed greater security in my person and in my property and interests than during the period referred to. What could not be done in Europe is practiced in Mex¬ ico without any fear, and that is, to trust to a poor and barefooted day laborer large sums of money, to be carried by him alone a distance of many leagues, and it never occurs that the wretched Indian commits a breach of confidence. Such a vice is, up to the present, an exception. Something more thm intelligence required. — President L. R. Fiske, of Albion (Mich.) College: That intelligence is not an adequate bar to crime must be apparent to every one. The great criminals are mostly persons of a high grade of intelligence. Technical or professional knowledge often supplies the very conditions of crime. It is the skillful bank clerk or cashier that absconds. It is the man who has the greatest knowledge of the means of successful gambling who takes it up as a profession. The burglar takes advantage of knowledge which the ordinary citizen does not possess to make his way into his neighbor’s dwelling or bank or other place of business for pillage. Indeed, is it not true that in all ages intelligence has been the avenue and inspiration of crime? Men of superior mental poweis, due perhaps largely to greater intelligence than others possess, have been the leaders in the criminal movements of successive ages. Auibition is sure to fill the heart of that man who is conscious of unusual intellectual capabilities, and this ambition links itself with selfishness, and the result is that for personal ends rights are trampled under foot, and crimes, not only against individuals but against na¬ tions and even humanity itself— crimes whose breadth and blackness words can not por¬ tray — are committed. Is he a murderer who kills a man on the street that he may get his purse, and that military chieftain who, in order to satisfy his ambition, organizes an army, leads it into battle, slays his thousands, breaks up innumerable homes, over¬ throws governments, trampliog under his feet the rights of all who come in his way, is this man simply a hero, not a murderer, not a traitor to humanity? The leaders in crime are the men who, by virtue of intelligence and distinguished mental powers, have thrown disorder into society and most Avidely carried havoc and ruin wherever they have gone. The race needs to be intelligent, but something more is required to prevent crime and insure general respect for human rights. EVENING SCHOOLS. 601 Give a man both hnowledge and slcilJ. — President Edwin AVillits, of MicLigan Agricul¬ tural College: The regulation specific [I’or the prevention of crime] is to cuitivato the moral sense, to supplement intellectual with moral training in our public schools. Un¬ deniably this suggestion has great force, but does not cover the v/hole ground. Those who have had much to do with criminal character have noted that but few criminals are destitute of moral knowledge. As a rule they know they have done wrong. Many have had careful moral and religious training; they have “ memorized the Ten Com¬ mandments;” they can conduct a theological controversy with skill andl acumen. Some are really religious to a degree that almost disarms suspicion of hypocrisy. Con¬ ditions have been adverse, so that the moral sense has not been developed, or the stress of temptation has been more than they could bear. Our worst class of criminals are not heathens. Moral training, therefore, will, not ^ be the sole remedy. Somehow the conditions must be changed. * * It is a mistaken idea that learning a trade is not education, that the ability to work at some useful occupation does not enter into and compose an essential part of a man’s intelligence. You remember what Riiskin says: ‘ ‘A boy can not learn to make a straight shaving off a plank or drive a fine curve without faltering, or to lay a brick level in the mortar without learning a multitude of other matters which lip of man could never teach him.” A man that can shoe a horse well knows more than the man holding the bridle. Skill is intelligence applied, and applied intelligence counts for more in the world than stores of knowledge unapplied. Give a man both knowledge and skill and you have a well-rounded intelligence; these, with a moral and religious training, will do much to keep him outside the prison walls, outside the criminal class. Give the city boy something to do, systematic daily labor, and take him off the side¬ walk, and you may diminish your prisons one-half. Give him something that requires skill and knowledge, full intelligence. Busy fingers rarely steal. Sin of all kind is the product, generally, of the unoccupied mind and heart and hand of man. If St. Anthony had washed hiinself at least once a week, had discarded his hair shirt, and turned his cell into a workshop, he would have seen no devils to fight. The best way to cool off a passion or control an appetite is to sidetrack it into some laudable in¬ dustry. V. — Evening Schools. The remcdij for irregidar lit/ of attendance. — Hon. Thos. B. Stockwell, State school com¬ missioner of Rhode Island: The actual attendance on evening schools for this last year has been only 35. 5 per cent, of the enrollment, a little more than half of the percentage in the day schools. Some of the reasons for this condition of affairs are not difficult to determine. First of all is the fact that the whole matter is a purely voluntary one on the part of the pupil. Another reason is to be found in the too common lack of proper supervision from the very opening of the term. The poor quality of much of the teaching doubtless has a good deal to do with the breaking up of many schools. Other minor causes, varying with localities, will suggest themselves to the reader’s mind. The remedy is probably to be found along several lines; there is no one cure for all of the evils. To begin with, the first registration should be conducted more upon the theory of securing suitable pupils rather than large numbers. It should be the general practice to discourage the entrance of any who do not give evidence of both a desire and the ability to attend regularly throughout the course. Then the worlc should l)e carefully laid out and adapted to the special needs of the pupils to be taught with the object of doing the most possible in the least time. Make the programme attractive in the opportunities which it offers. Lastly, put the best teachers that can be obtained into the schools; teachers who can make the different subjects to be taught clear and intelligible; those who have some personal power and influence which they can use to hold the pupil when he begins to lose his first zest for the work. Tim experience of several schools in different parts of the State shows that this personal element must enter into the evening school even more largely than into the day school if even fairly good results are to be secured. I would not be understood at all as questioning the value of the evening schools as a whole, for I believe they are a necessary feature of our system and must be extended and enlarged in their scope, in some localities at least. But I do feel that in our present manner of conducting them we are making but little i^rogress, and that in consequence we are guilty of negligence. VI. — High Schools. Higher education of the rural population. — The committee on education of the National Council of Education recently made an investigation of the opportunities and induce- 602 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. ments offered fhe rural population of this country for securing the advantages of higher education. The evidence collected by. them is summed up as follows: I. The State systems are still very generally partial and chaotic. II. For all secondary education the mass of the rural population is generally depen¬ dent upon chance or the favor of some city. III. With few exceptions no opportunities or inducements worthy of the name in the way of secondary or higher education are offered the rural population. IV. Where efforts in the way of systematic secondary education have been reported as made, outside of cities and towns, but are not and can not be considered as even fairly successful, it is because — 1. They are too limited as to territory, population, and resources; or, 2. The organization is not sufficiently close and complete, there being too much ir¬ regularity in the work of the lower schools; or, 3. The people of the rural districts have no voice in the management and control of such school, and hence indifference takes the place of interest. From the facts as thus reported your committee considers the following to be legiti¬ mate conclusions or suggestions: I. The district or rural schools should be graded. II. To grade successfully there must be some standard to which to grade— some point which will limit and define the work. III. This limit should be the lowest class recognized under secondary education. IV. Secondary education should have the same general characteristics that have given primary education its strength and its hold upon our people: (a) The schools should he free schools and not fee schools. (&) The schools should be as near as possible the homes of those to whom they min¬ ister. (c) Those whose children are to receive the benefit of this instruction should partici¬ pate in the control and management of these schools. (d) The establishment and maintenance of such schools shoul<| not be haphazard, a matter of accident or convenience merely, but should be fixed, sure, and systematic. V. As it is an admitted fact that only a small per cent, of those who reach these schools can ever pass beyond them the secondary schools should combine good aca¬ demic training with work which is more strictly preparatory. [Ahfe. — It should be understood that a model secondary school will give rd least such instruction that its graduates can enter the freshman class of colleges of good standing. It ought to do more than this. ] VI. The secondary schools should in turn grade up to the lowest class in the univer¬ sity of the State in which they are situated — if such an institution exists. If the higher education is not a part of the State system then the secondary schools should grade up to the best academic standard that the people can be urged to accep-t. VII. In establishing secondary schools the natural order seems to be: (a) In new and in sparsely settled States or counties, the county high school. (b) As cities come into existence, the city high school in addition to that of the county. (c) As the rural population grows more dense, the township or union district graded school with courses which lead up to the county high school, the grades of which can then be advanced. [Note. — There are comparatively few States in which township or union district high schools can be successfully maintained.] VIII. Statute law should be mandatory to the extent of securing at least one high school of high grade in each county. IX. It should be permissive as to cities and townships, at least within certain pretty broad limits of population, but when such such schools are established they should come under laws which will secure some uniformity in courses of study — though not neces¬ sarily in the extent of such courses — and in the general management. X. A State system vrorthy of the name will freely offer every opportunity and induce¬ ment to its entire school population to pass, by systematic methods, easily apprehended by those who are to receive the benefits, and under popular control, from the lowmst seat in the primary school to graduation by a college or university of high standing. Disastrous influence of secondary schools on primary education. — Hon. Charles D. Hine; The influence of secondary schools on primary education has been disastrous — [a] It has directed the energies of teachers and scholars to the one end of passing ex¬ aminations to enter secondary schools. Primary education for its own sake has been disparaged because another end was in view. {h) The result has also been to unduly diminish the number who remained in the higher classes of the ];)rimary schools. Many high schools do not admit the equivalency of all lines of study. In schools dominated by the classical spirit every sort of talent PHYSICAL TKAINIHG. 603 is measured by the ability to make high rank in classics. Those who do not come into this current and up to this standard are made to feel that they are one side — are specials or commercials or something different — from the regulars. Thus meritorious scholars are discouraged and driven from needed education. (c) This deflection from the true course of elementary education is not promoted by the teachers of the elementary schools. They must prepare for schools which are in¬ dependent and disconnected. They understand that they are not giving the best edu¬ cation, but a particular kind of education suited to the few who take a special secondary course. VII.— Physical Teaihinq. 3Iental and physical work antagonistic. — J. W. MacDonald, of Stoneham, Mass.: Gym¬ nastics and calisthenics are better than marching, but in my opinion they are overesti¬ mated. More than this, the way they are used, and the reason given, are utterly un¬ scientific. They are usually introduced into the study hours to relieve the mind from continuous study. Now, this is just what ought not to be done, and is the chief objection to long recesses devoted to violent play. It is worse than unscientific — it is injurious. At first, it requires some little time and effort to get the brain working, to overcome mental inertia, as it were. But after a while the blood begins to flow to the brain, and then study runs easily. But suddenly the teacher taps a bell, books are laid away, and there is a lively course of gymnastics to call the blood away, to be weakened by nour¬ ishing muscular activity. This being accomplished, the pupils are again set at work to get it back into the brain again, if they can. This is as wrong as it can be. Mental and physical work are, in a degree, antagonistic to each other. They are, however, both necessary, but they should not be alternated like thin pieces of gold leaf between sheets of beaters’ skins. Prom the beginning to the end of the session there should be as little interruption as possible to the flow of blood that nourishes the brain, and a period of quiet should intervene between mental work and either physical exercise or eating. German and American pupils compared. — William E. Sheldon: We would emphasize the importance of some form of physical education in the schools. The valuable results obtained by those nations which have paid especial attention to the cultivation of the body is well known. The narrow chests and undeveloped frames of the children ip the American public schools are in sad contrast to the physical perfection of the children of the ancient Greeks. It is also apparent in schools where German and American pupils in New York City are found together, the German children being splendidly developed by exercises in the Turners’ societies. Half a century ago 85 per cent, of our male popu' latiou was engaged in farming or other outdoor work, while now hardly 40 per cent, are so engaged. In cities and large towns the boys now have no wood to saw or chop, and no fields to play in hardly, while for girls out-of-door play is almost obsolete. Brick walls and concrete schoolyards discourage running and romping, and there is therefore urgent necessity lor physical exercise and culture to meet the artificial conditions of urban life. The following extracts are from the report of the Physical Training Conference (Boston, 1889): The use of muscles by the will as affording rest and recreation. — Dr. William T. Harris: I shall define physical training as the conscious or volunt iry training of the muscular side of our system, which is the special side under the control of the will. Of course we understand that the vital processes go on without the wiil, and that this is an ad¬ vantage — it is better that they should remain invol a tffafy. Of coarse the voluntary system has relations to the involuntary system, and this is one of the first questions which have been considered by persons who have thoroughly studied physical training. What can we do with our wills? What can we do with our innscles that shall help on the vital processes and develop them? That is a deep subject. It should be the first which attracts the attention of persons interested in physical education, and it should be also the last one. We ask what we can do by the action of our wills in the matter of developing the muscles of the chest, of the legs, and of the artns, and inquire what are the relations of muscle action to digestion and sleep and such matters. We have not yet probed these subjects to the bottom, nor have we ascertaiued the fundamental relations of the voluntary to the involuntary functions in diseased conditions. We are continuously finding some new phases, and L suppose the medical profession discover more new facts in relation to this than persons specially interested in physical training alone. Physicians discover cases in which some oversight in regard to will-training has resulted in interfering more or less with the involuntary processes, so that the lat¬ ter have been retarded, thus injuring some of their functions. We all acknowledge the importance of discovering ami settling the limits between these two processes and defining nil the relations between the involuntary vital processes and the conscious vol- 604 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. untary movements, and the transition of these voluntary movements into involuntary ones again through the principle of habit. The exercise of the muscles by voluntary effort calls into action the higher nervous motor centers of the body and brain. That is to say, physical training such as is advocated by us relates especially to the will, and therefore to the very highest nerve centers of the physical system. This reveals its re¬ lation to rest and recreation. Now, when one, for instaaco, is studying science or art or literature or any school studies, he is exercising these same high nerve centers. Let him pass from study to one of these systematic physical exercises and he does not get the required rest. It is not rest and repose from the exercise of these higher nerve centers, at least. Of course all of our specialists in physical training know that it is not a relief from will tension, and the question remains: In how far is such exercise as that valuable? In what way is it a relief? Those who put forward theories of physical exercise and training have their views with regard to this, and the opinions of different individuals vary. I take it that one of the most important results of this conference will be the adjusting of differences of opinion with regard to this point — in how far the use of the muscles by the will can afford rest and recreation from studies and from sedentary occupations and in how far they will serve so well as free play. We all know the difference between play and work. In oar play, caprice governs, and there is real repose for the will. But in work the will takes the body and the mind and puts them under forms prescribed by others or under such forms as it has adopted ibr itself in its rational hours. Its action in work is as much inhibitory and holding back as it is spon¬ taneous and free exercise. But play is not inhibitory. Play has its use in education. We are discovering more and more how play is an exceedingly important function; that it is the source of the development of individuality through spontaneity. The indi¬ vidual through play learns to know, to command, to respect himself, and to distinguish between his own impulses and inclinations and those of others. Great strength of in¬ dividuality grows from play. Nations that postpone play until maturity fail in this respect. In China it is said that old men of 60 enjoy flying kites. In this country boys of 12 or 15 fly kites: but there aged men love to do it; and children do not feel the same interest in play in China as they do here. * * * The student now studies this problem broadly and focuses his attention on this rela¬ tion of the voluntary to the involuntary and tries to discover whereby th© vital organs — the lungs, the heart, the stomach, all the digestive organs, the kidneys — in short, how all the functions that are involuntary in their action may be assisted and influenced by voluntary action and motion. The old gymnastic did not pay attention enough to this relation of exercise to the vital organs to discover its negative effects. It did not de¬ termine the limits of muscular training. In the case of calisthenics, for example, the will power is called into play, and it is no relief from the strain on the brain to go from the study of arithmetic or from the concentration of attention on the work in recitation to the performance of physical maneuvers that demand close attention to the teacher who gives the signal for the calisthenic exercises. A very powerful exercise of the will is demanded in calisthenics, whereas free play (mot systematic games) is rest for the will. The recess spent in play in the school yard is a great rest and refreshment. I mention this because there has been a movement throughout the country, commencing long ago in Evansville, Ind., to do away with the recess. A superintendent who had given much time to studying the moral development of children came to believe that the recess is the cause or the means of a great deal of immorality, and that by abolishing it he would bring the pupil more under the control of the teacher, thereby increasing the moral hold on the pupil. The movement spread to various places in this country. Kochester for a long time has had no recess. At Albany, also, the schools have no recess. This abolishing of the recess has led our conservative educators who hold their faith in the old regulation to look with suspicion on this experiment, and to try to dis¬ cover in what forms there is apparent a physical reaction, and in what forms there are countermovemeuts on the part of physicians and others, tending to mold public opinion. * * * The German movement is a movement which looks most to the conscious develop¬ ment of the muscles through the will. Over against it stands the English system of developing mu.scle unconsciously by athletic sports. I suppose we shall have the dis¬ tinction between these two principles presented, and I hope their claims may be ad¬ justed. It is an important question to decide whether we should make physical training a matter of special effort of the will, subordinating the will of the pupil to the will oif the instructor, or whether we shall seek such physical training in free play from games. That is indeed the chief practical subject that we have before us now. I suppose that every one acquainted with medicine knows that physical training by the exercise of the will, instead of reenforcing the vital processes, may thwart them and injure them. I know of chronic cases of dyspepsia, for example, that have never been cured by gym¬ nastics; but there are certain kinds of voluntary and involuntary movements that cer- PHYSICAL TRAINING. G05 tainly help digestion. It is known that horseback riding is beneficial, a favorable reaction being caused by the jolting movement of the horse. This is supposed to be especially a kind of exercise that helps the healthy action of vital organs. Some have contended that it is the best exercise for consumptive people. The German system of gymnastics. — II. Metzner, principal of the school of the New York Turnverein: The German system of gymnastics ranks high among all the different sys¬ tems known. It is not an experience of late years, like so many others which have been put forward with great promises and pretensions by their inventors, in order to meet the want of bodily training in our present school education, which, however, have been laid aside again after a short trial on account of their insufficiency. The Ger¬ man system has been diligently built up during almost a century by men of science, especially physicians, physiologists, and pedagogues of high reputation. It is in prac¬ tical use since that time, and is to-day in vogue in many European countries in a more or less modified form. In the arm^^ as military gymnastics; in the education of the youth, as school gymnastics; in the halls of the German turners, as popular gymnastics. It is practiced in classes by hundreds at the same time, as well as by single individu¬ als as home exercises. The German system embraces all the different branches of gymnastics: exercises with apparatus, light gymnastics or calisthenics, and also all those exercises known as out-door sports, as running, leaping, jumping, throwing the stone, and the use of all hand ap¬ paratus, as wands, dumb-bells, and clubs. The German system has three marked features which no other system can claim in so predominant a manner. I. It aims at general physical culture, and not at the culture of one special branch. Therefore it declines the development of a certain organ or faculty at the expense of others. In regard to this we may call attention to the fact that all who have gone through a regular course of exercises in accord with this system have been thoroughly developed, and rank as high in proficiency as any person educated by another system. The contests among the turners are thus arranged, that exercises in all the different branches must be performed. This is also the case when testing scholars in regard to their proficiency. The numbers gained, added together, decide the grade of develop¬ ment. The strife for specialties is even not permitted, and a partial or one-sided devel¬ opment is therefore unknown. Yet this does not prevent individual skill and inclina¬ tion from bringing about a greater result in a certain branch; this result, however, is not gained by a loss or lack in any other branch. II. It allows, or rather induces, the exercises in classes. The classes are selected by a careful investigation as to strength, ability, age, etc., and for that reason it suits as well those who practice merely for physical development as those who aim at a pro¬ ficiency of a higher grade. The exercises in classes are a source of endless pleasure, re¬ freshment of mind, and joyfulness, not only to children, but even to adults. They are furthermore an inducement for promotion and the ambitious desire to keep step with other scholars. They act as a stimulant for greater exertion. It is an undeniable truth that all those who have continually practiced in a German gymnasium, or in a school in whicffithe German system of gymnastics had been introduced, acknowledge that the hours spent there count among the happiest of their childhood or manhood. The variety and great number of exercises of the German system and their scientific arrangement allow new and indefinite combinations. The teacher can always select a certain number of exercises suitable for his class which are as agreeable as instructive and interesting to every one of the classmates. Not only the body, but also the mind is kept in a whole¬ some and refreshing activity which will keep away all weariness and tediousness which are so often found in other systems. The class exercises of the German system allow also the instruction of a large number at the same time, providing sufficient room is at hand. III. The instruction begins with the most simple and easy movements and proceeds gradually to a higher degree. All fear of danger or harm to the body is a priori excluded. The apparatus used in school practice is not at all complicated or expensive. A number of climbing poles, ladders, and some light apparatus for the high and long leap are suf¬ ficient. They may even be omitted altogether if the necessary room for such could not be provided for. In this case, however, we can not call the training a complete one, as the aim of training is not only the achievement of a development of muscles, limbs, and organs, but also the achievement of courage and self-reliance. It is a fact that many a man or woman could have ayoided danger or saved their lives had they been courageous or resolute enough to risk a leap or to take hold of a ladder in a moment of need. The great variety of useful exercises that may be made with the above-named appa¬ ratus, together with the utilization of the almost endless variety of simple and compli¬ cated free exercises, with or without the common hand apparatus, as wands, dumb-bells, clubs, etc., which maybe executed in the school room, bring about as satisfactory re^ 606 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. suits as any other system. In addition to this we may proudly assert that its scientific and educational value has met with approval wherever it was allowed a fair trial. And we also may assert that no other system has so large a variety of exercises and combi¬ nations as this. And for that reason alone it is more qualified for introduction wherever gymnastic exercises are wanted, especially in the schools. The German system is not in vogue ouly in the halls of the turners and in their schools. It has already gained its ground in some of the colleges and athletic clubs, in private and in public schools, where teachers educated in the seminary of the North American Turnerbund act as instructors. The German system does not claim to have any special exercise of its own, or to be the sole proprietor of any, that no other system may also produce; no. But it may prop¬ erly claim that it has correctly and practically arranged the gymnastic material for the use of any one who seeks health, strength, or refreshment of mind and body. In the German gymnasia and schools the lessons begin regularly with a series of free and order exercises. Every scholar has to participate in them. The rythmical order in which they are produced calls forth absolute attention, and allows no backwardness. They impress on each a feeling of responsibility toward his associates. The mistakes or errors, or an insufficient execution of anyone, injures the good impression of the whole, and thus tends to greater carefulness and prevents negligence on the part of the scholar. Class exercises on apparatus follow the free exercises. A change of apparatus takes place, and then the lesson ends with some exercises left to individual inclination. The latter, however, are limited to a short time according to the ability of the scholars, or may be prohibited altogether to beginners. Thus under the eye and control of the teacher a scene of activity and liveliness is exhibited, which the educator will look upon with satisfaction and delight. In consideration of the above stated facts, a careful examination and a fair trial of the German system of gymnastics, free of all prejudice, may properly be demanded when the question is practically to be decided which of the different systems is best apt to be adopted in the programme of our public schools. Tlie Swedish system of gymnastics. — Nils Posse, M. G. : The exercises are chosen accord¬ ing to their gymnastic value, which quality depends on how the movement combines the utmost effect on the body with simplicity and beauty of performance. Only such exer¬ cises are used whose local and general effects are fairly well known and proved to be needed by the body. Not only the needs of the individual, but his abilities as well are to be taken into consideration; and for that reason the teacher must know how to vary the exercises according to the degree of physical culture possessed by the pupil. The movement should have its developing effects in a short time; it should be simple, so that every pupil can do it fairly well, and it should have beauty of execution, according to each one’s ability. In order to supply the needs of the organism and to develop the body harmoniously the exercises have to overcome a great many tendencies to faulty growth or bad posture, and the greater or less value of a movement depends on its power to counteract or correct these tendencies. It naturally follows that the system uses no exercises which would encourage such faults (for instance, using chest weights for beginners, etc.), hf an exer¬ cise gives rise to faulty posture it is discarded, or at least postponed till some future day when it can be correctly executed. In accordance with the physiological truth that the first, greatest, and most extensive effect of exercise is on the respiratory organs, and that hence during exercise these organs must be allowed perfect freedom of motion, the Swedish method disappro^res of and dis¬ cards all movements which compress the chest (such as Indian-club swinging) or which in any way interfere with free respiration, and the greatest attention is given to the proper development of the chest. In recognition of the fact that to be truly strong a man must know how to breathe well, much prominence has been given to “respiratory ” exercises. “Breathe ! ” “Don’t hold your breath ! ” are common exhortations in gym¬ nasiums where this method is used. In judging of the effects of an exercise we think the least of the muscular develop¬ ment produced, for the effect of all general exercise is to develop muscle, and this aim is reached without especially working for it. But we think all the more of the effects produced on nerves, vessels, etc., for the results in this direction can be vastly changed by varying the movements (as demonstrated in Medical Gymnastics); in other words, the exercises have been made to harmonize with the laws of physiology. How this is done will be understood from the description of the exercises which are contained in each lesson (to which I shall soon refer). Measuring a man’s strength, we compare the man to himself; we do not say that a man is strong because he can hold so much air, or because he can lift so many pounds, or because he can jump so high. But when he possesses a healthy, well-balanced, and well-proportioned body, which his will has under good control, then he possesses physi- PHYSICAL TRAINING. 607 cal culture, even thougli in tlie eyes of some lie may seem weak as compared to others. It is this health, symmetry, and harmony we aim at in selecting the exercises; and that the Swedish method accomxjlishes its purpose has been too well demonstrated to leave room for doubt. Movements are never chosen “because they look so pretty,” for educational gymnas¬ tics do not aim at beauty of performance. When gymnastics do have such an aim they are called “ sesthetical, ” and these have but little effect toward physical development. And yet we claim that when a movement is well done it is graceful as well. Some per¬ sons mistake a languid manner of motion for grace, and hence claim that the Swedish exercises “are too jerky to be graceful.” It is to be remembered that all gymnastic movements are not slow, nor do they have an even velocity; there are some that can and always should be done with great and accelerating speed, and. you can move quickly and yet do it gracefully. By making the component motions of movements like the arm extensions merge into each other in a “graceful” manner, the effect of the movements is completely lost. On the other hand, if exercises like leg elevations, backward flex¬ ions of the trunk, etc., are done in a “jerky” manner, these movements are incorrectly executed and have lost their best effects. Our second point for consideration is the regularity of method. In order that gymnastics be systematic there must be progression. In the Swedish method this is adhered to very strictly, so that the exercises, beginning by the very simplest, gradually become stronger and more complicated. So closely has the effect of movements on the human organism been studied, that the slightest change of position — even the turning of a hand — has its recognized influence in the progression; and it is here that the system demands the most from the teacher; without a good knowledge in this direction he becomes worse than useless. No movement is attempted unless the previous ones of the same kind have been thoroughly practiced; and no exercise is used whose commencing position has not already been practiced sufficiently to guaranty its correctness; for, if the commencing position is faulty, the movement can not be rightly executed. The Swedish method does not disapprove of chest-weights, dumb-bells, and allied forms of apparatus; but through years of constant practice it leads up to them, claiming that before increasing the weight by external means, you should make a progression by prolonging the lever of the weight already present. So, for instance, a backward flexion of the trunk with the arras extended upward and the hands holding weights must neces¬ sarily be preceded by the same movenient witliout the weights, and that by a flexion with the hands fixed behind the neck, and still earlier with the hands on the hips, etc. In a like manner the method prepares the way for oesthetical gymnastics, for fencing, military drill, and other forms of applied gymnastics, yet insisting that educational gym¬ nastics form the basis of all these. This is reasonable; for, unless you have learned to control the involuntary coordination of motion, which is the cause of “ faults” in gym¬ nastics, you will hardly be able to produce the gr(3at voluntary coordination required in all forms of advanced gymnastics. Now, when you are to put this progression into practice, you will not feel as if grop¬ ing in the dark; for, in this method, the movements have been thoroughly systematized and included under distinctive headings, where there is no more a jumble, but where the rules of progression can be well carried through by a teacher familiar with the theory of gymnastics. After years of practical investigation it was found that if, in every les¬ son, the exercises followed each other in a certain, comparatively unchanging order, the movements could be made stronger; they could be given more duration; ill results could be completely prevented; and hence the good effects became all the more pronounced. For that reason all movements were divided into classes, and this order was made the basis for the classification. All the exercises can be included under the various head¬ ings; and within each class — with infinite variety — the exercises grow gradually stronger as the pupils develop. This classification will be found not only to contain exercises filling the needs of the organism, but to correspond to physiological principles as well. To understand this we shall have to consider it a little in detail: 1. Introductions. — By these we understand some simple exercises used at the begin¬ ning of a lesson to gain a little general muscular control, to correct the base and general position, etc. 2. Arch flexions^ which consist of backward flexions of the trunk; they have the effect of straightening the dorsal region of the spine; of vaulting the chest forward by draw¬ ing the lower ribs apart, thus increasing the chest capacity; and of cultivating the ex¬ tensibility of the upper region of the abdomen. 3. Heaving movements, which consist of various exercises in a hanging position, and others that ffiave the eiffect of expanding the upper part of the chest by lifting it upward; incidentally they also develop the arms. If these movements are not preceded by the 608 EDLX-ATION EEPORT, 1888-89. arch flexions they will produce lameness in the upper region of the abdomen. Free¬ standing arm extensions are classified in this group, since their effects resemble those of heaving movements, for which they also prepare the way. 4. Balance movements. — The two preceding exercises are strong, hence they increase the heart beat noticeably. Now a rest ought to ensue — the word rest not to be under¬ stood as meaning inactivity, but changed activity — and the time is conveniently filled by the gentle movements which we call balance movements. These require but little effort from any one of the many muscles brought into play; the heart beat is not in¬ creased by them, but it becomes lessened by the mechanical propulsion of the blood into the legs (the more equal distribution of the blood pressure). At the end of a balance movement the pupil is again ready for more specific work. 5. Shoulder-blade movements consist of arm movements which- have the effect of placing the shoulder-blades in correct position. These exercises are in a measure dependent on arch fiexionsand heaving-moveinents; for, unless the dorsal region of the spine isstraight- ened and the upper region of the chest is extensible, but little can be done toward over¬ coming a “stoop.” 6. Abdominal exercises bring into forcible play the abdominal walls; their effects are to incite peristalsis, to promote ‘digestion, and to shorten the stay of the food in the in¬ testinal canal. 7. Lateral trunk movements consist of rotations and sideways flexions, etc., of the trunk. They have a far-reaching effect on the general circulation by accelerating the flow in the inferior vena cava, leading the blood off from the abdomen and legs, etc. Incident¬ ally they also expand the chest laterally and strengthen the muscles around the waist. 8. Slow leg movements. — By this time the heart-beat is again much increased : the slow leg movements furnish a means of lessening it. For, by these the blood becomes me¬ chanically propelled forward, through the forcible, passive extension of some muscles, while others are in gentle, active contraction. These movements may be conveniently omitted when the previous exercises are not strong enough to make them a necessity. 9. Jumping and vaulting. — These exercises have the effect of cultivating the general elasticity of the body more than does any other form of movement. And if we recall that grace and elasticity are very nearly identical in gymnastics, we understand the gym¬ nastic need of these movements. But they also have practical value; for we are often called upon to jump; and if it so happens, it is well to know how. They develop courage, self-reliance, a true appreciation of space, and produce great ability of voluntary coordi¬ nation of motion as well. The Swedish method differs from all others (not founded on it) in its manner of preparing the jumping by practising the intermediate positions, be¬ fore the real movement is attempted, as well as m demanding that correct “landing” should be insisted upon. In like manner the vaulting is prepared by first cultivating in the pupil the habit of clinging to the bar, no matter what happens, before he is made to leap over it. And the progression is so strict that we have no accidents to record in these “violent” or precipitate movements. 10. Bespmatory exercises. — These consist of deep inhalation and exhalation accompa¬ nied by some arm movement that will expand and contract the chest in even rhythm with the respiratory act. The movements, which can be conveniently combined with some movements of the legs or trunk, have the effect of restoring free respiration (the jumping putting the pupil out of breath) and to lessen the heart beat. Kespiratory ex¬ ercises are brought in not only at the end of every lesson, but at any time when their effects are needed, and often also at the beginning of a lesson containing strong exercises that require an increased amount of oxygen. To this daily curriculum various additions are often made, such as to bring in one more shoulder-blade movement, when needed; or another heaving movement; or an ab¬ dominal exercise; or leave the last one entirely out for children, and so on — as the teacher may decide. In addition to the free-standing movements, each class contains numberless exercises on apparatus, and supplies a sufficient number to form a progression from early infancy to well-developed manhood — through all the grades in school and college, and in alter life as well. The third point in which the Swedish system differs from the majority of others is in the method of appl^dng the exercises. The movements are applied to words of command, this being the only method ena¬ bling the pupil to concentrate his mind on one thing at a time, that thing being his own movement. This is in accordance with the definition of gymnastic movement, which tells us that unless a movement is done with full volition it ceases to be gymnastic. In those methods which use imitation, memorizing, etc., the movements become mechani¬ cal, the pupil dividing his attention between himself and something outside him, i.e., they cease to be gymnastic. Objections have been raised to using words of command, because “ it is too tiresome, ” PHYSICAL TRAINING. 609 ** too soldier-like,” etc. To this we can answer that to get the full recreation and rest out of exercise we should put our whole mind into it, this being much less tiresome than to exercise while we think of something else. On the one hand we have the theory of a small minority of antagonists, that gymnastics without music do not give enough recreation, especially to children, because there is not enough exhilaration in such ex¬ ercises; on the other hand we have the statement of a large majority of children and others who have tried gymnastics to music as well as to words of command, the chil¬ dren saying that there is “much more fun ” in the latter, and the adults that there is “much more to them.” As for the second objection, we claim that discipline is nec¬ essary not only for a soldier but for everybody, if we are to have any control whatsoever over ourselves; and hence discipline should form a part of everybody’s education. Words of command have other advantages. They teach the pupil to think quickly; to act as quickly and to do a thing in the shortest possible time. This is no little gain in the present age of present age of hurry and competition. Besides, the use of commands enables the teacher always to heep his class “ in hand; ” it becomes easier for him not only to teach, but to correct as well. The Swedish method disapproves utterly of the use of^music, for the very simple rea¬ son that bat few gymnastics movements are rhythmical, and cannot be made to be so without sacriiicing the movement. On the other hand, every gymnastic move¬ ment has a rhythm of its own, which, however, distinctly differs from the rhythm of music. If music were to be used, its rhythm would have to change at every motion, and I doubt if any player, even a Rubinstein, would be able to make it do so. Take, for instance, such a movement as “preparation to jumping ” (consisting of (1) heel ele¬ vation, (2) knee hexion, (3) knee extension, (4) lowering of the heels;) the first motion is exceedingly quick; the second moderately quick; the third comparatively slow; and the fourth still slower. Now, where is the music to fit such a movement ? A recent lecturer on gymnastics made the somewhat startling statement that “the arm movements are not gymnastics (for example: arms extended sideways, in front, above the head, etc.)” If that teacher had said “arm movements done to music are not gymnastics,” the statement would have been correct. For let us investigate these arm extensions. Starting with arms hanging down, they consist of fiexion upward of the forearm, a movement occurring slowly from beginning to end — if it is to be done cor¬ rectly — and extension in any direction, which movement, once started, occurs with great and accelerating speed. Now, if this is done to music, the fiexion takes place so quickly that the forearm rebounds and gives the intermediate position of semi-flexion instead of complete flexion. In consequence thereof the extensors are not in the state of complete relaxation which should exist before they are made to contract, and their contraction will not be as forcible nor as quick as it ought to be. Besides, the music will give it the same speed as it gives to the flexion, which is entirely wrong. In most flexions a great many comparatively strong muscles perform the motion, hence these movements must occur slowly; whereas the extensions are executed by few and com¬ paratively weaker muscles, hence they can and should occur more quickly than the flexions. This is especially evident in the arm extensions just mentioned, and when they are done to music their gymnastic form always has to be sacrificed, i. e., they cease to be gymnastias. In a like manner we could investigate all other gymnastic movements and with the same result in all except a few oscillatory movements, like walking, running, etc. Besides, when exercising to music, the pupil will be found to pay more attention to the rhythm of the music than to the form of the movement (if we presume that the latter could be made rhythmical), and we get the same result as in all cases where work is done with divided attention — one of the things has to be sacrificed for the other. From the above it will be seen that the system is rational, since it seeks a reason for everything that it uses or adopts; it makes theory and practice harmonize. But it is practical as well; for it does not rely on elaborate apparatus for existence, since the ex¬ ercises, not the apparatus, constitute the system. The movements can be taken any¬ where where there is sufficient floor space to stand on and sufficient oxygen in the air. On the other hand, though the system prefers its own apparatus, the exercises can be most easily adapted to apparatus belonging to other systems, or to such simple means as ordinary chairs and desks, or other furniture. Though apparatus is desirable, it is not absolutely necessary for good physical development, especially in gymnastics for children. Whatever its deficiencies, the system has not only survived on its own merits, in spite of the close scrutiny to which it has been subjected by gymnastically learned men all over the world, but it has finally been adopted in every country where its principles have been thoroughly tested, even conservative England having at last yielded. Before closing, I take occasion to warn you against confounding Swedish educational gymnastics with medical gymnastics, commonly known as “Swedish movement cure; ” ED 89 - 39 610 EDUCATION EEPOETj 1888-89. altbongli based on the same principles, the two are entirely different, not only as to their purposes, but in the exercises used as well. The si/stem needed for our schools. — Dr. Jay W. Seaver, of Yale University: I believe that if we adopt this [Ling] system we must modify it. Whatever system we take, it must be adapted to the circumstances in a scientific way, so that we may get results that shall mean something. If we make mistakes we can again change and modify. That is the peculiar genius of America. We are not afraid to try something new, to launch out into seas before unknown to us. If we make mistakes we easily repair them. The system for your schools must be something entirely different from that of our colleges. The work that Dr. Hitchcock is doing at Amherst, Dr. Sargent is doing at Harvard, and Dr. Hartwell is doing at Baltimore, is very diflerent from what is demanded in the primary, grammar, and high schools. The conditions are different. They work for men who have reached years of intelligence, who are old enough to have judgment and regard for their own physical welfare. If a course ot work is marked out for them, the3^wiii follow it. But you can not do this with children. They do not know what is best for themselves and they do not care, and as we are crowding them five hours in the day and five days in the week with mental work, we must provide something for their physical welfare. We must build them up physically and give an outlet to the nervous energy which is driving them on daj^ after day, and making old men and women of them before they are out of their teens. What will the Swedish system do? I believe one criticism can be made that is fair and honest — that it r^uires too much mental attention. The pupil must have his attention centered on the instructor all the time. The pupil has all the time to watch for the word of command. “ * * Is this an insuperable objection to the Swedish system? I think not. I believe that some of these gentlemen who are so successful as teachers will see the needs of America, and will modify that certainly objectionable phase. Some essential features of school gymnastics.— liT. W. G. Anderson, of the Brooklyn School for Physical Training: The so-called American sj^stem is as scientific as that of Ling. Why should it not be? We begin where he stopped; we have his experience. I have much respect for the German and Swedish systems; I have had experience in both; but, taken as they are, they will not suit the American people. We have ideas of our own, and it is not often that methods of other countries will suit us, unless they are modified. I believe in music. My experience has shown me that as good results , can be obtained from many exercises if accompanied by appropriate music. If two classes take the same movements, one class working to an accompaniment played by an expert (for it requires an expert to play for gymnastics), the other class drilled by count¬ ing or thumping on the floor with a stick, how can you prove that music has been detri¬ mental in one case, while the counting was beneficial ‘in the other? Did the fife and drum have any effect on the tired soldiers during the war ? I have not found that the exhilaration caused by music in gymnastics has interfered with the muscular or nervous training of children. We do not, of course, do everything to music, but many of the lighter exercises can be thus executed; and I have yet to bear an argument that will convince me that such gymnastic training suffers by music. This w'ork is to go on in the schools. I hardly think it will be a success if pupils are obliged to exercise in the space between the desks, while the regular teacher leads them. In the -first place, we do not associate physical culture with a small space. Eoom is required. The aisles will of necessity limit the number of exercises, while, in the second place, I do not believe the regular teacher can or will spare the time to learn the science of physical training, that she may teach gymnastics to her pupils. Unless I am greatly mistaken, our teachers have all they can do. Their time is spoken and paid for. Extra work will involve additional expense- I admit that a few enthu¬ siastic teachers will start the work in their schools, but I doubt if they keep it up. It is not for a week or month; it is for years, day after day. I would suggest that the base¬ ments be cleared out, well heated, lighted, and ventilated, equipped with appliances for light gymnastics, a sx)ecial teacher engaged, and the pupils sent to her from fifteen to thirty minutes a day. The instructor of gymnastics, being a specialist, can do better work than the regular teacher, who would be compelled to learn two professions if she were to supervise the work and teach it as it should be taught. I believe that the s.ystem adopted by the Bos¬ ton public schools must be an eclectic one. It must embrace the best ideas of all known methods. The unmodified Swedish and German systems are not so attractive to Ameri¬ cans as the same arrangements changed to suit our likes and dislikes. The system itself will not produce the results, but the way the system is taught. I believe that perfec¬ tion exists only in the mind. If our system is perfect, we can only approach this high standard by the best-known methods of imparting knowledge. All the country will watch the Boston schools if they adopt physical training as a part of their regular' cur- PRIVATE AND PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. 611 riculum, because of their reputation in mental work. If these schools are going to give but a few minutes each day to gymnastics, and the work be confined to the aisles, we shall not have grand results. If a mental iDranch requires one hour a day, then why not give the same time to corporal education? VIIL— Private and Parochial Schools. Relation of the State to private schools. — State Commissioner Thos. B. Stockwell, of Rhode Island: In the last report of the board this topic was touched upon with reference to its importance and the fact that at present the State was in possession of no direct knowl¬ edge whatever as to the scope or character of their work, or of the number of children actually reached by them. I have thought of the question considerably, and while I am well aware of the difficulties which beset anything that looks like State interference with private enterprises of any kind, and especially with this one of education, I do be¬ lieve it is possible to devise an arrangement whereby the present state of chaos and ig¬ norance of all the facts involved may be changed for one of method and accurate state¬ ment of facts. I should stand as strongly as anyone for the right, and I may also say the necessity in a large community, of private schools to exist. I recognize the parent’s right to de¬ termine the place of his child’s education, but that does not at all interfere with the right of the State to be assured that the child is receiving an education. It is no tres¬ pass by the State upon the prerogatives of the parent for the former to see to it that the latter is fulfilling his duties in this matter, which is fundamental to the existence of the State. Another reason why some more definite knowledge of the personnel and work of pri¬ vate schools is necessary, is that we may be able to make a more just and accurate judg¬ ment as to the character and extent of the education which our youth are receiving. For illustration, last year 9,751 children of school age were reported as attending some kind of private schools. Now, we have no way of knowing anything regarding what proportion were in primary grades, what in grammar grades, and what in high schools. Again, while our public schools report as enrolled in the high and grammar grades some 3,000 or more who are over fifteen years of age, we have no knowledge whatever of how many above that age are in our private schools. So it is apparent at a glance that our present view of the educational work among our youth is very incomplete. What we need is an enrollment in each city and town of all private schools, together with the course of study adopted in each. Then each school shall be provided by the State with the same form of register as is prepared for the public school, and the attend¬ ance should be kept on the same plan. At the end of the year a return should be made by each school to the local school authorities, showing the number enrolled for the year and the average attendance. These data could then be returned to the office of the commissioner of public schools, where they could be summarized with the other returns and we should be able to know much better than we now do just what we were doing and what we were leaving undone. Already very many of the private schools have adopted the State register for use, supplying themselves at their own expense, and it is believed that all would be very glad to adopt it, especially if it were furnished free. If it were not deemed advisable to make this action compulsory I would like to be authorized to make the offer of furnishing the registers to such schools as would agree to make the returns at the end of the year. A partial knowledge of the facts now un- j^nown will be a very decided gain. Parents can not he relieved from school taxes. — A. P. Marble, Superintendent of Worcester (Mass.) schools, in the New York Independent: If the conscience of a man leads him to educate his children in a private school, religious or otherwise, the State need not pbject, provided the child is educated to that moderate extent which the necessities of the State require; but this parent can not rightly be relieved from taxes to support public schools any more than the man of property without children can be so relieved. Though he chooses to educate his own children, he is indirectly benefited by the public tax to educate other people’s children. It is of value to him that he lives in an edu¬ cated community. He may have no property exposed to fire in the town, but he is taxed to support the fire department; he may use well-water exclusively, and yet pay taxes for the public waterworks; he may employ a private watchman for his house, mill, or store, and yet he must be taxed to support the police. Though he may never ride on the highway he must help to keep it in repair. It is thus that we live in a commonwealth. And if one man can not rightly be relieved from his school tax or other tax no number of men can. JEf^ect of the Australasian ballot system onthe school-money question. — Edward Wakefield, in the Forum: The education question was formerly a burning one in all the [Austral- 612 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. asian] colonies. It was simply a question of whether all the children in the country were to be afforded the rudiments of a good secular education at the hands of tl^e state, or whether the Roman Catholic clergy were to receive a portion of the public taxes for the support of their denominational schools. A great number of Roman Catholic parents preferred that their children should attend the public schools, rightly believing that they got a better education there than at the clerical schools, and that it was an advan¬ tage to them in lile to have been reared on the same benches with their fellow-citizens of other sects. But the Roman Catholic organization was so complete and the influence of the priests so strong, that, with open voting, not a Catholic went astray at the polls, and the “block vote” was cast solidly against every candidate who had the courage to support the national system of education. The ballot entirely changed all that, and the question of subsidies to Roman Catholic schools is no longer within the sphere of prac¬ tical politics. Bishop Patrick Moran, a most distiuguished prelate, himself stood for election on that ticket, and half of his own flock voted against him. Even the church has no terrors behind the screen in the ballot booth. The State should demand a certain standard. — Edwin D. Mead, of Boston, Mass., in the New York Independent: The State should demand that every private school, sectarian or other, maintain a certain standard of education, and should make provision to see that this requirement is met; but in its enforcement there should be no officious med¬ dling, and none is necessary. Perpetuating distinctions. — Hon. Chas. D. Hine: The common school has been the means of fusing the creeds and languages that meet in our State. If any part of the youth are to be permanently segregated in peculiar schools, the merging of the different parts will cease, and the distinctions of years be unfortunately perpetuated. Should sectarian, schools he examined hy the State? — Bishop John J. Keane, rector of the Catholic University, in the New York Independent: I consider dangerous to our country’s welfare, and contrary to her spirit, the tendency to absolute centralization and monop¬ oly, whether in education or in aught else that concerns the public weal. I deprecate as antagonistic to real progress every system that would hinder competition and crush out individual enterprise. I detest any system of e.spionage prompted by mere secta¬ rian bigotry or sectional narrowness. Yet I heartily believe in the uniflcation of all the elements that come to make up our people, and in every just and reasonable means tend¬ ing to that unificatioD. I cordially sympathize with those who have no welcome for any element that would not aim at blending with our popular unity and sincerely ac¬ cepting our country’s Constitution in its letter and in its spirit. Now, views may differ as to how far legislative action may be needed to secure this. For my part, I am quite convinced that there resides in the American people a vital force and influence which of itself assimilates each element, and that legislative interference is as little necessary for securing the result as it is necessary for securing that the trees of our forests shall assimilate the elements sucked up by their roots or that the ocean shall assimilate to it¬ self the drops that fall into its bosom. The only logical ansioer to the Catholic demand. — N. Y. Journal of Commerce: The Catholic says with truth and evident sincerity that he believes religious training to be the chief part of education. The common school does not pretend to furnish such training, and he is compelled therefore to withdraw his children and to educate them in parochial institutions. If all taxation for educational purposes is abandoned, he has nothing to say; but if schools are to be supported by public funds, then exempt him from taxation or give him his proportion of the money to educate his children in his own way. He offers to subject his schools to any test as to their efficiency and good conduct as a condition of the appropriation. He objects, very justly, to pay for the sup¬ port of schools where no faith is taught, and from which he can derive no benefit, and then to be compelled to support wholly at his own expense the schools to which he must send his children. If we are asked whether we favor the appropriation of the public money to support such sectarian schools, we answer with a decided negative. But we do say that if a Romanist is taxed to support a school which is a stench in his nostrils, and the godless character of which is essential to the fairness of the system, then he is justly entitled to a proportion of the fund thus raised for the school which by all that he holds sacred he is compelled to patronize. The common school outgrew its useful¬ ness and its right to exist at the public expense at the moment it ceased to give the young committed to it a training in the fear of God. When the teachers could not carry on this, the very highest part of all proper education, the schools should have been left, as the churches were, to the voluntary support of the people. This is the only logical and consistent answer to the Catholic demand for school money. Let them educate their children in their own schools at their own expense, and make no demand upon them to support any other school. PRIVATE AND PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. 613 The Canadian example should point the way. — J. A. J. McKenna: SufHcient prominence is not given by Catholic writers to the example afforded by Canada in the successlhl working ot the dual systems of State and denominational schools. To those citizens who fancy that they see in the establishment of parochial schools a danger to the com¬ monwealth an examination of the school system of Ontario would be quite a revelation. They would find that in that very Protestant province the law provides, and has for almost half a century provided, for the establishment and maintenance of a class of schools similar to those which they regard with such dismay. On further inquiry they would learn that in by far the greater part of the entire Dominion of Canada correspond¬ ing legal provisions are made. And yet Canada has gone on and prospered ! To those non-Catholics who perceive the dangers of the godless system of education the Canadian example should point the way to a remedy; and to Catholics who at so great a sacrifice are founding and supporting parochial schools it might suggest some plan of campaign for the removal of the injustice under which they labor. What has been done in Canada should be within the realm of the feasible in that country which is called the land of the free. What works for good in Ontario could not possibly have a directly opposite effect across the imaginary line. Managed without a particle of denominational friction. — -J. B. Somerset, superintendent of Protestant schools of Manitoba: This fundamental principle [that of separate Protest¬ ant and Roman Catholic schools] being embodied in the imperial and Dominion acts for the organization of the province, the (question as to its correctness is outside the scope of practical discussion; but in connection with its workings during the last seventeen years it may be pointed out that the schools of the province have been managed without a particle of the denominational friction that has caused disturbances and bitterness in other provinces of the Dominion. Our Roman Catholic fellow-citizens have, under this law, their own schools, available for religious as well as secular teaching, which is a principle invariably contended for by them; and those charged with the management of them are accountable to their people for their efficiency. On the other hand, Prot- testant schools are uutrammeled in the introduction of such Christian teaching, includ¬ ing the daily reading of the Bible, as may be found practicable, and which the growing sentiment ot the people recognizes as holding an important place in the development of the child’s nature. What should he required of private schools. — A. P. Marble, superintendent of Worcester, (Mass.) schools, in the New York Independent: If it is the right and duty of our State to provide for education, if compulsory school laws are right and proper, then it follows that every private school, sectarian or otherwise, should be required in the interest of the child to give at least that modicum of education which the State demands. There can be but one supreme authority in this matter of education; and this authority must be the State. Objections of the Catholics to the public schooh.—Tlt. Rev. James McGolrick, bishop of Duluth, in reply to State Superintendent Kiehle. of Minnesota: We hold that ignorance when avoidable, is sin; that it is often a fruitful source of crime. But we must not for¬ get the fact that the child who learns to know and love and serve God, and thereby save his immortal soul, knows more of value than the most cultured infidel philosopher; the very best of us in our honest moments having to confess our ignorance of many things. With such necessary preface, I proceed with entire frankness to answer the questions you embody in your letter. First. “Do you recognize it as the duty of American citi¬ zens of the Catholic faith to support the public-school system in that spirit of loyalty with which they support other departments and institutions of the Government?” If you ask me “Ought Catholics to support a system of common free schools?” I would say without hesitation they ought to support and should be in favor of such free schools; but when you ask “Ought they to support the present public school system? ” I answer that there are certain obstacles in the way of conscientious Catholics availing themselves of these schools as at present constituted, and I trust you will give them kindly consideration. It is the duty of the State to foster and encourage education; but the parent is by divine right the natural educator; to the family belongs this highest mission, and the parent must not be ousted from his right, but assisted in his efforts to educate, that government being best which interferes least. Here is a principle for which Catholics have striven amidst much persecution, and the liberty loving American people will yet thank the church for her action in preventing the encroachment of theStateon the rights of her citizens. Of course, the State could take due action in case of the criminal neg¬ lect of parents in the education of their children; it is the right and duty of the State to see that such education is given, but to form the good citizen, this is the work of parent, religion, and school. Mere mention of the gradual change that has taken place in the 614 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. public-school system from the date of its inception raises up in my mind memories of many outspoken lovers of this country, nou-Cabholics, who warn us of this fatal ten¬ dency of the State to interfere with the rights of the minority, to forget the principles of the Constitution, and seek to force conscientious citizens into abject compliance with compulsory laws. While the public-school system is worthy of praise for its efforts to provide secular education, a very large body of citizens believe that such education is incomplete and ineffective without religious instruction. All are agreed on the necessity of religious instruction; but here comes the important difference between us. Is the Sunday school sufficient, with home training, to meet the wants of the child ? To this, Catholics answer decidedly, “ No.” They prove the truth of this answer in two ways: (a) by actual ex¬ perience, for to devote an hour of a Sunday to a crowd of distracted children in some stuffy room, and with all the other drawbacks known to Sunday-school teachers, is not calculated to impress the children with a lofty idea of the magnitude of the work; neither can they thereby appreciate the wonderful words of our Lord and Master, “What doth it avail a man to gain the whole world and suffer the loss of his own soul ? ” No edu¬ cator would attempt to teach arithmetic after such a method; why should we attempt to teach the higher law and the knowledge that pertains to the eternal God in such despica¬ ble fashion? True, there are those whose grasp on revealed truth is very slight, who are content that their little ones may grow up without any religious training whatever, leaving the children themselves to select their church or belief afterwards; these, of course, do not object to the present system. (5) Catholics can judge the tree by its fruits. We have had a lengthened experience of, we will not say irreligious, but, at least, unre¬ ligious education, and what is the result? It is allowed that most men in the United States have ceased to be practical believers; they are outspoken in denying the exist¬ ence of God and the soul; many of them are scoffing atheists; divorce, drunkenness, prostitution and worse forms of impurity, blasphemy, dishonesty, and suicide have gone onward until the very thought of the multitude of the crimes against a God of infinite patience and mercy makes the head sick and the heart sore. It would be easy to gain cheap applause by the declaration that education has taken these evils from us, but alas! the naked fact is there, that these and kindred crimes are committed by so-called educated people. Far be it from me to say that such crimes are common among a highly educated people, but their denial of God’s law has worked its way down to their com¬ paratively uneducated brethren and left its sad consequences. Then, the public school system under its present rules can not teach Christianity, for the Jewish children would be offended and could justly protest. Neither can it teach morality, for morality must be founded on religion, and the State can not teach religion. There are those interested in the workings of the schools who propose a hybrid sj'^stem of morals, a jumble of sentiments from Moses, Buddha, Tom Payne, Benjamin Frank¬ lin, Bob Ingersoll, and Paul the Apostle, but serious men put all that aside as the makeshilt of men who have no religion at heart nor reverence for God, save that which is of the “silent sort.” Such slipshod methods will not teach the child the controlling of strong passions, will not strengthen him against the constant attacks of the world, the devil, and the flesh. To many men this is no argument at all; for the world, they say, is a very good world indeed; the flesh is all they possess, and the devil they rele¬ gate to the myths of the dark ages; but to most Christians the argument has lull force. The most powerful of all means for the influencing of life is the school; there the character is formed; there the disposition to good is fostered; there the tendency to evil is checked— and all this with consequences not only for the brief space of our mortal life, but for an eterhity. Is there any wonder, therefore, why parents are so anxious about the system of educating their children, and should not such conscientious anxiety be respected ? You ask in the second place: “Have American citizens of the Catholic faith the right to exercise their independent judgment, and to send their children to the public school when they are satisfied that it is in the best interests of their children?” To this I answer, certainly; they can do so when they are satisfied it is for the best interest of their children. But “ interest” is a doubtful term. There are worldly in¬ terests, and “ interests” of an eternal importance. With the explanation given above, as faithful children of the Catholic Church, they would not sacrifice the eternal inter¬ ests of their children for any worldly interest, and so would not endanger willingly the faith of those so dear to thein. In the third place, you ask: “ Is it the position of the priests of the Catholic Church that American citizens of the Catholic faith sending their children to the public schools, without permission of the priests, commit sin and forfeit their, right to the sacraments of the church?” Answer: “ The lips of the priest shall keep knowledge and they shall seek the law at his mouth.” The priest is the guardian of the sacraments, and if there be for his PRIVATE AND PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. 615 flock any proximate danger of sin, tliey are bound to warn them and prevent, if possi¬ ble, the danger. But it must be remembered that the priest is a member of a living church and that he can not, according to his whims and fancies, make laws; his busi¬ ness is to act according to the laws made by the church, and interpret and condemn as she interprets and condemns. From all this you can readily understand that while we rejoice at the spread of edu¬ cation, Catholics maintain that an additional element is wanting to complete the great work of forming good and true citizens, and this must somehow be supplied . In Canada, perhaps soon to be an integral portion of our great Republic, the difficulty is admirably solved. Secular schools not godless; source of crime. — State Superintendent D. L. Kiehle, of Min¬ nesota, in reply to Bishop McGolrick: I first give my hearty indorsement to your estimate of the family, and its essential place in the constitution of society. I likewise agree with you that any education that denies man’s duties and relations to God and eternity is es¬ sentially defective. I believe that our American Government is the maturest fruit of our purest family and religious character, and that it would be nothing less than suicidal for the State in any way to dwarf or corrupt the life of either. But the case is not whether the State shall authoritatively interfere as between the parent and his children, but whether the parent is free to exercise his intelligent and conscientious judgment in the education of his children. Coming now to the public schools, I can not agree with you that it is impossible in the nature of things for the State to provide a secular education for its youth without monopolizing their time and attention, preventing their proper religious training, and, consequently, meriting the opprobrium of being characterized as “godless.” Our Government, which we believe to be the best in the world, is purely secular, yet it has for its corner stones the family and the Christian church, and recognizes its obli¬ gations to these in the high places accorded to the parent and the minister of religion, and in the beneficence of its institutions. It can not, therefore, be called godless be¬ cause secular. In like manner I look upon our public-school system as the maturest and most honorable fruit of our Christian civilization. It assumes the existence and influence of the family and the Christian church, and in an atmosphere of purity and devotion to high aims begotten at the fireside and the altar, teacher and youth meet to¬ gether to attend to duties and interests they have in common. In the conviction that our public schools are but a part of the educational provision made for our American youth, I believe that the withdrawal of the influence of our families of intelligence and refinement and of the moral support of the Christian churches would defeat their pur¬ pose and reduce them to a condition which would verify the prediction of their enemies. Where the State assumes paternal relations toward any of its children, as in its reform school, institutions for defectives and indigents, it makes provision for religious instruc¬ tion, but when it opens the common school near the home and in the parish it assumes that the children will bring with them for use and assimilation in character a knowl¬ edge of the truths of religion and morals. If it is objected that this is not the actual condition of things, I reply that the State is obliged to assume the existence of both as essential to its own existence as well as that of its schools. Noticing next the opinion that the moral evils and heinous sins that seem to be so abundant, some of which you have named, are the legitimate fruit of our public- school system, I must emphatically deny the statement as one that can not be proven. This is a charge repeatedly made, and generally believed by Catholics, and one that I believe to be very unjust, indeed, as unjust as if these evils were charged to our republican form of government, or to the Protestant reformation. This being a matter of greatest moment I should be glad to join you in submitting to persons of impartial and scientific ability the following inquiries; (.1) To what nationalities and religions do these enemies belong, viz, inmates of prisons, workhouses, and reform schools, the licentious, drunk¬ ards, and drunkard makers? (2) To what religious and social influences were they subjected in youth, and what portion of their training was received in the public schools? We shall then have facts to which all parties can appeal, and whatever warning there may be in them against dangerous tendencies or policies of government good citizens will listen to and heed. That our school system is imperfect and in many cases very unsatisfactory can not be denied; yet it may be said for it, as we have to say of the Christian church in various periods, that it expresses the high-water mark ol the moral and intellectual condition of the peoi^le. Iforals mag he taught. — I see no practical difficulty in a more formal inculcation of the recognized principles of Christian morality. The reasonableness of them, and the moral beauty of the character that represents them so commend them that they are as reason¬ ably accepted as the truths of natural religion. But tar more important is the careful training of youth in habits and tastes as to temperance, purity, and charity, that make 616 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1888-89. character as distinguished from profession; and in this I believe the public schools are doing valuable service. ’ Respecting the provision which should be made for religious instruction outside the public school, and your criticism of the average Protestant Sunday school, I think you are substantially correct, and that the religious instruction of Protestant youth deserves far better provisions than it has yet received. This evil, however, is not the fault of the public schools, but rather in defective methods, which consume time with little in¬ crease of knowledge. The remedy. — Finally, as to the remedy proposed, the only one, so far as I am informed, that would be satisfactory to the Catholic clergy is the one referred to by yourself, the division of the school funds, allowing religious bodies to take charge of their own schools. If this plan is ever considered it must be shown to be in the interest of society and for the well-being of the whole state, and not merely the desire of a part to be relieved from what are recognized public and governmental responsibilities. But without undertaking to consider the objections to this plan it seems to me that we have entered upon times in which the people are determined upon entire and inde¬ pendent control of their government affairs, without a king and without alliance with the church. And as the future state is in the youth of to-day the logical result will be that the state will provide for the education of its youth in secular matters. This is not the doctrine of a sect or party. It is in the age, historic — in Italy and Brazil as it is in Minnesota and Mexico. I therefore believe our public-school system is as logical and therefore as permanent as our free government. I will also venture the prediction that the venerable church which you represent, and which has astonished the world by its marvelous adaptation to a form of free government which it never approved in theory, will, when our public-school system appears as an accomplished fact, show a like power of adaptation without sacrificing the religious instruction of its children. In any event I am, with you, confident of a final and just solution. I am also eonfi- dent that it will be historic rather than controversial, and that it will be best promoted by a considerate and dispassionate comparison of experiences and observations and a patient waiting for the leavening influences of truth and reason. The posiiio7i of the Catholics. — Rejoinder of Bishop McGolrick to Superintendent Kiehle: Catholics declare again and again that they have no desire to break up the public-school system, that they are rejoiced at all education tending towards good, but that as at present constituted that system is both imperfect and insufficient. There is no mistaking the voice of the church; she speaks with no uncertain sound, telling her children that for the preservation of religion the schools must also be relig¬ ious, her fundamental principle being that we must seek first the kingdom of God and his justice. To add cogency to the church’s argument we have the experience of many years and in many countries, and it is briefly this, that of those Catholic children who attended entirely secular schools, while they did not become Protestants, yet a large number be¬ came both careless and indifferent to all religion, ceasing to be practical Catholics, and while generally known as “smart,” their “smartness” was neither to the benefit of the state nor of their neighbors. Crime, too, increased in proportion far more than our population, and all this while secularists were crying out that we had found in our common-school educationihe surest prevention of all crime. Here was a fact sadly apparent to us all. "We put aside for the present all considera¬ tion of the causes of that increase, remarking merely that your challenge to appeal to statistics carefully prepared will be taken up at another time. With the full force of these facts before them Catholics, therefore, proceeded to build up their own institu¬ tions of learning, and in the face of a great injustice have gone on quietly, as best they can, not only to support these but to maintain out of their scanty means hospitals, asylums, and houses for the poor and aged, bearing a double tax for conscience’ sake. It is axiomatic that all who pay taxes ought to share in the benefits of taxation, yet in answer to the candid and conscientious objections of Catholics what drivel is it to tell them that the schools are open to them, or that they must come to be educated accord¬ ing to the present notions of a majority; the strange thing, here also evident, that those who are loudest in their cries for nonsectarianism are themselves members of sectarian churches. Do we then seek to control the public schools ? No. Do we try to force our religion on unwilling peojile? Again no. We seek freedom in the natural and divine rights of parents to educate their children in the Christian re¬ ligion, and in the way we deem best for their highest interests. Secular education not enough. — It may be said that arithmetic and geography have no more to do with religion than the building of a house or the making of a shoe, b?at all PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 617 these things have more to do with conscience than may be at once apparent; for a man may build a house so dishonestly that in a short time it v/ili topple over and kill those who dwell therein^, or he may make a shoe that on the first wet weather may show its paper sole. “ Grammar,” says Cardinal Newman, “ does not at first sight appear to admit of a perversion, yet Horne Tooke made of it the vehicle of his peculiar skepticism. Law would seem to have enough to do with its own clients and their affairs, and yet Mr. Bentham made a treatise on judicial proofs a covert attack on the miracles of revela¬ tion. And in like manner physiology may deny moral evil and human responsibility; geology may deny Moses, and logic may deny the Holy Trinity; and other sciences, now rising into notice, are, or will be, victims of similar abuse.” The acceptable plan. — Catholics then look for an equal distribution of the burdens and the benefits, and point out the means adopted to this end in countries situated as we are. In Austria and Hungary the rights of the non-Catholics are respected by afford¬ ing to them schools in which Protestant religious instruction is imparted together with secular knowledge. In Belgium, in Canada, in England, they have found it to be for the best interests of the state to give such opportunities as will permit the character of the pupil to be deeply impressed by religious influences in the schools. There are no people in the world more tolerant than the Catholics of the United States; holding pub¬ lic positions all over this broad land they are ever on the side of popular liberty, and if there be danger in our institutions it will not come from Catholies, properly educated, but from irreligious men brought up under secular inlluences. The best Catholic will be the best American. Most Protestants of all forms of religion are satisfied with the present secular system, but there are nearly twelve millions of Catholics who are far from being content; what then will satisfy them and yet keep the free schools intact? The following plan may be worth consideration: Let State inspectors be appointed to examine the children in Catholic schools, and taking the grade now general in public schools, allow result fees only ibr those children who have passed the required examina¬ tion in secular studies. Furthermore, let these same inspectors give certificates of com¬ petency only to those Catholic teachers who can pass a strict examination, oral or writ¬ ten, in the subjects they are required to teach, placing such cxualified teachers on equal footing with the present public-school teachers. Let these inspectors see that the re¬ quired standard of education be well kept, and that schoolhouses, furniture, and appa¬ ratus be in good order. The collection of school taxes is in no way changed, and while all who are satisfied with the present system of public schools can continue to enjoy their benefit, those who are conscientiously opposed to them will, at all events, under State supervision, educate to the appointed grade. Catholics will answer for it that while the religious and moral habits of the pupils are cared for they will not be behind in secular knowledge. There are details in connection with this plan which of course can not be entered into here; but be assured that, no one will join more heartily in a proper adjustment of this grave question than the present writer. IX. — Public Schools. What education the district school should give. — Superintendent W. E. Anderson, of Mil¬ waukee: When the boy graduates from the district school he is supposed to have the following knowledge and ability: First. He should read English intelligently and intelligibly upon all common sub¬ jects of knowledge — history, geography, and general literature. He should be able to read a newsjiaper editorial, a magazine article, a poem, a poj)ular lecture, and to give it such expression as will evince his understanding of the thought presented by the au¬ thor, He should have a fairly accurate knowledge of the Constitution of the United States, the general plan or the practical workings of the Government as shown in the organization of Congress, and the manner of electing the President, his powers and du¬ ties as distinguished from the business of the legislature; and further, he should un¬ derstand the necessity and importance of legal tribunals, before which facts and laws are considered. He should know something of his prerogatives as a citizen, his duties and rights as regards the exercise of franchise. These subjects are explained in connec¬ tion with the reading of the United States Constitution. Further than this, he should be able to express himself upon any subject upon which he has accurate knowledge or definite opinions, and he should do this in conformity with the established rules of lit¬ erary form — punctuation, capitalization, spelling, etc. Moreover, he should be able to use such iihraseology and construction as v/ould enable him to hold intercourse with the business world in discussing matters of fact or conveying information upon any subject in which he may hereafter become interested for culture or business. Second, He should express himself intelligently in English; he should have a ready 618 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1888-89. and correct facility in ordinary computations — the fundamental rules, with che common method of calculating interest, the use of decimals, the 'principles of redaction and fractions, and the essentials of mensuration — not learned by rule, but deduced from manual practice and observation. Added to this training, he should have a clear un¬ derstanding of the elements of bookkeeping, as shown in the plain principles of double- entry system applied to ordinary business, where the significance of debit and credit, and the relationship of the common principles of accounts are established on this basis of debit and credit. He should be able to exemplify his knowledge of this branch by writing up a simple set of books containing from twenty to thirty items of a miscella¬ neous nature and involving elementary calculations in the sale and purchase of lots of goods. Third. Every child leaving school should understand the large facts of geography and history. These branches afford a value in which the child gets his earliest culture. From the one he gets his first notion of the world about him, the earth and its relation to other planets, and the universe, as explained upon the authority of scientific observa¬ tion; the divisions of the earth into land and water; the nature of its surface, the vari¬ ations of climate and the resulting facts of vegetation and influence upon human life, the important facts of commercial geography, and the knowledge of those physical laws as exemplified in common natural phenomena. These are all essential to the education of the young citizen. He should, at the same time, be put into possession of the his¬ tory of his own country. In this field his patriotism is developed, love for his native land is nurtured, and he is better able to understand his own relationship to his country. Why public schools are necessary. — Superintendent Fred M. Campbell, of Oakland: One of these notions is that the training of a boy’s hands to a particular trade is of equal import¬ ance, to the State, with the education of his mind. The truth of the matter is sirapl3'^ this: Such a training of the hands is a good and useful thing, especially to the individual con¬ cerned, and there are a number of pressing necessities which will drive men up to this; but the education of the mind is an absolutely indispensable thing for the well-being of the State; and yet there are no such immediate pressing urgencies felt by the individ¬ ual and driving him up to furnish this to his children. Accordingl.y, while the one can be left to the individual, the other must be secured, beyond all perad venture, by the State. Mark the essential difterence: the necessity of getting a living forces itself upon every man, for his own, immediate, selfish interest. The uece.ssity of educating his children has no such visible urgency upon the ignorant man; that is for the interest of others, rather than his own selfish interest; and the consequences, even to them, are too remote and far-reaching to be appreciable by his dull mind. No doubt the State would be better off for having an abundance of skilled artisans, but intelligent men it must have, or it is on the broad road to ruin. dliist be based on business principles. — State Superintendent James H. Rice, of South Carolina: Educational methods can only reach the necessities of a people -when based upon wise business principles. The people must be educated into active sympathy with any plan thati-^ to train their children. They understand this to be their most important duty, and hesitate, properly, to adopt any methods that do not present convincing proof of their fitness and permanence. Two schools. Superintendent Edwin F. Palmer, of Vermont: There are so many points in common between a good school and a poor one, that careful study, in the light of educational principles, is absolutely necessary to distinguish the one from the other, except in extreme cases. Both are taught by teachers paid by the public, both commence and close at the same hour of the day, in both the same books are read and studied, in both recitations are conducted, it may be, according to received methods, in both there is the same programme and course of study, and yet the one may be nearly worthless, while in the other words are spoken and things are done that will long be remembered by the scholar, and, perhaps, shape his whole life for good. The free school has done this loorJc. — Joseph Jefferson, in the Century: The hissing and jeering that was so liberally bestowed on me 'will never be vented again in this country for so slight an offense. The well-dre.ssed, decorous audience of to-day, when an acci¬ dent occurs, sit quietly, bearing it with patience and consideration, and when it is righted they break forth in encouraging applause. Look at the decorum observed by the vast assemblages that go to witness our national games. Disturbances are very rare. It would have been indecorous, if not dangerous, when I was a boy, for ladies and gentlemen to visit any public grounds containing such large masses of people, whereas now they can do so with perfect safety. What lies at the foundation of this improvement? People went to church in those days as readily as they do now, and the laws were administered quite as rigidly. There is only one solution to this problem — the free school has done this work. PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 619 The studies of the school should fit, to some extent, for the work of after life. — Jerome Allen: There are many intelligent parents who say, “Of what use are such studies as algebra and geometry to my son, who intends to farm?” These parents say that the extra number of studies crowded into our course of study keep back the development ot their children iu the right direction. Now, when a parent asks, “Of what use is this study to ray child, he never intends to use it in after life?” are we to write this man down as a fool or a philosopher? ' We believe that there is more philosophy in this question than many are disposed to admit. Life is short; we can not master everything, and you must agree that of two studies which afford equally good mental gymnastics, that one which has in it the element of practical utility should be chosen. I disclaim all intention of utility or end, but I do claim, and I do not believe that it can be suc¬ cessfully contradicted, that there is philosophy and reason, and thus good practical common sense, in the opinions of ordinary thinking men and women, that the studies of the school should fit pupils, to some extent, for the work of after life. The impending daayer.— Superintendent K. W. Stevenson, of Columbus, Ohio: The impending danger of our system of public schools is their expeusiveness. The constantly increasing expenditure is in that direction which adds little to the educational power of the public schools. The scheme of free text-books is another recruit for ‘ ‘ bricks against brains.” In most of the States the amount that can be levied for school purposes is fixed by statute, and in the towns and villages the levy, is generally up to the maximum allowed by law. If the cost for education is increased one dollar per capita, that the plan of free text-books may be adopted, the result must be the employment of cheaper teachers. A tempting field for holby-horse riders. W. MacDonald, of Stouehara, Mass.: There is hardly a week that some society, devoted to the promotion of this or that, does not come out with the declaration that this or that must be made a formal" part of public school instruction. It would almost seem as if it were the prevailing opinion, notwith¬ standing abundant evidence to the contrary, that children out of school hours are in a comatose condition, and incapable of receiving any instruction or training whatever. The truth is, the large numbers of children gathered daily into schoolrooms furnish tempting fields, if access to them can be obtained, to every hobby-horse rider and gib¬ bous-headed reformer for doing what each considers the sine qua non iu reforming the world. What dampens ardor and chills hope. — Superintendent Z, H. Brown, of Nashville, Tenn.: That which most dampens ardor and chills hope is the absolute indifference of the legislature. Had there been as much money spent by the people in the last decade for education as has been used for electioneering purposes, to-day school houses and nor¬ mal colleges would dot the entire State. There are those who claim to be patriots and philanthropists who would cheerfully contribute hundreds of dollars to the campaign fund, but would not give one cent to properly equi]3 every boy iu the land for citizen¬ ship. Others are willing to give more of their time to elect a constable in their district than to secure the services of the best superintendent or teacher in America, though the interest of every boy and girl in their county is involved. Fit pupils for the lives they are to lead. — Prof. Hjalmar H jorth Boyesen, of Columbia College, in the New York Independent: I am emphatically in favor of introducing manual training as part of the curriculum of the public schools. I believe that public school instruction should aim to fit the pupils as far as possible for the lives which they are likely to lead. The present curriculum, if it has any such aim in view, is lamen¬ tably defective. It is largely an academic curriculum on a smaller scale, and is calcu¬ lated to stimulate ambitions which life in nine cases out of ten is sure to disappoint. The extreme disinclination for manual labor which characterizes American girls, and the fiilse and flimsy ideals of the majority of them is, I believe, in a large measure due to the academic character of public school instruction. That girls are meant to be wives and mothers, and that this noble calling involves duties and responsibilities of a most serious kind, are subjects which are wholly ignored both in the curriculum and in the instruction. Where free education should end. — Moses Merrill, head master of Boston Latin School, in the New York Independent: I do not believe it would be wise for the State to furnish free education for all pupils through a university course. I think that candidates for such a course are aided quite enough already in the preparatory, schools. Excepting a perfectly developed moral character, there is no possession more valuable than a liberal education. Its acquisition should not be without struggle and sacrifice, in order that its true worth may be appreciated. Why should this be a free gift to us any more than anything else which we consider of essential value and worth striving for? The State can not demand of the educated man what he has the ijower to give, but 620 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. only receive what he chooses to give; so it shonld not confer upon him gratuitously so great a possession. * * * I think that the law in Massachusetts req[uiring a high school for a certain number of inhabitants a good one. I also think that a separate school for the j)reparation of pupils for college in large cities an excellent plan, though I would have nothing free in these, or high schools, except the instruction. Academies have already been established, incorporated, and endowed in all parts of our country. Many of these are in a most flourishing condition, and furnish the train¬ ing which many parents desire for their children. For this reason the public high schools never can displace them, no matter how greatly multiplied, nor should they be incor¬ porated in the public school system. TJie common school system dangerously assaulted. — Hon. H. W. Blair: It may be that I am wild in the thought, but I do think that in this country, at the present time, there is a real and a rapidly increasing danger that the free public schools of the country are to be or are to-day dangerously assaulted, and that unless the remedy be soon applied we shall not be contending with reference to appropriations to support the common school at the South, but we shall be contending for the preservation of the lile of the common school of the country. I think the great struggle upon us to-day, more real and more dangerous than, perhaps, we are apprehending, is this: the danger is between the pa¬ rochial, or denominational, school and the free public school of the country, I believe that in the great centers of the country to-day the common school system is dangerously assaulted. Relaiive efficiency of graded and ungraded schools. — Hon. Charles D. Hine, in discussing the results of a special examination of the schools of New London County, Conn.: No evidence secured in this investigation raises a good graded school above a good ungraded school in point of real efliciency. The reading, writing, arithmetic, and elementary science in some country schools are quite equal to anything found in graded schools. The problem to be solved. — Supt. W. B. Powell, of Washington, D. C. : The American community is more interested in having every child benefited by its schools than it is in having the character of its schools improved. Not how high shall we take our schools, nor how broad shall we make our courses of instruction, but how may every child be reached and be made a safer and better member of the community, is the problem to be solved. Any movement or instrumentality that reaches down and uplifts will give value to the school system and compensation to the taxpayer. What the progress of public schools is due to. — Elizabeth Cady Stanton, in the j^^rena: Local self-government more readily permits of experiments on mooted questions which are the outcome of the needs and convictions of the community. The smaller the area over which legislation extends the more pliable are the laws. By leaving the States free to experiment in their local affairs we can judge of the work¬ ing of different laws under varying circumstances, and thus learn their comparative merits. The progress education has achieved in America is due to just this fact — that we have left our system of public instruction in the hands of local authorities. How different would be the solution of the great educational question of manual labor in the schools if the matter had to be settled at Washington! The whole nation might find itself pledged to a scheme that a few years would prove wholly impracticable. Not only is the town-meeting, as Emerson says, “the cradle of American liberties,” but it is the nursery of Yankee experiment and wisdom. England, with its clumsy national code of education, making one inflexible standard of scholarship for the bright children of manufacturing districts and the dull bairns of the agricultural counties, should teach us a lesson as to the wisdom of keeping apart State and National Government. Only State action is able to cope with the problem. — 'State Commissioner Thomas B. Stock- well, of Rhode Island: With each recurring year, as the question arises in connection w'ith this annual report, What shall the State do in the matter of education, lam conscious of the feeling that there is in some quarters an openly expressed doubt, and in others a latent thought as to the duty or right of the State in these matters. Have such doubts a legitimate place in our minds ? Why do we have public schools? Is it not because we know that the intelligence of the people determines their condition? But if we recognize this to be true, do we not see that it involves the necessity that all the people should be educated? If any one portion be neglected, then they become to that extent a source of weakness and danger to the whole. Self- protection compels the people, acting as a unit, to provide for uni¬ versal education. If, now, the people have been obliged to undertake this task, what limit can they set themselves short of the absolute accomplishment of the undertaking? PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 621 Every dollar which they invest in the work is a bond that they will continue to invest until the desired result is secured. Up to this point most citizens will go, but often with a silent interpretation put upon the word people, which restricts it to the smallest and most limited unit through which the people act. The old notions of local self-government rule with great power, and any movements towards the exercise of any authority by a central power are looked upon with great disfavor. Now, whatever may have been the early history of popular education, however scattered and independent may have been the schools of the early days of this State, it is unquestionably true that to-day our schools are thoroughly State schools, that the authority of the State laws is behind them and under them, that the State treasury contributes directly to their support, and, in some towns, to an amount nearly if not quite equal to that raised by the town. There is no one interest that so permeates all parts of a commonwealth as this one. Whenever there may be found lacking in any community that which pertains to good citizenship, whether in the line of practical knowledge or of moral character, there is at once the place to watch for evil developments, and from that as a'jienter will emanate influences for harm not to be measured. One part of a State can not set itself apart from the rest and, pharisaically claiming to be without spot or blemish, remain unharmed. The different members of the human body are not more closely united than the dif¬ ferent villages, towns, and cities which make up this little commonwealth, and when one suffers all suffer, and when one is improved and elevated all are sharers in the im¬ provement. This question is not then one for purely local consideration. It is too large, its ram¬ ifications are too numerous, and the issues at stake too momentous to be allowed to rest upon local effort. Only State action is able to cope v/ith the problem, and only State interest can be relied upon to cover the entire field. Nor does the action of the State in this matter necessarily paralyze local effort, as is sometimes claimed. On the other hand, it affords to all parts of the State the opportunity to come together and unite their en¬ ergies for a common purpose, under auspices and with reasonable expectations that can not exist where the work is undertaken independently and alone. It is only as the State takes the control in these matters that we can be sure, first, that schools will be provided Avithin reasonable distance of every home; and, second, that the schools thus established will be practically equal in the character and quality of the education which they furnish. Local power is not infrequently unable to provide the proper accommodations; again, for one cause or another, it is unwilling to do so. Neither inability nor indisposition can be allowed to stand in the way of the proper education of each and every child who has the capacity for it. What shall be taught and how it shall be taught are fundamental questions, and should not be left to the arbitrament of local feelings, or judgments even, which are often too narrow both in their premises and in their conclusions. A policy must be adopted broad enough to cover the State, to meet the needs and legitimate desires of all classes, in all conditions of life, and then it must be interpreted and enforced through those and those only who are qualified for the task. Teachers and directors, or superintendents, must be amenable in the last analysis to the State for their authority and power. This system of education is to be wrought out step by step. We have already made several advance movements. That of forty-five years ago, Avhen the proprietors’ schools were practically abolished, and the system of public schools was instituted, was a long step upward towards the ideal we have been discussing. The abolition of the rate biil twenty-two years ago, whereby the schools became truly free schools, marks another advance. The establishment of the State normal school for the training of suitable teachers was a movement towards the same end, looking to a uniform degree of qualifi¬ cations in the teacher’s position. The compulsory laws take hold of the subject upon another side and recognize the obligation to bring the children to the schools. Each addition which the State has made in its annual appropriation for the support of schools, carrying the amount up from ^25,000 when the law was first passed to |120,000, the amount now paid out each year, has been unmistakable evidence of the growth of this thought of the responsibility of the State in these matters. Upon this generation rests the duty and privilege of doing its share in the develop¬ ment of that complete system which shall secure to all children the inestimable oppor¬ tunity for acquiring that education which shall enable them to fill every station and discharge every duty which life may set before them. Whether we act or not, the process of development will go forward, and the result will surely come. But we m.ay help it or we may hinder it. If we are wise and vigilant we shall seize upon every opportunity to help the cause onward, for by so doing we hasten the day of universal knowledge, peace, and prosperity. Tiie greatest obstacle to the development of common schools in the South. — President C. W, Dabney, jr., University of Tennessee: The greatest obstruction in the way of a rapid 622 EDUCATION REPORT,. 1888-89. development of common schools in the South consists in the remains of false old politi¬ cal theories. Many of our political leaders give the common schools only a reluctant, half-hearted support, because they do not yet believe that they are consistent with their theories of government. Omparaiive cost of town and district systems, — The average cost of education per scholar in Connecticut, on the basis of average attendance, is $20,82; the average cost per scholar in eighteen of the towns under towu management is $16.55, thus showing it to be almost 25 per cent, less than under the district system. X. — Religious and Moral Training. Not taught by lectures or set lessons. — Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo. : Moral training, or character training, is regarded in a higher sense than the mere training of the intelligence. All the rules of grammar, arithmetic, and all the facts of science maybe forgotten and the man or woman remain worthy persons; but integrity, the power to be right and to do right, must never be forgotten. * * * Whatever strengthens the will to resist evil and to do good is moral training. Moral training is not taught with much effect by lectures or set lessons in morals. Conscious will is the only true basis of moral action, while weakness of will is the greatest enemy of moral culture. The true moral teacher is one who teaches by his acts. The right development of the mind as an intellect. — Hon. John W. Dickinson, Secretary Massachusetts State Board of Education: The mind is developed as a moral power by turning its attention to the moral quality of its acts and to doing what ought to be done. The cultivation of moral habits should be carried on with the cultivation of the intel¬ lect. The relations of school life and the various exercises of the schools provide favor¬ able occasions for the development of the moral nature of the child. The teacher is sup¬ posed to be a model person, worthy of imitation. If this supposition accords with the facts, the pupils will be subject to the molding influences of a good example. The natural desire and the ability to imitate render the education of the young possible and magnify the importance of a good living example. The acts of obedience which a wise and efficient school government require vvill train the pupil to a thoughtful consideration of his conduct and to the habit of self-control. The habit of loyalty to the rules and regulations of the school, accompanied with a de¬ sire to promote ils welfare, must be cultivated ^in the minds of the young as a prepara¬ tion for good citizenship. Hence the teaching of the institute includes instruction in school government. The exercise of studying by the use of the trne method will develop the intellect and create in it the power to think so as to discover the truth. The habit of independent deliberation before making a choice is most favorable to good morale. To create such a habit is the constant aim of the intelligent teacher. The relations of pupils in school to one another as a community will offer an opportunity for instruction on the subject of public as well as private morals. Since the affairs of social life are'carried on in connection with promises and contracts, and as promises will avail nothing if the members of society are not faithful in making them, and do not trust in them when made, the teacher should eudeaver to impress upon the minds he is attempt¬ ing to develop the infinite value of fidelity to that which is morally right, and tlie obli¬ gation every member of the school is under to exercise it in all the moral relations he holds to others, as well as in all he holds to his own well-being. Such fidelity in the relations of social life, and of the life of the individual, is the vital element in all the virtues. If successfully cultivated in the minds of the children in our public schools in connection with their physical and intellectual instruction, this fundamental virtue will appear as a ruling principle in their lives as citizens of the State. The best ideas on the moral training of the young are in favor of the right development of the mind as an in¬ tellect, as the only solid foundation for good morals. Gladly havehimthinJc that the sun went round the earth. — Dr. Arnold, of Rugby : If one might wish for impossibilities, I would then wish that my children might be well versed in physical science, bub in due subordination to the fhllness and freshness of their knowledge on moral subjects. This, however, I believe can not be; wherefore, rather than have it the principal thing in my son’s mind, I would gladly have him think that the sun went round the earth and that the stars were so many spangles set in the bright blue firmament, and that he were trained to fulfill his duty to his Maker and his fellow- men. Moral training the highest duty. — Superintendent E. E. White, of Cincinnati; The effi¬ ciency of the public school is primarily tested by its results in moral character, and hence its highest duty is effective moral training. The aim of the school is not the training of the mind alone, but the training of the man; the forming, ennobling, and enriching RELIGIOUS AND MORAL TRAINING. 623 of manhood. Manhood is the highest and best product of the school. In the public school, the school for the people and for the whole people, moral character must ever stand before intellectual culture. As a means to this end, moral training raustrise above the mechanical virtnes. It must touch the conscience and make it regal in the life; and to this end it must be permeated and vitalized, as it always has been in the American school, by religious sanctions and influence. Will perish through its own momentum. — Superintendent Henry Sabin, of Iowa: Our American education, if it is to retain the confidence of the people, must be wholly on the side of that morality which has truth for its basis; it must stand lor law and order and decency; its instructors must first knoio and then practice and then teach those eternal, immutable principles of right and wrong which are the foundations of a permanent repub¬ lican liberty. The public school system is strong in proportion as it has the confidence of the people. When it comes to be regarded only as a machine for teaching enough of certain branches to enable a man to. pass muster in the business world; when it does not claim to have any hold beyond material and transient things; when it fails to include in its lessons the binding force of conscience and responsibility, it will perish through its own unguided momentum. 27ie moral power of the public schools. — William A. Mowry in “Education:” There are many close observers who beUeve that the moral power of our public schools in this country to-day is greater and more important for the welfare of the country than any other moral force now being exerted upon the people. The schools reach nearly all the children in the land at the most impressionable period of life. Even the churches and the Sunday schools reach but a small fraction of the people. The seeds that find a lodgment. — Zalmon Richards: In the name of all that is good we must protest against this growing neglect and almost total disregard of religious or moral instruction and qualifications on the part of our teachers. In some of our cities every¬ thing moral and religious — the Bible, 'prayer, and lessons in morals and manners — is stricken from the curriculum of school training. Is it any wonder that the seeds of anarchy, socialism, communism, infidelity, insubordination, and licentiousness so easily find a lodgment in the hearts of our youth thus neglected? Precept and ^reaching are minor factors. — C. B. Gilbert: It is to the intellectual that most of our efforts as teachers have thus far been directed, whereas the moral is of in¬ finitely greater importance to the man and State; and it is illogical, suicidal, for a State to educate the intellects of children and leave their morals untrained. But, fortunately for us, this can never occur. Morals are always trained for good or ill. Environment more than aught else determines their bent. Character is not built, it grows; and it grows through exercise usually unconscious. Consequently, for the training of the moral natures of the children in our schools, no new machinery is needed: no new course need be added to our already overcrowded curricula. * * * Precept and preaching doubtless have their place in moral economy, and yet they are at best only minor factors, acting very indirectly in the formation of character. The social and moral tone of a generation, the ideals held and incorporated into life by its average man, in short, its atmosphere, together with its blood, determines in the main the moral status of the next. If this be true, the first requisite of a good school is a good tone, a wholesome moral atmosphere, a well-directed, well-lived life, so that the child continuously practices the virtues that he will need after he has left school. If this requisite be met, we have that on which we may place a firmer reliance than on any course of ethics however profound, any verbal instruction however apt and able. Practice is what is needed. — J. W. MacDonald: A father once came to me with the complaint that his son, a boy in my school, would lie to him and deceive him, and asked me to take him in hand. What I might have truly said to the man was this: ‘ ‘ My dear, sir, why shouldn’t your boy lie and deceive? You lie and deceive; , his mother lies and deceives; all his grandfathers and grandmothers as far back as they can be traced, lied and deceived; and do you expect me in a few months to eradicate all this depravity, both hereditary and acquired? Go home, sir, and set your boy a better example.” Well, I talked to the boy, and found him acquainted with all I could say to him about the wrong of lying. The problem, then, was not the same as if I had been teaching him physics, for example. Then I would have had to introduce him to new knowledge as well as train his faculties; how, he had the knowledge, and practice was what was needed. Should enter into the daily class-work. — W. E. Sheldon: The schools must hereafter assign a larger place to instruction in morals. Lessons must be given calculated to make 624 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1888-89. the children and youth of our land honest and upright, as well as active members of the body politic. Instruction in character-building can not be given properly by the formal statement of a few inert formulas or solemn maxims, or even by special exhortations. It should blossom out, and its influence permeate all parts of the work of the schools. Ethical instruction ought to be an important factor in all school-training. It should enter into the daily class-work, into every variety of recitation, into the questions of management and discipline, and especially be illustrated by the character, example, and daily life of the teacher. Better than from text-looks. — J. W. MacDonald, of Stoneham, Mass.: Morality can be taught better than from text-books. Every study the child pursues furnishes a hundred and one opportunities to send home a moral shaft that will penetrate all the deeper be¬ cause it comes unexpected, and catches him off his guard. The teacher should take the utmost care that an absolutely untainted moral atmosphere invests the school. Let the boy see that right and justice pervades all its management; let him be made to feel that the school and its regulations are a part of his country, and that disorder or disobedience is treason. * * * But the one thing greater than all others that the school can do for the cause of mo¬ rality is to place over their pupils teachers whose lives illustrate what they would have the pupils become. The silent influence of noble, manly goodness can not be overesti¬ mated, and makes text-books on morality a needless incumbrance. Intellectual and moral groioth must go hand in hand. — Cardinal Gibbons: The religious and the secular education of our children can not be divorced from each other without inflicting a fatal wound upon the soul. Tbe usual consequence of such a separation is to paralyze the moral faculties and to foment a spirit of indifference in matters of faith. Education is to the soul what food is to the body. The milk with which the infant is nourished at its mother’s breast feeds not only its head, but permeates at the same time its heart and the other organs of its body. In like manner, the intellectual and moral growth of our children must go hand in hand; otherwise their education is shallow and fragmentary, and often proves a curse instead of a blessing. * * * The catechetical instructions given once a week in our Sunday schools, though pro¬ ductive of very beneficial results, are insufficient to supply the religious wants of our children. They should as far as possible breathe every day a healthy religious atmos¬ phere in those schools in which not only is their mind enlightened, but the seeds of faith, piety, and sound morality are nourished and invigorated. This would be effected if the denominational system, such as obtains in Canada, were applied in our public schools. The combination of religious and secular education is easily accomplished in denomi¬ national schools. To what extent religion may be taught in the public schools without infringing the rights and wounding the conscience of some of the pupils is a grave prob¬ lem beset with difficulties, and very hara to solve, inasmuch as those schools are usually attended by children belonging to the various Christian denominations, by Jews also, and even by those who profess no religion whatever. Tour words will go no farther than your life carries them. — Samuel B. Capen in “Educa¬ tion:” It is a good thought, of which we may all be frequently reminded, that if we want to have the fullest respect of those committed to our care, it must come, not be¬ cause of any authority we may have in virtue of our office, but because of what we are. When you teach morals, of all things never forget that your words will go no farther than your own life carries them. Back of the teacher is the man, and what he is and not what he professes to be will always determine the force of his words. The surest way to keep children from evil. — James S. Barrell, in “Education: ” Whether we shall give this (moral) training by formal lessons, or incidentally, is with many a question. I would give it both ways. It seems to me that formal instruction tends more to completeness of character. Often, however, some incident of school life fur¬ nishes a lesson whose influence in a particular direction could never be equaled by a formal lesson. * * * There are few days which do not afford the opportunity for important and positive moral instruction. A remark upon a paragraph in reading, or upon a fact in history, may lift the whole class to a higher plane of thinking and acting. The surest way to keep children from evil is to fill their minds with that which is good and beautiful. Can this be done more effectually than by having them memorize choice passages of prose and poetry which express the very principles we would have appear in their lives? In Mr. John Fiske’s lecture upon Daniel Webster, he says that probably a majority of those who fought for the Union in the civil war had, as boys, learned and recited in school portions of Webster’s reply to Hayne. For years I have believed that this speech was one of the most potent influences which caused the “uprising of a great people ” RELIGIOUS AND MORAL TRAINING. 625 in the hour of the nation’s peril. Can not all the virtues be as effectually taught ia this way as that of patriotism ? It willmeet no ohjection. — Supt. Geo. Barnes (Michigan): I have never heard anyone object to the teaching of morals in our public schools. We are crossing a bridge before we come to it. If w© teach the subject in its place and in its time it will meet no ob¬ jection. We should teach it as an art not as a science. All teachers are givinj moral training.-— L. R. Fiske, of Albion (Mich.) Col¬ lege: Every good school is a system of moral training from beginning to end. All teachers are giving moral training in our schools. lean not conceive of a school in which this is not the case. No one should be at the head of a school who is not a moral man or woman. More perilous. — State Supt. Edwin F. Palmer, of Vermont: If thought without learn¬ ing is perilous, learning without sound morality is more perilous still. How to settle the whole question. — T. G. Apple, President of Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pa., in the New York Independent: Instead of talking about it and debating the abstract question, let some one go to work and prepare a course of graded books ou moral science, adapted to our schools, from the primary to the high school, and let them be introduced and taught, and the whole question on that point will be settled. There ought to be no doubt so far as the right of teaching morality in our public schools is concerned. It can be done without interfering with any one’s reli¬ gion. Let it be in accord with the spirit and principles of Christianity, audit anyone objects to this let him present a purer and better system, and it will be adopted. A system based on the principles of Christianity will be adopted, not because it comes with the external authority of this religion over that of any other, but because it authenti¬ cates itself as the purest and best. This question can be settled, we think, without raising the other question as to the right of teaching religion in our public schools, and it can be done, too, without divorc¬ ing morality from religion, except as to the place in which each is to bo taught. Religious moonshine. — Rt. Rev. John J. Keane: Again and again, and almost continu¬ ously for the last twenty years, thinkers of every religion, and of no religion, have la¬ mented that the inculcation of morality and religion in the public schools was not what it ought to be. The discussion now widely prevailing about the possibility and means of needed moral and religious training in them is sufficient acknowledgment of the lack hitherto existing. “ You must excuse me,” a Christian parent will logically say, “from considering their training just what 1 want for my child till the methods now urged shall have been tried' and proved efficacious. And,” he would add, “ that the result ever can be satisfactory, I am not prepared to believe. The whole of Christianity is needed as the basis, the mold, the restraint, the incentive of a Christian life. There is noth¬ ing in it superlluous, nothing that is not eminently practical in its bearings; and no min¬ imized, compromise Chiistianity can ever suffice in its stead. Such moral teachings as you might get from Cicero and Seneca never suffice for the moral teaching of Christ, and for the motives, means, and sanctions of morality which He bestows. All this vague, indefinite, noncommittal moralizing and religiousness is simply religious moonshine, which might be useful if we were in the darkness of religious night, but which it is ab¬ surd to wish to substitute for the Light of the World. No, I want His radiance clear and full in the schoolroom where my child spends his days.” Not Christianity enough in our public schools. — Bishop John J. Keane, rector of the Catholic University, in the New Yffirk Independent: Now, to minds that reflect cal miy and deeply nothing can be more evident than the need of making the system of popu¬ lar education more Christian, if our country is to be a Christian country, if our civili¬ zation is to be a Christian civilization. That such it is by right, and t’nat such it must be maintained, no man who knows the history of civilization and the history of our country can hesitate to believe. And that it can be so m’aintained only by Christian edu¬ cation is so palpable a truth, so suggested by the very nature of things, that it is strange if it can be obscure to any intelligent mind. But the nature of education must very largely depend ou the nature of the schools. This proposition, so clear in itself, is made doubly so by assisting at such a meeting of educators as that which we have just wit¬ nessed at Nashville. There every utterance asserts, as a universally accepted fact, that the molding of the mind and heart and character of the child lies mostly with school and teacher; that parents recognize this fact, and are therefore anxious to have such schools and such teachers as shall best discharge this momentous responsibility in regard to their children. Hence, the conclusion is inevitable that the Christianity of educa¬ tion, and therefore of our civilization and country, must largely depend ou the Chris¬ tianity of our schools; and that it would be hardly reasonable to expect more Chrige ED 89 - 40 626 EDUCATION REPOST, 1888-89. tianity in the lives of our people than is to be found in the schools which have had so large and essential a share in molding them. But thouglitful people are everywhere recognizing that there is not Christianity enough in our public schools; that the tendency to the secularization of education— that is to the exclusion of religion from, the schools — logically tends to the exclusion of religion from the public and private lives of our people; that it is a mistake and must be corrected, both for love of religion and for love of country’’. Some, hopeless of modifying the tend¬ ency as long as the breeze of popular impulse and political interest blows in that direc¬ tion, have had to withdraw entirely from the public schools and build up a separate system of distinctively Christian schools. To suppose that they do this through any want of public spirit, through any want of interest in the public weal, through any want of devotedness to our country and of solicitude for her welfare would be unreason¬ able and unjust. Quite the contrary is the truth. Deeply convinced that our country’s welfare, as well as the religious welfare of each individual, depends on Christian educa¬ tion, they are acting not only as reasonable and dutiful parents, but also as our coun¬ try’s truest friends, by fostering and maintaining, at cost of much tuil and expense, a system of education calculated to form a Christian people. Others, less logical or less courageous and generous, or perhaps in the hope of yet reversing the present tendency and infusing more Christianity into the present system, cling to it, and doubtless with the natural wi.sh to make the most of what one is com¬ mitted to, laud it as the best and the only admissible system. In the same breath, however, they give utterance to their anxiety about the gradual decay of clear and posi¬ tive Christian belief and Christian principles among our people, and about the need of remedying this by making our educational system more Christian. Thanks be to God for this widespreading anxiety! It gives hope of turning into safer paths. But how are they to accomplish this? Some hope to succeed by inculcating in the schools a system of Christian morals, without definite dogmatic teaching; and not a few among them grow eloquent and poetical as they expatiate upon the moral influence of every natural fact, every scientific truth. But practical people smile; and observant people shake their heads; and serious people remember the warning of Washington, that our country must not hope for morality without religion — a term by which he meant something very different from the vague transcendentalism of our poetical mor¬ alists. Others, perceiving the necessity of definite Christian teaching, hope to devise a system of it sufficiently vague and sufficiently elastic to suit the various denominational beliefs represented in the school constituencies. But how can the attempt be aught but a fail¬ ure? What Christian body will admit such a compromise as being the Christianity which Christ gave, and by which he meant that the world should be enlightened and guided? And who can hope that esteem for Christianity would be increased in the hearts of youth by a system aiming at minimizing Christianity as much as possible? The Bible, religion, and morality in the public schools. — Austin Bierbower, of Chicago, Ill., in the New York Independent: It is not necessary to teach religion in the public schools, for the obvious reason that there are abundant other opportunities for such in¬ struction. The family, the church, and the Sunday school can teach all that is neces¬ sary to understand any religion. The doctrines of every church are few and simple; the evidences of Christianity are not many or difficult; the ceremonies and other reli¬ gious duties are easily acquired; so that all that is known as religion can be quickly learned. We have, moreover, an entire day reserved for such instruction*, and special seasons besides for its emphasis. The appliances for training youth in religion are out of all proportion to the extent and difficulty of such training. Millions of dollars are annually spent, gorgeous churches are erected, and eloquent clergymen are employed for this end. As pastors, Sunday-school teachers, class leaders, and deacons, nearly all the adult population are engaged in imparting their views in religion. Not only Sunday but every week day witnesses some meeting in nearly every church to promote religion, while countless benevolences furnish abundant exercise in practical religion. In no re.spect are men so thoroughly organized and equipped as in religion; and in their vari¬ ous religious societies and assemblies the youth are particii)aats and recipients of in¬ struction and discipline. This, I repeat, is enough to impart the slight amount of training of which men are capable in religion; and those who are taught in religious schools do not get any more or better religious training than this, nor are they known to be better men and women in any respect than those who are trained in this way. Every church has appliances to train adequately its young independently of the schools, and to train them in exactly the kind of leligion it wants taught; and no church admits that it is not competent for this task. Since, therefore, all the religious instruction needed can be given without encroaching on the week-day schools, it is a bad policy, as well as a piece of injustice, to insist on obtruding religion in the public schools as a bone of contention. RELIGIOUS AND MORAL TRAINING. 627 The people, however, are not restricted to the church and to Sunday for religious training. Every family is a school and every parent a teacher; and in the family one can impart just such teaching as he wants learned. The simplicity of religion — its doctrines and duties — makes it particularly easy for home impartation, and what little more is needed can easily be had of the pastor or church, or from religious literature. It requires but little guidance to furnish youth with surroundings that will give them, all the instruction needed. The religidus newspapers, books, songs, and pictures are of easy acquisition; so that the day school need not be called on to furnish anything in the interest of religion. I say, therefore, that religious training can be adequately given, and is adequately given, without introducing it into the schools; although it is not a question for the schools or for citizens in their public capacity, whether it can be or not. Religion is a private concern, with which the State has properly nothing to do, and should rely on itself for its own success without taxing or restraining men in its interest; but the fact that it can be fully inculcated by private means removes ail ground for insisting that it should be taught in the schools. There is no occasion for even using the Bible in the schools. While it might be used without any influence w'hatever, good or bad, it can be read elsewhere abundantly, and is read in the family, in the Sunday-schools, and in churches almost daily, and is con¬ stantly discussed and quoted, so that the people are not left in ignorance of it. With an open Bible everywhere the Protestants ought not to insist on forcing it into the schools to the irritation of Catholics, Jews, and unbelievers, who have the same rights as Prot¬ estants in our public institutions. The fact that some regard it as a revelation from God does not justify them in forcing it on others who do not so regard it, or who believe it can not be safely read by the people. We do not neglect o.ur duty when we fail to force it on others as their duty. Protestants who think the Bible is not sufficiently read can teach it more at home, and in the church, and through the press. The little that is perfunctoril}'- read in school is not important, and might be dispensed with without perceptible loss to the scholars, especially since most of them are at an age when it makes little impression, and since the same precepts are obtainable from other books or from the teacher. There is not enough to be gained from Bible reading to justify the quarrel that has been raised over it. While, therefore, it is not a question for the schools, or for the people in their public capacity, whether the Bible will be sufficiently read if not used in the schools, still, its influence will not be diminished by excluding it from the schools, so that its use may profitably be relegated to the people in their private or church capacity, where it be¬ longs. In communities where there is no opposition to its use there is no reason for thus' excluding it any more than for excluding any other good book, and Catholics, Jews, and unbelievers can afford to let it be read and are injudicious in opposing it; but when they do oppose it others ought not to insist on having it. Yfe are not the keepers of their judgment or their rights. For the same reason we can dispense, without loss to religion, with devotional exer¬ cises in the schools. People can pray at home and in the church and wherever thev are, and can pray silently even in school. In no other country is there so much praying at the opening of schools and meetings as in America; and v/hile it is unobjectionable where the parties interested make no complaint, it is not necessary. We do not do it at all gatherings. In opening a bank or railroad office or commencing work in a factory we have no devotions. It is a usage of arbitrary application and may be dropped from almost any assembly without a sacrifice of principle; and when objection is raised by interested parties it ought to be discontinued, especially as it may be continued every¬ where else. The amount of good that is done by such devotion is apt to be overesti¬ mated, especially as most of the children come from their morning prayers to school and return to other devotions in the family or church. Parents who insist on shifting their praying onto the school often neglect it at home, and in charging a public institu¬ tion with their duties omit them themselves; so that in embarrassing the schools they introduce neglect in the household. Devotion, like religion generally, will be better maintained if it is made a private charge; and if parents had to teach their children more they would learn more themselves. Devotion will lose nothing by becoming less a matter of State regulation. But not only is it not to the interest of religion to teach religion in the public schools, but it is not to the interest of the other studies that religion be taught with them. Re¬ ligion is a distinct matter, and may be taught alone, and they are each a distinct matter and may be taught alone. Especially is this so in teaching the elements, which are about all that can be taught of any subject in the publicschools. It does not benefit the study of arithmetic, spelling, reading, penmanship, grammar, geography, music, drawing, Latin, or any of the other branches, to teach religion in connection with it. All the studies of the public schools are as independent of religion as of horse-racing. Its introduction can not modify one conclusion in geometry, or combination in chemistry; so that there 628 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. is no more reason for associating school work with religion than for associating cooking with hasehall; and there is no sense whatever in calling that institution “godless’’ which teaches such branches without religion. One might as well call insurance com¬ panies or banks “godless” because they have nothing to do v/ith religion, or speak of godless kite-flying or musical festivals. The only subject on which there is any apparent difficulty is morals; and in this the difficulty is only apparent, and results from confusion. Religion amd morals are often confounded, as if they were the same, and as if the exclusion of one implied the exclu¬ sion of the other. The charge is commonly made that if the schools do not teach re¬ ligion the scholars will grow up without moral training. For there is no serious difference of opinion about right and wrong requiring any dif¬ ferent instruction according to men’s differences about religion. All men, no matter what their religion, or whether they have any religion, recognize the same virtues — truth, honesty, purity, love, politeness, etc. There is a greater unanimity on this sub¬ ject than on almost any other. The few exceptions are trifling and of no practical con¬ cern, and of them I shall speak hereafter. At present I say that morality, on which mankind are essentially agreed, can be taught without religion, and should be so taught in the schools. The very fact that all men approve the same morality makes it obvious that no religion is necessary to teach it. If the Jew, the Catholic, the Protestant, and the unbeliever all accept the same virtues, it is clear that the religion of none of them is necessary for the inculcation of such virtues, and the inculcation of such virtues does not imply any damage to any of the religions, There must be some other and more common ground and motive to morality; so that morality can be taught without relig¬ ion, and the exclusion of religion from the schools does not imply in the least degree the exclusion of moral instruction. That which all believe alike can be taught with¬ out offense to any. * * * It is sometimes claimed that the ultimate foundation of morality is in religion — the will of God, for example — and that unless this be taught we can not adequately teach mo¬ rality. This, however, is a matter of speculative philosophy, like all other alleged grounds of morality, and does not affect practical ethics any more than one’s theory of the origin of man affects his choice of a tailor or cook. Whether the “ will of God,” the “order of Nature,” “revelation,” “utility,” or “happiness” be the ground of morality is a question of metaphysics and not of morals, and should be referred to that science. No matter what view is taken of the metaphysical ground of right, all theo¬ ries end in adopting the same practical virtues, which, as I have already indicated, are approved by all men: so that our speculative differences do not seriously afiect our morals, and need not be taken into account in public training. Beligious instrvxiion must he left to parents; moral instruction is inseparable from, the school. — ^A. P. Marble, superintendent ;of Worcester (Mass.) schools, in the New York Independent: The state has nothing to do with another world. Religion has respect to a future existence. Distinctively religious instruction, then, must be left to parents and to the Sunday schools which they may select. It has been demonstrated by ex¬ perience that no political body can foster religion. Religion is a matter of thie heart; it must be voluntary and spontaneous; it is spiritual. It thrives best by its own agen¬ cies, distinct from the state. But moral instruction is inseparable from any good school. There is morality in the teaching of arithmetic and in every science. The pursuit of truth in any of its forms has a moral influence. The example of a good man is a moral power, and every teacher ought to be good; and as a rule they are good. No class of society, not even clergymen of any persuasion or all persuasions, will average better morally than teachers. And if any one shall say that this moral instruction, such as is imparted by every warm-hearted, earnest teacher, filled with an overflowing love for children, embraces the most valuable part of religion, many people will agree with him. The Bible should be read daily in every school; and the selections should be adapted to the age and capacity of the children: First, because this book is the basis of the morality of this country; and, secondly, because it has so influenced our civilization, and it so permeates our literature, that ignorance of it is more noticeable and less excus¬ able than no acquaintance with Shakespeare. But this reading should not be forced upon anyone, much less should any perfunc¬ tory prayer or sectarian hymn find a place in any public school. But a devout spirit should pervade the school, and there are universal psalms by our great poets which all might willingly sing. In Canada. — Prof, Goldwin Smith, of Toronto, in the New York Independent: It does not appear to me that children are less instructed in religion here, though the duty is left to the parent and the Sunday school, than they were in England at the time when all the schools were connected with churches. As to morality — the be t school is the p^ost moral, and, with us, the separate schools are allowed not to be the best, RELIGIOUS AND MORAL TRAINING. 629 TFe must multiply and perfect Christian schools. — Rt, Rev. John J. Keane: We must cling to this sacred cause, and uphold it at any cost. We must carry aloft before the eyes of our country the banner of Christian education. We must multiply and perfect Christian schools, till all our children and all our youth can have in the fullest abundance all the blessed intellectual and moral advantages which are the essential condition of Christian civilization. We must stop at no diificalties ; we must count no cost. At any cost the work must and shall go on, tor we are all called to it both by a love of God and love of country. Our country may for a while misunderstand and misjudge us: she may treat us unfairly; she may tax us doubly, may suspect our motives. But, like the Grecian hero of old, we will look her lovingly in the face and say, “Strike, but hear me! ” And we v/ill per¬ severe, until the good sease and the noble heart of the American people give the victory at last where it is rightly due, and all ranks of our fellow- citizens who believe in Chris¬ tian civilization will join with us in securing it by Christian education — will vie in guiding all the youth of the land in the gladsome ways of Him who alone is or can be the Light of the World. Is the Bible a sectarian book? — State Superintendent J. B. Thayer, of Wisconsin, has issued a pamphlet giving in full the opinions of the judges of the supreme court of that State in the case of the State of Wisconsin ex rel. Frederick Weiss et als. vs. District Board No. 8, of the city of Edgerton. This and the two following extracts are taken from that publication. Justice W. P. Lyon, in delivering the decision of the court: We come now to the more direct consideration of the merits of the controversy. The term “sectarian in¬ struction ” in the constitution manifestly refers exclusively to instruction in religious doctrines, and the prohibition is only aimed at such instruction as is sectarian. That is to say, instruction in religious doctrines which are believed by some religious sects and rejected by others. Hence, to teach the existence of a supreme being, of infinite wis¬ dom, power, and goodness, and that it is the highest duty of all men to adore, obey, and love him, is not sectarian, because all religious sects so believe and teach. The instruc¬ tion becomes sectarian when it goes further, and inculcates doctrine or dogma concern¬ ing which the religious sects are in conflict. This we understand to be the meaning of the constitutional prohibition. That the reading from the Bible in the schools, although unaccompanied by any com¬ ment on the part of the teacher, is “ instruction ” seems to us too clear for argument. Some of the most valuable instruction a person can receive may be derived from read¬ ing alone, without any extrinsic aid by way of comment or exposition. The question, therefore, seems to narrow down to this: Is the reading of the Bible in the schools — , not merely selected passages therefrom, but the whole of it — sectarian instruction of the pupils ? In view of the fact already mentioned, that the Bible contains numerous doctrinal passages, upon some of which the peculiar creed of almost every religious sect is based, and that such passages may reasonably be understood to inculcate the doc¬ trines predicated upon them, an affirmative answer to the question seems unavoidable. Any pupil of ordinary intelligence who iisten.s to the reading of the doctrinal portion of the Bible will be more or less instructed thereby in the doctrines of the divinity of Jesus Christ, the eternal punishment of the wicked, the authority of the priesthood, the binding force and efficacy of the sacraments, and many other conflicting sectarian doctrines. A most forcible demonstration of the accuracy of this statement is found in certain reports of the American Bible Society of its work in Catholic countries (referred to in one of the arguments), in which instances are given of the conversion of several persons from “Romanism ” through the reading of the Scriptures alone. That is to say, the reading of the Protestant or King James version of the Bible converted Catholics to Prot¬ estants without the aid of comment or exposition. In those cases the reading of the Bible certainly was sectarian instruction. We do not know how to frame an argument in support of the proposition that the reading thereof in the district schools is not also sectarian instruction. It should be observed in this connection that the above views do not, as counsel seemed to think they may, banish from the district schools such text-books as are founded upon the fundamental teaching of the Bible, or which contain extracts there¬ from. Such teachings and extracts pervade and ornament our secular literature, and are important elements in its value and usefulness. Such text- books are in the schools for secular instruction, and rightly so, and the constitutional prohibition of sectarian in¬ struction does not include them, even though they may contain passages from which some inferences of sectarian doctrine might possibly be drawn. Furthermore, there is much in the Bible which can not justly be characterized as sec¬ tarian. There can be no valid objection to the use of such matter in the secular in¬ struction of the pupils. Much of it hc.s great historical and literary value which may be thus utilized without violating tiie constitutional prohibition. It may also be used 630 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-8fl. to inculcate "ood morals — that is, our duties to each other — which may and ought to be inculcated by the district schools. No more complete code of morals exists than is con¬ tained in the New Testament, which reaffirms and emphasizes the moral obligations laid down in the Ten Commandments. Concerning the fundamental principles of moral ethics, the religious sects do not disagree. * * * It is argued that the reading of the Bible in the district schools is not included in the constitutional prohibition of sectarian instruction therein, because the Bible is not spe¬ cifically mentioned in the constitution. It is said that if it was intended that such reading was to be excluded, it would have been so provided in direct terms. The argu¬ ment may be plausible, but it is believed to be unsound. Constitutions deal with gen¬ eral principles and policies, and do not usually descend to a specification of particulars. Such is the character of the provision in question. In general terms, it excludes sec¬ tarian instruction, and the exclusion includes all forms of such instruction. Its force would or might i ave been weakened had the attempt been made to specify therein all the methods by which such instruction may be imparted. * * * For the reasons above stated, we can not doubt that the use of the Bible as a text-book in the public schools, and the stated reading thereof in such schools, without restric¬ tion, “has a tendency to inculcate sectarian ideas ” and is sectarian instruction, within the meaning and intention of the constitution and the statute. Does reading the Bible in a public school render the schoolhouse a place of loorship? — Jus¬ tice J. B. Cassoday, in the same case as the preceding: The second clause of the section [of the constitution of Wisconsin] quoted is to the effect that no man shall “be com¬ pelled to atterid, erect, or support any place of worship, or to maintain any ministry against his consent,” Is the stated reading of the Bible in the public schools as a text¬ book “worship” within the meaning of this clause? As indicated in the clauses al¬ ready considered, the word “worship,” as here used, includes any and every mode of worshiping Almighty God. * * * Certainly the reading of the Holy Scriptures as the eternal word of God, in obedience to the often repeated injunction therein contained,, whether by the individual in private or in the family, or in the public assembly, is an essential part of divine worship. Every sermon is based upon some text of scripture. Most prayers are xireceded by the reading of some passage of scripture, as an intelligent guide to the thoughts of the w orshiper or worshipers. The Sermon on the Mount con¬ tains the prayer taught by the blessed Lord. Is it possible for any genuine believer in the Christian religion to read or listen to the reading of that sermon, and especially that prayer, without being filled with a holy sense of honor, reverence, adoration, and homage to Almighty God, which is the very essence of worship. We must hold that the stated reading of the Bible in the public schools as a text-book may be “worship ” within the meaning of the clause of the constitution under. consideration. If, then, such reading of the Bible is worship, can there be any doubt but what the schoolroom in which it is so statedly read is a “place of worship,” within the meaning of the same clause of the constitution? Counsel seem to argue that such place of worship should be confined to- some church edifice, or ])lace where the members of a church statedly worship. Some of the earlier constitutions having similar clauses used the words “building” and “church.” Manifestly the words “place of worship ” were advisedly used as applicable to any “place” or structure where worship is statedly held, and which the citizen is “compelled to attend,” or the taxpayers are compelled “to erector support,” The mere fact that only a small fraction of the school hours is devoted to such worship in no way justifies such use as against an objecting taxpayer. If the right be conceded, then the length of time so devoted becomes a matter of discretion. If such right does not exist, then any length of time, however short, is forbidden. The relators, as taxpayers of the district, were compelled to aid in the erection of the school building in question, and also to aid in the support of the school maintained therein. Being thus compelled to aid in such erection and sui^port, they have a legal right to object to its being used as a “place of worship.” The province of the common school' as regards religious instruction under the constitution of Wisconsin. — Statement of Justice H. S. Orton, in the same case as the preceding: The common schools are free to all alike, to all nationalities, to all sects of religion, to all ranks of society, and to all complexions. For these equal privileges and rights of in¬ struction in them all are taxed equally and proportionately. The constitutional name, ‘ ‘ common schools, ’ ’ expresses their equality and universal patronage and support. Com¬ mon schools are not common, as being low in character or grade, but common toallalike, to everybod}'’ and to all sects or denominations of religion, but without bringing religion into them. The common schools, like all the other institutions of the State, are pro¬ tected by the constitution from all “ control or interference with the rights of conscience,” and from ail preferences given by law to any religious establishments or modes of wor¬ ship, As the State can have nothing to do with religion, except to protect every one in KELIGIOUS AND MORAL TRAINING. 631 the enjoyment of his own, so the common schools can have nothing to do with religion in any respect whatever. They are as completely as any of the other institutions of the State, in which all the people, alike, have equal lights and privileges. The peo¬ ple can not be taxed for religion in schools, more than anywhere else. Religious instruc¬ tion in the common schools is as clearly prohibited by these general clauses of the consti¬ tution as religious instruction or worship in any other department of state supported by the revenue derived fromAaxation, The clause, that “no sectarian instruction shall be allowed therein,” was inserted ex industria to exclude everything pertaining to reli¬ gion. They are called by those who wish to have not only religion, but their own reli¬ gion, taught therein, “Godless schools.” They are Godless, and the educational de¬ partment ol the Government is Godless, in the same sense that the executive, legislative, and administrative department are Godless. So long as our constitution remains as it is, no one’s religion can be taught in our common schools. By religion, I mean reli¬ gion as a system, not religion in the sense of natural law. Religion in the latter sense is the source of all law and government, justice and truth. Religion as a sys¬ tem of belief can not be taught without offense to those who have their own peculiar views of religion, no more than it can be without offense to the different sects of reli¬ gion. How can religion, in this sense, be taught in the common schools, without taxing the people for or on account of it. The only object, purpose, or use for taxation bylaw in this State must be exclusively secular. There is no such source and* cause of strife, quarrel, fights, malignant opposition, persecution and war, and all evil in the State, as religion. Let it once enter into our civil affairs, our government would soon be de¬ stroyed. Let it once enter into our common schools, they would be destroyed. Those who made our constitution saw this, and used the most apt and comprehensive language in it to prevent such a catastrophe. It is said, if reading the Protestant version of the Bible in school is offensive to the parents of some of the scholars and antagonistic to their own religious views, their children can retire. They ought not to be compelled to go out of the school for such a reason for one moment. The suggestion itself concedes the whole argument. That version of the Bible is hostile to the belief of many w'ho are taxed to support the common schools, and who have equal rights and privileges in them. It is a source of religious and sectarian strife. That is enough. It violates the letter and spirit of the constitution. No State constitution ever existed, that so completely excludes and precludes the possibility of religious strife in the civil affairs of the State, and yet so fully protects all alike in the enjoyment of their own religion. All sects and denominations may teach the people their own doctrines in all proper places. Our con¬ stitution protects all and favors none. But they must keep out of the common schools and civil affairs. It requires but little argument to prove that the Protestant version of the Bible, or any other version of the Bible, is the source of religious strife and oppo¬ sition, and opposed to the religious belief of many of our people. It is a sectarian book. The Protestants were a very small sect in religion at one time, and they are a sect yet to the great Catholic Church against whose usages they protested, and so is their version of the Bible sectarian as against the Catholic version of it. -The common school is one of the most indispensable, useful, and valuable civil institutions this State has. It is democratic and tree to all alike, in perfect equality, where all the children of our peo¬ ple stand on a common platform, and may enjoy the benefits of an equal and common education. An enemy to our common schools is an enemy to our State government. It is the same hostility that would cause any religious denomination that had acquired the ascendancy over all others to remodel our constitution, aud change our government and all of its institutions, so as to make them favorable only to itself, and exclude all others from their benefits and protection. In such an event, religious and sectarian instruc¬ tion w’ill be given in all schools. Religion needs no support from the State. It is stronger and much purer without it. * * Morality and good conduct may be in¬ culcated in the common schools, and should be. The connection of church and State corrupts religion and makes the State despotic. The Bible a sectarian booTc. — New York Independent: The supreme court of Wisconsin, in the case of Weiss against the district school board of education, has recently rendered a very important decision in relation to the reading of the Bible in the public schools of that State. The Catholics objected in the case to the reading of King James’s Version of the Bible in the public school of the district; and the circuit court for Rock County overruled the objection and sustained such reading of the Bible as constitutional and proper. The case was then carried to the supreme court of the State, and that court has just decided that the reading of the Bible in the j)ubl!c schools ot Wisconsin is not consistent with the constitution of that State. This settles the school question and the Bible for the whole State. The ground taken by the court is that the reading of King Jamesbs Version of the Bible in the public schools, whether as a means of instruction or as act of worship, is, as it respects Catholics who do not accept this version as cor¬ rect, to introduce a sectarian book into these schools, as really as if the Douay Ver- G32 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. sion of tbe Bible, which the Catholics do accept, were thus used.. This is the pith 01 the principle laid down in this decision; and we think it to he entirely correct, and, as a principle, just as applicable in this State as it is in Wisconsin. The simple truth is that our public school system, sustained by general taxation, and regulated by State authority, should confine itself exclusively to the secular sphere of instruction, and leave all questions relating to religious instruction and religious worship absolutely untouched. There is no other ground that is consistent with our political system or with equity as between different religious sects. Protestants make a grave mistake in dealing with this question when they claim for themselves what they deny to Catholics. Let the State have a public school system for secular purposes, and stop there. Let religious instruction be otherwise provided for. Wliy the Lutherans established parochial schools. — Extract from a discourse reprinted by the German Lutheran committee of the Synod of Missouri and other States: We Luth¬ erans are not bent upon opposing our public schools. We are aware that for many rea¬ sons our civil authorities are obliged to erect and maintain schools, and we are glad to see them take an interest in the education of our country’s children, so as to make them intelligent citizens. We know that a large number of our country’s children would be left without any instruction whatever by their parents if our State authorities did not look to their education. For this reason we cheerfully and willingly pay our taxes for public institutions of learning. It is our desire that not a cent of these taxes be ex¬ pended for sectarian purposes, but that every cent be used in the interest of the public and community at large. We seek to discourage all attempts that are being made to appropriate money from the public-school fund for private and denominational schools. Hence I feel justified in claiming that it is not opposition to our public schools that in¬ duces us to build and maintain church schools. Well, what is it? you ask. Our parochial schools are institutions of learning where the attending pupils receive an education in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, and grammar; but in connection with these secular branches of knowledge they are daily instructed in the histories and doctrines of the Bible, so that on their dismissal from school they are thor¬ oughly acquainted with the law and commandments of their God and the way unto sal¬ vation. • And if I were asked to give a brief reply to the question, why we Lutherans erect and maintain such schools, I should answer, because we know it to be our sacred duty to give our children a thorough Christian education; and yve are convinced that under present circumstances this duty may best be performed by means of congrega¬ tional schools. * * * ^ We know it to be imposed on us by God Almighty himself to afford them a thorough Christian education. That is the reason why we feel ourselves bound to establish schools, where religious instruction is a chief part of the daily studies. True, we desire our chil¬ dren to be fit for the duties and pursuits of this life; but it is of greater importance to us that they be fit to walk in the narrow path which leads them to the life to come. We in¬ deed want our children to study the histories and events of this world; but we would see them acquainted with the great histories and truths of the Bible, informing them of their creation, their lamentable fall, and their glorious redemption through Christ Jesus. We indeed do not intend our children should neglect the study of arithmetic, geography, and grammar, but we consider it a paramount obligation towards them to have them calculate the length and breadth, the depth and height of God’s love, to have them look for the mountain whence conieth their help, to have them know in what direction Je¬ rusalem, the golden city with its dazzling gates of pearl, is situated, and to have them speak in the language and grammar of sincere children of God. In short, my friends, we realize the imperative duty of giving our children a thorough instruction in the great truths and undefiled doctrines of Christianity pertaining to the salvation of their im¬ mortal souls, and that is the reason why we Lutherans make it a practice to educate our children in congregational schools. * * * From what has been said I trust that you one and all are ready to admit the duty of parents to bestow on their children a religious education and training, but you perhaps have your doubts as to the necessity and practicability of performing this duty by means of congregational schools. Well, what method have you of discharging this duty? I need not call your attention to the fact that our public schools furnish no religious in¬ struction whatever; you are aware of that. And I for my part am persuaded that in this country, where we have such diversity of religious laith and opinion, it would be utterly impracticable and unadvisable to introduce religion into the schools of our State. Besides, our civil government is under no obligation at all to see the Christian training of its subjects. It may require them to be loyal and intelligent citizens, but no more. The Constitution of our country provides for the complete separation of religious and civil affairs, of church and state. The founders of pur Republic evinced great wisdom when they adopted this important statute. That is as it ought to be in every country. RELIGIOUS AND MORAL TRAINING. 633 And as long as our Constitution continues to make this provision we shall ever he ready to stand by it and defend it. Now, with all candor of spirit, I put the question to you: Do our children receive a thorough religious training within our family circles? I ven¬ ture the statement that if the Christian education of our children were entirely left to the family the children of ninety-nine families out of one hundred would receive but a very meager and scanty religious instruction. A large number of parents to-day are so busily engaged in the affairs of this life that they find little or no time for a proper edu¬ cation of their children within the family. We see fathers leaving their homes early in the morning for their places of business and returning late in the evening tired and weary. Mothers are generally engaged from morning till night in doing their house¬ work and arranging the affairs of their homes. Where is the time and room, tell me, for a thorough Christian education of children within the circles in families? And how often do we meet with parents who are incapable of teaching their children at home even if they desired to. Nay, my friends, you undoubtedly are right in claiming the family to be a proper place for the religious training of children, but at the same time you are forced to concede that in ninety-nine cases out of one hundred the families can not and do not grant their children a thorough and lasting instruction in religion. And that is the reason why wc Lutherans deem it by far the best method to establish Christian schools for the discharge of a duty for which our parents have no sufficient time at home. But it almost seems to me that I hear some one remark, you are entirely overlooking our Sunday schools; do not they afford our children a Christian education? You will allow me to say a few words in regard to the prevailing Sunday-school system. We have no inclination to detract from the merits of Sunday schools if they are properly conducted. But common sense and experience tell that the Christian education which children de¬ rive by means of our Sunday schools must needs be very superficial. Think of the little time that Sunday schools allow for religious instruction, an hour a week, 1 out of 168. If I had a boy whom I intended to be a physician and become skilled in the art of sur¬ gery so that he would be capable of performing the most difficult surgical opera¬ tions, and I made it a practice to send him an hour a w’eek to some medical college, you would be right in considering that the greatest folly. We can not be satisfied with having our children instructed an hour a week in matters that pertain to the eternal salvation of their immortal souls. We are convinced, and this conviction of ours is based upon experience, that if our children are to receive a thorough knowledge and lasting impression of the Bible, its divine truths and commandments, they are in need of daily religious instruction. The law of God will have to be called to their minds, explained to them, and brought home to their hearts by competent teachers- day after day. And that is what Ave are aiming at in our parochial schools. In all discipline ex¬ ercised m our schools we strive to make the word of God the governing element. And even the secular sciences taught in our schools are pervaded by a Christian spirit. That is what we, under present circumstances, deem the best, if not the only correct method of bringing up our children in the nurture and admonition of the Lord; and that is the reason why Ave Lutherans make it a practice to establish, build, and maintain parochial schools. A Prenhyterian declaration, — Resolution unanimously adopted by the Presbyterian General Assembly at Syracuse, May 26. 1890: Pesolved, That we affirm the importance of our public schools to the welfare of our people; that Avith intellectual cultivation must go moral training, or the schools may prove a curse rather than a blessing, but this moral training must be based on religion, otherwise its sanction will not be strong enough to grasp the conscience of the people or its utterances obligatory enough to shape their character; that, as the Bible is the source of the highest moral teaching, weregard its exclusion from our public schools as a menace to national Avelfare, and we urge the members of our Church to so arouse public thought on this subject, from the pulpit, the press, and the ecclesiastical assemblages, that this book shall be restored to its true place in our system of education. A compromise proposed. — Dr. W. T. Harris: There is a practical aspect to this question. So long as Protestants insist on some remnant of the church ceremonial, such as the reading of the Scriptures or prayers, the Catholic may be expected to see in the public school an instrument for proselyting his children. On the other band, the schools may be made purely secular and the Catholic may still object on the ground that he wishes religious instruction united with secular instruction. I think that most of the Catholic laity have settled this question in favor of the purely secular school. If the secular school prevented churches and church schools — in short, prevented religious instruction altogether — the secular school might be condemned without the possibility of defending it; but the Catholic sees that he may have religious instruction in his church or in a church school apart from secular instruction. Now, in a community where the people desire to bring together all children in the public schools without prejudicing in any 634 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. way the rights of any religions denominations, I think that the matter can be easily settled. There will be a spirit of compromise; not of compromise in regard to the secu- larity of the school, but with regard to the feelings and prejudices of the community. For instance, the Catholic children may be permitted to be absent from school one or two hours a week to attend religious instruction in the parish church. Such a conces¬ sion as this is a compromise and a recognition of the convictions of that portion of the community. Such a recognition implies a tolerant regard for the right of private opin¬ ion. 1 believe that the Catholic ecclesiastical power desires a formal recognition of this kind much more than it desires any substantial concession, such, for instance, as would lead to the introduction of Catholic religious instruction within the school building be¬ fore or after school — a compromise that has been often discussed. In a community that is largely Protestant the Catholic wishes to have his religion treated with respect. Such formal concession carried out in good faith is all that is required, it seems to me. Mean¬ while the concession made in Savannah, I’oughkeepsie, and a few other places, viz, a compromise which permits Catholic religious exercises jbefore or after school in the schoolroom, or which permits the teacher to wear the garb of some Catholic order — the garb of the sisters or of the priesthood — militates against the public character of the school, and can not be conceded as a possible comnromise. Two ways of rendering religious instruction feasible in public schools. — Archbishop Ire¬ land, at the National Educational Association: I would permeate the regular State school with the religion of the majority of the children of the land, be it as Protestant as Prot¬ estantism can be, and I would, as they do in England, pay for the secular instruction given in denominational schools according to results. That is, each pupil passing the examination before State officials.and in full accordance with theState programme, would secure to his school the cost of the tuition of a pupil in the State school. This is not paying for religious instruction given to the pupil, but for secular instruction demanded by the State, and given to the pupil as thoroughly as he could have received in the State school. The archbishop’s other proposition is this: I would do as Protestants and Catholics in Poughkeepsie, and other places in our country, have agreed to do, to the great satisfaction of all citizens and the great advance¬ ment of educational interests. In Poughkeepsie the city school board rents the build¬ ings formerly used as parish schools; and from the hour of 9 a. m. to that of 3 p. ra. the school is in every particular a State school — teachers engaged and paid by the board, teachers and pupils examined, State books used, the door always open to superintend¬ ent and members of the board. There is simply the tacit understanding that so long as the teachers in those schools, Catholic in faith, pass their examinations and do their work as cleverly and loyally as other teachers under the control of the board, teachers of another faith shall not be put in their place. Nor are they allowed to teach positive religion during school hours. This is done outside the hours for which the buildings are leased to the board. The State, it is plain, pays not one cent for the religious in¬ struction of the pupils. In the other schools let Protestant devotional exercises take place, in the fullest freedom, before the usual school hour. XI. — Eevenue Taxation. An increase of school revenues needed. — State Superintendent J. W. Patterson, of New Hampshire: The State can not afford to be parsimonious in providing for the education of its people. It will have the same effect upon its intellectual and moral life as the drying up of its rivers .would have upon its industries and wealth. The applications of science and mechanical inventions to the industries of life, the rivalries of business, the materialistic tendencies of the age, the necessity for the social advancement, all call for an increase rather than a decrease of school revenues. To equalize district taxes. — State Superintendent Edwin F. Palmer, of Vermont: It is difficult to see how any reason can be given for the support of highways, bridges, and the poor by a tax on all the property of the town that is not of equal force in favor of supporting the schools in the same way. Why parochial schools should have a due proportion of the public- school funds. — Rev. M, M. Sheedy: 1. Because all who pay taxes ought to share in the beneEts of taxation. 2. Because to compel payment of taxes and to exclude from participation is political injustice. 3. Because to offer education, either without Christianity or with indefinite Chris¬ tianity, to the people of the United States, of whom the great majority are definitely and conscientiously Christian, is a condition that ought to be of impossible acceptance. 4. Because to confer the exclusive contfol and enjoyment of the school funds oti the SCHOOL HYGIENE. 635 public schools alone is to create a grievance of conscience which is especially foreign to our constitutional system. A large class of our people— the Catholics — who conscien¬ tiously reluse to accept education without Christianity and schools of indefinite Chris¬ tianity, are compelled to pay taxes for the support of such schools. 5. because the parochial schools save aqnualU’- the public revenues $510,000,000. 6. Because, if .the parochial schools were extinguished, it would cost the people of the United States a vast sum of money to buy sites and build the schools necessary to replace them, and an annual increase in the school tax necessary to maintain them. 7. Because the parochial schools are the only safeguard of the rights and conscience both of parents and children. 8. Because they embody the freedom of the people to educate themselves in opposi¬ tion to the pagan and revolutionary claim that the sole educator of the people is the State. 9. Because such education is the worst form of education, fatal to the independence of national conscience, energy, and character. 10. Because the effects of a purely secular or State education have proved disastrous wherever it has had a trial. 11. Because no reason is apparent for excluding parochial schools from a share of the school taxes but that they are Christian. 12. Because the efficiency of the parochial-school system is fully e.^ual to that of the public schools. 13. Because parochial schools sell good and eflicient secular education to the State, for which they receive not a dollar of payment. Taxes levied irrespective of benefits. — In regard to the assertion that “all who piiy taxes ought to share in the benefits of taxation,” the Journal of Education says: This is in no sense an American axiom or principle. It has nothing whatever to do with the policy of American life. We do not tax a man, but his property. We do not tax the prop¬ erty in proportion to the share of benefit the owner is to receive. A man’s property may he taxed so that thousands of dollars shall he used iu highways, though he may never be able to ride upon them or see them, and may have no family to enjoy them; thousands may he used for schools, though he was never in a public school a day and may have no child to attend; thousands may go to county buildings, State buildings, etc. When a man’s propert^^ is taxed there is no contract, direct of indirect, made or implied, that he is personally to be considered in its use. The State must take further measures. — State Commissioner Thomas B. Stockwell, of Rhode Island^: The average local tax for school purposes, that is, the support of public schools throu*ghout the State, is 16| cents on each $100 of taxable property. While this is the figure for the State, we find that by counties it varies from 9^ cents iu Wash¬ ington County to IS] cents in Providence County. But the variations among the towns are much more startling, being from 3} cents iu the new district of Narragansett up to 39} cents iu West, Greenwich. Next above Narragansett comes Jamestown with a tax of 5 cents, then there are some eight or nine towns whose taxes vary from 8 to 10 cents. As a rule the poorer towns have to pay the highest tax, and even then are only able to provide the sum required by law to secure the State appropriation. These figures are very suggestive, and show conclusively that no system of schools can be maintained throughout the State that shall secure to all the children a chance even to get an education without aid from the State; that even with that aid the burdens are very unevenly and inequitably distributed. It is also true, unquestionably, that these conditions, instead of diminishing, will increase, and that at some not very distant day the State must take measures for further alleviation of these inequalities; for it is not right that the discharge ot a duty common to all sections of the State alike, and one in ■which all are equally interested, should bear so much more heavily on one than upon another. XII. — School Hygiene. The public is bound to leave nothihg undone. — Hon. Andrew S. Draper: No schooliiouse should be erected in any city except upon the most perfect model which science and ex¬ perience can devise, and then under the supervision of the most competent professional talent. When the public asks the people of any community to surrender into its hands their little ones for 6 hours a day the year around the public is hound to leave nothing undone which will protect the health of those children and minister to their comfort. Particularly where such large numbers are congregated in one building is it necessary to look continually to heating and ventilation, and light, and sanitation, and high stairs, and all the other things of which little ones know nothing, but which may, if neglected, injure health permanently and destroy their prospects in life. An architect who may be skilled for other work is not competent to erect a large 636 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. schoolliouse unless he knows about schools, has studied schoolhouses, and gathered his information from a broad field. None should be employed who is not especially fitted for this exacting requirement or who is not willing to learn from a practical and ex¬ perienced school man who has investigated the subject. Where a man can be found who thoroughly understands the subject and knows what is needed in a building to adapt it to the legitimate needs of a great school his services will be cheap at almost any cost. Though there has been much improvement in school buildings* in recent years there has not been the improvement that there should have been, and I venture nothing in saying that in the 25 years now before us there will be such a revolution in the way of erecting, of warming, of lighting, of ventilating, and of draining schoolhouses as we have never dreamed of in the generations gone by. XIII. — Science Teaching. It is dangerous to pronounce useless what is now unmerchaniaUe. — Prof. A. S. Hardy in the Chautauquan: Doubtless much of modern scientific research seems misdirected and unprofita!)le to those whose ideas of utility are limited to the practical. What availeth it that nonsingular cubics have twenty-seven points at which conics with a six-point con¬ tact can be drawn? None, if there is no ministry to wants higher than those of the body, no finer threads in the warp of life than those of profit and loss, no love of truth apart from its commercial value. I say none — but it is dangerous to pronounce useless what is now unmerchantable. Truths which to-day are of the greatest practical im¬ portance were for centuries held to be but idle speculations and were discovered by men who deprecated their application to utilitarian ends. Moreover, every new fact in every department of science is useful in the higher sense, for the goal of the race is the solution, so far as it lies, of the great problems of the universe. Things not only, but theories of things, the intellect craves, and every new fact may. well modify theories in which as yet it has no place. As furnishing methods for the discovery of facts and of those relations between facts which constitute the preoccupation of all science, mathe¬ matics shares in the higher as well as the lower ministry — its empire extending down into the smoky atmosphere of industry and toil, and upward where breathes the ambi¬ tious spirit of pure inquiry. From report of the committee on physics-teaching of the American Association for the Ad¬ vancement of Science, T. G. Blendenhall, chairman: It is the opinion of the committee that instruction in physics may begin, with profit, in what is generally known as the “gram¬ mar school.” At the same time it is decidedly opposed to any general recommendation that it must begin there or in the primary school. Here, perhaps, more than anywhere else, nearly everything depends on the teacher. One who has a strong liking for and a good knowledge of physics will be tolerably certain to succeed, while another not thus equipped for the work is equally certain to fail. Teachers belonging to the first class constitute an extremely small percentage of the grand total. In science-teaching in grades below the high school, much should be left to the individuality of the teacher. As a result of personal taste or previous training and study, one may give elementary instruction in botany or in geology or in physiology so as to be a real inspiration to his class, while his instruction in physics might be so intolerably poor as to be unprofit¬ able in the highest degree. The prevailing custom of many public schools which re¬ quires all teachers of a certain grade to teach physics is greatly to be regretted, and every effort should be made to show school superintendents that it is a mistake which can not be too quickly remedied. The rapid advancement which is constantly being made in real scholarship among public-school teachers will result in an increased and increasing number of those who are competent to teach physics, and while the committee is convinced that, as a means of real, honest mental discipline, no branch of natural science is superior to physics, it would deprecate its forced introduction into the grammar school under circumstances likely to prove disastrous to the best interests of the science. 2. When taught in the grammar school and by a competent teacher it should be done mainly by and through illustrative experiments. These may be of the simplest character, involving and exhibiting some of the funda¬ mental principles of the science, and they should generally be made by the teacher, the pupil being encouraged to repeat, to vary, and to extend. Habits of observation and of thought should be cultivated and such facts of the science as are based on or re¬ late to the principles illustrated and developed should be presented. It is neither desir¬ able nor necessary that any particular order should be followed in presenting the various divisions of the subject. The teacher should be guided by circumstances, such as the means at his disposal for experiment and illustration, and often by his own taste and predilection. SCIENCE TEACHING. 637 The ease -with which apparatus for the illustration of the most important principles of physics can be improvised, even when the stock of material at hand is very slender, puts the science in the front rank as to availability, and it is especially adapted to the requirements of certain schools both in town and country which, through their situa¬ tion and surroundings, are restricted in their choice of a science subject. If to these facts we add another, which is universally admitted, that the physical properties of matter are the first to be recognized, the laws relating to which being, therefore, the first to arrest attention, it needs no argument to show that a competent instructor will find the study of physics one of the most important educational forces, even in the grammar school. 3. In any discussion of the character of instruction in physics in the high school, one fact of the utmost importance must not be lost sight of. It is that a large majority of the young people who are educated in the public schools receive their final scholastic training in the high school. Its course of study must be in harmony with this fact, such provision as may be made for those who continue their studies in college or university being merely inci¬ dental. The high-school course in physics must include, therefore, a general treatment, which must of necessity be elementary in its character, of all the great divisions of the science. It is likewise important that the student should be made acquainted, if only to a limited extent, with the methods of physical investigation and that he should be able himself to plan and carry out an attack upon some of the simpler problems of the science. The value of this work as an educational factor can not be overestimated; it is the “ walking alone ” of intellectual inianc3\ It is believed that these two very desirable ends can be reached without giving an undue share of the time and energy of the pupil to the subject. Assuming the high- school course to consist of lour years of three terms each, it is recommended that the study of physics should begin not earlier than with the third year; that it should con¬ tinue through one year, three hours a week being devoted to it, not including the time necessary for the preparation of the lessons; and that during the first two terms the work should be text-book work, accompanied by illustrative experiments performed by the instructor and made as complete as his facilities will allow, while the last terra should be devoted to simple laboratory exercises. It is hardly nece.ssary to say that during the last term the three hours per week should be grouped into one exercise whenever possible. Of the character of this laboratory practice it may be, well to say that no attempt should be made to carry the pupil through a very great range of subjects. The end sought for can best be reached by a careful and more exhaustive study of a few prob¬ lems which should be solved with the highest degree of accuracy attainable under the circumstances. As far as possible the pupil should be led to read and study books and papers bearing upon the particular subject which he has in hand. The time demanded by this plan, three hours per week for one school year, barely more than a hundred hours in all, is thought to be the least which is likely to produce results at all satis¬ factory, and it is urged that a vastly better arrangement is to allow the study of phys¬ ics to run through two school years, giving it, in time, the equivalent of five hours per week for one year. It is well known that many teachers of physics, and many more who are not teach¬ ers of physics, insist on the introduction of laboratory practice from the beginning, some even going so far as to claim that the use of the text book may be entirely dispensed with. Without desiring to enter into a discussion of this question we wish to express, and with emphasis, our belief that laboratory practice is in general of little real use to the student unless he comes to it fairly Avell-grounded in the fundamental principles of the science. The somewhat widespread opinion and practice to the contrary will be found, it is thought, to be one of those mistakes in which pedagogics seems to be caught on the rebound from other and generally more serious errors. Isothing compamhle with the studi/ of sfciencific truth. — Dr. Peter Bryce, of Alabama: It is plain that the natural sciences are not only adapted to the development of the youthful brain, but that they can not be begun too soon. If any mind is to grow to all that nature designed it, its tunctions must be pressed along natural lines for all that they are capable of bearing in early youth. Not much fear of overwork if we follow strictly natural routes. It is during the period of childhood that the brain is most impressible, most capable of development. Teachers above all others should understand these funda¬ mental principles of mental development. A teacher of the young who is not a thorough studentof physiology, who has never paid any attention to the laws of mind and heredity, and consequently fails to recognize the demands of scientific hygiene, is without such an equipment as the nature of his calling imperatively demanda. 638 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1888-89. If the discipline of youth is the preparation for a useful and happy life in after years, I know of nothing at all comparable, to that end, with the study of truth — scientific truth. In active middle life no knowledge is so desirable or so helpful either in broad¬ ening the general culture or enlarging the benevolent aims of the individual. Science an agent in mental training. — David Starr Jordan, president Indiana University, in Popular Science Monthly: The purpose of science- teaching as a part of general edu¬ cation is this — to train the judgment through its exercise on first-hand knowledge. The student of science is taught to know what he knows an! to distinguish it from what he merely remembers or imagines. Our contact with the universe is expressed in what we call science. Throughout the ages the growth of the human mind has been in direct proportion to the breadth of this contact. To the man without knowledge of science, the universe seems small. Science is our perception of realities; and as the realities come year by year to occupy a larger and larger place in our life, so the demand for more and better training in science will long be an urgent and growing one. But science should hold its place in the schools by virtue of its power as an agent in mental training, not because of the special usefulness of scientific facts, nor because knowledge of things has a higher market value than the knowledge of words. The time will come when the study ot the objects and forces of nature will be as much a matter of course in all our schools as the study of numbers, but the science work of the next century will not be the work wm are doing now. The science in our schools is too often a make-believe, and the schools will lose nothing when every make- believe slips out of the curriculum. Deeply as I am interested in the progress of science, both in school and out, with Professor Huxley “I would not turn my hand over” to have biology taught in every school in the land if the subject is taught through books only. To pretend to do, without doing, is worse than not to pretend. The conventional “fourteen weeks ” in science gives no contact with nature, no training of any sort, no information worth having; only a distaste for that class of scattering information which is supposed to be science. There is a charm in real knowledge which every student feels. The magnet attracts iron, to be sure, to the student who has learned the I'act from a book, but the fact is real only to the student who has himself felt it pull. It is more than this, it is enchanting to the student who has discovered the fact for himself. To read a statement of the fact gives knowledge, more or less complete as the book is accurate or the memory retentive. To verify the fact gives training; to discover it gives inspiration. Training and inspira¬ tion, not the facts themselves, are the justification of science- teaching. Facts enough we can gather later in life when we are too old to be trained or inspired. * * * The essential of method is that we allow nothing to come between the student and the object which he studies. The book or chart or lecture which can be used in place of the real thing is the thing you should never use. Your students should see for them¬ selves, and draw their own conclusions from what they see. When they have a ground¬ work of their own observations, other facts can be made known to them as a basis for advanced generalization, for the right use of books is as important as their misuse is pernicious; but work of this sort belongs to the university rather than to the high school. You do not wish to have your students tell you from memory the characters of the sauropsida as distinguished from the ichthyopsida. What you want is the answer to their own questionings of the frog and the turtle. * * * I once visited a large high school, one of the best in the country, with a science teacher whose studies have won him the respect of his fellow-workers. But for some reason, on that day at least, he failed to bring his own knowledge into the class room. I heard him quizzing a class of boys and girls on animals — not on the animals of the woods and fields, not on the animals before them, for there were none, but on the edentates of South America. An especial point was to find out whether it is the nine- banded armadillo {novemcinctus) or the three-handed armadillo [tricinctus) which does not dig a hole in the ground for its nest. The book, written by a man who did not know an armadillo from a mud-turtle, gives this piece of information. It was in the lesson, and the students must get it. And on this and like subjects these boys and girls were wasting their precious time — precious because if they do not learn to observe in their youth they will never learn, and the horizon of their lives will be always narrower and darker than it should have been. Already the work of that day is a blank. They have forgotten the nine-banded armadillo and the three-banded, and so has their teacher, and so have I. All that remains with them is a mild hatred of the armadillo and of the edentates in general, and a feeling of relief at being no longer under their baleful in¬ fluence. But with this usuaUy goes the determination never to study zoology again. And when these students later come to the college they know no more of science and its methods than they did when at the age of one year they first cried for the moon. * I once heard Professor Agassiz say to an assembly of teachers, and I quote SEX IN EDUCATION. 639 from him the more freely because he gave his life to the task of the introduction of right methods into American schools: “Select such subjects that your students can not walk out without seeing them. If you can find nothing better, take a house fly or a cricket, and let each one hold a speci¬ men while you speak. * There is no part of the country where, in the summer, you can not get a sufficient supply of the best of specimens. Teach your pupils to bring them in. Take your text from the brooks and not from the booksellers. * * * It is bet¬ ter to have a few forms well studied than to teach a little about many hundred species. Better a dozen forms thoroughly known as the result of the first year’s work, than to have two thousand dollars’ worth of shells and corals bought from a curiosity store. The dozen animals will be your own. * * * You will find the same elements of instruction all about you wherever you may be teaching. You can take your classes out and give them the same lessons, and lead them up to the same subjects in one place as another. And this method of teaching children is so natural, so suggestive, so true. That is the charm of teaching from nature. No one can warp her to suit his own views. She brings us back to absolute truth so often as we wander. ” XIV. — Sex ix Education. Girls superior on the average. — Eesults of an examination of the school rank of male and female pupUs of the Brookline (Mass.) schools, by R. Gyrene Macdonald, in “Edu¬ cation:” Yfe find that the female pupils under identical school conditions begin at the earliest age to excel; we find that this superiority, not so strongly marked in "the lower classes, becomes so noticeable in the higher as to be absolutely surprising; we find that not only are the girls superior on the average, but that the smartest girls are, in a marked degree, superior to the smartest boys, and that the dullest girls are less dull than the dullest boys. Now, in consideration of these figures, and that they are accurate there can be no doubt, and of sufficient number to obviate the possibility of drawing wrong inferences, what are we to conclude as to the relative meiltal capacity of the sexes ? Certainly no one who has even the rudiments of arithmetical reason can say otherwise than that, at least in school life, the female is very much superior to the male. School ranJc as a test of superiority. — F. A. Fernald, in “Education,” in reply to the above: If girls do get slightly higher marks than boys in school, what does it signify? It is assumed to signify that the girls have superior mental capacity, but really the teacher in marking recitations and .examinations is not marking the pupils’ ability to learn, but their ability to recite, that is, their capacity for putting what they have learned into words. Moreover, what boys do learn does not always indicate how much they can learn. Girls are more dutiful than boys, they are not so prone to neglect their lessons for play, they are more stimulated by rivalry for rank, and by mortification at a low place in the class. * * * School marks are affected by so many influences that their indications are exceedingly ambiguous, which makes them almost valueless as a psychological test. * * * The school rank gives little indication of what success the individual will be capable of in mature life, for the former depends chiefly on memory, while the latter brings other faculties to the front. It is capacity for assimilating and using knowledge, not merely for acquiring it, which is demanded in doing the world’s work. How often have the precocious youths who gained the highest marks in school failed to make a visible mark in the world ? Woman should cease measuring herself hy man’’ s standard. — F. A. Fernald: Comparing the mental capacity of one person as a whole with that of another can give only the roughest estimate of the relative worth of the two. The variety which we notice in the minds of those around us arises from variations in the strength of their several fac¬ ulties. The science of mind has not yet advanced far enough to give us exact methods of measuring faculties, still it has shown beyond the possibility of doubt that while cer¬ tain faculties are stronger in man than in woman, others are stronger in woman than in man. It follows that the mind of man is more adapted to some kinds of activity than that of women, and vice versa. Hence it is absurd to say that man has a better mind than woman without adding what it is better for. It would be like saying that water is better than air, which is true with regard to some purposes, and false with regard to others. It is idle for women to claim that they can equal men in the lines to which men are specially adapted, and to plead that only artificial obstacles prevent them. Men show their fitness for a certain career by overcoming such obstacles. It would be a far more dignified position for woman to take, to cease measuring herself by man’s standard; to maintain that while there are some things which man can do better than she can, there 640 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. are others which she can do better than he, and that her mental qualities, while not the same, yet are as valuable to the world as his; and then to set about developing her mind in its own proper direction to the highest possible degree. Tlie distinct needs and cJiaracieristics of the sexes should he recognized. — William Chauncy Langdon, in the Century: The ideal education, therefore, whether secular or religious, and by whomsoever furnished, should adhere as closely as possible to the family idea. It should not only recognize the wholly distinct needs and characteristics of the sexes, but it should also, so far as possible, recognize the distinction of personality, and, with due regard to those distinctions, educate the whole man — the eye and hand and the conscience, as well as the intellect and the reasoning powers. Certainly a merely polit¬ ical philosophy of education must logically result in the social obliteration of sex, in the gravest wrongs to women, called in grimmest sarcasm her rights, and in the last analysis, were it possible, in the moral elimination of the family, XV. — SUPEEVISION. The office of eounfy school commissioner. — ^State Superintendent A. S. Draper, of New York: it would be difficult to overestimate the importance of this office to the school interests of the rural districts. The powers of the commissioner are large. In the ap¬ portionment of public moneys, the alteration of districts, the selection of sites, the con¬ demnation, erection, and lurnishing of buildings, the care of the institutes, the certify¬ ing and employing of teachers, the course of instruction, the inspection and supervision of the schools, in all that goes to the improvement of the schools, he has great responsi¬ bility and great authority. The office requires a man of quick intelligence, fair schol¬ arship, judicial fairness, and unhesitating courage. Yet there is no standard of qualifi¬ cations for the position. All are eligible to it. The commissioner districts are ordinarily so large that the best man, giving bis entire time to the work, finds it impossible to fully discharge the duties which the law imposes upon him. Yet there are commis¬ sioners who follow other regular employment and attend to the duties of the office of commissioner only to an extent necessary to make it reasonably certain that the salary will be paid. If a proper man is chosen to the position, who will give his best efforts to the work, there will be a continually increasing interest and a substantial improvement in the schools of his district during his term. If an unsuitable man is chosen he will act as a brake upon the wheels of progress. The office is not estimated at its proper consequence and value, and it is, unfortu¬ nately, filled at a general election. Nominations for the position are ordinarily made at party conventions called to nominate other county or district candidates, and the nomination for school commissioner not intrequently goes to settle the supposed claims of a candidate who has gained a little prominence by rendering some party service, but would hardly aspire to a place estimated to be of much consequence, and who there¬ fore has no particular fitness for this one. Sometimes it is a matter of bargain between different towns in the same assembly district, one taking one nomination and one an¬ other without regard to the fitness of men. In some cases there is an unwritten law by which this nomination is passed around the district. In not a few cases it is given to a back town, no matter how weak its candidates may be, in order to mitigate the disap¬ pointment and avoid the future trouble, which are quite likely to follow a long-contin¬ ued refusal of its demands for a higher place. Phom this it is not to be supposed that all districts treat the position with this indif¬ ference, or that all commissioners are unfit for their work. Probably more than a ma¬ jority are as well qualified as maybe desired, and are unremitting and conscientious in their efforts to meet all the demands of their exacting positions. But there are not a lew chosen at each election who have no qualifications for the position, who are unable to fill it, who never come into sympathy with it, who stand in the way of educational advancement, and are a continual menace to all engaged in the work. To find a ]3rac- tical reraedyis difficult. If there could be sonielimit placed upon eligibility to theoffice; if it could be provided that only the graduates of colleges, academies, normal schools, or high schools, or the holders of teachers’ certificates of specified grade, could be elected to the position, it might be well. If the office were filled at an election held for this particular purpose, it is likely that public attention would be conccmtrated upon it, and that there would be less possibility of bad results. Indeed, if political parties would nominate for the office at conventions held for this particular purpose, there would be greater certainty of the best results. It is quite possible, too, that filling the office through appointment by the county judges would work a salutary improvement. Bet¬ ter than all else, if there was more public interest in the matter, fuller appreciation of the influence which the position exerts upon the schools, and strength of feeling which would tolerate none but men of pure life, ample qualifications and experience, with a SUPERVISION. 641 i-eal interest in the schools, in the responsible office of school commissioner, there would he an advance in the work of the rural schools which would surprise and gratify the peo¬ ple of the State. Alabama county superintendents.— Superintendent Solomon Palmer: For many years the State has had what might be termed county supervision, and yet it is more nominal than real. We have in name county superintendents, but in contemplation of law and in reality they are mere disbursing officers. The duties prescribed for them in the law look mainly to a faithful application of the school funds. Nowhere does the law intimate that it is their duty to visit the public schools of the county. The salary of these county superintendents is only ^75 and 2 per cent, commission on the school funds disbursed by them, when county treasurers, who are charged with far less responsibility and whose duties are much less onerous, receive 5 per cent, on all funds disbursed by them — more than twice the compensation of county superintendents and with less work and responsibility. With such small compensation it is not expected, or required by the law, that county superintendents should devote their time to the visita¬ tion of the public schools and the instruction of the teachers. * * * No public-school system can be developed and properly administered without close and faithful visitation and supervision, and this can not be secured v/ithout better com¬ pensation for county and township superintendents. Our school fund is so small that I would recommend to the counties that they secure the necessary legislation to secure this school supervision, by paying county and township superintendents out of county funds. This would leave the school fund of the county intact as now, and secure an increased efficiency in the administration of the public schools of the county that would soon demonstrate the wisdom of such legislation and the additional outlay of county funds. Jefferson County, three years ago, passed an act allowing her county superin¬ tendent $65 per month in excess of that allowed bylaw, and I understand that the peo¬ ple see its beneficial effects and the law is growing in popularity in that county. The worst iise to which to put a county superintendent. — Superintendent Henry Sabin, of Iowa: In our more populous counties the county superintendent should be allowed the services of a deputy during a part of the year to aid him in looking over examination papers, in conducting his correspondence, and in the details of his office work. His own time should be very largely given to visiting schools, inspecting the work of teachers, settling trifling misunderstandings which often arise in the district, holding township meetings and "institutes, and in creating by his personal influence a healthy public opinion in favor of good schools. About the worst use to which we can put a county superintendent is to confine him within the walls of his office, doing the work which a clerk could do as well, while he himself ought to be out among his schools, directing, encouraging, stimulating, everywhere making his influence felt by his energy and enthusiasm. Loaded down too much at the head. — State Superintendent John Hancock, of Ohio: It is just possible that in some of our large cities we have, as has been the case in some of the large cities of other States, gone beyond the golden mean, and have loaded our schools down too much at the head. It is not difficult to descend from the generous scheme of supervision,where every encouragement and aid is extended to the teacher’s spontaneity and individuality, to a mechanical scheme of division and subdivision and authoritative prescription of every detail of work, which is the most dreadful condition into which any school system can fall. The wisest economy. — State Superintendent John W. Dickinson, of Massachusetts: Where the superintendents prove themselves to be experts in their profession and suc¬ ceed in making the other appropriations add vigor to the work of the schools, the in¬ creasing sum paid to these officials is the wisest economy. IfTiere the greatest hope for advancement lies. — A. W. Edson, agent of the Massachusetts State board of education: The more I study the present condition and future outlook of our schools, country, village, and city, the more I am convinced that for any decided and permanent advancement, their hope lies in efficient supervision. There may be from time to time in certain places a noticeable improvement in methods and results, owing to the selection of a specially competent teacher or committee; but the advance will be only temxjorary. Occasionally there are found committees who have the time, inclination, ability, and the previous training which lit them to direct the work of teachers; but these are few and far between. Nor should supervisory work be required of committees. They may perform all the legitimate duties connected with the school board faithfully and conscientiously, and still have very little time to give to a study of educational literature, to the philosophy of education, to new and advanced methods, to visiting other and better schools than are found in their own town, and attending edu¬ cational gatherings. Of necessity the vision of the average committeeman is limited on ED 89 - 41 642 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89, school questions, as on law, medicine, or any business for which he has not had special training, and to which he does not give his undivided time and attention. And one fact is quite noticeable, which in itself speaks volumes: those committeemen who are best fitted to inspect schools and direct school work are always most favorably disposed toward supervision; they recognize its need and value. XVII. — Township System. A term one-third longer, — Report of Chesterfield (N. H. ) school committee: In present¬ ing to you the third report under the new school system we are able from a longer trial of the law to emphasize the statement made in the first report, that “ all the scholars in town have had the opportunity of attending a term of school averaging one-third longer” than under the old regime “ for nearly the same amount of money expended.” A saving of $500. — School committee of Oxford, N. H. : All the scholars in this district have had the benefit of thirty weeks’ schooling at a saving of $500 from what it would have cost under the old district system for the same number of weeks. That speaks a good word for the new school law. More dags of schooling than ever before Icnown. — School committee of Pembroke, N. H. : With over $500 less public money than of late years, the children of the town have been given as many days of schooling during the past year as they have in any of our cities, and more than ever known before in the history of the town. It has been necessary to support only eight schools — five less than under the district system. Six iveehs longer school term. — School committee of Sanbornton, N. H. : We get more schooling for our money than formerly, under the district system. The appropriation for schooling, $1,423, would have, on the average basis of appropriation under" the old system for its last five years, a fraction over fifteen weeks. Under the new it has given twenty-one weeks, besides furnishing fuel in full and paying other incidental expenses. Working of the new system in New Hampshire. — School board of Stewartstown: Under the new [town] system, school boards are unavoidably subjected to unpleasant and often unjust criticisms. Refusal to hire those who, upon examination, appear least qualified to teach is among the disagreeable duties to be met; but the very nature of the cases, with the probabilities of incurring sacrifices of Iriendship without any equivalent in return, ought to convince every reasonable individual that the board thus act Irom a sense of official obligation, and for no other reason. Particular schools are often sought by teachers, or their parents for them. Most teachers are much better adapted to instruct and govern some schools than others; and when it is necessary to make an adjustmeutby comparing the compensation the several teachers ought to command with the wages established for the different school, it is often very difficult to favorably con¬ sider these requests. Advantages apparent. — School board of Sutton, N. IT. : In submitting this, oUr third annual report under the new system, we refer with satisfaction to the condition of our schools. No one can fail to see the advantages of the town system. The money is more evenly apportioned throughout the town, and the children in outlying sections receive better instruction and more schooling. The most serious defect, — Report of Superintendent Frank M. Smith, of Tennessee: You will find the best schools in those States where the “township” plan prevails. I therefore most earnestly urge your honorable bodies to make as few changes in the school district lines as possible, and at all times strive to make the school district and the civil district identical. The most serious defect in the management of our schools has grown out of this changing of school districts and establishing too many schools. We have more than twice as many schools as we should have. The political theory on which the district organization is founded. — Superintendent B. A. Hinsdale, of Cleveland, Ohio: It is a significant fact that the political theory upon which the district school organization depends is a Theory which has been almost universally abandoned for all other purposes whatsoever. We all know that there is no line of polit¬ ical or social development along which the English race has made more progress than along the line of local political organization. It is one of the glories of the English race, admitted to be such by all competent authorities. We know, in the second place, that the old Saxon theory of carrying on government was democratical. The people met in public assembly, and there they voted, in their way, some questions up and some ques¬ tions down. But democratic government was found not to work well, and representa¬ tive government was set up in its place. In New England the democratic system of local government prevails to a considerable extent, but in its extreme form it has been TOWNSHIP SYSTEM. 643 abolished. It can not meet with good results, for the reason that in its extreme form it was found too complicated. The representation principle is the one that prevails in school matters where the township system exists. The people have the ballot-box, and elect men whose business it is to administer town government. But for some reason the American people have clung more closely to the antiquated method of carrying for¬ ward local government in education than anywhere else. They have clung, in many of the States, to the ancient democratical idea and shunned the representative idea. The district system is very dear to the hearts of very many people. But anyone who will inquire into the facts can hardly avoid corning to the conclusion that, upon the face of it, it is an absurdity. In every district in Ohio, for example, there are three school directors. The town¬ ship clerk has certain educational duties to perform, and so have the county auditor and treasurer and the county board of examiners. And I remember that, some years ago there were engaged 40,000 persons in administering the public schools of Ohio. Nor does this number include the teachers. About that time there were required to man the schools 13,000 teachers. You put these two numbers in ratio, and it will appear that for every teacher employed there were three and one-third directors, inspectors, supervisors, or call them what you will, and they did not do the duties for which they were elected. They did hire the 'teachers, but so far as inspection or supervision was concerned, the cases were exceedingly rare where anything of that kind was done at all. It was the natural course of things. What is leit to so many hands to do is not, as a matter of fact, done at all. Power is divided and responsibility is destroyed. A plausible argument in behalf of the district system is, that the schools are very near the hearts of the j)eople, as is shown by the fact that they have retained ancient demo¬ cratic ideas in school management more fully than in anything else. Then it will be argued that this shows proper interest, and that the school will be more properly ad¬ ministered by the people who are near the school and interested in it than by those at a distance. But all the analogies bearing on the question point to the foolishness of this conclusion. In the State of Ohio the township is divided into road districts, and the keeping up of the public roads is committed to a supervisor, and the people are required to work out their taxes under the law. I have worked on the roads many a day, and I want to say, of all the shiftless and inefficient work with which I ever had anything to do the most shiftless was that done on the county roads. My father was often supervisor, and I well remember occasions when there were heart-burnings between him and his neighbors be¬ cause he insisted that the road work should be well done, while they were determined to slight the work, as they had always done. And yet it is hard to think of a public in¬ terest lying nearer a farmer’s door that more concerns his comfort and convenience than the country road. Antecedently, we would expect the people would take an interest in keeping the roads in prime condition, but they do nothing of the kind. The district system of conducting common schools rests upon an idea, and proceeds by means of an organization that has not been preserved by English-speaking people for any other purpose save for the one to which I have j ust made reference — the roads. And it would be hard to say which are the worse managed, the schools or the roads. Efficient teachers not to he had under the district system. — Prof. S. D. Barr, of Albion (Mich.) College: Nothing is more repugnant to my feelings than to unjustly and un¬ fairly characterize the teachers in the weaker districts. They are not to be blamed. Those in the nonprogressive districts are entitled to our fraternal sympathy. They are victims to circumstances that bind them with shackles and paralyze their energies. Some of them, nevertheless, do excellent service. Many more would become efficient teachers if they held close relation to a competent superintendent, whose duty it should be to direct and instruct them in their work. But this can never be effected under the present system, with small and independent districts. A muliitude of others have insufficient acquirements and mental culture, hardly any knowledge of school organization and of fhe principles and proper methods of instruction, and these should not be permitted to teach. It is incomparably more important that the children of the State shall be well taught than that a few young people, who ought to be enrolled as pupils, shall be per mitted, as teachers, to experiment aimlessly, while the children lose the advantages t ha' efficient instruction would give. The township system in 2Iichiaan. — State Supt. Joseph Estabrook again urges upon the legislature an amendment to the school law providing for township school districts. The idea of consolidating all the schools ot a township under the management of one board, is not an untried experiment in Michigan. Several townships have already adopted this plan through special legislation. Bills were introduced in 1861 and 1885 to make the township system general, but failed to pass the legislature. The evils of unequal school terms and inequality in the cost of maintaining schools 64i EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. are observable in Michigan under the district system, as well as elsewhere. In Alcona Township, with four school districts, one district maintained no school at all, one for only three months, a third for nine months, and the fourth for ten months. Similar instances might be cited from nearly every county in the State. The cost of education per pupil ranged from $4.04 to $27.55 in the different districts. “The reports from Alpena County furnish some significant facts bearing upon the equalization of school privileges and of the cost of maintaining schools under the town.ship plan. In this county five townships have their schools organized on the township plan by special legislation. Two retain the district system. The average per capita expense of the schools in the township districts for the last school year, as shown by the reports of township boards of school inspectors, was $13.71, and in those retaining the district system it was $14.80. The average length of school in the town¬ ship districts was nine months and in the others only four and one- half months. In I other words, it cost $14.80 to give each child four and one-half months' schooling in the towns retaining the district system, while in those operated under the township plan the cost per pupil for nine months' schooling was $13.71.” Among the other defects of the district system Superintendent Estabrook mentions the too great diversity of text-books; too many school officers; unjust discrimination in local taxation; frequent changes of teachers in the same school; lack of proper classifi¬ cation and grading; quarrels over the selection of schoolhouse sites and the establish¬ ment of district boundaries; children forced to attend school in their own district when they could be more conveniently accommodated in an adjoining district. The question of text-book uniformity as affected by the township system is well illustrated by the reports from Alpena County. “In the township of Alpena, which re¬ tains the district system, there were five different text-books in orthography and read¬ ing used in the several districts, three varieties of arithmetics, and three different text¬ books in United States history. The township of Ossineke is divided into three districts. District No. 1, with an enrolment of sixteen pupils, reported as used in the school three different text-books in each of the branches of orthography, writing, and geog¬ raphy, two in reading and English grammar each, and four in arithmetic. Thus in one small district school we find eeventeen different text-books used in teaching six branches of stud}’-. On the other hand, in the five townships of Alpena County o^jerating under township system the text-books are uniform in each instance. CHAPTER XXI (A). THE UNIVERSITY OP THE FUTURE. AN EDUCATIONAL SPECULATION.' By K. G. Moulton, M. A., Cambridge, England. The fact on which this conception of the “University of the Future” rests is the changed attitude of the public mind to adult education. EDUCATION ONE OF THE INTERESTS OF LIFE. Education is no longer regarded as belonging to one period of life or to particular learned classes, but is tending to be recognized as a constant interest of adult life, side by side with religion, politics, and commerce. Just as, hislorically, religious and politi¬ cal administration, once in the hands of special classes, has (by a series of revolutions) become an interest of the nation as a whole, so education seems (without the need of revolution) to be passing through similar changes. When the tendency is complete we may expect to see the (adult) nation all over the country organizing itself for educational purposes, still making use of “universities,” “colleges,” etc., as bodies of educational specialists, but itself carrying on the administration of the education in local institu¬ tions or unions of local institutions, so that universities, such as Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, etc., will be merged in a wider University of England, just as “the state” means [not Parliament but] the nation acting in its political capacity [through Crown, Houses of Parliament, municipal councils, local boards, magistrates, juries, electoral constituents, etc.], so the “ University of England ” will mean the (adult) nation acting in its educational capacity [through whatever local and central institutions may be found convenient]. BUT WHY CALL THIS “A UNIVERSITY”? 1. “ University ” is the Latin for “Guild,” specialized by usage to association for higher education. Thus theoretically: School education is taken (1) under external discipline (2) in the period of pupilage (3) as a preparation for mature life. University education is (1) voluntary (2) in the period of maturity (3) as an end in itself. If this is so, why should any adult person be without university education ? 2. Connection between school and university education. — (a) Perhaps no single thing would contribute more to the happiness of life than to give every man an intelligent interest in the occupation by which he wins his bread. (6) School education is a prac¬ tical preparation for life; but life means leisure as well as business, (c) Every school education is a failure that is not self-continuing in some one point. (J) There must often be a gulf between school and university education: it is the purpose of “night schools,” “ half-time systems,” and especially “recreative education” to bridge over this gulf. THE GENERAL FORM THAT SUCH A UNIVERSITY WILL PRESENT. ^ 1. It will not be a chartered body like existing universities, but a floating aggrega¬ tion of voluntary agencies; not so much organized as tending to cooperate [compare com- ’ From The American, January 10, 1891. 645 646 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. merce]. The constituent elements of the university would everywhere have the same double form, a local management by association (voluntary and temporary) for educa¬ tional purposes [educaticnal churches, so to speak] connected with educational institu¬ tions [either central, like existing “universities,” or local “colleges,” or itinerant syvstems, like the present “university-extension movement,” or government depart¬ ments, like South Kensington, or institutions of private enterprise], the underlying principle being the carrying out of self-government in education, the application of self- cducation to a nation. 2. Note. — Absence of — contrast to continental government systems of higher education. WHAT WOULD SUCH A UNIVERSITY BE LIKE (1) AS TO THE MACHINERY OF ITS EDUCATION? 1. The question of university discipline. — There would be absolutely none. For it must be substituted (1) the personal influence of the teacher, to whom the freest scope must be allowed; (2) the complete self-responsibility of the learner, itself an educating influence. 2. One fundamental difference from prevailing university methods: the substitution of the teaching system for the examination system. {a) All education implies (1) machinery for teaching; (2) machinery for testing. It is obvious that the latter is a means and the former is the end; but at present the position of the two is reversed, and the teacher has to adapt his teaching to external examina¬ tions. (&) Evils of the present system. — Diminished influence of the teacher; mechanical uni¬ formity; stress laid on temporary results rather than permanent habits; uneven pres¬ sure; unprogressiveness without friction. (c) How the evil has arisen. — It is an unfortunate feature of the present university sys¬ tems that the education of the general public is not distinguished from the education of specialists [doctors, lawyers, and especially teachers]; for the latter [who need “qualifications”] the machinery of testing has an exceptional importance, which is allowed to extend into general education. (d) A specimen of the teaching system is the university extension method of syllabus, weekly exercises, and final examination, and certificates dependent on the two combined. (e) In this connection two points are often raised : (i) Danger of lowering the standard. — The true way to ‘ ‘ raise the standard ’ ’ is not to increase the difficulty of passing at the end [i, e., increase the chance of failure], but to increase the effectiveness of teaching and the inclination to learn at all points of the course [L e., increase the chance of success], (li) Howto deal with competition. — Abolish it wherever possible. The teaching system readily shows “pass ” and “distinction;” any further application of competition is, in higher education, mischievous. [The case is different where money assistance has to be dispensed.] 3. The question of recognition for education: degrees, etc. — The true policy is not to multiply the degree-giving bodies, introducing confusion and impairing the value of de¬ grees (c. g., their antiquity), but to introduce elasticity into the machinery of testing for degrees. A fundamental error of the present system is the requirement of identical study and examinations from all taking the same degree, instead of applying a co?n?no/i standard of examination to a variety of subjects. [The latter system found perfectly practicable in the university-extension system, by aid of the teacher’s syUalnis.'] 4. The question of curricula, Or complete schemes of study. — The first object of such a university will be to look after its educational \init, i. e., the application of the most thorough method to a very limited field. [In the university-extension scheme this “unit” is the three months’ course in a single subject.] Completer schemes must be made up of such units, so as to be adopted in greater or less extent according to circum¬ stances. [An example is the Cambridge course of affiliated students.'] 5. The question of residenee as an element in education. Such a university will se¬ cure for a few, residence in a university town, as the apex of its system; for the many, assoeiation of students for mutucil encouragement and work — both (1) in assisting one another in the work set by teachers, and (2) meeting for independent discussion, prac¬ tical work, excursions, etc. 6. The question of financial management. (ft) Higher education has no market value, and therefore in all cases some form of en¬ dowment is necessary — by which is meant: that some persons contribute more to it than others. TPIE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE. 647 (&) Importance of cooper aiion heticeoi local institutions to prevent educational waste, and to unite in, common homes, such as town institutes, museums, etc,, using the same buildings and apparatus, (c) The system of such a national university must be throughout animated by the missio7iarp S2)rrit, its duty not only to supply education but also to stimulate the demand for it. WPIAT i^UCH A UNIVERSITY WOUUD BE LIKE (2) A3 TO THE MATTER OF ITS EDUCATION. f Gymnastic: mere training of facultiesiC Plainly belongs io School education — I Subjects followed for discipline and'? more training needed in logic and na- I dropped. ( ture of evidence. Education is . supplies matter — kindles inter- f Humanity, i. e., the Study of Man [Ilis- I est: Subjects belonging to the perma-J tory, Literature, etc.]. I manent interests of the mind. ] Natural Science. [ I Art. Plans of study should be self-explaining, taking the student into confidence. And generally; The first dutj of education is to he interesting — this easily carries method (but not vice versa) and aelfi continuance. Natural science. — This department is immensely in advance of the other two in sound method and vitality — one defect: the tendency to teach it in “subjects ” instead of in¬ venting “lines of study” that will cross several “subjects,” and illustrate the different operation of common principles. Art. — In this department it is highly necessary to distinguish: education in art-pro¬ duction — for those who have special talent; education in art-appreciation for all. Humanity. — On the history side this department is flourishing; on the side of litera¬ ture it is a chaos. Two fundamental changes essential for realizing any scheme of pop¬ ular liberal education. (A) 1. The great representative of this department in prevailing systems is the study known as “classics” — round which a fierce educational conflict rages. Note. — The question is not between humanity and natural science, for every educa¬ tionist would recognize both, but between true and false modes of arriving at the object of classical studies. 2. The term “classics” covers a confusion between two distinct studies: the study of language — valuable, mainly as a discipline, the study of literature — indispensable, as the leading element of culture. Classical studies as at present organized totally fail as a training in literature — the vast proportion of gyersons who have received a classical education have had no education in literature. 3. How the evil has arisen: Originally classics were a complete education in themselves: the difficulty of dead languages gave discipline, and the Greek and Roman literatures gave culture — when science, mathematics, etc., forced their way into educational pro¬ grammes the time devoted to classics was necessarily reduced — such reduction must be made in the culture side of classics, which does not commence till the languages arem;is- tered — thus at present in the great proportion of school and university students the cul¬ ture side of clas.sics is neverreached, and the study becomes merely one of discipline. 4. Disastrous results: Except in rare cases a classical education evokes no interest in classics or disposition to continue the study — scandalous lack of any methodical study of literature — classics failing in its function as “culture,” the whole educational system becomes pure gymnastic, generating intellectual indifference — schism between scientists and humanitarians in the absence of literature as the great common ground between spe¬ cialists — generally: in clamoring for the name we are losing the thing, and building up a prejudice against classics in the popular mind. 5. One suggested remedy : Give up Latin and Greek, and let us be taught our own literature. — But what is “our own literature?” The main writers of Greece and Home are more truly our literary ancestors than English writers of past generations. 6. True solution : not English literature, but literature in EngliEi: Let the best lit¬ erature (of Greece, Rome, England, or any other country) be studied in our 'mother tongue [this is the true meaning of “Classics”] as the staple of culture for all. Let Greek and Latin as languages appear in educational schemes as gymnastic (or suppl©” mentiug literature) according to the ability and time of each student. 7. Difficulty to be met: Prejudice against translated literature as " Brummagem goods.” But this is largely a false sentiment of exclusive conuoisseurship — the objector 648 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. often a victim of the present system to whom literature has come to mean language — main part of total literary effect deeper down than superficial distinctions of lan¬ guages— compare old opposition to translation of the Bible. 8. On the other hand: j.Vo thorough study of literature possible except by aid of transla¬ tions — thoroughness implies (a) covering rapidly wide fields [otherwise degenerates into “annotation ”] — and (6) comparison of many literatures [compare studies of history, etymology] — the world’s “classics” are not national, but universal. (B) 1. A second essential change: to recognize the Bible as literature — quite independently of its higher purposes. [Contrast the use of the Koran.] 2. For purposes of literary training the Bible has peculiar fitness: the familiarity of the matter applies the study at an immense advantage — it presents a continuous and complete literature within a practicable compass — it is the greatest of our literary ances¬ tors. 3. Difficulty: Fear of raising points of religious difference. — Answer: Literary study need in no way touch authorship, authority, historic value, or (theological) interpreta¬ tion, but only analyze the literary /orm in which the truth is conveyed, bringing out its elements of beauty and stopping at the literary interpretation which is the common starting point of different theological interpretations. CONCLUSION. The advance towards such a university of the future is to be made, not by reforming existing systems, attack being usually a bad policy — but by obtaining a free field for tent¬ ative educational progress in the case of the new classes that are being attracted to higher education. CHAPTER XXI (B). FELLOWSHIPS IIT COLLEGES AND UNIVEESITIBS. The great prominence given to fellowships and scholarships by some of onr universities Doiost recently founded, and the results obtained from the use of them, have prompted a brief investigation and discussion of this very important subject. The usual method adopted by benevolent and philanthropic persons for assisting students to obtain an education is the endowment of fellowships and scholarships. Fellowships are bestowed only upon persons who have already received their first degree or who give evidence of being well prepared to pursue higher studies. They are par¬ ticularly designed for such persons as give special promise of future success in certain lines of study. The income of fellowships ranges from $200 to $750 per annum. Scholarships are conferred upon both graduates and undergraduates, and are generally a reward for work already done. They have a wide range of values, from a few dollars to at least $500. Fellowships are confined to university courses, while scholarships per¬ tain both to university and college courses. Johns Hopkins University, from its very opening, made provision for twenty fellow¬ ships, whose purpose is thus set forth in the annual register of that institution: “Twenty fellowships, each yielding $500, but not exempting the holder from the charges for tuition, are annually awarded in this university. “The system of fellowships was instituted for the purpose of affording to young men of talent from any place an opportunity of continuing their studies in the Johns Hop¬ kins University, while looking forward to positions as professors, teachers, and investi¬ gators, or to other literary and scientific vocations. The fellowships are given to young men who wish to follow systematically through the year the instruction of the teachers here engaged, and those who are appointed are expected to proceed to the degree of doctor of philosophy. The appointments are not made as rewards for good work al¬ ready done, but as aids and incentives to good work in the future; in other words, the fellowships are not so much honors and prizes bestowed for past achievements, as helps to further progress and stepping stones to honorable intellectual careers. They are not offered to those who are definitely looking forward to the practice of anyone of the three learned professions (though such persons are not formally excluded from the competi¬ tion), but are bestowed almost exclusively on young men desirous of becoming teachers of science and literature, or proposing to devote their lives to special branches of learn¬ ing which lie outside of the ordinary studies of the lawyer, the physician, and the min¬ ister. Appointments are rarely, if ever, made ©f graduates of more than five years’ standing.” The following are the principal regulations concerning candidates and holders of these fellowships: 1. The application must be made prior to May 1 in writing, addressed to the presi¬ dent of the university, and he will refer the papers to the academic council, by whom the nominations will be made to the board of trustees at their meeting in June. 2. The candidate must give evidence of a liberal education, such as the diploma of a college of good repute; of decided proclivity towards a special line of study, such as an example of some scientific or literary work already performed; and of upright character, such as a testimonial from some instructor. 3. The value of each fellowship is $500. The holder is not exempt from the charges for tuition. In case of resignation, promotion, or removal irom the lellowship, payments will be made for the time during which the office shall have been actually hekl. 4. Every holder of a fellow.ship will be expected to perform such duties as may bo allotted to him in connection with his course of study, to act when called upon as an examiner or as moderator in the examination room, to give all his influence for the pro¬ motion of scholarship and good order, and in general to cooperate in upholding the effi¬ ciency of the university, as circumstances may suggest. He must reside in Baltimore during the academic year. 649 • 650 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. 5. He will be expected to devote his time to the prosecution of special studies (not professional) under the direction of the head of the department to which he belongs, and before the close cf the year to give evidence of progress by the preparation of a thesis, the completion of a research, the delivery of a lecture, or by some other method. G. He may give instruction, with the approval of the president, by lectures or other¬ wise, to persons connected with the university, but he may not engage in teaching else¬ where. 7. He may be reappointed at the end of the year, but only for exceptional reasons. 8. Usually not more than two fellows will be appointed in any department of study. 9. As these fellowships are awarded as honors, those who are disposed, for the benefit of others or for any other reason, to waive the pecuniary emolument, may do so, and still have their names retained on the honor list. The annual register for 1889-90 has been carefully examined with a view to ascer¬ taining the results accomplished by these important provisions. From this investigation it appears that the total number of men appointed to fellowships by Johns Hopkins Uni¬ versity from 1876 to 1888 is 190, 3 of whom did not enter on the fellowships, leaving 187 who really became fellows of the university. Of this number, 148, or 79. 1 per cent,, have, at sometime since their incumbency, been engaged in teaching, mainly in colleges and universities; 16, or 8.6 per cent., are engaged in scientific pursuits, while 11, or 6.9 per cent. , are still pursuing their studies. The total number of men now living who have held fellowships is 179, of which number 124, or 69.3 per cent., are at the present time engaged in teaching. Of those formerly teaching 6 are now dead, 2 have resumed IheT studies, and 2 are engaged in scientific pursuits. In addition to the twenty fellowships above mentioned, the Adam T. Bruce fellow¬ ship, founded as a memorial of Adam T. Bruce, ph.d., late fellow and instructor in the university, will be awarded annually. It is to be bestowed by the appointing board upon the candidate whom they consider most likely to promote biological science, and especially morphology, by original research. The stipend will be the income of $10,000. Also, the academic council may, at their discretion, by special vote, enroll as fellows by courtesy — (а) Gentlemen who are or who have been teachers in colleges and other like institu¬ tions, and who wish, for brief periods, to avail themselves of the opportunities here af¬ forded for study and for the use of books and laboratories. (б) Holders of fellowships in other colleges, during their residence here. (e) Those who have been fellows of this university and desire to continue in residence. Fellows by courtesy are not exempt Ifom the payment of fees, except by a special vote. That fellowships are meeting with popular approval and their value admitted and appreciated can be seen by the continued endowment of such foundations. When Clark University, Worcester, Mass., was founded, Mr. Jonas G. Clark, the founder, in addi¬ tion to all his previous gifts, paid into the treasury full tuition of $200 each for 30 stu¬ dents. For 8 of these students thus freed from tuition healso established 8 fellowships, yielding each holder |400 per annum, and 8 more fellowships, yielding each holder $200 per annum. Mrs. Clark established 2 fellowships yielding $400 each, and 2 fellowships yielding $200 each per annum. Harvard University, according to its latest report, owns 24 fellowships, 11 of which may be called traveling fellowships, since the conditions by which they were given to Harvard enable the holders thereof to pursue their studies either at Harvard or else¬ where. The income of the fellowships of the institution are as Ibllows: Two have an annual income of $750 each; 4 of $700; 1 of $550; 12 of $500; and 3 of $450. Of the other 2 no mention is made in the latest annual catalogue. Two of these fellowships are for use in the theological department; 2 are not specified, while the remaining 20 are for use in the graduate department. At least Oof the fellowships are open to grad¬ uates ol colleges other than Harvard. The following interesting record is taken from the annual report of President Eliot of Harvard University for the year 1888-89: “The record of the 37 persons who have held Harvard fellowships in Europe from 1873 to 18S9 and have returned to the United "States is an interesting one, although the number of individuals is not large enough to establish any general conclusion. Three of the 37 have died; one shortly alter his return from Europe, another as professor in this university, and the third as professor in another university. The remaining 34 are now distributed as follows. In the service of Harvard University : Professor . 1 Assistant professors . 2 Instructors . G — 9 In the service of other colleges and universities : Professors . 6 In lower grades . 6 — 12 FELLOWSHIPS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES, 651 In the service of academies and schools . . . 4 In the U. S. Geological Surve3' . 1 Naturalists . ^ Chemist (manufacturing) . 1 Preacher . . . i . 1 Orientalist . . . ... 1 Critic and, uthor . 1 In no settled occupation as yet . 2 Total . 34 “Of tlie 25 surviving persons who are not now in the service of this university. 12 have heen in its employ for longer or shorter periods siuce their return from Europe. Out of the 37. 27 have become professional teachers of high grade; but of these teachers, 17 ultimately took service in other institutions. It is a fair question for discussion whether fellowships available in Europe or fellowships available only at the university are most useful. For the purpose of building up a graduate department in a given in¬ stitution, fellowships available only at that institution are best, but lor serving the com¬ mon cause of education in the country at large there is much to be said for fellowships available in Europe. This university is glad to i^ossess both kinds. “As the traveling fellowships have heretofore been administered, few persons except Harvard bachelors of arts have enjoyed them, and most of the iucnmbents have held them for three years by repeated annual appointment. It \vould, periiaps, bb an improve¬ ment to use the traveling fellowships chiefly as prizes for graduate students who have already passed one or two years at the university and to reduce the time during which they are commonly held to two years, or even to one year. Under such a system these fellowships would oftener be held by graduates of other colleges thau Harvard, aud a much larger number of persons would eujoy for a time the great stimulus of study in Europe. Moreover, the incumbents would on the average be better prepared than they are now to profit by a residence abroad.” The desirability of extending the privileges of fellowships in the leading universities to other than their own graduates is very generally recognized. With reference to this subject, Daniel Kilham Dodge, fellow at Columbia College, in a paper on “ The Func¬ tions of University Fellowships,” read before the regents of the University of the State ofNew York, July 11, 1888, says: “The eligibility of candidates for fellowships is another very important point. At present, unless I greatly mistake, Johns Hopkins is the only American university that bestows fellowships upon students other than graduates in its own course, aud to this far-sighted policy is largely due the success of this school. Most of our colleges are un¬ provided with thorough courses of post-graduate study, and their graduates, if they de¬ sire to pursue such courses, must attend other seats of learning. Now, it is manifestly uutair, besides being highl}’- inadvisable, to refuse these applicants any of the advantages enjoyed by the other students. Resides, it savors too much of a protective tariln Whether or not we believe in tree competition between traders, we must all of ns believe in free competition between brain workers, and anytbiug that is opposed to this principle is unwise and unjust. We should do well to cop}'' the University of Copenhagen, at which students of any nationality may pursue their studies without the payment of a single fee.” Johns Hopkins is not the only university in which fellowships are managed upon this liberal principle. A number of the fellowships in each of the following institutions, as our investigation discloses,, are open to the candidacy of all graduates: Harvard, Friuce- ton, Cornell, Bryn Mawr, and Clark University, which is purely a post-graduate school. In his annual report on the graduate department for the year 1888-89 the secretary of the academic council of Harvard University says: “There is no more eflective method of increasing the number of resident graduate students than by founding fellowships open alike to graduates of Harvard and of other colleges.” Yale University owns six lellowships, all of which are limited to graduates of the university. Two of them are for the use of the theological department, and allow the holders to pursue their studies either at Yale or in Europe or Palestine. 'The income of these fellowships is 8700 aud 8500. The remaining four fellowships are for the use of the graduate department, and the income from each is 8600 per annum. At least one of these four entitles tlie holder to pursue his studies abroad. The fellowships in the possession of Princeton are divided into two classes, viz: Uni¬ versity fellowships and college fellowships. 'The difference between these two classes is that the university fellowships are open to the graduates of any American college, aud the appointments are made not by a competitive examination, but by a comparison of the records presented by the applicants as to their previous collegiate standing, ca¬ pacity, aud ch.aracter; whereas the college fellowshii)s are open to graduates of Prince^ ton only. The university fellowships are now four in number, the income of one being 652 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1888-89. 1500 per annnm anci the income of the other three being $400 each per annnm. I'our of the college fellowships have an income of $600 each per annum, one of $400, one of $200, while the seventh, the biological fellowship, conveys the use of a table in the National Seaside Laboratory at Woods Holl, Mass., together with all the facilities af¬ forded for the collection and study of animal life during the season favorable for such investigations. In the winter months following this laboratory work the fellow pur¬ sues his studies at Princeton. The annual catalogue of Princeton for the year 1889-90 contains the following regu¬ lations concerning fellows: “Every fellow obtaining any one of the $600 fellowships must devote his whole time for one year to study in the department for which the fellowship is provided under the direction of the professors in that department. He must reside in Princeton, and pass two rigid examinations on his work, unless by a vote of the faculty he be allowed to study at an approved foreign university, in which case he shall from time to time fur¬ nish written reports of his work to the professors in his department.” All of the fellowships heretofore mentioned are open to men only. The eight fellow¬ ships owned by Cornell University are open to both men and women who have taken a baccalaureate degree at any college or university. The income is $400 each per annum. Holders of these fellowships must reside at the university. The trustees of Boston University established in 1889 two fellowships “for the assist¬ ance of promising young men of positive Christian character in fitting themselves for the most advanced teaching in colleges and theological schools.” One of these fellow¬ ships is for the use of the School of Theology, the other for the College of Liberal Arts; the holders may remain in residence or pursue their studies abroad. The general statutes of the university upon fellowships are as follows: ‘ ‘All recipients of the above [higher] degrees from this university shall be eligible to the university fellowships, and each fellow shall be aided in the further prosecution of studies, especially in foreign universities, hospitals, and . other institutions, to the amount of not less than $500 per annum for such periods as the statutes may allow. “In filling the professorships of the university fellows will be considered as preferred candidates.” Haverford College, Pennsylvania, has received a sum of money for the purpose of es¬ tablishing four fellowships of the annual value of $300 each, the whole charge for board and tuition. By the conditions of the donors one of these will be given to a graduate of each of the following colleges, viz, Haverford, Penn, Earlham, and Wilmington. The holders must reside at Haverford. In April, 1889, the University of Michigan received $10,000 from Mrs. Catherine E. Jones, for the purpose of founding a fellowship. The annual stipend of this fellowship may not exceed $500. Candidates must have resided at the university as students in the academic department at least three entire semesters prior to the appointment. The holder of the fellowship must mak® the Greek and Latin languages and litera¬ tures the special subjects of study. The period of incumbency is limited to two years, the first of which must be spent in residence at the university, while the second may, if the examining board should see fit, be spent at Athens, Rome, or some other place deemed by the board equally favorable to classical study. The fellowship is open to both men and women. Amherst College, Massachusetts, offers a fellowship to the Senior class for excellence in history and the social and economic sciences. Two hundred and fifty dollars is to be awarded in 1891, and annually thereafter. Washington and Lee University, Virginia, has recently received a sum of money yield¬ ing an income of $500 for the purpose of founding a fellowship. The following regula¬ tions concerning fellowships appear in the catalogue of this university for the year 1889-90: “The design is to secure a more thorough aud extended scholarship than can be at¬ tained in the time usually allotted to academic instruction. “The fellowships will be restricted to graduates of this university. “They will be conferred for two consecutive years, and are not to be relinquished in any case until the end of that term, except for sufficient reasons to be approved by the faculty. “The recipient of a fellowship shall reside in or near the university and pursue a special line of study looking to the degree of ph. d., under the supervision of the pro¬ fessor in the department he may select. “If required by the faculty, he shall give instruction in the university for not moi-e than two hours a day. “He shall have access to the library, class-room instruction, and other privileges of the university, and shall receive a salary of $500, or whatever smaller sum may bo yielded by the endowment of the fellowship to which he is appointed.” The board of trustees of the University of South Carolina recently established a fel- FELLOWSHIPS IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES. 653 lowship open only to graduates of the university proposing to pursue graduate studies. It may he held for a term of two years. A stated salary (not mentioned in the catalogue) is attached to this fellowship. The holder must be a graduate of the university. The purpose of the fellowships in Vanderbilt University is shown in the following ex¬ tract from the catalogue of that institution for the year 1889-90: “In order to encourage the prosecution of the highest branches of literary and scien¬ tific study, and to enable the university to become a center of scholarship and culture, it is designed to found, as the means of the university may permit, a number of fellow¬ ships, affording to their incumbents residence, support, and facilities for the pursuit of general or special study.” The fellowships of this university are divided into two classes, viz, graduate and post¬ graduate. The graduate fellowships, three in number, are open to young men who have received one of the academic degrees of the university, and are recommended by the faculty. They are tenable for one year, but may be renewed for a second year, during which time the holders must pursue a course of post-graduate and nonprofessional study, and teach, not exceeding two hours daily. The income of each fellowship is $300 per annum. The postgraduate fellowships, five in number, may be held by graduates in the posir graduate degrees, or by graduates who have performed for two years the duties of a graduate fellowship. The income from each is $500 per annum. Incumbents are ex¬ pected to prosecute at the university special scientific or literary studies, and to teach, not exfjeeding two hours per day. The University of the City of New York offers two fellowships, amounting to $300 each, to the two students completing the course in arts whose scholarship is the highest. They are open to men only, and the graduate studies must be pursued under the mem¬ bers of the faculty of the university. According to Mr. Dodge, fellow at Columbia College, the fellowships at that institu¬ tion are divided into three classes, viz, prize fellowships, tutorial fellowships, and hon¬ orary fellowships, the last of which have no money value. Their holders are, how¬ ever, expected to give certain instruction, receiving in return free tuition and snch privileges as are accorded to the other fellow^. In 1889-90 Columbia had eleven fel¬ lowships in the school of arts, with an annual income of $500 each. Besides these, four fellowships of an annual value of $250 each are awarded at the discretion of the faculty to students of the third year in the School of Political Science, under the sole condition that the recipients be candidates for the degree of PH. D. The School of Mines has at its disposal the John Tyndall fellowship for the encouragement of scientific research. The income of this fellowship shall never be less than $648, and the holder shall be ‘either a graduate or a student in some department of Columbia College, but not neces¬ sarily a candidate for a degree. According to the regulations governing this fellowship, the holder may pursue his studies at Columbia or at some other university in this coun¬ try or abroad. Appointments are made annually, but the holder is eligible to appoint¬ ment from year to year. The number of fellowships in the School of Mines during the year 1889-90 was nine, and the total number in the college was twenty-four. The Handbook of Information of Columbia College for the year 1890-91 mentions the establishment during the year 1839-90 of three new fellowships in the department of architecture. The value of one of the fellowships is $1,300 and the value of the others is $1,000 each. The fellowships are awarded every second year and the payments are made in four equal installments during the year in which the award is made. The money received by the holders of the fellowships is to be devoted to foreign study and travel, in accordance with plans prepared by themselves and approved by the professor of architecture. Upon his return each must present a written report, and shall ex¬ hibit at the School of Mines the drawings he has made. These prizes are open to grad¬ uates of the department of architecture less than thirty years of age. After recommending the subdivision of classes into small sections for the purpose of individual instruction, the late President Barnard thus sets forth the object of estab¬ lishing tutorial fellowships in Columbia College: “Such subdivision necessarily involves, when made, an increase in the number of in¬ structors. In the department of mathematics a vacancy occurring at the close of the year 1883-84 afforded an opportunity of adding, without an increase of expense, one to the number of mathematical teachers, by the appointment of two fellows with tutorial duties instead of simply filling the vacancy by the appointment of an officer of the samo grade as that of the officer retiring. This opportunity was improved, and the advantage of the measure has been sensibly felt during the year now closing. * * * “The adoption of a policy of this kind has an advantage additional to that on account of which it w.is originally recommended, viz, that of increasing the liability of the stu¬ dent to be held to a personal performance at every exercise; which is that it offers op¬ portunities to graduates of the college to continue their studies without expense to them¬ selves after graduation, with a view to qualify themselves for original work in science 654 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-8{?. or letters. ^ * In this way also we gradually strengthen the department of grad¬ uate instruction, in which department in the future is to be done the work by which our institution is going to make its usefulness most widely and ijiost enduringly felt.” A fellowship association consisting of alumni, former students, and other triends of the University of Minnesota, was incorporated March 10, 188-^. Its object is to en¬ courage graduate students in special lines of study and for that purpose to raise afund by endowment, gift, grant, beouest, or annual contributions of its members. Thus far three fellowships of the annual value of §250 each have been established. Eight fellowships of the annual value of §400 each have been recently established by the board of regents of the University of Wisconsin “ for the purpose ot promoting higher scholarship and more extended original study than the academic courses afford.” Ap¬ pointees to these fellowships are selected each year from members of the graduating class of that year, but at the end of that term they may be reelected for a second year. Another fellowship of §400 per annum has been established by the Hon. John Johnston, of Milwaukee. In the appointment of holders to this fellowship preference, will be given to excellence and promise in the department of mechanic arts, and to residents of Milwaukee County. All holders of fellowships must reside at the university, and those holding the fellowships established by the regents must teach one hour daily or super¬ vise laboratory wmrk two hours a day. The fellowships are open to both men and women. Of the colleges for women, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania, is the only one that has been provided with fellowships. This institution has six of these foundaticy^s, one of which has an income of §500 per annum, applicable to the expenses of one year’s study and residence at some foreign university, English or continental; it is open to graduates of Bryn Mawr or any other college of good standing. The other five fellow¬ ships entitle the holders to free tuition, a furnished room iu the college building, and the sum of §350 j^early. The following table presents in a condensed form the number of fellowships owned by each institution hereinbefore mentioned, and the aggregate income derived therefrom: Name of tnstitution. Fellow¬ ships with a fixed in¬ come. 1 Ollier fellowships. Name of institution. Fel low- ships with a fixed in¬ come. Other fellowships. Number. 1 li lig ! be 3 1 1 Number. /ig'Sregate income. Johns Hopkins Univ'ersity . 20 '$10, 000 1 1 Washington and Lee University.. 1 $500 rlr TTn i hy . 20 6, 000 University of South Carolina 1 TTn.wnrrl TTnivprsitv . 09 12i2IX) 2 Vanderbilt University . 8 3,400 WmIpi ITn i v'P.rsitv . (5 3, 000 Universityof the Cityof New York 2 690 r!ollpic»'ft of New .ler.sftv . 10 4, 700 1 Columbia Collea'e . o24 11,148 HorneU Tin i versity . 8 3, 200 i University of INIinnesota . 3 750 iroRfon ITniver.sitv . 1,000 Universityof Wisconsin . 9 3,600 Tlihllpyp; . 4 1, 200 Tlrvn INTn.wr Col lege . 6 2, 250 TTtii hv nf IVTipTi tern n 1 500 A ni h erst, Hoi 1 eg'e . , . . . 1 250 Total . 147 64, 898 5 a Includes 13 tutorial fellowships at $500 each. In addition to the institutions here mentioned the Association of Collegiate Alumnsc proposes to devote §5U0 every year towards paying the expenses of some jmung woman who wishes to carry on her studies in a foreign country. The candidate must be a gradu¬ ate of a college belonging to the association, and in order to be appointed to the fellow¬ ship must give promise of actual distinction iu the subject to which she is devoting herself. The fellowship is bestowed upon evidence of the candidate’s ability, and of her prospect of success in her chosen line of study. A committee of seven members fas been appointed to determine the award and to regulate the period of incumbency, which, is generally one year. Taking the records of the two institutions, Johns Hopkins University and Harvard University, the former of which publishes a full list with the occupations, present and past, of its former fellows, and the latter a condensed record of the men who have held the traveling fellowships, we can form some idea of the influence which the continued founding of fellowships will have upon the teaching force of our colleges and universi¬ ties. This influence will not be felt to any considerable extent until the number of fel¬ lowships shall have been, considerably increased, for as yet the number is exceedingly Small when compared with the number of colleges and universities in our country whose teaching force in 1883-89 numbered 5,422, excluding professional departments. CHAPTER XXI (C). SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. L — Hints and Suggestions foe, the Inteoduction and Practical Y/orking OF THE School Savings Bank System.^ Acting upon the solicitation of a few educators of our State aud with a view to throw¬ ing a little more lisht upon the question of school savings hanks, which seems to have impressed favorably a large number of teachers, the writer will endeavor to give a few words about that adjunct to the education of children. A visit to the twelve schools of Long Island City, N. Y., will convince any one that the system has com.e to stay. Let us illustrate: The number of pupils on register is 7,000, of which 3,219 are depositors having to date to their credit in the Long Island City Savings Bank |20,558.31. THE ADVANTAGES OF PRACTICAL LESSONS OF THRIFT IN THE SCHOOLS. During the five years the system has been in practice in the above schools, we have remarked: 1. That on Monday, the day of the collection of the savings, there are fewer cases of tardine.s3 and absence, and that a more cheerful disposition exists among pupils and teachers — a great incentive for future good work. School savings banks act also as a moral discipline by making the school rooms more attractive for dull children and gen¬ erate in them a taste to be charitable, as exemplified by their action in June, 1889, in voluntarily subscribing |452.37 from their penny savings to alleviate the sufferings of their brother and sister scholars of the Conemaugh Valley Avho lost their parents and homes in the calamity of Johnstown. 2. That school savings banks pay larger dividends on a smaller investment of time and labor than any other school exercise. 3. That since the introduction of the system in the schools of Long Island City and elsewhere, the public in general has taken more interest in school affairs, the parents become acquainted with the teachers and they are more appreciated by the authorities. Many of them have had their salaries increased in consideration thereof. 4. That it creates good habits of self restraint for unnecessary things which take per¬ manent root and exclude those of a baser sort. 5. That it offers to the pupils an ennobling influence, and that it has already helped a great many of our boys and girls of the classes of 1884, 85, and 86 to overcome difii- culties, achieve success, and secure victory in the sphere they have chosen to pursue after leaving school to secure a place in the world’s movement. 6. That our children better appreciate the value of their pennies, and the best means for their wise use. That they learn earlier to compute and keep accounts. 7. That less orange and banana peels and peanut shells are to be seen around the schoolhouses, fewer books stained with candy and pastries, that the pennies which in the past years were spent for such indulgence are to-day saved and are waiting a more profitable investment. 8. That the teachers themselves have profited as well as their pupils by the innova¬ tion, and that they are as enthusiastic as the scholars about its working and Avould not depart from it. 9. That if we should succeed in introducing the system in the schools of America, a progressive step toward the betterment of school, home, social, and public life would * Reprinted from School Savings Banks in the United States, by J. H.Thiry, of Long Island City, N.Y. Now York, 1890, 4Spp. 655 656 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1888-89. be made and a grateful public would recognize those who have helped in that great work. 10. That the spirit of the system is nothing more than an educational adjunct turned in a practical direction, and therefore to attempt to excite the educational spirit without the cooperation of the teacher and parent is labor lost. 11. That where school savings banks are introduced they awaken a genuine regard for the public schools and at the same time open a new page in the educational affairs of our country. 12. That school savings banks present a national interest as a social as well as an educa¬ tional progress, as they educate the children to a harmonious developmentof many of the faculties which transform them from little spendthrifts into little savers and teach them to see their independence floating upon the horizon of their future career, 13. That many of our little depositors have already been awakened to a sense of de¬ light by the rousing of dormant powers and the developing of unsuspected resources in themselves. 14. That a pleasing feature of the banking plan — one that was not contemplated by its friends — is the desire expressed by the parents of some children too young to enter school to become beneficiaries of its advantages. Who can question the pleasure it will afford these little ones to have their names enrolled upon the school register as scholars, 15. That to neglect or discourage the training of a boy or girl to active usefulness is to land him or her in future misery, consequently it is considered that the most sacred duty of every good citizen is to protect the child from any association or influence that tends to demoralize life. 16. That money in the hands of children is a very treacherous weapon. In a great number of cases it has served to buy the seed of vice, and has brought many of our young people to the first step of the ladder of crime and pauperism, whereas had they re¬ ceived the lessons of thrift and economy on the school bench they would have been able to enjoy life with its golden promises and rewards. FRIVOLOUS OBJECTIONS TO THE SYSTEM OF SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. To the objections that school savings banks entail too much labor and responsibility upon the teachers, a few words may serve as answer: Labor? Fifteen minutes every week, on Monday morning (9 to 9:15) from which we must deduct about eight minutes allotted to calling the roll, leaving seven minutes extra for collecting the savings of a class of fifty pupils. Besponsxbiliiy ? None. At 9:15 each teacher will send in an envelope (as prescribed by the rules and regulations) to her principal the amount collected without any detail. At 9:30 the principal is prepared to send to the savings bank, by the janitor, the money in gross, received from the teachers, also without any detail, but to be set down in a regular bank book in his name for the school. At the end of the month, fifteen min¬ utes extra for teachers and thirty for the account of the principal is all the time required. The principal deposits the money but can not withdraw it. The writer may add right here, that it has never been reported to him during the past five years in which he has been interested in the scheme that any teacher has objected to or complained of being the temporary recipient of the savings of his or her scholars. An evidence to this fact is, that of all the schools that have adopted the banking system not one, as far as I know, has relaxed its interest of the undertaking, a proof that the spark kindled five years ago in the public schools of Long Island City still maintains it vitality, and there is no reason why this spark should not be kindled in all the schools of our country, for the motives given in previous pages. Apropos of the clerical work which the system entails on the savings bank that re¬ ceives the deposits of the schools of Long Island City, it may be said here, that in a re¬ cent visit to that institution, Mr. H. Smedley, its secretary, expressed his views upon the system of school savings banks in connection with the bank as follows : “While it increases the labor materially in making the cost of each account out of relative proportion, still the trustees felt that the idea was philanthropic and deserved every encouragement. It seems to have awakened in the minds of the people of modest means, as well as the working class, a sense of thrift and economy which otherwise would have been unknown. Many profitable enterprises owe their origin to the system ; even more than that, many mindful citizens have learned from the children the road and the advantages of the savings banks.” The above words could be corroborated by a great many members of school boards who have visited the schools and the savings banks of Long Island City, with the view of assuring themselves that the innovation is worth what is claimed for it. Their verdict upon the merits of the system are best ex¬ pressed in the action taken by them afterwards, and by the results which will follow in the near future. SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. 657 Most of the doubts expressed upon the merits of the system have their origin in igno¬ rance of the rules and regulations governing the practical working of the plan. The best way to test it would be to try it in one public school; see the results and if they are found to be satisfactory then go ahead. PKELIMINAEY INFOEMATION FOE THE PEACTICAL INTEODUCTION OF THE SYSTEM. The practical working of the plan and printed forms adopted in the schools of Long Island City since 1885 are, and have been considered the shortest, the simplest, and the most etfective in every respect that could be devised as regards labor in the schoolroom and clerical work in the savings bank. The recent improvements as indicated in this new edition offer an additional claim to the preference of the present method. As the system of school savings banks has lately attracted the attention of the educational world, the press, philanthropists, economists, and even legislators, it is important that a uniform plan, one which has matured under the supervision of a specialist, should receive a general indorsement and become universally adopted. Future educators, having at heart the progress of this undertaking, will perhaps, through their larger experience, find other needed improvements, and thus be able to give new impulse to the cause, but at present the plan which has been adopted by 832 school banks out of 1,065 now in operation in the United States has given general satisfaction and is doubtless the most serviceable. “ Method is the arithmetic of suc¬ cess.” If the system is to be introduced at all, it ought to enter in our schoolrooms as an edu¬ cational factor, and not as a purely capitalistic idea. It must become part of the ordi¬ nary programme of school work, disturbing no other element of the work, gaining a strong foothold by its merit. It is for the above reasons that (1) deposits of the scholars should be recorded in the roll book, thus coming into accord with the other studies on the programme; that is to say, a teacher does not need another book for recording the deposits. (2) That Monday (at the beginning of the morning session) is the day on which the savings of the scholars should be collected . (3 ) That the money be deposited the same day, by the principal or the superintendent, in a savings bank or sound trust company, and in such a manner as to enable the depositor to withdraw a part or all of his money at any time. STEPS TO BE TAKEN PEEVIOUS TO THE INTEODUCTION OF THE SYSTEM. 1. School boards do not require authorization of the State or nation to enable them to introduce the banking feature in their schools. They are invested with the power to introduce it. If the teacher, principal, or the superintendent is the first mover in the cause, he must apply for authority to the school board. 2. After receiving the authorization, the superintendent or the principal should en¬ deavor to secure the cooperation of a savings bank near the school which will receive the weekly savings of the scholars, arrange matters regarding the hour for deposits, and de¬ cide tiie question of blank forms, also by whom the cost of their printing should be sup¬ ported, etc. 3. Having received the necessary authorization and having fixed the date of the first day of the collection of the savings of the scholars, the school board, the superintendent, or even the principal should issue, a few days previous to the starting, a circular addressed to the parents, the press, and the friends of the schools. 4. This circular ought to contain: (1) The reasons which prompted the board to intro¬ duce the system. (2) Giving the date of the day that the system will be put in oper¬ ation. (3) Soliciting the earnest cooperation of the teachers, parents, the local press, and the friends of the children and the schools. (4) Giving a sketch of the rules and regulations for the successful working of the plan, and sending with that circular a copy of the weekly deposit card (as sample No. 1, page 661-2). Such card to be returned to the teacher by the scholar the day of collection. Money deposited in the school fund by the scholars ought not to be the object of a drain upon the resources of the parents. We seek rather a sound and healthy growth of the system than the accumulation of large amounts of money; for the success of banks is measured more particularly by the large number of depositors than by the large amount of money collected. 5. In that circular we ought to strongly impress parents with the idea that school banks shall never beallowed to become savings banks for adults. To allow this would be to deprive the child depositor of the intended educational value of school banks and would paralyze the child’s interest in the weekly banking exercises. ED 89 - 42 658 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. 6. The money that a child deposits must be the product of his own labor or reach him from a right cause. 7. The circular ought to inform the teachers and the public in general that school savings ])anks managed by wise leaders will become a most salutary agency in education. Its main object is to encourage the love of labor and to make a good use of its rewards. This is best encouraged by a proper love of money, which is powerful for good, if con¬ scientiously used. ^ 8. On the Friday previous to the depositing day the superintendent or the principal may prepare a brief address to the pupils at the closing exercises, which should embody the advantages and benefits derived from the practical lessons of thrift and economy and the dangers resulting from investing their pocket money for a great many unnecessary things. He should then inform the scholars that their teachers will be prepared the following Monday to receive all the sums from one penny to one dollar, and that these sums will be deposited the same day in the local savings bank in the name of each depositor, who will receive a regular bank book when his deposits shall have reached a dollar or above. After dismissing the school the same day, the superintendent or the principal will call a meeting of all teachers under his supervision. He will inform them of the steps al¬ ready taken for the introduction of the system, and will convert that gathering into a drill class, in which he will fill the role of teacher, and they the role of pupils. Hav¬ ing a set of all the blank forms adopted, he may explain their use amd purpose, and teach them in fifteen minutes more than they could learn in one month's practice. ■ He ought to impress upon them that the system, directed by willing teachers, cannot fail to be successful, and that by conducting the transactions of that system with punc¬ tuality and regularity the teachers will foster a habit in the pupils of being regular and punctual in all their acts. In this special school exercise, as in any other regular school work, the example of the teachers will bear a healthy influence on the scholars. “ The best and most important part of every man’s education is that which he gives himself.” (J. H. Smedley.) Any common-sense teacher who can husband his or her pecuniary resources, and who is able to save a little for future emergency, has the qualifications sufficient to give to his or her class, when the opportunity is affi)rded, some useful in¬ formation, hints, and suggestions to carry on successfully this new branch of education, which is not the least important on the class programme. The teacher who has at heart the success of this undertaking will not blush to head the list of his or her pupils by his or her weekly savings, which will prove a great in¬ centive to the pupils and a very available friend to rely on at the closing of the school to cover expenses of the summer vacation. With these preliminary informations disposed of, let us step into a class room on Monday morning after the bell has called the scholars to order. At precisely 9 a. m., the time which was formerly the signal to open the schoolbook, prepare the slate, etc., that day and hour everything commences with the collection of the money that the children have saved, which they now entrust to the care of the teacher, who marks it next to their names on the roll. EEGULATIONS. In calling a name, the child must say if he has anything to deposit: “ Yes, one cent, ” or, “yes, five cents,” or whatever sum he has. He must immediately arise from his seat and deliver his money with his weekly card (see specimen No. 1, pp. 661-2) to the teacher, who counts the money and inscribes the amount in the Monday column of the roll book, and upon the weekly card upon which the name of the pupil, the teacher, and amount of previous deposits, are inscribed. In calling the roll, if nothing has been saved, the scholar must answer “no,” and the teacher makes a mark to that effect, at the same time marking the attendance. When the teacher has concluded calling the roll and collecting the savings, she or he counts the money collected in the class to see if the amount corresponds with the total amount inscribed in the roll book. If the amounts tally, the money is immediately sent to the principal in a sealed envelope (specimen 5, page 664). This ends the teacher’s work, except that, with the collection of the last Monday of each month, he or she will send to the principal on this same day a list (specimen No. 2, page 662) of all the depositors of the class, with name and amount, to be credited in the savings bank to each depositor who has contributed to the school fund fifty cents and above during the month. Sums less than fifty cents, although kept in the bank to the credit of the principal, will be credited to the “general fund” until the scholar has reached the sum fixed. Then it will credited to the scholar’s account. As to the principal : He receives immediately after collection, in a sealed envelope, the amount collected by each of the teachers separately ; he does not require a special book; the printed form (specimen No. 2) and received at the end of each month from his or her teacher is sent to the bank with the bank books of the pupils who have SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. 659 contributed fifty cents and above. That same list is returned the week after, from the bank to the principal, with the bank books of the pupils inscribed in the list No. 2, cited above. So, these monthly lists in his possession take the place of a special book. But, if he desires to keep a separate book to inscribe the weekly deposits of his or her teachers, the specimen No. 6, page GG4, is well calculated to meet that need, and to save expenses can be easily made by hand. As for details of the weekly deposits by individual pupils, if he needs them, he can secure them by borrowing the roll books of the teachers. These roll books are the property of the school, and as such are pre^ served by the authorities as official records are. At the first general deposit of the money of a school, sent to the bank by the princi¬ pal, he receives in return a bank book in which is recorded the total amount deposited by all his teachers. When money is deposited, a bank ticket (specimen No. 3, page — ) must accompany each weekly deposit to the bank. This ticket No. 3 is also used by the teacher in connection with the deposit list No. 2 at the end of each month by in¬ scribing thereon the number of bank book, amount to be deposited, and name of pupils, and sending it with the pass books to the bank. Though the bank books of the scholars are sent to the bank once every three months for balancing, the principal need not send to the bank the pass book of a child who has not deposited fifty cents and above during the past three months. At their request, the principal will allow the little depositors to take their bank books home once a month, say on Friday, to be returned the following Monday. At vacation, or when a pupil leaves school, the bank book will be surrendered to the child, who may deposit or with¬ draw money directly from the bank, the cashier acting driring the vacation for the prin¬ cipal . At the reopening of the school the principal will request the cashier of the bank to furnish him a list of the school banking operations performed during the vacation, and will inscribe upon his own journal the amount deposited or withdrawn by each pupil during the above vacation. With the view of reducing the clerical work in the bank and at the same timeremedy- iug the inconvenience caused by some depositors living far from the savings banks, the superintendent or the principal may receive on Monday morning, day of collection, the applications to withdraw part or all the money in the bank of scholar depositors. The superintendent or the principal will pay the checks presented rvith some of the money already collected that day, and will send such receipted checks (seeformNo. 4, page — J to the bank with the collection of the day. The amount of these checks will be received at the bank as cash and entered in the account of the principal or superintendent, and charged to the individual account of the depositors interested. The superintendent or the principal, acting as the he /uc^o treasurer of the school, shouldrender, attheendof eachsebool term to the board of education, atits regular meet¬ ing, an account of all the banking transactions in his school during the term ending, stating the work done, number of depositors, amount deposited, withdrawn, and re¬ maining due depositors, followed by remarks upon the advantages or the incon¬ venience offered by that system from observations taken during the last school term. THE PAET SAYINGS BANKS PLAY IN SCHOOL SAYINGS BANKS. Now that we have described the details for the introduction of the school savings bank system, let us step into a savings bank which has arranged to receive the deposits of the. scholars. Savings banks are regarded as benevolent institutions. Their object is to receive the savings of the working people and invest the same for tliem and make these savings earn money as well as labor does. The doorsof savings banks are open to the people of all ages, color, and nationalities, and the healthful influence in the com¬ munity is extended even to minors. In many cities and towns of our couutr^q the sav¬ ings banks have opened their doors to 20,374 pupils of 158 schools of America, and they have already received in deposits during the lastfew years $97,81G.73 by the intermedi¬ ary 01 teachers who act as their trustees in a certain measure. The moral influence derived from the gleaning of so many pennies, which previously were spent for unnecessary things often injurious to body, mind, and soul, is enough to make all those who are willing to see the future citizen more industrious, law abid¬ ing. and useful to himself and to the State, rejoice and assist in carrying on the good work. Drop into a bank on a Monday forenoon, which is lending a helping hand to this new juvenile and economic educator, and you will see enter a school janitor with a smile upon his face, and a box or a parcel under his arm, which contains the collection of the pennies saved during the previous week by the pupils of a school. The contents of these boxes and parcels contain many silent stories. It is a sowing of the seed which will produce a hopeful harvest. 660 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. THE LEGISLATION OF SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS IN CONNECTION WITH THE BANKS WHICH AKE WILLING TO KECEIVE THE DEPOSITS OF THE SCHOLAKS. When the trustees of a savings bank have offered their cooperation to the school au¬ thorities to receive the deposits of the scholars by the intermediary of the superin¬ tendent or the principal of the school, it is advisable: 1. That the bank have a special ledger to record the scholar deposits, providing the number of depositors will amount to 500 and above. 2. That the bank give to each of the superintendents or principals sending the weekly collections to the bank, a separate bank book. The superintendent or principal will fill out a deposit slip (as sample No. 3, page 663) for the amount received from his school each Monday morning, then send the money together with his book and slip to the bank. The amount will be placed to his credit. The scholars having contributed one dollar are entitled to receive each a bank book, and as such, his future account in the bank will be treated the same as any individual account. The monthly list (sample No. 2, page 662) drawn by the teacher and sent to the principal with the collection of the last Monday of each month will include all the names of the several scholars with amounts which they are to be credited with. The list of all the teachers of a school will be sent to the bank by the principal. It is from these lists that the cashier of the bank will enter on each pupil’s pass-book and on the bank’s ledger the amount to be credited on the pupil’s pass-book. The total monthly amount of the several lists of the same school will be deducted from the principal’s pass-book and charged on the bank’s ledger to the superintendent or principal’s account, they giving a check for the same. The above manner of transacting school banking affairs has been in operation in a great many schools and banks the past few years with success, but by way of reducing the clerical work in the banks, it is advisable that a bank having 2,000 scholar deposi¬ tors and above, their weekly deposits should be allowed to accumulate and the transfer to the pupil’s pass-book take place only at the end of every quarter. This question is left to the judgment of the school and bank authorities as also the one relating to the interest to be allowed to scholar depositors. In most of the post-office savings banks in Europe no interest is allowed to individual depositors for suras less than five dollars, nor for a period less than a month. The average rate of interest is 2J per cent. In Italy the savings banks do not allow interest to depositors. In concluding the above remarks relating to school savings bank legislation the writer may add that he has run slightly over the most vital points, but, of course, some of its minor details will be always left to the judgment of school and bank authorities and to the discretion of superintendents and prineipals. The rules laid down here for the limitation of weekly deposits, as well as the amount fixed entitling a pupil to receive the regular bank book, may be altered so as to make them compatible with some local peculiarities. But under any circumstance the time fixed to receive the savings of the scholars can not be changed, viz, precisely at 9 o’clock every Monday morning at the opening of the morning session; if it should be decided to have the collection of the savings taken outside of school time, or even to allow an officer of the local savings bank to interfere in the schoolrooms with the collections, better not to. introduce the system, for it would be unfair to overtax the teacher, and at the same time deprive the scholars of their recreation time. School banking being considered as an important factor in education must be prac¬ ticed under the supervision of the teacher and in conjunction with the other school work. The presence in the school of an agent of the bank to collect the savings of the children would rob them of the educative value expected. Though the writer did not intend at first to indulge in criticism, nor in laudation, he considers as a matter of justice and fairness to acknowledge before all the friends and advocates of school savings banks that from 158 schools of 34 cities of 7 different States ot the Union which have adopted the system, none has shown more enthusiasm for the cause than the school boards, the superintendents, principals, and teachers of the 48 public schools of 9 cities of the State of Pennsylvania, who have inaugurated the sys¬ tem since December 30, 1889, in less than a year. The cooperation and liberality ol the officials of the banks in that State is also unprecedented. A FEW WORDS ABOUT THE BLANK FORMS ADOPTED. Out of 1,065 school banks now in practical operation in schools of the United States, 532 are using the blank forms which we describe in the following pages. These forma have been considered by the most competent judges superior to those now in use in Europe. The 216 school banks in 48 schools of the State of Pennsylvania have also SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. 661 adopted the same forms. The writer has no doubt that in the near future these forms will receive an official recognition, because they seem to cover all the ground for the prac¬ tical working of the plan.- The roll book is the first needed form. It is not necessary to represent it here. Any system of roll book will answer the purpose for recording the school savings bank here. Printed Form No. 1. [Outside ; for inside form see p. G62.) PupiVs weekly card. — This card is given to the pupil when he makes his first deposit, and the name of the depositor, the teacher, and the amount deposited must be inscribed thereon. The scholar retains the card and it must be presented every Monday if a de¬ posit is to be anded. The cards are generally furnished by the school board. In the bauds of the scholars such a card has proven the most efficient means of inducing them to make a start in the work of saving and continuing it afterwards: REGULATIONS. Deposits Avill be reeeived every Mon¬ day only, at the morning session, by the teachers of each class. The amount will be delivered to the principal, Avho will deposit it the same day in the Long Is¬ land City Savings Bank in the name of each depositor. Order to withdi*aw money for sums less than 83 will be received and cashed by the superintendent or principal on de¬ posit day. Any depositor who lias not deposited money during the three months follow¬ ing their last deposit, will haveto return the weekly card to the superintendent or principal, who will refund the money due. One cent or upward can be received by the teacher. AVhen a pupil has a deposit of one dollar or more, a bank book will be given free of charge, from the bank. Deposits should not be withdrawn till amount reaches $3, except in case of sick¬ ness or removal from city; but if the de¬ posit should be withdrawn, and the amount has been less than three dollars, the bank will charge ten cents for the bank book. Deposits of one dollar and over will bear interest quarterly. During the summer vacation of the school, deposits may be made or money withdrawn from the bank direct, the casliier acting during that time for the teacher. Copyright to J. IT. Thiry, of Long Island City, 1886. SCHOOL SAVINGS BANK OP LONG ISLAND CITY. THIRD WARD. Account with ERNESTINE E. McGEE. EMM 1 LAWRENCE, Teacher. Depositors are requested to keep this card always clean, remembering that cleanliness is next to Godliness. 662 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Printed Form No. 1. (Inside.) Date deposit. Amount, i Date deposit. il i Amount. j ...Jl ! Date 1 deposit. Amount. 1 Date deposit. Amount. Sept. 1,IS90 i Nov. 17, 1 Feb. 2, April 20, Sept. 8, Nov. 21, Feb. 9 1 1 April 27, Sept. 15, Dec. 1, Feb.lG, j May i, Sept. 22, Dee. 8, Feb. 23, • 1 May 11, Sept. 29, Dec. 15, March 2, ! 1 May 18, Oetober 6, Dec. 22, 1 March 9, 1 May 25, October 13, Dec. 29, March 16, June 1, 1 October 20, Jan. 5, 1891. March 23, i 1 June 8, October 27, January 12, March 30, i June 15, Nov. 3, January 19, April 6, June 22, Nov. 10. January 26, April 13, i June 29, Printed Form No. 2. (Teacher’s monthly list of depositors.) This list is sent at the end of each month, with the last collection of the month, to the superintendent or principal by every teacher of a school, with the bank books, and must contain the names of the depositors and amounts collected during the month, to be credited in the bank. These lists are sent to the bank by the superintendent or principal whenever transfers to the children’s bank books are to be made. These same lists are returned by the bank to|the superintendent or principal a couple of days after, with the pass books of the little depositors, who are allowed to take them home the last Friday of the month, to be returned the following Monday. DEPOSITED in the Long Island Savings Bank, ioihe credit of the followinrj pupils of Grammer B Class^ Third Ward School of Loikj Island City. Emma Lawrence, Teacher. SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. 663 Feinted Foem No. 3. This is the ordinary deposit slip used by both principal and teacher. By the princi¬ pal, in sending to the bank the weekly collection of his teachers, with the bank book he previously received from the bank in making the first deposit for the school under his charge. The bank book of the principal indicates the total amount the school is credited°with to the bank, and also serves to free him from responsibility. Although he deposits the money of the school in the bank, he can not personally withdraw any. The same slip is also used by the teachers at the end of each month to inscribe on it the amount deposited by each pupil. Such slip is to be placed inside of the pass book of each depositor and sent to the principal who forwards them to the bank. The bank officers inscribe only the deposits in the bank books of the scholars and not the teachers nor the principal. DEPOSIT. w S ^ - > < Book No . . Amount. $ H . . . . . . . 189 . Q Q JSfdTtXC . . . . 1.^ m l-H |i Feinted Foem No. 4. The blank check is delivered by the principal to the owner of the pass book who wishes to withdraw part or all the money deposited. The pass book must be presented to the bank with the check signed by the owner of the bank book, his parents or guardians, and the principal, without which the bank will refuse to pay the money called for. JSSr THE PAS.S BOOK MUST BE PRESENTED WITH THE CHECK.-=^ LONG ISLAND CITY _ 189 _ $ _ LONG ISLAND CITY SAVINGS BANK COR. JACKSON AVENUE AND THIRD STREET. Pay _ Ms 'parents or guardians _ Dollars. and charge to acco^ini of Boole No _ _ _ _ _ Principal. Signature. Feinted Foem No. 5. As soon as the savings of a class are collected, counted, and found to correspond with the total in the roll book, the money is put in one envelope, sealed, and indorsed as below, and sent to the principal, who makes the list of names and amount collected by each teacher. Six teachers, six envelopes (see Form 6 lor principal’s list). The total amount is recorded on a check, as No. 3, and sent with the money and his bank book to the bank, which bank book is returned by the deliverer of the same. At his leisure 664 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. time the cashier of the bank breaks the seal and counts the money. Generally the school janitor takes the money to the bank. Thus far no error or trouble has been ex¬ perienced, although the system has been in operation five years. Foem No. 6. This blank form has proven to be the most concise and efficient form for the principal or superintendent to keep the record of the weekly deposits of the teachers. It has been in use in the Third Ward school of Long Island City, by its principal, Mrs. Mary E. McGee, since 1885, and it seems to answer in every respect the needs of the superin¬ tendent or principal. BANKING. Third Ward school of Long Island City, September 9 to October 7, 1890. Sept. 9. Sept. 16. Sept. 23. Sept. 30. Oct. 30. Mrs. Mary E. McGee, principal. Miss E. Lawrence, teacher . S6. 10 811.50 86. 10 80. 35 $0.65 “ E. Waddell, “ . 8. 15 6. 35 10.35 4.0C 6.35 “ E. Lynch, “ . 11. 10 11.30 10. 80 9. 56 9. 54 “ E. Chadsy, “ . . . 6.21 3.77 5.17 3.95 4.84 31. 55 32.92 32.42 17. 86 21.38 NINE SYSTEMS OF TEACHING ECONOMY TO THE YOUNG AMEEICAN. 1. The school savings-bank system as in operation in Long Island City, the basis of this pamphlet, will probably survive all others, and has, in fact, furnished the ground¬ work for the other systems now in vogue. 2. In 1886 the Provident Savings Bank of Baltimore was incorporated by the legisla¬ ture of Maryland. The directors have adopted the stamp-deposit system which is yet in use in a few benevolent societies and Sunday schools of England and Germany. The lowest deposit is 10 cents. The deposit stamps are of the denomination of 10, 15, and 25 cents. One dollar of stamp deposit entitles the investor to a bank book; $3 bears interest. The writer may venture to say here that if the board of education had agreed to introduce into their schools the school savings-bank plan, as has been proposed, and if the local savings banks had not refused their cooperation the directors of that insti¬ tution might also have adopted the Long Island City plan. However, the stamp-saving plan has proven to be a success. 3. 1887. In the Pennsylvania School Journal for April, 1890, a description is given of a new system in practice in the schools of Pottsville, Pa., due to the genius of its princi¬ pal, Prof. S. A.Thurlow. This system, though valuable in principle, could not conveniently be adopted in all localities. In many respects that system is built upon the same plans which regulate the transactions of the building loan associations. The eighty-eight scholar depositors (April, 1890) are stockholders. From the date of the organization, 1887, to April last the sum of $1,500 has been invested in stocks and deposits. Cer¬ tainly such a system has some advantages if the school time allotted for intellectual cul¬ ture or recreation is not impaired by the transactions of that association. Though the originator of that plan deserves public recognition for his endeavors in the cause of edu- SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. 665 cation, yet that system has objectionable features, for the consideration of which the writer asks to be excused for want of space. 4. November, 1888. The Penny Provident Fund of New York, was inaugurated No¬ vember 15, 1888, by the Charity Organization Society. The Baltimore system was adopted. The deposit stamps are of the denomination of 1, 3, 5, 10, 25, and 50 cents. That society has 75 branch stations in New York. Up to July 1, 1890, $7,014 remained on deposit and there were 15, 000 depositors. Three-dollar stamps entitle the depositors to their full value in cash, which he can deposit in any savings bank of his choice. 5. June, 1890, Detroit, Mich. Began the stamp-saving system also upon the plan in practice in Baltimore. Its introduction is due to the efforts of Mr. Edwin F. Mack, cashier of the People’s Savings Bank, and under the management and supervision of that bank. One-dollar deposits and above draws interest. The following papers com¬ mend the system: The Detroit Free Press of September 13, and November 2, 1890; the Sunday Herald of Boston, October 5, and the Philadelphia Press of October 10, 1890. 6. October, 1890. An association called the “Stamp Saving Society,” composed of a few prominent citizens of Boston, has introduced (October 15), in that city, the stamp- saving system upon the plan in practice in New York. (See American Banker, October 16, 1890, and Philadelphia Press of October 10. ) No interest is allowed on sums less than three dollars. 7. October, 1890. Mr. J. Butler, cashier of the People’s Savings Bank of West Bay City, Mich., introduced the Baltimore system of stamp savings in his city. (See Ameri¬ can Banker, October 4, 1890. ) 8. In the School Bulletin of Syracuse, for October, its genial editor, Mr. C. W. Bar¬ deen, informs his readers that in his next number (November) he will give the text of the interesting pamphlet of Prof. John McMullen on “School Money.” Mr. Mc¬ Mullen describes a school bank established some time ago in his school, where four of the oldest boys were appointed president, cashier, etc. Paper money was used as a medium for the transaction of business among the scholars. The merit of that system consists in its originality and the perusal of that pamphlet could not but give genuine pleasure on account of the pleasant and witty way in which he has described the method. 9. Pratt Institute, Thrift Association, Brooklyn, N. Y. The popularity of that in¬ stitution does not need description. It is sufficient to say that there the young people’s instruction is based on an appreciation of the dignity as well as the value of intelligent handicraft and skilled labor. It endeavors to give opportunity for complete and har¬ monious education, in the embodiment of which the inculcation of the habit of thrift and self-reliance is one of its valuable features. As the majority of the pupils of the institution are ready, in leaving the institution, to enter in the world’s activities, a sys¬ tem has been devised to meet the need, and one higher in character than the one used in the public schools. Below is a summary sketch of the practical working of that system: In the early part of 1839 nine prominent and responsible business men who have proven their ability to successfully manage large enterprises, formed the Thrift Associa¬ tion. The aim of the association is to aid in the work carried on at the institute, but it is not conducted by the institute nor responsible for its financial transactions, though the firm of Charles Pratt & Co. have executed a bond in the sum of $500,000 to in¬ demnify and protect all persons having financial relations with the Thrift Association. The object of the association is to promote habits of thrift to help people, especially the young, to become prudent and wise in the use of money and time. The plan adopted has much of the feature of that of the building and loan associ¬ ations, with the exception that it offers more security for depositors. The investing shares of the association, to which no liability attaches, are $150, payable at the rate of $1 per month for ten years. The monthly payments on each share amount in ten years to $120, and the accumulated interest at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum to $30, making $150 in all, in addition to which, provided the installments are regularly paid, each share, at the end of ten years, will be entitled to a premium of $10 more. In other words a monthly payment of $1 will amount, with interest and premium, to $160 at the end of ten years, or about 6 per cent, per annum on the subscription paid to the association; $150 in one sum pays up a share in full, and when this payment has been made the interest is payable half-yearly at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum, the holder being entitled, at the end of ten years, to the same premium as that received by persons who pay for their shares by installments. The shares can be withdrawn at any time. Shares may be held by minors and any person, whether connected with Pratt Institute or not, is entitled to the benefit of the association. They contemplate the in¬ troduction of stamp savings for young scholars. Those who are interested in the welfare of the rising generation may watch with in- terestand profit the progress of such an association with the view of extending the ben¬ efits to other institutions. 666 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. ^ STATISTICS OF THE SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS IN EUKOPE. An accurate table of the operations of school savings banks in Europe would have proved a valuable adjunct to this contribution, but the writer will give below what he has been able to reach: Hahj. — Statistics to December 31. 1838, from official report of 1889: 5,401 post-office savings banks; S7.7G4 depositors; clue to them, $92,939.41. Belgium. — Statistics to December 31, 1889, from official report of 1890: 5,259 school savings banks; 212,037 depositors; due to them, $78,213.42. France. — Statistics to December, 1837, from official report of 1888: 23,375 school sav¬ ings banks; 161,387 depositors; due to them, $2,421,229.62. Statistics to November, 1838, from official report of November 20, 1889: 75 post-office savings-bank branches; 8,710 depositors; due to them, $7,721. Hungary and Germany. — School savings banks are eutirelj in the hands of private as¬ sociations, and statistics could not be conveniently got. liussia, Switzerland, Netherlands, England and her colonies. — As the annual report of the postmaster-general of these countries does not contain a column separate for the money of the schools, it became impossible to give the statistics of school savings banks. Table showing the operations of school savings banks in the United States in 1890. [Up to the date indicated in the seventh column.] SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. 667 Amount. i 2 '^S 2''S qa S20, 558. 31 5, 950. 00 2. 334.00 2,603.00 405.00 4,564.55 6,625.39 3, 070. 91 1,561.00 1,871.89 1,648.78 380. 91 2, 887. 18 479.77 147. 76 651. 64 59. 26 302. 91 4.982.40 3. 348. 40 •a a a a "o 0 ^25,794.79 12,000.00 2,634.00 3, 905. 00 8 in a> 10, 895. 99 9, 800. 47 3,729.25 2,166.56 2, 397. 66 1,892.00 293. 65 4,315.40 526. 30 190.31 651.64 1 63. 17 302.91 6, 297. GO ' 3,348.40 Number of scholars. Depos¬ itors. 3, 219 435 624 726 0 uri 1,742 721 742 615 983 768 169 1,000 169 59 50 65 750 I 1,180 1,056 On reg¬ ister. 7, 000 695 1,200 1,758 350 242 3G5 4,500 2,432 2,000 1,210 2, 875 1, 602 512 2, 000 1 300 1 140 1 450 I 240 '(M tH CO X CM kO X rH c a ■".2 o| a o 8 • 8 (» CO o o o o o o !>» .-•'O 'O'C'C'd'C! c3 - • O C O 0 o o o o3 0) .-2 .2 g £ "'2^ ^ 5 V >. M’S -2-^ .• S-rT3 <»'C - a aS 3 C g a 0) rt SWaj a ii.sS’S S 1 ^ S +3 3 e * ^ ^ 53 r/5 c’S!^ cii rt a a 3.-7 Jra; flj 9 (y a a 3 a c':3 a a £ 8 «■" Q.i> .. 2. ^1 S'^fV a as s 5 ; cc c: c; o: 3 i ^ 5 0) a a a 2 o .2 . fi £h W ■« g ■§ ^ >:’S C at— ■ i i-i .2 .2 .a a oiM Kaaacc K -a 3 c .2 ’'»•■- s 8 •=5l|S 2 gM „ a KCO CK ■< « ^ J, 5s 2- .2sS o 'a ^ a t> 3 ^ , W cSS' ; -ii ^ ’2 2 ^ ' 3 S 3 a = a a ’S a 5 M O c. a axais 5 s S) § S 6||^:| c:.:r . O . c3 o c ' CIk K Ph S C-O 3 CD 8 ^ : 8 00 00 » : 00 00 1 X X X X X X X X X Mg' tM-q- TfT CO OD . 0 V Q : a a ;h a CD Om jOG C C/} CO CO c 00 00 s 00 X c . as o o ' X X 'X) 'XXX 05 C7S 05 C5 XX XX XX XX a CiC^ CO I'-' a o S§ Qm -5 1*3 O > >■ o o o o a a> GQ •(^xunq ouo ssup ipuo) S5[ui?a; c-i — ( c ('• w o ko cq •sosnoq |ooips JO joqninj^ o a •a a ’2> ow I?; 5? ^ 31 O * 5 .iij o a IZ ^ b !z-g 5 f-i S W>H a !Z op 5; . -GSG 2 ^ S rtQ -£af , a iij ■2 3 q y £S GG •jepio JO -o^ C0 eo M 1(5 50 M 00 iH I-I M r-l iH i-( Table sUoxving the operaiioxis of school savings banJcs in the Uxiited States in 1890 — Continued. 668 EDUCATION REPORT, 1888-89. Amount. Due de¬ positors. rn" o € Collected. rn' CO 79, 781.63 Number of scholars. Depos¬ itors. r-r cf 1 20,974 On reg¬ ister. SSsssSsli 3 ii “ -■ a -■ 1 54, 757 ! Up to— Mar. 1,1890 Apr. 28, 1890 Mar. 18, 1890 . do . . do . Apr. 28. 1890 May 6,1890 Nov. 10, 1890 Oct. 31,1890 Nov. 15, 1890 Nov. 0,1890 Nov. 15, 1890 Name of the introducer in each school. Principal Miss S. P. Claflin . Principal Miss C. V. Spickernacle . Dr. D.W. Jefieris, president of the school board.. Mr. J. A. Rupert, secretary of the school board.. The school board . Miss L. Jennie Coates, principal . Superintendent A. W. Potter . Principal W.S. Webster, formerly of McCook.. Board of education, Superintendents H. M. James and A. Monroe. Globe D. and T. Company Savings Bank, by C. Williamson, cashier. Superintendent F. Gillum Cromer . Dr. G. A. Lockwood and Princinal J. Clauner... I ! i 1 Date of in¬ troduction. Jan. 9,1890 . do . Feb. 24, 1890 Feb. 24, 1890 Apr. 7,1890 May 5,1890 Sept. 22, 1890 ISlay 20, 1890 Nov. 14, 1890 Oct. 27,1890 Oct,. 7. 1890 : •{iiuuq ouo ssup qo-Bo) squBg; cl 1, 065 •69SnOT{ xooqosjo aoqcan^ iH tH M CO iH 1-1 cq O I> OJr- ' Cities and schools Avhich have adopted the system. Shannonville, Pa . Cheltenham, Pa . Chester, Pa . AVest Chester, Pa . Conshohocken, Pa . West Grove, Pa . AVilkes Barre, Pa . Juniata, Nebr . Omaha, Nebr . South Omaha, Nebr . Greenville, Ohio . Philniniil, NT.V . . 1 i i 1 i t r i i •JOpjO JO Recapitulation : One hundred and fifty-eig-ht schools; 1,065 school savings banks; from 51,757 pupils, 20,974 are depositors of $69,957.76. Long Island City, N. Y., November 15, 1890. SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. 669 II.— The Brookline (Mass.) System. In a communication to the Bureau under date of April 10, 1890, Mrs. Edith Cabot describes the Brookline system of penny savings as follows: * * * “Our experience has been short, as we only began the work in January, but thus far the results have been most encouraging. “At first the teachers Avere doubtful about it, though with one exception they were all willing to give the necessary time and thought to it, showing themselves, as teachers almost always do, thoroughly unselfish in the matter. Now even the one who held back is convinced, for the savings in her room have become large and regular. “We made our system as simple as possible. The teacher in each room collects the sav¬ ings in that room and records them for each child on a large card containing the names of all the children in her room, and also on small cards belonging to each child, Avhich the child keeps and carries home. The under teacher deposits the money at once with the head teacher of the building, who gets a receipt for the amount. The head teacher deposits weekly in the savings bank. Where it is inconvenient for the head teacher to take charge of the money, inconsequence of distance from the bank or her living out of town, a lady is appointed trustee for that school and takes the money every week from the head teacher, giving a receipt. As soon as any child has accumulated |2 he is advised to open a bank book of his own. In that case either his own father or mother or the trustee of the school becomes trustee for him. “We have already a large number of bank books opened for the children. It has not required as much of the teachers’ time as we feared. I have inquired of a considerable number and find the average time required for the whole business twenty minutes. We collect ahvays and in ail the schools on Tuesday, as Monday is pay day in Brookline. The teachers attend to it as soon as the school opens, or sometimes in the few minutes before school. This is left to their preference, the committee only fixing the day and requesting that it be done early. “ We feared that the children would be anxious to draw their money out almost as soon as they had put it in, and asked the teachers to use their influence against that. The result is that, I believe, none has yet been drawn out, except where a child was leaving town. The amount collected has been much larger than we expected. In the school of which I am trustee, Avhere there is an average of 142 children, I have collected ^42.54 up to this time, beginning January 14. These children are all Irish and their fathers workingmen, most of them day laborers. The difficulty that you speak of, that the children do not earn the money, is an obvious one, but on the other hand they have the money, and use it fox candy, cakes, etc. It is surely better to teach them to use it. The mere saving teaches them forethought and self-control and invoh'es a good deal of care. “We find that they no longer need to be reminded that Tuesday is approaching, and the teachers carefully avoid it, and without diminution in the amount collected. I find that in this town the parents are much in the habit of paying their children for little services rendered to themselves, and this money is now brought to the penny savings instead of going to the candy shop. Of course this is an unsatisfactory method on the part of the parents, but I am sorry to say it is not confined to the poor, and cer¬ tainly not brought about by the penny savings, “ It was suggested that some of the children might be dishonest and would not deposit with the teacher all that was given him for the purpose by his parent. I have only known of one such case, and that was brought to light at once by the sending home of the child’s card. The parent detected the discrepancy, but did not suspect the teacher in the least, and it resulted in an excellent lesson for the child. * * “Our plan was founded on what I could learn of the French, Flemish, and Scotch system. I am quite sure that thus far it has done ivell for the parents as ivell as the children. Many of them will save for their children when they would not for them¬ selves, and we reach in this way a good deal of money that would be wasted in little driblets which come to nothing, a fruitful source of want among the poor.” V FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY DATE DUE VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY •-IIIAS *1888-089,001 ? 3 9346 00027366 6 27266 L 111 .A3 v.l L 111 « A3 r U.£» Bureau of Educatioa Amiual report, 1888-89