REPORT OF THE s. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION THE YEYR 1877. T 1. WASHINGTON: GOVEBNMENT PEIHXIHfi OFFICE. 1879. ERRATA. Page 53. Itistead of James S. Smart, read James H. Smart. Page 79. Tlie Medical College of Kentucky University is closed, not reorganized. Page 174. Omit the reference mark 6. Page 351, line numbered 56. The amount $11.88, given in column 121, covers the average per capita expenditure for both instruction and incidentals ; it should there¬ fore appear in the centre of columns 120 and 121. Page 426. In column 1, transpose the lines numbered 1009 and 1010. in ' ' - CONTENTS. Page. Report of the Commissioner of Education . vii-ccvi General review of educational condition, vii ; conflict of capital and labor, vii-viii ; work of tbe Office, ix-xii ; school and college cata¬ logues, xii-xiii ; summaries of educational statistics, with remarks and diagrams, xiii-xxiii; educational condition of tbe States and Territories, xxiv-xxxii ; schools for the colored race, xxxiii-xxxix ; the township school system, xxxix ; free text hooks, xxxix-xl ; su¬ pervision in educational systems, xl-xlv ; summary of school statis¬ tics of cities, with remarks, xlvi-lix ; hygiene in the public schools, lix-lxv ; education vs. police, lxv-lxvi ; janitors’ wages, lxvii-lxviii ; statistical summary of normal schools, lxix-lxxiii ; professorships of pedagogics, lxxiv-lxxv ; statistical summaries of business colleges, Kindergarten, and secondary schools, with remarks, lxxv-lxxx ; the high school question, lxxxi-lxxxviii ; secondary instruction abroad, lxxxviii-xci ; statistical summaries of preparatory schools, colleges for women, and universities and colleges, with diagrams and re¬ marks, xci-ciii ; statement respecting American colleges, civ-cviii ; condition of superior instruction, cviii-cx ; health of college stu¬ dents, cxi-cxv ; statistical summary of schools of science, with re¬ marks, cxv-cxx ; vacation schools, cxx-cxxi ; statistical summaries of theological seminaries, schools of law, and schools of medicine, with remarks, cxxi-cxxvi ; statistical summary of degrees con¬ ferred, cxxvi-cxxxi ; improvements in public libraries, cxxxi-cxxxii ; Library of Congress, cxxxii-cxxxiv ; library of the Office, cxxxiv ; statistical summary of additional public libraries, cxxxiv-cxlii ; early American libraries, cxlii ; statistical summaries of schools for the deaf and dumb and the blind, benefactions, educational publications, schools for the feeble minded, and patents for im¬ provements in school furniture, with remarks, cxlii-cliv ; education in foreign countries, cliv-clxxv ; instruction in art, with statistics, clxxv-clxxxi ; statistical summaries of orphan asylums, soldiers’ orphans’ homes, infant asylums, industrial schools, miscellaneous charities, and reform schools for 1876, clxxxii-cciii ; crime and edu¬ cation, cciii-ccv ; recommendations, ccv-ccvi ; conclusion, ccvi. Abstracts . 1-304 Abstracts of the official reports of the school officers of States, Terri¬ tories, and cities, with other additional information . 5-207 Educational conventions and associations . . . 298-304 Statistics of education for the year 1877 . 305-635 Table I. Statistics of the school systems of the States and Territories. 303-313 II. School statistics of cities containing 7,500 inhabitants and over . 314-355 III. Statistics of normal schools . 356-365 IV. Statistics of commercial and business colleges . 366-375 V. Statistics of Kindergarten . 376-390 VI. Statistics of institutions for secondary instruction . 391-476 VI TENTS. Tag0. Table YII. Statistics of preparatory schools . 477-486 VIII. Statistics of institutions for the superior instruction of women . 487-502 IS. Statistics of universities and colleges . 503-534 X. Statistics of schools of science . - . 535-543 XI. Statistics of schools of theology . 544-553 XII. Statistics of schools of law . 554-557 XIII. Statistics of schools of medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy- 558-566 XIV. Summary of examinations for admission to the United States Military and Naval Academies . 567 XV. Degrees conferred in 1877 by universities, colleges, scientific and other professional schools, and by schools for the supe¬ rior instruction of women . 568-582 XVI. Statistics of additional public libraries numbering 300 vol¬ umes or upwards . 583-585 XVII. Statistics of institutions for the deaf and dumb . 586-589 XVIII. Statistics of institutions for the blind . . . 590-591 XIX. Statistics of educational benefactions . 592-617 XX. Publications, educational, historical, &c., for 1877 . 618-633 XXI. Statistics of schools and asylums for feeble-minded children. 634 XXII. Improvements in school furniture, apparatus, &c., patented in the year 1877 . . . 635 Index . — .... 637-644 REPORT Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington , D. C., 2soverriber} 1877. Sir : I hare the honor to submit my eighth annual report, covering the year 1877. During the year, education, in connection with other great interests, has continued to suffer from the hard times. The depreciation in the vaiue of investments has reduced the income of even the best endowed institutions. Poverty has rendered it impossible for many young persons to pay tuition or other expenses at school and has compelled them to finish their studies prematurely. The appropriations for public schools have been decreased in many directions, sometimes to the great injury of their efficiency, as when the reduction of teachers’ salaries has put poor teachers in the place of good ones, or when the school year has been shortened or the course of study abridged; but, on the whole, the systems of free public instruction in the different States have given new proof of their fitness to our wants as a people by what they have accomplished, in spite of the present financial distress and widespread unrest. CONFLICT OF CAPITAL AND LABOR. In my last report I noted the occasion we had, as a people, to congratulate our¬ selves that the first century of our national history was closing with so great freedom from the evils that have arisen in older civilizations from the conflicts between capi¬ tal and labor. Unfortunately, the possibilities of these evils pointed out by eminent educators and other students of social science have become realities as never before among us. Singularly enough, the lesson taught by these outbreaks has apparently in some cases stopped short of tracing them to their source in individual character, and has failed also to discover the part to be performed by education as a means of protection against their recurrence. In some communities where mob violence became most destructive, we have wit¬ nessed the surprising spectacle of unusual efforts, sometimes aided by thoughtful per¬ sons, to cripple or paralyze the local public school system. We cannot review these events without reaching the conviction that capital, patriotism, and statesmanship, each and all, should be more far-sighted. In the shadow of these untoward events we may fitly recall the great Stein, amid the evils under which Prussia was struggling, when enumerating in his political testa¬ ment the considerations fitted to elevate and preserve the state. He says : Most is to be expected from the education and instruction of youth. Could we by a method grounded on the internal nature of man develop from within every spiritual gift, rouse and nourish every noble principle of life, carefully avoiding one sided cult¬ ure ; could we diligently nurse those instincts, hitherto so often disregarded with shallow indifference, on which the force and dignity of man rest, * * * then might we hope to see a generation grow up vigorous both in body and soul, and a better prospect for the future unfold itself. Some speak of our liberty and the institutions fostered by it as in their very nature a sufficient guarantee of the perpetuity of our blessings and an ample guard against all the ills incident to other forms of government. The experience of this year should vn VIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. suffice to dissipate this idea, and to "bring ns back to the conviction that onr safety is only in the most vigilant use of every instrumentality fitted to assure the training of each child in the land in virtue and intelligence and in the pursuit of some useful and honorable vocation. The evils here recalled are not limited to the action of great mobs; they are found also in some form in the path of the thousands of “nomadic paupers” who wander about the country. It will not be amiss for the educator to recall the conditions which have attended the growth of these evils elsewhere. We are glad to believe that the horrors of the French revolution of 1793 would be impossible among us ; but it should be remembered that there has been no lack of bread in our land while we have witnessed these crimes of the moh and the “ tramp.” Indeed, it may be doubted whether we have sufficiently reflected upon the enormities possible in our communities if the systematic vagrancy of the ignorant, vicious, and criminal classes should continue to increase ; since the great size of our country and its facilities for travel will afford to any who choose to leave their own neighborhoods for such evil purposes unusual opportunities for com¬ mitting crime and mischief unrecognized. There is, no doubt, a lesson for us in the statement made by the famous Fletcher of Saltoun and used by Lecky,1 * to the effect that in 1698 there were in the little country of Scotland two hundred thousand people begging from door to door, besides a great many poor families, very meanly provided for by the church boxes, with others who by living upon bad food fell victims to various diseases. A similar lesson may be learned from a similar condition of affairs in the other small country of Ireland. Arthur Dobbs, in 1731, computed the number of strolling beggars in a single year at thirty- four thousand.3 Do not the warnings which we may derive from such experiences in other countries emphasize the conclusion that all interests require such a training for every child in the community as to turn him aside from the current which bears on to these evils ? How can we resist the conclusion that his physical, intellectual, moral, and industrial training should be most efficiently arranged and carried forward to establish for him safeguards against a life of idleness, vice, or crime f Moreover, even if it be granted that we have never suffered, as did the French before 1793, from royal and aristocratic oppression, and that we possess and enjoy the largest reasonable liberty for all classes, still the educator, in reasoning upon the acts of violence which have occurred among us during the year, may well ask what the consequences might have been had these disturbances been preceded here, as they were in France, by a series of dry seasons and bad crops, and these poor crops themselves injured or destroyed. Indeed, for the instruction of all patriotic teachers, M. Taine’s picture of these events may well be contrasted with what has actually occurred here. In each event we must come back from the mass to the individual, and from tho adult to the child, in order to do the work of preventing such evils. Here our most common maxims are eloquent : ’Tis education forms the common mind : Just as the twig is bent the tree’s inclined. The mind of every child must be formed for all that is good before him and armed against all that is evil. All his powers must be developed to resist misfortune and wrong. Capital, therefore, should weigh the cost of the mob and the tramp against the expense of universal and sufficient education. 1 History of England in the Eighteenth Century, vol. ii, p. 43. *Ibid., vol. ii,p. 273. WORK OF THE OFFICE. IX CORRESPONDENTS OF TITE OFFICE. The following summary gives the number of the correspondents of the Office, show¬ ing the sources of the information contained in these reports : Statement of educational systems and institutions in correspondence with the Bureau of Educa¬ tion in the years named. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. States and Territories . 37 37 44 48 48 48 48 48 249 325 533 127 241 239 241 Normal schools . 53 65 98 114 124 140 152 166 Business colleges . 26 60 53 112 126 144 150 157 42 55 95 149 177 Aciidomios . 638 811 944 1, 031 1, 467 1, 550 1, 650 Preparatory schools . 86 91 105 114 123 Colleges for women . 33 136 175 205 209 249 252 264 Colleges . 266 290 298 323 343 385 381 385 Schools of science . 17 41 70 70 72 76 76 77 Schools of theology . 80 94 104 140 113 123 125 127 Schools of law . . . 28 39 37 37 38 42 42 45 Schools of medicine . 63 82 87 94 99 104 102 106 Public libraries . . . 156 180 306 377 676 2,200 2,275 2, 440 VnsMims nf nntnrfil history _ 50 43 44 53 54 55 Museums of nrt 22 27 27 31 Art sehnnls _ 26 29 30 Institutions for the deaf and dumb. 34 36 37 40 40 42 43 45 Institutions for the blind . . 10 26 27 28 28 29 29 30 Schools for the feeble-minded _ 8 7 9 9 11 11 Orphan asylums, &.c, __ . . . 77 180 269 408 533 540 Reform schools . 28 20 20 34 56 67 63 63 Total... . 831 2, 001 2,619 3, 449 3, 651 6,085 6, 449 6, 750 It will be observed that all the systems and institutions here included publish either reports or catalogues or both. A complete list of the American correspondents of this Office would embrace two im¬ portant additions to the foregoing summary, viz : (1) many thousand county super¬ intendents and members of school boards and of collegiate and scholastic faculties who do not issue separate printed publications, but who correspond with the Office and desire its publications ; and (2) a large number of writers and students who often assist the Office without expecting other remuneration than its publications. Mail matter. — The following table shows the amount of mail matter handled during the year: Mail matter sent. Letters, written . 6,500 Letters, printed . 7,500 Acknowledgments of documents received . 6, 000 Documents (packages) . 15, 000 Total . 35,000 Mail matter received. Original letters (inquiries, requests, &c) . 4, 000 Replies to inquiries of the Office . . . 5, 000 Receipts for documents sent . . . 15, 000 Documents (packages) . 6, 000 Total . 30,000 X REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. EXPECTATIONS IN REGARD TO THE OFFICE. Those correspondents who indulge special expectations in regard to the Office should not forget the terms of the law under which it was organized. It requires the collect¬ ing of ‘ ‘ such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several States and Territories, and the diffusion of such information respecting the organization and management of school systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country.” As has been well said, “the Office may be termed a clearing house of educational information.” But, however comprehensive its duty in regard to collecting and dis¬ seminating information, it provides for no exercise of authority and none should be ex¬ pected from it. It may be reasonably anticipated that its plans will be comprehensive and its methods characterized by the utmost fairness. However great the interest of the Office in any one part of its duty, it must have greater concern for the whole. The guide to its conclusions must be the light that shines from the lamp of our entire edu¬ cational experience as a people. To the ardor of enthusiasts indifferent departments of educational labor this light may not always be characterized by the heat they would desire, but it is, on that account, the safer. When this Office commenced its work there was before the country no standard for a national educational report. These reports, made from year to year, furnish the facts upon which there may hereafter be formed a fair judgment of what such a report should be ; made under all the em¬ barrassments of the past, they have demonstrated the possibility of a national report. They show how the light from all phases and conditions of education may be gathered up and reflected for the benefit of the whole country. Some results are already very apparent. 1. The. remarkable unanimity of cooperation received by the Office from those engaged in every grade of our educational work, shows how universal is the convic¬ tion that such an Office is desired. 2. It indicates that, according to the judgment of our educators, the present plan of work is, in the main, the right one. 3. There has been a gratifying progress in simplifying and systematizing the nomenclature used in educational publications, but this makes what is yet needed in this direction still more apparent. 4. It moreover disposes of the fallacy that the gathering of information is a grasp¬ ing after power. 5. The improvement in our educational nomenclature and in other conditions of statistics most essential to their value affords ground for hope that our teachers and educational officers may anticipate in the near future such clear and full demonstration of some of the leading principles in the establishment and Conduct of institutions and systems of education, by the people and for the people, as to relieve themselves of the uncertainties which often embarrass them now and well-nigh defeat their efforts. In these valuable contributions of data essential to the formation of a science of educa¬ tion among us, each contributor, unmoved by any authority or expectation of pecuni¬ ary reward, may fairly adopt the language of Bacon, when he says, “ I hold every man a debtor to his profession ; from the which, as men of course do seek to receive coun¬ tenance and profit, so ought they of duty to endeavor themselves, by way of amends, to be a help and ornament thereunto.”1 It should be remembered that the Office has never had sufficient force to prepare the work expected of it under the law. In preparing its reports the only direct reward that it can promise its correspondents is a copy of the document in which their contri¬ butions are printed, but this is not always ordered by Congress in sufficient num¬ bers for this purpose. Of late, also, its means for collecting statistics and publishing Circulars of Information have been greatly restricted. There has, however, been a 1 Elements of the Laws, preface. WORK OF THE OFFICE, XI steady increase (1) in the value of the work prepared by its regular clerks, (2) in the value of the contributions forwarded free by its collaborators, and (3) in its collec¬ tion of books and appliances illustrative of education. In the embarrassments arising from lack of means to publish needed information, all that has been possible with the force of the Office has been done to make manuscript replies to inquiries. Not a few of these have required much time and a command of material nowhere else possible in the country. Indeed, were there no work to be done on the annual report or on Circulars of Information, the current calls on the Office would now absorb the working capacities of its entire force. THE ABSTRACTS.1 The abstracts which immediately follow this part of the Report of the Commissioner and precede the statistical tables of the appendix are prepared from the printed material furnished by the correspondents of the Office and from the numerous educa¬ tional journals published in the United States. The printed matter thus examined and summarized annually is more than seventy thousand pages. It has been practicable, with the present force of the Office, to assign only two persons to this labor, a number inadequate to its preparation; especially as a very large number of inquiries de¬ manding elaborate replies can be answered only in this division of the Office. SCHOOL REPORTS. I do not think that these documents are so carefully studied anywhere else in the country. There can be no question of their superior merit if they are compared with any other State or city documents. Often the intelligence and stability of local edu¬ cational sentiment can be estimated by the strength and value of these reports. The beneficial effect upon school administration of a proper expenditure of effort and money in this way can hardly be attained by any other method of communicating the same information. It may be considered settled that in a republic school officers must pro¬ mote the training of the people in sound ideas respecting educational theories and practice with as much care as they promote the instruction of the young in their schools. Careful students of school reports frequently are surprised by the total mis¬ conception and misrepresentation of many persons as to their use and value.2 1 On page 3 infra may be found the rules followed in the preparation of these abstracts. 2 Their use and value have been well expressed in the following sentences, which were written by an excellent and well known teacher after a careful study of the collection for the year 1877 in this Office : “It is impossible to read the various school reports of our country without being profoundly impressed with the watchful care and intelligent forethonght of those to whom these interests are committed. Especially is this the effect of the reports from the larger cities, where, as the work is most concentrated and most completely organized, there is opportunity for the most perfect supervision. 'While these reports indicate the fixed and enduring character of our graded school system, they show that its friends are not obstinately committed to precedents, but are ever on the alert to modify and expand the system according to the changing conditions of the communities to which it ministers. The re¬ ports of 1877 abound in evidences of this disposition. The attention given to industrial drawing, the introduction of German in the public schools of cities having large proportions of German population, the efforts made to familiarize pupils with the elements of the natural sciences, to cultivate a taste for literature while still maintaining the drill in that narrow round of studies which enter most constantly into the ordinary business by which they must live — all these are proofs of the flexibility of the Amer¬ ican school system. These provisions for the intellectual wants of the young are not confined to the school room. In many cities public libraries exist in immediate relation to the educational department, and an important feature of their administration is their adaptation to the use and needs of students ; thus, in Cincinnati, Cleveland, and St. Louis the public libraries are under the control of the board of education. The financial depression of the year has necessitated great economy in the management of school finances. In considering possible retrenchments, Mr. W. T. Harris, superintendent of schools for St. Louis, is led to propose the introduction of half time schools in the two lowest grades. This plan, it is believed, involves not economy only, but the mental and physical advantage of the pupils. It is generally admitted that from two and a half to four and a half hours’ mental labor is all that should be allowed children under twelve years of age. It is also conceded that the alternation of study and work > as an excellent effect upon children, increasing their interest in both and their capacity for close attention. It appears, then, that a combination of half time literary schools with industrial training would afford the best possible conditions for elementary scholars.” XII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. The sale of school reports is sometimes advocated among ns by those who have heard of the sale of public documents in other countries. The policy of selling docu¬ ments may be good if the Government desires to let those who cannot buy such books live in ignorance of public affairs, thus limiting a knowledge of its conduct to a ruling class which has means to purchase at will. A monarchy or an aristocracy may find such a policy expedient, but a republic may well hesitate before •adopting it. Indeed, the preparation and free distribution of reports on education is a part of the general policy which underlies our free public school systems. To matters of education the law of supply and demand does not apply. Says Lecky : Thus education, in its simplest form, which is one of the first and highest of 3,11 human interests, is a matter in which government initiation and direction are impera¬ tively recognized, for uninstructed people will never demand it, and to appreciate education is itself a consequence of education. Lord Macaulay, in a speech on education in the House of Commons, felicitously remarked on this topic : If, they say, free competition is a good thing in trade, it must surely be a good thing in education. The supply of other commodities — of sugar, for example — is left to adjust itself to the demand; and the consequence is that we are better supplied with sugar than if the government undertook to supply us. Why, then, should wo doubt that the supply of instruction will, without the intervention of the government, be found equal to the demand? Never was there a more false analogy. Whether a man is well supplied with sugar is a matter which concerns himself alone. But whether he is well supplied with instruction is a matter which concerns his neighbors and the state. If he cannot afford to pay for sugar, he must go without sugar. But it is by no means fit that, because he cannot afford to pay for education, he should go without education. Be¬ tween the rich and their instructors there may, as Adam Smith says, be free trade. The supply of music masters and Italian masters may be left to adjust itself to the demand. But what is to become of the millions who are too poor to procure without assistance the services of a decent schoolmaster? SCHOOL AND COLLEGE CATALOGUES. The annual catalogue is a very common publication among all classes of institutions of learning. The study of the very great number of them accumulated in this Office reveals the fact that they do not always enable the receiver to address the institutions which issue them. Every catalogue should, it seems, contain somewhere the post office address of the institution which publishes it. It appears from our correspondence that many of the older institutions have not complete sets of their own catalogues. Many institutions, forgetting the historical value of these publications, fail to send them to libraries where they would be preserved and come into use in future research. As a rule, catalogues published at the present time give the course of study that it is proposed to accomplish in the year represented by the issue. Why should they not give the course of study accomplished in the year previous to their issue, and thus sup¬ ply an important element in any estimate or consideration of educational progress ? The careful study of these catalogues required in the work of the Office also suggests that they might accomplish more effectively the purpose for which they are published by including in each annual issue a brief, strong papor by some member of the faculty on some educational subject. In reference to that class of college catalogues known as “triennial,” many ques¬ tions are suggested. They give many facts of value ; but does not the progress of educational inquiry demand important changes ? The language of these is usually Latin. If they were issued solely for scholars there might be some excuse for continu¬ ing to print them in Latin, but, in addition to the information they give to persons who read that language, they are expected to show to others what the institution has done in training men for different pursuits in life, and thus to furnish a basis for the judgment and choice of those seeking education for themselves or their friends. Why not, then, give the information in plain English ? Most of these catalogues designate tho clergy and those who have received medical degrees ; so they note, perhaps, those who have become members of certain learned societies. There seems to be no good WORK OF THE OFFICE. XIII reason why they should not treat all the alumni alike, noting the occupation and giv¬ ing the last known place of residence of each. By the use of symbols and abbrevia¬ tions much more information of value to the student, the historian, and the college could be printed in a space no greater than that at present used. STATISTICS. The statistics published in the appendix to these annual reports have been col¬ lected by this Office every year in the following way : A printed form containing a series of inquiries and spaces for answers is sent to the head of every system and insti¬ tution on the lists, which is returned by the head thereof with the answers inserted in writing. These are transcribed into the tables ; from these the summaries here presented have been made. The influence of this extensive system of keeping the accounts of education is already apparent in many directions : 1. The accounts are better kept. 2. They are better understood by those who keep them. It is not surprising that those who are inexact in their methods should find something to disturb them in keep¬ ing an accurate record of their educational work, but when this has been well done none have a higher appreciation of its value. 3. New officers are specially aided in taking up their duties by greater fulness and accuracy of records. 4. The public is better able to inform itself in regard to every phase of education. There is in most people a fondness for fair and frank dealing. In the recent serious assaults upon many local systems of education, not a few wDuld have been overturned had the records of the past ten years been as imperfect as those of the previous decade. 5. No man now need blunder on account of the narrowness of his own experience or observation. He has within his reach the recorded experience of forty-four million people ; ho need not err in estimating the relation of his work or of his system or school to that of others, or to the whole educational working force of the country. Statistical summary of institutions, instructors, and students, as collected by the United States Bureau of Education, for 1872, 1873, and 1874. 1872. 1873. 1874. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. 1 Schools. J Teachers. Pupils. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Citv schools . (a) 23, 194 1, 215, 897 (6) 27, 726 1, 564, 663 ( C ) 16,488 976, 837 Normal schools . . . 98 773 11,778 114 887 16, 620 124 966 24,405 Commercial and business 53 263 8,451 112 514 22, 397 126 577 25,892 colleges. Kindergarten . 55 125 1,636 98, 179 Institutions for secondary 811 4,501 98, 929 944 5, 058 118, 570 1,031 5,466 instruction. Preparatory schools . (d) (d) (d) 86 690 12, 487 91 697 11,414 Institutions for the supe¬ 175 1,617 11, 288 205 2,120 24, 613 209 2,285 23,445 rior instruction of women. Universities and colleges . . 298 3,040 45,617 323 3,106 52, 053 343 3, 783 56, 692 Schools of science . 70 724 5, 395 70 747 8, 950 72 609 7,244 Schools of theology . 104 435 3, 351 ’ no 573 3,838 H3 597 4,356 Schools of law . . . 37 151 1,976 37 158 2,n2 38 181 2, 585 a 326 cities were included in 1872, which had a population, according to the ninth census, of 8,036,937. b 533 cities, towns, and villages were included in 1873, which had a population of 10,042,892. cl27 cities, containing 10,000 inhabitants or more, were included in 1874; their aggregate population was 6,637,905. d Included in the institutions for secondary instruction. XIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Statistical summary of institutions, instructors, and students, §~c. — Continued. • 1872. 1873. 1874. • Schools. Teachers. S ft Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Schools of medicine, of den¬ 87 726 5, 995 94 1,148 8, 681 99 1, 121 9,095 tistry, and of pharmacy. Institutions for the deaf 36 267 4,337 40 289 4, 534 40 275 4, 900 and dumb. Institutions for the blind. . . 27 513 1, 856 28 545 1, 916 29 525 1,942 Schools for feeble-minded 9 213 758 9 312 1, 265 children. Orphan asylums, industrial 77 852 10, 324 178 1, 484 22, 107 269 1,678 26,360 schools, and miscellane¬ ous charities. [Reform schools . 26 331 4, 230 34 579 6,858 56 693 10,848 Statistical summary of institutions, instructors, and students, as collected ly the United States Bureau of Education, for 1875, 1876, and 1877. 1875. 1876. 1877. Schools. Toachers. Pupils. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Schools. Toachers. 33 3 ft City schools . . (a) 22, 152 1, 180, 880 < b ) 23, 504 1, 343,487 (c) 23, 830 1, 249, 271 [Normal schools . 137 1,031 29, 105 151 1, 065 33, 921 152 1, 189 37, 082 Commercial and business 131 594 26, 109 137 599 25,234 134 568 23, 496 colleges. - Kindergarten . 95 216 2,809 130 364 4,090 129 336 3,931 Institutions for secondary ' 1,143 6,081 108, 235 1, 229 5, 999 106,647 1, 226 5,963 98, 371 instruction. Preparatory schools . 102 746 12, 954 105 736 12, 369 114 796 12, 510 Institutions for the supe¬ 222 2,405 23, 795 225 2, 404 23, 856 220 2, 305 23, 022 rior instruction of women. tTniversities and colleges . - 355 3, 999 58, 894 356 3,920 56, 481 351 3,998 57, 334 Schools of science . 74 758 7, 157 75 793 7, 614 74 781 8, 559 Schools of theology . 123 615 5,234 124 580 4,268 124 564 3, 965 Schools of law . 43 224 2,677 42 218 2, 664 43 175 2, 811 Schools of medicine, of den¬ 106 1,172 9, 971 102 1,201 10, 143 106 1, 27S 11, 225 tistry, and of pharmacy. Institutions for the deaf 41 293 5,087 42 312 5,209 43 346 5,743 and dumb. Institutions for the blind. . . 29 498 2,054 29 580 2, 083 30 566 2,179 Schools for feeble-minded 9 317 1, 372 11 318 1, 560 11 355 1, 7S1 children. Orphan asylums, industrial 278 1, 789 54,204 385 3,197 47, 439 schools, and miscellane¬ ous charities. "Reform schools 47 678 10, 670 51 800 12, 087 a 177 cities, each containing 7,500 inhabitants or more, were reported in 1875; their aggregate popu ation was 8,804,654. b 192 cities of 7, 500 inhabitants or more were reported in 1876 ; their aggregate population was 9, 128, 955. cl95 cities of 7,500 inhabitants or more are reported in 1877; their aggregate population is 9,099,025. EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS. XV The above may be called a summary of the summaries which will be given in this part of my report. In considering the inquiries possible in this report, it should be borne in mind that only a limited number of the inferences that may be justly drawn from its facts are mentioned or even hinted at in these summaries. Moreover, however great the effort to condense into the report the great mass of trustworthy statements fur¬ nished to the Office, and thus to convey the largest amount of information possible, it should be remembered that there is always in view, in all this work, as a special object, the promotion of the thorough study of educational statistics, with the hope that these may be steadily advanced toward perfection, and thus become more and more valu¬ able to all who seriously seek right educational theory and practice for themselves, their children, their country, or their State. In taking up the following mass of figures it is not improper, therefore, to recall the observations made some years ago by that eminent scientist Dr. Ficker : School statistics include an exhibit of the actual state of education and its results at a certain given moment, with a view of ascertaining the laws which regulate them. The very name, which, perhaps, would better be “educational statistics,” shows the importance as well as the difficulty of the subject, which has recently, more than ever before, occupied the attention of statisticians. It may well be asked whether there can be any educational statistics, and it has seemed "doubtful whether statisticians, with the means at their command, could suc¬ cessfully enter a field where the exhibit of mere facts would least of all seem sufficient. Education, however, is not altogether beyond the statistician’s reach. Tables are cer¬ tainly the most important but not the only element of his exhibit. He may also give existing facts and results obtained in the form of a brief summary, only it should be borne in mind that he has to deal with a summary of facts and the development of tmes. On no other field of inquiry, perhaps, will he have to weigh each expression so carefully in order to avoid even the appearance of mixing individual opinions with his exhibit of facts or of merely coloring them according to his own point of view. The fact that there are limits beyond which statistics cannot go, must not deter the statistician. Even in that part of statistics which occupies itself most with mere figures, financial statistics, there are points which the statistician cannot reach. * # * * 7f # if Should no attempt be made to give educational statistics because they also have their limits ; because it will be difficult, if not absolutely impossible, to give all the individual methods of instruction or the free form of scientific activity at a univer¬ sity f Most assuredly not, for, even if only attempts are made, the way may be cleared and the limits of inquiry more clearly defined. The development of statistics as a science has convinced statisticians that there is only one admissible method of giving facts, viz, the comparative method, the results of which gain all the more trustworthiness the wider the range from which facts have been gathered. The question as to whether there can be any educational statistics naturally leads to the question of the possibility of internationat educational statistics. It cannot be denied that the best and noblest blossom on the tree of human culture, the development of the intellect and of morals, blooms in every country on its own ground and under peculiar conditions. The educational system of a nation bears, .therefore, in every country its own distinctive impress, to understand which thoroughly would require a retrospective view as well as a study of the present condition. The same difference observable in the financial, military, or commercial state of nations may also be seen in their different educational systems. *■***#*# The way in which education develops itself in a country will be the only sure stand¬ ard of measuring the intellectual development of its inhabitants. The gathering and exhibiting of the facts which express this development are therefore synonymous with the statistics of a nation’s most cherished treasure, its intellectual development. And as there is only one true intellectual development’ though showing itself in different forms, thus there can also be only one way of statistically representing it. Educa¬ tional statistics must, therefore, besides schools, in the proper sense of the word, also include all other institutions for the promotion of science and art. International educational statistics must therefore have regard to institutions which may exist in one and not in another state, where, it may be, education has not yet reached a sufficiently high degree of development or where peculiar circumstances prevent the establishment of certain institutions of learning; provided only that such facts form really essential points in the educational system of a nation — for educa¬ tional statistics are not to be a mere curiosity shop. Since there is no doubt, then, as to the feasibility of exhibiting the educational statistics of a country, it will much less be doubted that such an exhibit will exercise a beneficial influence on education itself. XVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Here, also, as in so many other respects, it proves true that good statistics are the com¬ mon property of the whole nation. Napoleon I said : “ Statistics mean the keeping an exact account of a nation’s affairs, and without such an account there is no safety.” And Goethe said : “Ido not know whether figures govern the world, but this I do know — they show how it is governed.” Good educational statistics will show the present generation occupied with caring for a future one ; it will faithfully depict a nation’s hopes and fears connected with this care, and will thereby enable states and individuals to preserve the intellectual heritage of centuries long gone by, and transmit it to the coming generations. Edu¬ cational statistics alone can show the way out of the bewildering maze of different educational systems ; they will be of more than ordinary importance in a state occu¬ pied with a reform of its educational system. All such reforms would build on a very unsafe foundation if they had not been preceded and were not constantly accompanied by most exhaustive educational statistics. Dr. Engel, the eminent director of the Prussian Bureau of Statistics, under the head of methods of exhibiting the results of statistical inquiry, enumerates (1) descriptive exhibit, (2) tabular exhibit, and (3) graphic exhibit. In preparing these reports I have not been unmindful of this threefold presentation of results, but the means at the command of the Office have not permitted that use of graphics which I have desired. A few, however, of an inexpensive character, are in¬ troduced in connection with the summaries which follow. Table I. — Part 1. — Summary (A) of school age, population, enrolment, attendance, $c. States and Territories. School age. School population. Number between 6 and 16 years of age. Number enrolled in public schools. Average daily at¬ tendance. Average duration of school in days. Alabama _ ....... _ ... _ 7-21 369, 447 141, 230 101, 676 82 Arkansas _ ..... _ ... _ _ _ _ 6-21 190, 282 31, 150 1 . California . 5-17 200, 068 a200, 066 147, 863 89, 539 147 Colorado . 6-21 21, 612 14,085 8, 141 Connecticut . 4-16 137, 099 114, 249 119, 208 575, 822 177.5 Delaware . - . . . 5-21 35, 649 24, 061 Florida . . . . . . . . 4-21 c74, 828 26, 052 16, 720 (lenr via, _ 6-18 394, 037 179, 405 ■ 115,121 Illinois _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 6-21 992, 354 694, 489 420,031 Indiana . 6-21 694, 706 521, 030 498, 726 298, 324 128 Iowa . 5-21 568, 026 365, 493 421, 163 251, 372 145 Kansas . - . , . 5-21 232, 861 135, 750 157, 919 118, 612 108 Kentucky _ _ _ ...... _ ... d6-20 512, 808 248, 000 160, 000 110 TAnisianai _ _ _ _ 6-21 266, 033 85, 000 54, 390 135 Maine _ _ 4-21 217, 417 155, 428 104, 318 117 Maryland _ _ ..... _ _ _ ... 5-20 276, 120 150, 276 75, 726 184 Massachusetts _ . _ 5-15 297, 202 307, 832 . 222, 704 176 Michivan _ 5-20 469, 444 357, 139 210, 000 148 Minnesota. _ _ 5-21 238, 362 162, 551 82 Mississippi _ _ 5-21 324, 989 160, 528 97,302 ell Missonri . . _ . 6-20 725, 728 394, 848 182,000 60 Nebraska . . . . . 5-21 92, 161 56, 774 127 Nevada . 6-18 8,475 5,521 3,832 142.8 New Hampshire _ _ _ 4-21 73, 418 68, 035 47, 921 92 New Jersey . . . 5-18 318, 378 198, 709 107, 961 184 New "Fork . . . . . 5-21 1, 586, 234 1, 023, 715 559, 537 178.5 North Carolina . . 6-21 408, 296 201, 459 104, 173 60 Ohio . 6-21 1, 027, 248 757, 440 722, 240 448, 100- 160 a Number between 5 and 17. d For colored population the school age is from 6 to 16. 5 For the winter; 68,588 for the summer. e In the counties ; in the cities, 200 days. c In 1873. SCHOOL STATISTICS OF STATES AND TERRITORIES, XVII Table I. — Part 1. — Summary (A) of school age, population, $c. — Continued. States and Territories. School age. School population. Number between 6 and 16 years of age. Number enrolled in public schools. Average daily at¬ tendance. Average duration of school in days. 4-20 50, 649 45, 584 30, 389 6-21 al 200 000 907, 412 575, 597 148. 94 5 15 653, 316 43, 698 29, 276 181 6-16 228, 128 228, 128 102, 396 60 6-18 442, 458 227, 643 142, 266 70 8-14 127, 085 109, 052 66 5-20 92, 925 72, 909 45, 318 Virginia . 5-21 482, 789 307, 230 204, 974 117, 843 112 "West Virginia . 6-21 184, 760 123, 504 72, 278 95. 04 Wisconsin . 4-20 478, 388 291, 270 cl49 Total . 14, 093, 778 2, 629, 386 8, 881, 848 4, 886, 289 Arizona _ ............. _ _ _ 6-21 2, 955 903 5'80 190 Dakota . 5-21 11, 046 6,431 75. 6 District of Columbia . 6-17 <231, 671 e29, 133 21, 264 16, 318 188 Idaho . . . . . 5-18 2, 777 2, 724 Montana . 4-21 4,892 4, 597 Hew Mexico . 7-18 (229, 312 5,151 132 Utah . 6-16 30, 792 30, 792 19, 779 13, 420 146 Washington . . . 4-21 12, 997 5, 385 130 Wyoming . 7-21 1, 690 Indian : Cherokee s . 7-21 4, 041 2, 800 1, 500 200 Creeks . 10-18 716 . 616 448 Choctaws . 6-20 2, 300 1, 133 745 168 Seminoles . . . 471 157 108 180 Total . 133, 970 59, 925 72, 630 33, 119 Grand total . 14, 227, 748 2, 689, 311 8, 954, 478 4, 919, 408 a In 1873. b Census of 1875. « In the counties ; in the cities, 193«days. E — H d United States census of 1870. e In 1870. XVIII REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Diagram No. 1, showing the different school ages in the States and Territories during 1877. School years. Number of years in each school age. 17. 16. 16. 15. 15. 14. 14. 13. 12. 12. 12. 11. 11. 10. 10. 8. School years. . 8 . & . 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 18 . 19 . 20 . . 21 Number of school ages.; 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Number of school ages. The above diagram shows that there are seventeen different school ages in the States and Territories, of which the longest, from the fourth to the twenty-first year, extends over seventeen years. The shortest, from the eighth to the fourteenth year, covers a period of six years only. The first is practically too long for any public school system which does not include superior instruction, and the last is as evidently too short to allow the timely and effectual training which every child should receive. The period of ten years between the sixth and the sixteenth year, which is approved by many of our best educators as the most suitable for public elementary and secondary education, is indicated by the dotted lines which cross the diagram horizontally. Diagram No. 2 shows on the left what percentage of the population of legal school age in the several States and Territories was in daily average attendance ; and on the right what percentage of said population was enrolled in the public schools. The fact that the school age varies widely in different States not only partially accounts for the relative positions of the States indicated in the table, but also explains how it is that in Massachusetts more than 100 per cent, of the children of school age are reported enrolled. The percentage of daily average attendance is not given in the States of Arkansas, Delaware, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Carolina, Texas, and Wisconsin, and in the Territories of Dakota, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Washington, and Wyoming. Showing Diagram No. 2 ! relation of enrolment t to school population. SCHOOL STATISTICS OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. XIX Table I. — Part 1. — Summary (B) of the number of teachers employed in the public schools, and the average salary of teachers per month, in the respective States and Territories. States and Territories. Alabama . Arkansas . California . Colorado . Connecticut . Delaware . Florida . Georgia . Illinois . Indiana . Iowa . . Kansas . Kentucky . . Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . . Massachusetts . . Michigan . Minnesota . . . Mississippi . Missouri . . Nebraska . Nevada . New Hampshire . . New Jersey . . New York . North Carolina . Ohio . Oregon . Pennsylvania . Rhode Island . South Carolina . Tennessee . Texas . Vermont . Virginia . VF est Virginia . . . Wisconsin . . Total number of teachers in States Arizona . . Dakota . District of Columbia . Idaho . j Number of teachers cm- 1 ployed in pub- ! lie schools. Average sal¬ ary of teachers per month. Male. Female. Male. Female (4,: 145) $22 65 $22 65 639 187 50 00 40 00 ■ 1,184 1,983 83 78 69 68 183 250 56 10 51 45 753 2,354 64 55 36 20 270 231 (30 75) 375 182 • a3, 267 «1, 633 9, 162 12, 836 46 17 32 23 ■ 8, 109 j 5, 465 61 27 39 20 ■ 7,348 12,518 34 88 28 69 2, 772 3,279 33 19 29 82 ■ 1,600 2, 700 40 00 35 00 767 740 45 00 35 00 ■ 2,253 4,543 41 84 25 64 1,243 1,663 41 95 41 95 1, 118 7, 390 75 64 33 04 3, 781 9,220 42 54 27 45 1, 711 3, 031 36 75 28 31 (4,125) 29 19£ 29 19^ 5,904 3,747 (30 00) 1,571 2, 158 35 46 31 80 36 77 112 63 85 20 591 2, 955 38 37 24 71 954 2, 356 63 78 37 04 7, 850 22,311 1, 728 654 30 00 30 00 10,855 12,148 720 502 50 00 35 00 9,096 11, 556 37 38 32 30 6294 5987 80 69 45 91 1, 639 1,035 28 32 26 87 3,741 1, 260 28 53 28 53 c(3,] LOO) e(53 00) 720 3,608 34 44 21 60 2,967 1,773 33 10 27 37 2, 797 896 34 89 • 32 09 (9,858) d40 48 d26 35 (257,454) 1 . ! 6 ! 25 100 00 50 00 100 154 31 299 96 17 71 21 a These items, compiled from later returns, were inserted after the completion of the table in the appendix. & Includes teachers in evening schools. c In 1875. d In the counties ; in the cities the average salaries are: of men, $108.20; of women, $35.93. XX REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table I — Part 1. — Summary (B) of the number of teachers employed in the public schools, Ac. — Continued. States and Territories. Kumber of . , , 1 Average sal- teachers em- arT of t|ach6r5 ployed m pub- J ermonth. lie schools. A Male. Female. : Male. | - i Female. 36 64 ($64 32) 132 15 . 232 238 $45 00 $22 50 134 145 i 40 00 30 00 21 27 j (71 56) Indian : (9 3) 42 80 1 42 80 10 18 I 40 00 40 00 (57) 26 00 26 00 4 | 1 50 00 50 00 (1,842) 1 . _L OT 3.1 ULLLl lUtJl ui tccivnvi. o m (259,296) . .. Table I. — Part 2. — Summary (A) of annual income and expenditure, $c. Annual expenditure. P P — p *G © & GO © States and Territo¬ ries- © | < aT 2 to 3 a « . c (h m \A ^ -P m p GQ 03 ■43 •si |1 'cS 'o c3 © i o © © % H $417, 243 212, 000 3, 610, 162 198, 975 $7, 500 $384,993 ! $392, 493 73,166 : 119, 403 Arkansas . . California . $221, 539 49, 365 181, 760 (a) 2,149,436 i 140, 780 $378, 754 25,111 1 2,749,729 215, 256 Colorado . - - - Pn-nnopfimt, _ - . 1, 506, 219 216, 225 35, 000 1, 058, 682 234, 781 1 1, 510, 223 UUUUCCtlLUO . 1, 800 114, 027 102, 198 i 218, 025 Delaware - ...... PloridR . 94, 104 AQA 04.fi 14, 639 6,748 74, 628 5, 707 101, 722 j 6400, 153 Georgia . . - . Illinois . . 9, 640, 340 4, 873, 131 598, 755 75, 922 5, 000, 000 1, 713, 919 | 7, 388, 596 611, 739 906, 523 3, 049, 094 1, 012, 933 | 4,673,766 lew*! ,.v . 5, 349, 029 (a) 2, 953, 645 1, 337, 258 5,197,426 1, 570, 755 . 1, 827, 575 467, 368 20, 000 824, 966 ! cl, 328, 376 Kansas . T\ p-ntn clc V ...... 5, 000 25, 000 1, 000, 000 100, 000 1, 130, 000 JACllLUV.n.j . 8, 000 295, 504 66, 325 369, 829 Maine . . 1, 067, 104 62, 766 30, 814 951, 877 125, 211 i 1, 170, 668 Maryland - -- -- -- -- 1, 637, 583 . 65,481,598 . 3, 792, 122 251, 339 28,250 1, 085, 063 272, 931 1, 637, 583 Massachusetts ... - Michigan . 4, 787 339, 230 54, 984 d871, 857 1 1,941,338 430, 255 907, 345 5, 582, 519 3, 187, 913 ^ c3 § e. coo $5, 933, 244 472, 983 450, 957 17, 783, 929 11, 376, 730 9, 204, 189 4, 337, 654 2, 300, 000 736, 575 3, 022, 722 9, 450, 000 "fa™’ ttSTin tins s_ after the coition of the table in the The income reported for Massachusetts is only an approximation made by the secret^ ofthej hoard of education, the expenditure for Washington Territory is an estimate made by this Bureau, the expenditures for Georgia and Utah are from later returns. c Items not all reported. d Only a partial report. Diagram No. 3, Shoeing the average monthly pay of teachers. ■*. ' I J- .'V j SCHOOL STATISTICS OF STATES AND TERRITORIES, XXI Table I. — Part ‘2. — Summary (A) of annual income and expenditure , tf c. — Continued. Annual expenditure. ll » o o ^ 2 a ? o ** « 2 rs fcC H, ;g 3 i ® States and Territo¬ ries. © < - * ,x 2 *5 ^ ll af 3 33 - X CD CD £ § | CD Q 3D O § CO ~z Minnesota . $1, 181, 327 $18, 625 i $791, 679 jo$l, 181, 327 $2, 999, 424 Mississippi . 496, 9S7 481, 215 Missouri . 1, 773, 464 i 2, 374, 960 Nebraska . 633,211 $187, 565 22,038 457,049 | $194, 612 861, 264 1, 862, 386 Nevada . 195, 535 48,862 101, 016 12,882 162, 760 165, 801 New Hampshire .... 609, 679 89,680 15,086 429, 021 70, 867 604,654 j 2, 357, 405 New Jersey . 2, 079, 907 394,068 26,704 1,481,124 28, 006 1,929,902 6, 518, 504 New York . 12, DO, 904 1, 601, 071 127,000 | 7,915,634 1, 332, 529 10,976,234 North Carolina . 406,447 U,506 263, 524 15, 760 290, 790 225, 000 Ohio . 7, 875, 901 947, 399 143, 724 4,957,254 1, 362, 691 j 7,4n,06S 21, 145, 127 Oregon . 308, 373 25,346 190, 922 25,625 241,893 450, 560 Pennsylvania . 8, 500, 000 1, 276, 579 100, 000 4, 817, 563 2, 389, 237 8,583,379 25, 460, 762 Ehode Island . 730,422 224,259 U.418 412,543 77, 742 725, 962 2, 644, 541 South Carolina . 189,353 6,101 212,582 7,338 226, 021 Tennessee . . 718,423 46, 381 18,422 565, 651 37, 930 a699, 513 1, 090, 814 Texas . 500,000 496, 083 Vermont . 548,253 60,884 420,826 | 55,443 537, 153 Virginia . 1,102,112 100, 625 ! 46,361 778,883 124,477 j 1,050,346 969, 317 West Virginia . 860,644 126,689 14,096 531, 545 120,942 793,272 1, 660, 467 Wisconsin . i 2,743,343 274, 204 . i 1,563,038 328, 391 j 2, 249, 63S 5, 1S3, 902 Total . 85,959,864 8, 668, 661 837,492 47,858,910 12, 897, 200 79, 251, 114 I 137, 802, 993 Arizona . 20,708 i 44,436 | 1,100 10, 400 6,907 62,843 Dakota . 37, 668 5, 704 1 15, 639 4, 988 27,362 District of Columbia. 370, 996 27,191 j 12,370 239, 854 91,581 370,996 1, 169, 614 Idaho . 36,214 j 14, 376 2,214 16, 590 Montana . 37,092 24,000 4,300 25, 804 * 54,104 80, 000 New Mexico . 25,473 15, 432 3,458 18, 890 Utah . 210,062 30,717 1,500 i 127, 480 6210, 062 Washington . 49,765 649,765 Wvoming . . 16,400 16,400 Indian: Cherokees . 72,298 ; 9,959 | 2,500 1 43,075 54, 576 110, no j 165, 000 Creeks . ; 13,000 i n,200 1,800 13,000 Choctaws . i 29,022 12, 000 29,022 j Seminoles . 4,000 . 250 2,250 700 3.200 ! | Total . 906,298 | 142,007 22,020 533,910 166,224 982,344 1, 414, 614 Grand total . 86,866,162 8,810,668 j 943,517 48,392,820 j 13,063,424 j 80,233,458 j 139, 217, 607 altems not all reported. b These items were inserted in this summary after the completion of the table in the appendix. The income reported for Massachusetts is only an approximation made by the secretary of the State board of education, the expenditure for Washington Territory is an estimate made by this Bureau, and the expenditures for Georgia and Utah are from later returns. XXII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table I. — Part 2. — Summary (B) of per capita expenditure. States and Territories. £ § & 5 m ! a ."S s S a » •9 E 'll © Ph H S » ft-3 I § ^'43 £"°g| § 5 is *§ ,rl s ^3 a r^T ^ •t3 PlH ® a o . a •S a -a += e? & « o +3 .a « Cherokees (Indian Territory) Massachusetts . California . Choctaws (Indian Territory) . Montana . District of Columbia . Rhode Island . Colorado . Iowa . Nebraska . Illinois . Ohio . Michigan . Indiana . Vermont . Kansas . New Jersey . Maine . Maryland . . . Oregon . . Washington . Kentucky . Virginia . Georgia . . Alabama . North Carolina . . Arizona . Delaware . New Hampshire. $24 78 15 26 13 74 12 62 11 05 10 90 69 09 7 95 7 90 7 51 7 45 7 21 6 05 5 90 5 81 5 70 5 30 5 11 5 07 4 77 3 82 2 00 1 98 1 58 1 10 1 02 68^ $35 76 14 62 18 59 25 62 16 24 612 13 12 20 10 67 12 19 10 63 10 70 10 80 8 23 7 34 8 41 8 49 7 15 9 32 5 32 9 24 4 00 4 66 3 70 2 42 272 1 39 20 38 9 65 7 34 $62 76 19 85 28 19 38 96 21 16 617 59 21 10 17 87 17 25 13 52 13 76 11 85 11 19 15 64 10 65 18 50 7 96 5 00 8 11 4 91 3 77 3 08 2 69 31 73 a$13 74 a$14 04 11 85 12 29 14 05 7 87 9 78£ 10 12 9 18 3 11 3 30 14 40 a Per capita of population between 5 and 17. 6 Current expenditure only used in these calculations. GENERALIZATIONS BY YEARS AND BY TOPICS WITHOUT REFERENCE TO STATES. Statistical summary showing the school population, enrolment, attendance, income, expenditure, 100 134, 600 1875 .. 23, 350 16, 900 100 9, 750 1, 800 2, 200 5,400 1, 000 I 1,350 1, 500 27,150 10,500101,000 1876.. 17, 800 8, 050 4, 150 3,700 1,000 5,500 9, 950 2, 000 4,450 1, 000 10, 100 : 8,600 76,300 1877.. 18, 250 4,900 4,300 4,000 6, 500 3, 700 5,990 O o o 10, 800 6,300 j 15, 850 J 6, 810 89,400 Total. 201, 250 87, 600 27, 650 71, 062 48, 450 j 55, 450 | 58, 578 55, 850 j 18, 600 j 60, 600 jl91, 650 r710! jg Cl © STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS — FREE TEXT BOOKS. XXXIX This unparalleled benefaction, administered by the trustees through their agent, Rev. Baraas Sears, d. d., ll. d., continues its great work of aiding those cities and towns that help themselves to educational privileges for their youth. The above figures, covering a period of ten years, are most suggestive ot the vast good accom¬ plished.1 TOWNSHIP SCHOOL SYSTEM. The oldest American educational idea was that of Massachusetts, which looked to an elementary school in every town containing 50 householders, with a grammar school where there were 50 more householders. A somewhat more recent but more widely spread idea was to have ordinary schools for every township, a higher school for every county, and a college or university for every State. The township was the unit of the whole school system, and many thoughtful men are question¬ ing whether it ought not to be restored to that position, instead of being broken into incohesive fragments called school districts, as is common now. Some arguments for such a restoration are as follows : 1. The present district system involves almost necessarily numerous poor school- nouses, because the few people in a district cannot generally afford a good one. The population being scanty, schools are small, with imperfect classification of the pupils and recitations too numerous and too short for fair results. Poor teaching is inevitable, from the need of getting for each little school the cheapest teacher to be had ; and yet a great proportionate expense is incurred on the whole, since in the case of every two school-houses where one would satisfy all real wants, there must be two teachers, two fires, and two sets of furniture, besides the cost of the unnecessary building. With all this, too, there is frequent uncertainty as to ill surveyed and ill marked district boundaries, involving uncertainty as to which district is to collect the tax and edu¬ cate the children, and great liability to disputes and bickerings on this account. And then there is perfect certainty of often having in the district board men unfit to supervise and help a school. 2. The township system, on the other hand, providing boundaries settled by indis¬ putable surveys, removes all ground for disputes on that point; it affords an opportu¬ nity to obtain for the township a school board of intelligent and good men, and through such a board better management of school funds, better choice of teachers, better arrangement and gradation of the schools, and wiser supervision of them. These being the invariable characteristics and results of the two systems, a number of the States are endeavoring to get rid of the district and substitute the township system. The voice of the State superintendents is believed to be uniformly in favor of the change.2 fp.ee text books in free schools. From a desire to extend to every child the full advantages of public instruction, the laws of thirteen of our States make provision for supplying indigent pupils with the needful text books free of charge. These books are understood to be held by the chil- 1 Ilie report of the State Normal College at Nashville, Temi., for the year ending September 1, 1877, shows that the second year has been much more successful than its most sanguine friends anticipated it would he — a result largely due to the amount appropriated by the Peabody education fund for its support, which was $9,000 for 1877; the State contributed nothing. The first annual commencement was held Way 80, 1877, and was very largely attended by prominent educators and citizens. After an address by ex-G-ovemor Neill S. Brown, the degree of licentiate of instruction was conferred upon the graduates. 2 As bearing on this point, the opinion of an intelligent and clear-sighted foreigner may not be with¬ out interest : “The district is a territorial unit not only too narrow but too variable to serve either as the basis for a wise distribution of school funds or for efficient supervision of the schools. Chance, caprice, sometimes the interest of a single family, or an insignificant village rivalry, sometimes, also, the prejudices or carelessness of a single man, may determine the fate of a locality, either burdening it with useless taxes, depriving it of any school whatever, or giving it a very poor one. The district sys¬ tem has been tried ; it is not liberty, but chaos. Those who are engaged in elementary instruction with one voice demand its repeal" — (M. F. Buisson, Rapport sur l'ins traction primaire a 1'Exposition Um- verselle de Philadelphia.) XL REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. dren as a loan, to be returned in tbe best condition possible to tbe school boards after nse, and to be passed on from session to session and from child to child. The benefits derived from this arrangement have been so many and so various as to give rise to con¬ siderable discussion of the question whether the system of a free supply of books by school boards would not better be made universal, instead of partial and discriminat¬ ing, as it is. The advocates of a system of free supply urge in favor of it that it saves expense, the books being purchased at wholesale ; that it saves time, enough books for every scholar being thus available at the opening of each term ; that it secures for a district a desirable uniformity of text books, making the work of teachers greatly easier and more effective than in other cases ; that it thus promotes better classification of pupils, so that more time can be given to each class ; that it increases the attendance on the schools ; and, finally, that it prevents expense and annoyance when a pupil goes from one district to another. In view of these advantages, our two largest cities, New York and Philadelphia, have for a long time furnished free books, and smaller cities, such as Bath and Lewis¬ ton in Maine, Fall River in Massachusetts, Newark and Paterson in New Jersey, have followed their example, with the happiest results. Four of the States, too, now explicitly provide for allowing the system of free supply. Maine, Massachusetts, and Wisconsin' leave the matter to be decided by district or town meetings and city coun¬ cils and the local school boards ; and New York authorizes city boards to furnish books to pupils out of any money provided for the purpose. In most of the remaining States the laws are silent on this point, except, as before mentioned, where a supply for poor pupils is allowed. But in California, Iowa, Michigan, New Jersey, and Penn¬ sylvania the State superintendents express themselves as decidedly in favor of famish¬ ing free all the books needed. Superintendent Carr, of California, further ventures the opinion that in the silence of the law there is no obstacle in the way of the adop¬ tion by any. district of the free plan ; and probably, in almost any State, districts would be allowed to decide the matter for themselves, provided that proper notice be given beforehand to the people of the intention to discuss and determine the question at a specified time. DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERVISION IN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS. History constantly affirms the necessity of education to the permanence and prog¬ ress of every administrative system. The Christian church, it is well known, insti¬ tuted a formal organization for the training of its officers in their respective duties, and, as long as its supremacy over the state was allowed, assumed also the education of the officers of government. The University of Paris, the University of Yienna, the schools and colleges of the Jesuits, were instances of the church’s exercise of this inestimable power. Gradually, states recognized that education is one of the chief forces in their possession, and resolved to apply it to the whole people. These succes¬ sive aims, ecclesiastical, political, popular, were combined in the educational system of Prussia. The power which the church had derived from education, Frederick the Great di¬ rected to the general good and glory of the state ; the salient provisions of his system were, on the one hand, the beginning of normal schools supplying special training for officials, and, on the other, compulsory education insuring an intellectual training to every individual. Step by step, the other states of the Old World are adopting the efficient system out of which came the present supremacy of Northern Germany in European affairs. In the history of our own country, education presents an impressive record. Says President Quincy in his History of Harvard College: “The first necessities of civilized man, food, raiment, and shelter, had scarcely been provided ; civil govern¬ ment and the worship of God had alone been instituted, when the great interests of education engaged the attention of the colonists of Massachusetts.” SCHOOL SUPERVISION, XLI The proofs of this immediate concern are the colonial lares of 1642 and 1647, form¬ ally enacting what had already been practically established, and making Harvard College tho expressive crown of a well ordered system of public instruction. Like the Hebrew, tho Puritan syllabled his patriotism and his adoration in a single expression, “If I forget thee, O Jerusalem!” Schools and college were in his concep¬ tion the common nursery of state and church, developing by the same process the citizen and the Christian, since in a community where the privilege of electing officers and holding office was vested exclusively in freemen, and where none could be freemen but church members, the two characters were comprehended in one. Education formed necessarily an inherent element of the administrative policy. To these early move¬ ments in our colonies may be traced the educational ideals that pervade our history. In the conqffete separation of church and state, however, while the provisions for education continue and multiply, its aims and its control have been involved in sin¬ gular confusion; nevertheless, in the irregular development throughout the States, the tendency to efficient supervision has maintained itself in continuous life, some¬ times obscured by opposition, sometimes firmly marked, but always traceable. At first the only distinct and separate officer in the affairs of church and state set apart to education was, under the clergy, the teacher. Afterward, as education devel¬ oped in towns, it came under the control of the same committee or officers as other civil affairs of the town. By degrees the school came to be recognized as so important in itself, so distinct in its objects from other branches of administration, that the necessity to the state of setting apart for school government a class of officers especially fitted for educational responsibilities was fully admitted; the town school committees followed. As the duties of school supervision increased and forced themselves upon the at¬ tention of the State, for a time they were treated as subordinate and committed to some one of the State officers who had other duties, as, for example, the secretary of state ; but these experiments invariably proved detrimental to education and unsatisfactory to the people ; and it is generally a disadvantage for a man to advocate a return to such provisions. To-day the State that should abolish or cripple separate State supervision of education and commit it to another officer of the State would be universally con¬ demned among educators as going backward. The development of this important principle can be better understood by the particular account of the successive move¬ ments in New York. In 1795, Governor George Clinton recommended to the Legislature the establishment of common schools throughout the State, in pursuance of which recommendation an act was framed and approved April 9, 1795, entitled “An act for the encouragement of schools.” This act appropriated $50,000 a year for five years, for fostering and main¬ taining schools in the several cities and towns of the State; made explicit provision for the division of funds and for treasurer’s certificates, and for the supervision of the schools under local commissioners and trustees ; it also directed reports as to the de¬ tails of the schools to be transmitted to the secretary of state, to be by him laid before the Legislature. Thus, in the first legislative action in New York after the Revolution toward organizing a common school system, the importance of supervision in educa¬ tion was distinctly recognized. “ On the basis of this simple organization,” says Mr. Randall, “the foundations of our present school system were originally laid.” Seven¬ teen years later, in 1812, occurred the first legislation contemplating a permanent system of common schools. Then the office of State superintendent of common schools was created. Each town was required ta elect three commissioners of common schools and from one to six inspectors, who with the commissioners were to have supervision of the schools and to conduct the examinations of teachers ; at the same time the offices of trustees, clerk, and collector were created for each school district. The following year, 1813, the office of superintendent was bestowed by the council of appointment upon Mr. Gideon Hawley, who served till 1821, and to whom must be ascribed the honor of having thoroughly organized the common school system of the XLII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. State. He was removed on purely political grounds, and a person wanting in the requisite qualifications of a superintendent of schools was appointed in his stead; this led to a notable change respecting State supervision. A law or clause of a law was enacted that the secretary of state should, ex officio, be the superintendent of common schools. This law remained unchanged till 1854, but not without strong recommendations from time to time on the part of the secretaries of state and others in favor of a separate and distinct department of school superintendence. The constant agitation of the subject is indicated by a series of acts : thus, the act of 1841 created the office of deputy superintendent ; that of 1843 abolished the office of town commissioner of schools and inspector of schools and created the office of town superintendent; and the act of 1847 abolished the office of county superintend¬ ent and ordered the returns of town superintendents to be made to county clerks. The great interests involved in the educational administration were now so distinctly recognized that in 1851 the assembly, by resolution, authorized the governor to ap¬ point a commission to report to the legislature at its next session a common school code for the State. Hon. S. S. Randall, the commissioner under the resolution, recom¬ mended, as one of the permanent changes required in the then existing law, “the separation of the office of State superintendent of common schools from that of secre¬ tary of state and its creation into a separate and distinct department.” Governor Horatio Seymour strongly recommended such separate organization of the department in his message to the legislature in 1854, and accordingly an act for the purpose was passed the March ensuing. “This important measure,” says Mr. Randall, from whose History of the Common School System of New York the above facts are mainly derived, “was warmly supported by Hon. E. W. Leavenworth, then secretary of state, chiefly on the ground of the incompatibility of the duties pertaining to the office of superin¬ tendent with those required of the secretary of state.” Thus, after a period of more than thirty years, the State of New York returned, in 1854, to the system of a separate department for common school superintendence, which has been continued to the present time. The development of the same system in Maine is also pertinent to the present inter¬ est in the general subject. The first school law in this State was passed in 1821, one year after the separation from Massachusetts. With respect to school supervision, this law provided for the election at annual town meetings of a superintending school commissioner for each town and plantation, whose duty it should be to examine teach¬ ers, select school books, visit and inspect the schools, &c. It also provided for the choosing of a district agent for each district, whose duty it should be to hire teachers for the district and to provide the necessary utensils and fuel for the schools. No pro¬ vision was made in the law for any reports concerning the schools to either town or State officers. The act of 1821 was so amended by the act of 1825 as to make it the duty of select¬ men to present returns to the secretary of state, once in three years, as to the number of school districts, the number of scholars in each, the number of scholars usually attending school, the length of school sessions, and the amount of money expended for the same. The law was inadequate to the results desired, and the returns secured were of little or no value. These partial acts accelerated the grand movement, and in 1843 vigorous efforts were made by the friends of education in the legislature to improve the schools by a State organization. A bill was immediately introduced to establish a board of school commissioners, which, however, failed to become a law ; a bill introduced in 1845 by Stephen H. Chase, of Fryeburg, providing for school commissioners to be appointed by the governor and council also failed to become a law. Notwithstanding these failures, the public will was moving steadily toward an efficient supervision of schools. In accordance with a memorial to the legislature drawn up by a convention of teachers and Mends of education, Hon. E. M. Thurston introduced a bill to estab- SCHOOL SUPERVISION. XLIII lisli a State board of education, -which became a law July 27, 1846. The board was to consist of one member from each county, to be chosen annually by the superin¬ tending school committees of the several towns and the clerks of the several plan¬ tations in each county ; it was required to elect, each year, one person, to be styled the secretary of the board of education. A penalty was imposed on towns for neglect¬ ing to make school returns and teachers were ordered to keep registers. “ The estab¬ lishment of the board of education,” says Mr. Corthell in his review of the school legislation of Maine, “ marks the era of reform and advance in school work.” The new system was variously modified by the acts of 1850 and 1851, and in 1852 the “ board of education ” and the “secretary of the board ” were abolished, and a law was enacted making it the duty of the governor and council annually to appoint a commissioner of common schools for each county, who was charged with the super¬ vision of the schools of his own county. In 1854 an act was passed establishing the office of State superintendent of common schools, and by an act of 1868 the powers and duties of the superintendent were fully defined and his office was fixed at the seat of government. Thus, after various experiments, ranging through a history of forty-seven years, efficient school super¬ vision was made the law of the State. The development of common school supervision in the various States has been sub¬ stantially the same as in New York and Maine. The correctness of the principle, the necessity of its application, are now universally admitted ; it is in active operation in every State of the Union, Oregon and Delaware having been the last to adopt it. Following is a list of the designations of State educational officers in the several States and Territories, with their mode of election or appointment and term of service. XLIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Official title, mode of appointment, and term of service of State and territorial superintendents. Designation of officer. Elected or ap¬ pointed by the — Term of service. STATE SUPERINTENDENTS. TVnplo . 2 years. Arkansas . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 2 years. California . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 4 years. Colorado . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 2 years. State board of During pleasure education. of board. ftnTP.mnr 1 vear. Honda . State superintendent of public instruction . Governor . 4 years. Governor 2 years. Illinois . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 4 years. Indiana . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 2 years. Iowa . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 2 years. Kansas . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 2 years. Kentucky . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 4 years. Louisiana . State superintendent of public education . People . 4 years. Maine . State superintendent of common schools . . Governor and 3 years, or during council. pleasure of ex¬ ecutive. Maryland . State superintendent of public instruction a . State board of During pleasure education. of board. Massachusetts . . . Secretary of State board of education . State board of No express lim¬ education. itation. Michigan . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 2 years. Minnesota . State superintendent of public instruction . Governor . 2 years. Mississippi . State superintendent of public education . People . 4 years. Missouri . State superintendent of public schools . People . 4 years. Nebraska . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 2 years. Nevada . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 4 years. New Hampshire . State superintendent of public instruction . Governor . 2 years. New Jersey . State superintendent of public instruction . State board of 3 years. education. New York . State superintendent of public instruction . Legislature . . . 3 years. North Carolina . . State superintendent of public instruction . People.. . 4 years. Ohio . State commissioner of common schools _ _ People . . . 3 years. Oregon . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 4 years. Pennsylvania .... State superintendent of public instruction . Governor and 4 years. senate. Khode Island .... State commissioner of public schools . State board of 1 year. education. South Carolina. . . State superintendent of education . People . 4 years. Tennessee . State superintendent of public schools . Governor and 2 years. senate. Texas . Secretary of State board of education . . Board of edu¬ During pleasure cation. of board. Vermont . State superintendent of education . Gen’l assembly 2 years. Virginia . State superintendent of public instruction . Gen’l assembly 4 years. "West Virginia . . . State superintendent of free schools . People . 4 years. "Wisconsin . State superintendent of public instruction . People . 2 years. TERRITORIAL SUPERINTENDENTS. Alaska . a Ex officio, as principal of State Normal School. SCHOOL SUPERVISION. XLV Official title , mode of appointment, and tei'm of service of State and territorial superintend¬ ents — Continued. Designation of officer. Elected or ap¬ pointed by the — Term of servics. Preg, of TJ. S. . Not given- Dakota . Territorial superintendent of public instruction. Governor and 2 years. council. Dist. of Columbia. (a) District com¬ During pleasure missioners. of comm’rs. Xtlolin Territorial controller, ex officio . Govern nr _ yot given. Tnrlirm _ Superintendent of schools of the Five yations .. Montana . Territorial superintendent of public instruction. Governor . 2 years. yew Mexico . Secretary of Territory, ex officio . Pres, of TJ. S.. Utah _ _ Territorial superintendent of district schools. . . . People _ _ 2 years. Washington . Territorial superintendent of public instruction- Governor . 2 years. Wyoming: . Territorial librarian, ex officio . Governor ..... * r j ui0 -------- a There are two superintendents : The title of the first is superintendent of schools for white chil¬ dren in "Washington and Georgetown and of the county schools; of the second, superintendent of schools for colored children in Washington and Georgetown. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table II. — Summary of school statistics of Cities. Estimated present population. Legal school age. School population. Number of school buildings. Number of sittings for study. Number of teachers. 1 No. of days schools were taught. Pupils. Whole number en¬ rolled. Average daify at¬ tendance. 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Little Rock, Ark . 17, 000 6-21 6,462 9 1,528 27 170 1, 960 1, 129 301, 020 5-17 51, 889 56 618 209 37, 288 24, 736 16, 000 5-17 3, 074 9 42 198 2, 374 2,256 Stockton, Cal . 15, 000 5-17 3, 011 10 1, 693 34 196 1, 693 1, 523 Denver, Coloc . 21, 000 6-21 2,481 4 1, 615 37 195 2, 078 1, 344 Bridgeport, Conn . 25, 000 4-16 6, 376 17 4, 069 84 196 5, 167 3, 194 41, 600 4-16 9, 621 16 160 197 7, 596 5, 038 New Britain, Conn*. . . . 12, 000 4-16 3, 176 10 2, 250 40 198 2, 516 1, 735 New Haven, Conn . 58, 675 4-16 12, 964 21 8, 897 213 200 11, 804 7, 554 New London, Conn .... 10, 000 4-16 2, 101 9 1, 800 51 200 dl, 915 1, 363 Norwalk, Conn* . ■ 13, 000 4-16 3, 254 12 3,200 49 203 • 2, 873 1, 900 "Wilmington, Del . 40, 000 6-21 9, 178 18 5, 364 106 199 6, 687 4, 158 Atlanta, Ga . 35, 000 6-18 10, 362 9 2, 630 53 202 3, 280 2, 409 A ngnsta,, Ga, _ 23, 768 6-18 4, 912 16 35 186 2, 202 1, 273 Columbus, Ga . 9,000 6-18 2,463 6 920 20 187 1, 212 906 Macon, Ga . 15, 000 6-18 3,442 8 1,052 24 140 1, 227 742 Savannah, Ga, _ 28, 000 6-18 6, 919 3, 000 58 180 3, 171 2, 774 Alton HI 10, 500 6-21 3, 164 5 21 196 dl, 496 TtelWillp Til 12, 000 6-21 4,467 3 2, 000 40 198 1, 964 Bloomington, Ill ...... . 25, 000 6-21 7, 292 11 2, 670 65 177 3, 486 2, 294 Chicago, Ill . 450, 000 6-21 110, 184 64 41, 500 800 197 56, 529 38, 132 Decatur, Ill . 10, 000 6-21 3, 094 6 1, 728 29 177 1, 869 1, 321 "FVfiP.poTft Til 12, 000 6-21 2, 852 6 1, 600 29 196 1, 640 Galesburg, Til _ 14, 000 6-21 4,127 2, 100 34 178 2, 231 1, 525 Jacksonville, HI . 12, 000 6-21 3, 689 8 1, 600 33 187 1, 844 1, 253 Joliet, HI . 14, 000 6-21 3, 557 8 1, 692 36 197 2, 606 1, 500 Peoria, Ill . 32, 000 6-21 8, 881 9 3, 115 67 188 4, 173 2, 783 Quine v, HI . 32, 000 6-21 8, 511 9 2, 950 55 195 3, 554 2, 235 Rockford Til 14, 000 6-21 4, 901 10 50 195 2, 100 1, 900 Rock Island, Ill . 11, 100 6-21 3, 567 6 2, 000 36 178 1, 955 1, 400 Springfield, HI* . 25, 000 6-21 10, 722 5 2,200 41 180 2, 616 1, 977 Fort Wayne, Ind . 28, 400 6-21 10, 588 9 3, 790 84 195 3, 558 2,653 Indianapolis, Ind . 100, 000 6-21 22, 806 23 11, 087 185 195 12, 965 8, 931 JfcflforsoTi ville Tnd 10, 000 6-21 2, 723 5 26 188 1, 300 Lafayette, Ind . 22, 000 6-21 6,020 6 1, 900 50 195 2,705 1, 773 Logansport, Ind . 15, 000 6-21 3, 788 12 1, 480 31 197 1,824 1, 191 Madison Tnd* 12, 500 6-21 4, 652 6 38 200 1, 721 1,273 Richmond, Ind . 14, 000 6-21 4, 236 9 1, 975 45 180 2, 094 1, 874 South Bend, Ind . 15, 000 6-21 3, 138 7 1, 700 28 178 1, 601 1, 089 Terre Haute, Ind ...... 21, 000 6-21 7, 101 12 3, 737 78 197 J 3,945 2, 724 * From Report of tlie Commissioner of Education for 1876. a Assessed valuation. b Includes cost of supervision. CITY SCHOOLS, XLYII cities containing 7,500 inhabitants and over. Pupils. Estimated cash value of taxable property in the city. Estimated real value of property used for school purposes. Tax for school purposes on assess¬ ed valuation — mills per dollar. Total receipts. Expenditures. Average expen¬ ses per capita of daily av. att. in public schools. ! Estimated enrolment in privato schools. 6 > 1 .5 ® a 3 § a a CS <2 Teachers’ salaries. Total expenditure. Instruction and su¬ pervision. Incidental expenses. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 300 a$5, 276, 480 $50, 715 5 $4,120 6$17, 308 $21,429 $15 33 $3 40 . a260, 262, 343 2, 574, 000 2.1 $342, 616 22, 279 537, 389 800, 709 24 00 4 80 400 9, 000, 000 152, 000 2 66, 666 21, 612 27, 700 65,248 20 39 9 81 120 5, 000, 000 142, 900 1.5 59, 701 924 28, 920 38, C44 100 16, 000, 000 186, 540 7.5 59, 061 4,417 27,728 59, 060 22 49 6 11 450 17, 000, 000 144 500 3. 25 62, 419 6,725 42, 950 62, 336 *1,337 *u47, 1G2, 324 *1, 755, 269 191, 666 86, 192 194, 962 97 o4, 592, 952 99, 500 37, 059 12, 700 19, 695 40, 601 12 00 3 50 1,500 65, 852, 000 532, 722 15. 25 228, 284 29,637 132, 983 206, 436 18 41 5 84 40 10, 000, 000 87, 500 2.7 26,547 255 19, 546 26,547 14 64 100 9, 000, 000 111, 000 69, 361 1,573 24,700 36, 700 13 50 2 25 25, 399, 000 265, 339 2.5 800 20, 000, 000 96, 000 2.12 35, 709 28, 788 35, 662 12 78 2 02 500 12, 336, 700 e32, 706 20, 221 250 4, 000, 000 • 26,500 2. 25 12,145 800 6,917 11,933 9 62 2 21 100 7, 500, 000 24, 500 el6, 457 7, 646 12, 337 12 51 1 26 350 95, 500 42, 505 34, 723 42, 181 13 00 600 5, 000, 000 75, 500 4.4 20, 6S5 140 11, 075 15, 078 10 10 2 60 700 5, 000, 000 104, 600 11.5 40,024 21, 672 35,043 13 02 2 22 8, 500, 000 230, 471 14.5 66, 292 1,494 26, 509 65, 539 11 57 3 97 20, 000 al48, 400, 087 2, 436, 056 2.92 849, 757 1, 101 &451, 053 6S4, 534 12 13 4 05 200 9, 114, 756 95, 600 9 40, 109 136 15, 385 29, 910 13 10 3 31 200 57, 300 34,577 614, 988 34, 508 5, 500, 000 112, 815 5 32, 079 13, 710 20, 813 10 18 3 41 1,000 2, 778, 789 159, 900 3 46, 948 2,742 17, 070 48, 536 604 3, 249, 080 65, 650 7 25, 001 106 616, 330 20,650 10 88 2 80 ' 1,600 16, 000, 000 157, 300 7 77, 500 33, 190 76, 794 11 92 3 61 1,800 20, 000, 000 217, 000 4. 5 54,130 7,557 27, 326 54, 323 475 12, 000, 000 120, 000 5 43, 623 350 37, 517 450 12, 000, 000 112, 600 6.5 23, 872 17, 477 25, 433 13 77 3 60 150, 000 5 32, 100 24, 954 33, 751 13 73 3 64 2,300 12, 294, 460 224, 650 4.6 99, 361 15, 592 37, 065 71,642 16 98 4 14 1,340 73, 822, 993 883, 986 2 311, 456 28, 203 121, 319 215, 410 300 a2, 600, 000 60, 000 4 23, 003 154 12, 918 19, 126 1, 000 14, 000, 000 193, 000 3.5 a5, 666, 055 180, 000 5 48, 575 5, 396 13, 539 41, 888 13 04 3 46 276 a4, 400, 000 60, 000 3 26, 450 15, 872 565 81, 000 72, 716 3,154 20, 686 34,158 250 44, 494 11, 207 17, 093 300 al3, 841, 060 215,471 [ 3.4 95, 046 12, 625 41,268 66, 440 16 39 3 49 c These statistics are for seven-eighths of the city only. d This numoer excludes duplicate enrolments. e These receipts are for the whole county. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 32 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table II. — Summary of school Cities. Estimated present population. Legal school ago. School population. Number of school buildings. Number of sittings for study. Number of teachers. fc © © 5 © 3Q m r5 Cm o 6 £ Pupils. g 1 % s 51 © Averago daily at¬ tendance. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Burlington, Iowa . 28, 000 5-21 5,963 10 3, 850 71 192 3, 356 2, 003 Council Bluffs, Iowa. . . alO, 020 5-21 3, 128 9 1, 590 29 198 1,545 929 *94. non 5-91 11 4, 618 94 191 4,710 3, 269 Des Moines (w. side), la 14, 000 5-21 3, 592 4 2,100 36 188 2, 211 1,399 524 000 5-^1 8, 896 11 73 2, 867 2, 365 15, 000 5-21 5,732 2, 500 52 180 2, 500 2, 100 12, 000 5-21 3, 000 5 23 ISO 1,210 1,130 a8 390 5-21 2,652 12 28 1, 449 1, 210 al7, 873 5-21 5, 669 40 19S 2,048 1,942 Covington, Ky . 35, 000 6-18 9, 800 6 2,720 C5 200 3, 500 2,420 Lexin a ip % l a a to & ® § X ■3 *3 > 2 c 30 ^ u ' ^ SiH 3 n 71 CD ® ^ ® r2 71 ® 2 c £ |T m § X -2 ° ® w -3 H Expenditures. Average expen¬ ses per cap Jta of daily av. att. in | public schools. 1 » E £ 1 T g ® ® o ^ > a s, (a .5 S 6 > .E ® ® <9 ® *® F-l O zt H O 5 = 0 H ® s § G *® cfl ® O 3 1 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 1,000 $12, 000, 000 $250, 000 6 $87, 925 $3,215 $33, 450 $50, 535 $17 06 $5 93 41 250 5, 472, 145 85,600 8. 5 52, 355 845 15, 362 30, 081 18 45 i 6 37 42 16 non non 972 100 12 117 300 3, 530 ! 49 409 71, 500 17 60 j 3 DO 43 400 7, 033, 000 225, 400 13 55, 216 20, 795 49,184 ! 15 96 ' 8 00 ! 44 33, 230 45,987 45 9, 000, 000 125,000 9 40, 379 . 3,090 j 28, 089 35,340 46 300 4 800 000 64,100 13 93 150 9, 350 13,640 . 47 e2, 551, 630 100, 000 10 25,975 162 I 13, 435 29,474 j 12 09 | 5 65 1 48 822 e4, 367, 544 203,512 10 55, 070 3, 098 23,883 53,031 1 12 29 ! 3 00 49 20, 000, 000 196, 000 2.5 68,000 27,500 j 35, 600 68,800 I- 14 70 j 2 28 50 500 ! c4, 928, 759 40, 000 1. 5 15, 112 17,967 i . . 51 c71, 849, 772 833, 390 4. 5 274, 132 13, 023 . I 166,591 285, 302 ! 16 46 | 6 32 52 c6, 200, 000 153, 500 2 31, 282 1 17. 273 29,645 1 9 40 53 320 6, 000, 000 23, 000 2 9,897 0 7,350 9,646 1 12 51 j 2 38 i 54 12,000 c88, 973, 930 629,500 262,949 3, 554 1 206,914 262,948 ! 13 50 1 3 00 55 . c9, 906, 100 75, 000 36,200 1 - 41,512 m 881 56 10, 000, 000 40,000 22, 130 j 528 | 16, 938 21, 399 i „ ! Ol . . 1 11, 873, 558 168, 700 2. 33 33, 795 I | 24, 780 38, 010 11 26 5 46 I 58 1,500 ! 30, 892, 845 376, 500 2.47; 76,442 j 4,880 57, 985 76,357 14 31 2 62 i 59 625,813 | 104,225 l 1 M49, 113 [ 699, 514 ! 60 11,141,767 156, 200 . 4 31 ! 29,483 (15 34) 61 . c748, 878, 100 8, 560, 000 2. 21 2, 036, 067 . 307, 094 1, 228, 338 2, 015, 580 25 94 10 21 I 62 1,269 c55, 755, 000 582,000 3 188, 564 2,921 151, 574 188,564 20 95 4 86 83 600 | 64 1,000 c51, 401, 467 1, 230, 000 . L8 1 97,101 5,500 82,543 107,883 19 84 4 77 65 20 clO, 668, 319 182,496 3. 52 37,508 . 28, 250 37,508 15 07 3 74 66 40 | 12, 500, 000 284, 500 5.13 53, 507 42, 354 54,652 19 89 : 5 40 67 1,100 19, 275, 984 120, 090 2.2 1 27, 376 431 19,242 26,220 13 21 j 3 13 68 550 j 50, 000, 000 476,462 3. 5 163, 185 14, 938 99,152 407, 009 69 100 24, 995, 339 471, 200 47 106, 652 5,764 68,843 106, 652 15 91 j 4 92 70 c3, 439, 925 59, 500 5.2 18, 410 78 15, 535 20,030 10 39 1 2 61 71 75 | 72 350 34, 850, 000 282, 000 3. 66 85,825 92,500 60, 000 182,775 | 14 50 4 50 73 80 9, 000, 000 105, 100 3.33 35,450 25,960 3o, 4o0 | 14 40 2 41 74 320 28, 500, 000 443, 000 2.79 87,416 62, 025 83,456 I 26 37 7 63 75 191 8, 177, 606 61,400 2.3 20, 366 18, 084 20,460 45,343 j 76 725 27, 216, 000 341,500 2.1 82,786 1,493 58,061 82, 786 21 38 6 29 77 c30, 692, 776 554, 500 2.93! 90, 257 . . 72,138 j 92,429 1 16 84 3 82 78 /Estimated. g This number excludes duplicate enrolments. h Includes cost of supervision, t Census of 1875. j This is exclusive of the evening schools, in which there is a total enrolment of 1,278. iEor grammar and high schools; for primary, 155. ^ E — IY L 79 SO 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 TOO .101 102 103 104 105 106 .107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table II. — Summary of school Cities. Estimated present population. Legal school age. d c j ft © o © o U1 Number of school buildings. Number of sittings for study. 2 © cS 2 o & 1 £ No. of days schools were taught. Pupils. Whole number en¬ rolled. ei >> . ir! © £ § & 3 a +2 i-i 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Taunton, Mass . 19, 000 5-15 3,413 36 3,821 81 195 3,739 2,712 Weymouth, Mass* .... 9,819 5-15 1, 936 21 2,128 44 196 1,931 1, 653 Woburn, Mass . 10, 105 5-15 al, 955 14 2,475 43 200 2, 127 1, 726 Worcester, Mass . 52, 000 5-15 9, 097 35 8, 522 203 192 9, 901 6, 801 Adrian, Mich* . 10, 000 5-20 2,824 5 1, 600 29 193 1,449 939 Ann Arbor, Mich . 7, 500 5-20 2,419 7 1, 800 32 200 1, 864 1,337 Bay City, Mich . 18, 000 5-20 4, 278 7 2,320 40 196a 2,841 1, 720 Detroit, Mich . *110, 000 5-20 35, 739 27 12, 549 228 183 13, 827 9,641 East Saginaw, Mich . . . 17, 500 5-20 5,117 10 49 195 3,177 2, 224 Grand Rapids, Mich . . . 30, 000 5-20 9, 129 13 4, 000 87 192 5, 019 3,148 Saginaw, Mich . 10, 500 6-20 2, 835 6 1, 430 28 194^ 1,564 1,073 Minneapolis, Minn c ... 35, 000 5-21 9 3, 400 78 196 3, 607 2, 380 St. Paul, Minn . 40, 000 5-21 11, 134 14 3, 800 77 194 4,316 2, 900 "N" a trVh p 7. "Miss* 9, 000 5-21 4 750 12 90 591 Vicksburg, Miss . 11, 000 5-21 2, 400 3 1, 090 23 183 1, 450 1,074 Hannibal, Mo . 12, 000 •6-20 3, 306 8 1,575 28 148 1,877 1, 299 Kansas City, Mo . 42, 000 6-20 8, 303 9 3, 600 58 197 4,334 2, 529 St. Joseph, Mo . 25, 000 6-20 6,822 18 3, 022 54 180 3, 514 ! 2.417 St. Louis, Mo . 500, 000 6-20 146, 000 73 38, 510 870 198 47, 676 27, 581 Omaha, Nebr . 22, 000 5-21 4, 753 10 2, 391 45 196 2, 911 1,906 Manchester, 1ST. H . 25, 000 5-15 3, 065 23 3, 380 82 188 3,975 2, 509 Nashua, N.H . 11, 600 5-16 2, 307 16 2,140 48 175 2,148 1,531 Portsmouth, N. H . 10, 000 5- 2, 154 13 40 244 1, 964 1,402 Camden, N. J* . 40, 000 o—18 10,842 11 5, 500 103 190 5, 270 4,039 Elizabeth, N. J* . 25, 000 5-18 6, 817 15 2,588 59 202 2,919 2, 298 Jersey City, N. J . 120, 000 5-18 37,482 20 12, 810 304 205 Newark, N. J* . 120, 000 5-18 37, 206 43 12, 831 282 205 18, 970 10, 933 New Brunswick, N. J. . 18, 000 5-18 /5, 496 6 2,370 44 202 2, 769 1, 733 Orange, N. J . 11, 300 5—18 3, 513 5 1,184 31 200 1, 561 1, 035 Paterson, N. J . 39, 500 5-18 13, 193 10 5, 991 100 203 9, 374 4,483 Trenton, N. J . 26, 031 5-18 9, 040 13 2, 900 72 195 2, 706 2,518 Auburn, N. Y . 18, 500 5-21 5,162 10 2, 871 52 193 2,616 1, 943 Binghamton, N. Y* . . . . 16, 500 5-21 4,509 8 2, 368 54 207 3,187 2,123 Buffalo, N. Y* . 143, 594 5-21 /40, 000 42 14, 000 420 203 20,240 13,320 Cohoes, N. Y . 22, 000 5-21 9, 207 8 2, 000 57 204 3,980 1, 938 Elmira, N. Y . 22, 000 5-21 5, 752 9 3,799 79 195 4, 496 3, 057 Ithaca, N. Y . 10, 100 5-21 2,501 12 1,535 31 192 1, 729 1,205 Kin crsfnn, N. V g _ _ _ *8, 000 5-21 6 1,477 27 206 1,790 1,172 Loekport, N. Y . 13, 000 5-21 4,185 6 2.524 43 198 3,014-. 1, 866 * From Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1876. a dumber between 5 and 16. b Includes cost of supervision, c West division. CITY SCHOOLS. statistics of cities, tfc. — Continued. Pupils. Estimated cash value of taxable property in the city. Estimated real value of property used for school purposes. Tax for school purposes on assess¬ ed valuation — mills per dollar. Total receipts. Expenditures. Average expen¬ ses per capita of daily av. att. in public schools. Estimated enrolment in private schools. £ 1 a A la a § CQ © Is rcS CQ £ © 1 © H 8 a © Pi 8 *cS s-=» © H 5 « § p *5 O S 1 * a CO | 1 ‘© 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 68 $20, 000, 000 $202, 000 3. 15 $50, 067 $36, 866 $50, 067 $14 25 $3 95 20 5, 586, 440 115, 000 4.18 24, 551 $11, 982 20, 340 40, 068 13 16 3 68 100 8, 674, 522 193, 000 3 31, 503 25, 315 32, 315 1, 325 60, 902, 206 872, 225 3.2 145, 058 10, 865 114, 046 145, 058 17 25 3 97 500 5, 014, 605 151, 500 14 36, 952 1, 343 11,844 34,112 14 79 2 14 270 4, 298, 145 130, 700 15.6 32, 491 3,513 16,000 31,696 13 46 3 64 8, 800, 000 140, 000 15 38, 798 17, 464 33, 072 11 20 3 37 5,000 94,570, 905 633, 716 306, 833 28,448 5136, 395 213, 214 100 8, 756, 545 125, 500 41, 512 894 22, 628 41, 060 11 07 5 41 800 30, 000, 000 270, 000 7 85,420 3, 842 42, 808 72, 548 400 6, 125, 708 100, 000 39, 885 325 12,619 28, 374 13 62 4 64 800 27, 000, 000 321, 500 3.83 117,611 34,179 47, 785 106,479 20 08 6 60 2,500 60, 000, 000 304, 000 1 21, 678 42, 707 d66, 440 14 55 1 24 299 300 4, 000, 000 44, 250 2. 75 15, 800 500 14, 240 17, 140 13 51 2 70 300 2, 780,000 39, 500 4 21, 579 224 10, 665 14, 947 8 21 2 74 1,000 e8, 400, 000 200, 000 4 81, 186 2,490 38, 784 81, 186 16 12 4 33 825 12, 000, 000 118, 696 7 51, 752 30, 312 51, 073 13 43 3 93 22, 486 237, 488, 700 2, 629, 543 5 1 265 194 173 336 6564, 478 1,007,830 200 25, 600, 000 434, 975 5 83, 686 13, 784 31, 907 77, 035 19 15 4 96 2,000 el5, 605, 918 278, C-75 3. 19 52, 155 2, 674 38, 119 52, 155 16 30 4 19 90 8, 900, 000 234, 391 3.4 28, 740 19,449 28, 093 13 22 5 12 50 9, 567, 765 80, 600 2. 33 23, 010 214 619, 497 25, 695 1, 200 27,000,000 4 86, 750 2, 850 48, 053 86,862 12 16 5 07 1, 800 30, 000, 000 116, 500 2. 68 43, 624 29, 635 41, 985 13 10 4 97 8,000 90, 500, 000 764, 582 2.4 222, 550 1, 000 222,550 7, 378 160, 396, 666 1, 015, 000 2 217, 037 1, 000 131, 079 208, 032 16 00 4 23 1, 200 12, 136, 570 150, 000 2 41, 757 7, 558 19, 091 40, 666 12 25 2 81 650 9, 000, 000 92, 500 26, 207 488 14, 327 23, 091 17 77 4 07 1,400 33, 511, 614 247, 500 0.76 75, 988 5,924 49, 398 75,253 11 74 4 04 2, 300 12, 000, 000 13S, 743 2 51, 230 34,463 44,462 14 68 3 00 1,100 12, 160, 000 127, 200 3. 26 46,942 3, 872 24, 459 35, 951 13 36 3 15 507 10, 015, 775 223, 753 3.1 48, 734 1,923 27, 436 39,770 12 35 2 40 10, 000 870, 000 282,820 306, 000 23 40 375 10, 500, 567 88, 500 7.45 70, 863 1,495 623, 086 38,812 14 09 8 68 13, 730, 918 305, 200 3. 21 84, 907 1, 986 39, 870 66, 296 13 89 3 98 46 6, 000, 000 39, 500 47 26, 350 1,845 15, 078 24,520 14 17 4 01 297 4, 000, 000 146, 500 13.28 32,497 919 16, 132 32, 497 15 49 3 63 500 10, 000, 000 102, 000 2. 92 40, 815 2,193 22, 338 32, 012 12 57 3 05 d Expenditures as reported were $70,820 ; but tbe items given amount to $66,440 only. e Assessed valuation. /Estimated. g These statistics are for tbe Kingston school district only. LI 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table II. — Summary of school Cities. Estimated present population. Legal school age. 1 a! 3 1 'o o rO O m Humber of school buildings. £ P -t-3 OQ £ 00 | *3 o <3 a S3 £ OQ 1 03 crfryp Vt* 15 000 5-20 3,207 8 30 194 1, 250 Rutland, Yt . *7, 000 5-20 2, 206 6 675 16 190 825 507 Alexandria, Ya . 13, 500 5-21 4,447 4 1,150 18 195 1, 183 812 T,yn chhurv, Ya _ _ . 15, 000 5-21 4,093 7 23 184 1, 388 789 Horfolk, Ya . 23, 000 5-21 6,244 7 1,400 26 203 1, 514 1, 085 Portsmouth, Ya,* _ 10, 500 5-21 3, 399 13 204 820 479 Richmond, Ya . 77, 500 5-21 20, 754 15 5,573 124 179 5, 558 4,696 "Wheeling, W. Ya . 28, 270 6-21 9,676 15 5,000 105 198 5,397 3,401 Fond du Lac, Wis . 15, 308 4-20 5, 846 17 3,044 47 200 2,643 1 1,867 tTan^svrlle Wis 11, 000 4-20 3,775 1, 780 35 197 1, 751 La Crosse, Wis . 17, 000 4-20 3,612 8 1,743 33 195 2, 047 1, 403 "MYulisfm Wia 10, 500 4-20 3,926 *9 *30 180 *1, 800 Racine, Wis* . 16, 000 4-20 4, 794 7 1, 850 38 200 2, 262 1,587 Georgetown, D. C g _ ) Washington, D. Cy _ > 106, 000 6-17 19, 489 • 47 11, 168 200 188 13, 105 10, 257 Totrl . 9, 099, 025 1, 719, 340 3, 035 826, 266 23, 830 ..... 1, 249, 271 852, 302 *From Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1876. a From Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1875. b Assessed valuation. e Includes cost of supervision d Census of 1875. CITY SCHOOLS. LV statistics of cities, $c. — Continued. Pupils. © 1 •3 tj, cm ■*; o O £ |s g X & 2 S h X JS X ^ c2 o C ^ c U X o Expenditures, Average expen¬ ses per capita of daily av. att. in public schools. Estimated enrolment in privato schools. § 2 'S -** > 75 >2 'S ft ! i x m c p< f 1 1 « 2 <2 fl ^ £ X •4& 53 X H Tax for school purposi cd valuation — mills ] Total receipts. Permanent improve¬ ments. m - I "3 m s 8 c3 © H Total expenditure. Instruction and su¬ pervision. Incidental expenses. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 810 $13, 194, 298 4, 910, 568 $82, 000 43,700 2.5 $87 217 $39, 021 626 $24, 637 8,398 $71,243 15, 258 159 500 10 15,272 $9 33 $4 74 160 600 115,054 6,280,469 1, 900, 000 6 32, 890 1, 675, 611 546, 849 18, 769 1, 103, 500 216, 776 28, 790 1, 611, 169 433, 065 13 92 3 41 161 162 11,060 175, 000, 000 3.5 14, 136 16 00 10 00 163 100 12, COO, 000 192, 000 6. 5 73, 739 22,482 23, 602 68, 470 11 94 5 67 164 23, 320, 994 10, 900, 000 3, 000, 000 6, 200, 000 350, 000 180, 000 50, 000 3 124,420 67, 363 20, 491 41,081 3,500 51, 529 29, 399 5,372 14,488 119, 403 61,126 15,061 36, 264 10 30 4 10 165 850 20 14 16 6 07 166 8 214 6 44 2 18 167 300 108, 800 15 5,518 13 94 4 77 168 300 62, 329, 019 84,000 15 27, 576 937 cl8, 400 26, 808 14 90 6 80 169 200 12, 000, 000 8, 000, 000 29, 266, 600 122, 300 125, 000 205, 006 5.5 39, 169 28, 181 64,482 23, 204 17, 323 29, 365 9 05 2 78 170 400 3.5 L 4 28, 074 62,381 171 1,010 21, 014 22 03 7 25 172 119, 530 180, 124 ell, 342 14, 069 10, 619 173 610, 000, 000 611, 497, 562 64, 500, 000 11, 542 21, 062 12,304 8 44 174 644 143, 000 16,634 L 25 819 25,424 15,884 5 30 175 225 2.5 881 12 27 2 55 176 300 6, 000, 000 21, 600 2 12,957 257 elO, 091 12, 367 15 57 1 13 177 2,000 25, 000, 000 139, 050 1 51, 164 540 42, 696 61,014 17 37 7 46 178 500 13, 306, 200 168, 000 4.5 60, 673 0 47, 710 60, 673 17 01 3 23 179 350 67, 164, 172 19,711 L 25 12,562 1,050 8,000 12,643 7 96 82 180 6, 000, 000 87, 775 g 20, 001 9, 998 13,542 216 15, 056 7,411 19, 042 181 350 4, 000, 000 4, 000, 000 18, 000 4 9.706 182 650 49, 450 2.8 2,750 7,845 13, 595 9 96 2 31 183 67, 202, 180 613, 458, 421 3, 144, 871 39, 187, 097 38, 300 58, 000 L24: 8. 03 15, 476 19,856 11, 189 80, 788 20 12, 213 14,480 6, 200 49,030 15,430 17,658 16 72 13 89 3 17 2 37 184 740 185 10, 000 2 8,683 80, 788 14 19 3 93 186 4,350 245, 247 5,591 13 65 2 34 187 2, 000 14, 742, 515 236,680 129,300 , 4 73,321 38, 739 19, 850 12,690 67,844 30, 523 24,445 12 28 3 36 188 500 63, 285, 444 7 34,198 24,445 3, 9C5 7, 958 189 450 6, 000, 000 175, 000 4 10 00 2 43 190 800 58, 037 ! 39,011 11,541 *250 1, 070 17,148 *15, 105 18, 373 34,732 *28, 713 23, 397 191 500 *121, 000 4 *p26, 672 29,885 192 480 10, COO, 000 74,500 6.3 11 80 2 60 193 6,760 87, 200, 779 826, 052 333, 766 3,351 148, 864 i333, 766 15 26 6 49 J194 1195- 296, 127 0,292,944,187 76, 315, 950 24,471,481 2, 118, 704 13,151,120 22,589,491 e Includes fuel. /Includes pay of janitors. g Receipts as reported were $33,184; "but the items given amount to $26,072 only. h These statistics are for vhite schools only, ilnc.udes $107,274 for colored schools. LYI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table II. — Average expenses per capita of daily average attendance in city public schools. Cities. For instruction and supervision. For incidental ex¬ penses. Newton, Mass . $26 37 $7 63 Boston, Mass . 25 94 10 21 San Francisco, Cal . 24 00 4 80 Buffalo, N. Y . 23 40 Denver, Colo . 22 49 ■6 11 Newport, R. I . 22 03 7 25 Salem, Mass . 21 38 6 29 Cambridge, Mass . 20 95 4 86 Dayton, Ohio . 20 91 4 24 New York, N. Y . 20 81 7 63 San Jos6, Cal . 20 39 9 81 Minneapolis, Minn . 20 08 6 60 Haverhill, Mass . 19 89 5 40 Fall River, Mass . 19 84 4 77 Omaha, Nebr . 19 15 4 96 Council Bluffs, Iowa . 18 45 6 37 New Haven, Conn . 18 41 5 84 Zanesville, Ohio . 18 06 4 13 Saratoga Springs, N. Y . 17 81 3 89 Orange, N. J . 17 77 4 07 Davenport, Iowa . 17 65 3 65 Memphis, Tenn . 17 37 7 46 "Worcester, Mass . 17 25 3 97 Columbus, Ohio . 17 24 4 84 Burlington, Iowa . 17 06 5 93 Nashville, Tenn . 17 01 3 23 Fort Wayne, Ind . 16 98 4 14 Springfield, Mass . 16 84 3 S2 Lynchburg, Ya . 16 72 3 17 Cleveland, Ohio . 16 63 4 66 Louisville, Ky . 16 46 6 32 Terre Haute, Ind . 16 39 3 49 Manchester, N. H . 16 30 4 19 Kansas City, Mo . 16 12 4 33 Toledo, Ohio . 16 12 4 25 Pittsburgh, Pa . 16 00 10 00 Newark, N. J . 16 00 4 23 ‘Chillicothe, Ohio . 16 00 88 Des Moines (west side), Iowa . 15 96 8 00 Lynn, Mass . 15 91 4 92 Harrisburg, Pa . 15 77 4 79 Knoxville, Tenn . 15 57 1 13 Kingston, N. Y . 15 49 3 63 Little Rock, Ark . Georgetown, D. 0 . i 15 33 3 40 Washington, D. C . 5 15 26 6 49 Watertown, N. Y . 15 13 6 11 Hamilton, Ohio . 15 10 4 95 Fitchburg, Mass . 15 07 3 74 Cities. For instruction and supervision. For incidental ex¬ penses. Rochester, N. Y . $14 93 $6 75 Wilkes-Barre (3d district), Pa . .. 14 90 6 80 Adrian, Mich . 14 79 2 14 Covington, Ky . 14 70 2 28 Trenton, N. J . 14 68 3 00 New London, Conn . . _ _ 14 64 St. Paul, Minn . 14 55 1 24 New Bedford, Mass . 14 50 4 50 Springfield, Ohio . . . 14 45 5 23 Newburyport, Mass . 14 40 2 41 Portland, Me . 14 31 2 62 Taunton, Mass . 14 25 3 95 Portsmouth, Ya . 14 19 3 93 Ithaca, N. Y . 14 17 4 01 Scranton (4th district), Pa . 14 16 6 07 Canton, Ohio . 14 15 Cohoes, N. Y . 14 09 8 68 Sandusky, Ohio . 14 04 4 27 Portsmouth, Ohio . . 14 01 2 56 Troy, N. Y . 13 94 5 67 Titusville, Pa . 13 94 4 77 Norristown, Pa . 13 92 3 41 Elmira, N. Y . 13 89 3 98 Norfolk, Ya . 13 89 2 37 Rock Island, HI . 13 77 3 60 Springfield, HI . 13 73 3 64 Utica, N. Y . 13 70 2 37 Chester, Pa . 13 67 7 07 Richmond, Ya . 13 65 2 34 Saginaw, Mich . 13 62 4 64 Yicksburg, Miss . 13 51 2 70 New Orleans, La . 13 50 3 00 Norwalk, Conn . 13 50 2 25 Ann Arbor, Mich . 13 46 3 64 Long Island City, N. Y . 13 45 5 73 St. Joseph, Mo . 13 43 3 93 Auburn, N. Y . 13 36 3 15 Nashua, N. H . 13 22 5 12 Holyoke, Mass . 13 21 3 13 Weymouth, Mass . 13 16 3 68 Elizabeth, N. J . 13 10 4 97 Decatur, Ill . . 13 10 8 31 Logansport, Ind . 13 04 3 46 Belleville, El . 13 02 2 22 Allegheny, Pa . « . 13 00 3 14 Savannah Ga, _ _ 13 00 Newburgh, N. Y . 12 98 4 75 Atlanta, Ga . 12 78 2 02 Erie, Pa . 12 73 5 22 CITY SCHOOLS, LYII Table II. — Average expenses per capita of daily average attendance, $c. — Continued. Cities. For instruction and supervision. For incidental ox- ponses. Cities. | i 3 V j: ~ X •3 3 z For incidental ox- ponses. $12 57 $3 05 Bay City, Mich ........... _ $11 20 $3 37 12 56 2 96 Fast Raoinaw, Mich _ 11 07 5 41 12 51 2 38 ! i Joliet, Ill . . . . 10 88 2 80 12 51 1 26 j i Schenectady, X. X . . j 10 62 4 13 12 35 2 40 j i Marlboro’ Maas _ _ ! 10 39 2 61 12 29 3 00 i ; Beading Pa . . . 1 10 30 4 10 "WTipplinw W. Va _ .. 12 28 3 36 ; i fi-alp.shnrc, Til _ 10 18 3 41 Chattanonou Tprm _ 12 27 2 55 j ' Alton, Ill . 1 10 10 2 60 "N"ew Brunswick H. .T _ 12 25 2 81 i ' Janesville, "Wis . . 10 00 2 43 Feme \ V _ _ _ _ _ 12 22 2 27 ! Alexandria, Xa . . . . 9 96 2 31 Camden, "NT. .T . . . . _ _ 12 16 5 07 | j Columbus, Ga . . . 9 62 2 21 Chicago Til 12 13 4 05 i Xewport, Ky . . . 9 40 Lawrence, Hans _ _ 12 09 5 65 Xew Castle, Pa . 9 33 4 74 Hew Britain Cnnn 12 00 3 50 ! ’Williamsport. Pa . . 9 05 2 78 Oswego, X. X . 11 98 4 49 ; i Warwick, TL T. _ __ _ 8 44 Pottsville, Pa . . 11 94 5 67 Hannibal Mo _ 8 21 2 74 Peoria, Ill _ _ _ _ 11 92 3 61 1 Houston, Tex _ 7 96 82 Bacine, Wis . . . 11 80 2 60 Altoona, Pa. . . . . 7 57 2 68 Paterson, X. J _ _ _ ..... _ ....... 11 74 4 04 Pa 6 51 2 01 Mansfield, Ohio _ _ _ _ 11 65 3 10 i Shenandoah, Pa . . . . . 6 44 2 18 Poughkeepsie, X. X . 11 62 4 49 Carhondale, Pa . . . 5 79 1 23 Bloomington, Ill . 11 57 3 97 ; Adams. Mass . . . . . (15 34) Svracnse, X. X . . 11 38 3 20 ' Bancror, Me . _ _ _ 11 88 Lewiston, Me . 11 26 5 46 Woonsocket, B. I . . . 5 30 Steubenville, Ohio . 11 24 2 68 U The following extracts are from Dr. John D. Philbrick’s interesting report of the Boston public schools for the present year : How much is done in city schools f Upon this point Dr. Philbrick says, substan¬ tially : The essential statistical items to be considered are, first, the proportion of school¬ able children educated, and, second, the proportion of the pupils found in different grades. The following table exhibits those data for St. Louis and Boston : 1 St. Louis. Boston. Population (estimated) . Pupils belonging . Percentage in lowest year . . . 450,000 j 25, 896 38.90 350, 000 46,925 17.60 Percentage in lowest three rears . 67.94 42. 37 Poreentao-e in the highest year _ _ _ .. _ _ 2. 36 3.13 Percentage in high schools . . . 3.24 4.49 Boston supports 26 special schools, namely, 1 Kindergarten, 2 schools for licensed minors, 1 for deaf-mutes, 16 elementary evening schools, 1 evening high school, and 5 evening drawing schools. The whole number of pupils belonging to these schools was 3,897, and the average attendance 1,918. The whole number of teachers employed was LVin REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. 177, and tlieir salaries amounted to $47,053.07, against 101 teachers receiving salaries amounting to $26,526.34 in 1872. The evening high school is one of the most valuable and interesting institutions. The average number belonging for the six months ending April, 1877, was 950 ; the average attendance for the time was 352, of which number 242 were males and 110 females. The number of teachers, including principal, was 11, giving an average of 32 scholars to a teacher, exclusive of the principal. The course of study, comprising both tech¬ nical and liberal branches, is not subject to such limitations as are applied to the day schools, but new branches are added to the curriculum whenever they are desired by a sufficient number of pupils to justify the formation of a new class. The several evening elementary schools which were in operation from October, 1876, to April, 1877, registered 5,175 pupils. The average number belonging was 2,142, and the average attendance 1,205, of whom there were males 851, females 354. The num¬ ber of teachers, including principal, was 139, giving an average of 9.8 pupils to each teacher, exclusive of the principal. In the evening drawing schools 1,244 pupils were registered ; the average number belonging was 635, and the average attendance 279, viz, males 235, females 44. The instruction was given by 13 teachers. The average number of pupils to each teacher, exclusive of the principal, was 23. Special schools form an important feature of many city reports. Other cities of Massachusetts follow the example of the capital. Thus, Worcester reports 1 evening school for boys, 1 for girls, 4 for both sexes, and 5 free evening drawing schools, also for both sexes. Philadelphia maintained 51 night schools for 1877, in which were reg¬ istered 14,672 pupils of both sexes. The unusually large attendance of mechanics in these schools indicates their practical importance. Pittsburgh reports 65 evening schools under the conduct of 27 male and 48 female teachers. The total number of pupils registered in these was 4,267 and the average attendance 1,860, of whom 1,560 were boys and 300 girls. The teachers’ salaries amounted to $7,598.95, or a cost per pupil per term of 65 nights, reckoned on average attendance, of $4.08. In addition to these literary schools there were 65 industrial evening schools, employing 4 male and 1 female teacher. To these 188 pupils were admitted and the total average attendance was: boys, 103; girls, 3. The amount of teachers’ salaries was $600, or a cost per pupil per term of 65 nights, on average attendance, of $5.65. The pupils in these schools are mostly young men who are engaged during the day in the shops and found¬ ries of the city, and such is the interest that not a single case of misconduct has been reported in any one of the several schools in operation during the last three years. Baltimore has 7 evening schools for white and 4 for colored pupils. The Baltimore City College crowns the public advantages secured to boys. Cincinnati reports 15 night schools, 4 of which are for colored pupils. In these were enrolled 3,631 pupils, an increase of 14.2 per cent, on the average yearly enrolment from 1869 to 1877. In the night high school were registered 703 males and 103 females. The average age of pupils in the night schools for whites was 16 years ; of those in the schools for colored pupils, nearly 25 years. Book-keeping and drawing receive special attention in the night high school course. Respecting the importance of studying other school systems as well as our own, Dr. Philbrick justly observes : Among the means of educational improvement and progress nothing is so useful as the study of other schools and systems. It is only by comparison that we arrive at a true estimate of the character of a school system. In times past we have suffered from this fault. If we would unlearn old prejudices and learn new excellences we must go beyond the smoke of our own chimneys. In pursuance of this principle, Dr. Philbrick obtained permission to visit schools in other cities, and brought back for the benefit of his own city the results of his careful examination. The opposite systems of organization which have prevailed in the school boards of HYGIENE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LIX our country are fully described in bis valuable report. On tbis subject Dr. Pliilbrick •writes : Tbe system of education in each city visited is under tbe control of a board of education, of which tbe number of members is not at all proportioned to tbe popu¬ lation of the city to which it belongs. Tbe Cincinnati board is tbe largest in propor¬ tion to its population, and the New York board tbe smallest. Pittsburgh, with a population of about one-ninth of that of New York, has a board more than 50 per cent, larger; Louisville, with a population less than a third of that of St. Louis, has a board of equal size. Tbe boards differ, not only in tbe proportion of members, but also in respect to mode of election and tenure of office. Thus, in Cincinnati, Lou¬ isville, and St. Louis they are elected by the people in the several wards, to serve for two years, one-half going out of office each year. In New York tbe members are appointed by tbe mayor, without regard to ward representation, to bold office for three years, one-third going out each year ; and at Pittsburgh tbe term of office is the same, but the members are elected, one for each subdistrict or ward, by its board of school directors, which is itself chosen by the people. Tbe organization of tbe school boards in western cities presents two types, of which the St. Louis and Cincinnati boards are the most characteristic examples. The St. Louis board has only twelve standing committees, of which only three have direct reference to matters relating to instruction and discipline, the other nine being busi¬ ness committees. The Cincinnati board of education, on the other hand, has twenty- five standing committees. In addition to this formidable array of standing commit¬ tees, there are thirty-four subcommittees on districts and schools. Nor does this complete the list. The union board, composed in part of members of the board of education, which has charge of the high schools, employs no less than fifteen commit¬ tees, so that the management of the whole system of schools is shared by seventy-four committees. The St. Louis type may be designated the type of simplicity and cen¬ tralization; the Cincinnati, the type of complexity and decentralization. HYGIENE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. The report of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts for 1877 (pp. 229-251) con¬ tains a paper on the “ Sanitation of public schools in Massachusetts,” by Dr. D. F. Lin¬ coln, of Boston, “ based on returns from nearly all the school buildings in Boston, the total actually in use being 159, with an attendance of 46,418; also from schools not in Boston, estimated to number 400, with 40,000 children, or about one-sixth of the corre¬ sponding school population.” The results of the inquiries are summarized as follows : “The drainage of country school sites is reported as bad in one-seventh of the cases ; in Boston, in a few.” Complaints are made of “ dampness of walls or floors; stagnant water in neighborhood ; house originally set too low for drainage ; entire absence of sun¬ light in a room.” 1 1 The ventilation is very generally said to be poor.” Complaints are made of ‘ ‘ misdirection of funds by which exterior ornament is added, to the neglect of essential portions of the ventilating apparatus.” “Bad location of ventilators in the room ; coldness of floor, with undue heat of upper air ; inattention to the state of the atmosphere on the part of teachers, and sudden opening of windows in cold weather.” “A cellar or basement is absent in a number of country schools.” Com¬ plaints concerning closets, both in and out of doors, are almost universal. Offensive odors are usually complained of; a very few aggravated cases are given. The Bos¬ ton city board of health, in 1876, said, concerning this evil: “The odors escaping * * * pervade the school rooms, causing nausea, compelling the teachers to close the doors and windows to exclude the disgusting scent, which even then penetrates the rooms, especially when the atmosphere is warm and muggy and the scholars are most in need of pure air from without.” The diseases mentioned as resulting from this are “catarrhs, dyspepsia, debility, diarrhoea, dysentery, and zymotic disease.” “ The amount of simple ordinary debility due to a slowly acting cause is often very hard to estimate. * * * That such debility may be produced by * * * living in an air containing fecal odors simply is certain ; and from this debility up to the production of headaches, with slight fever, or of violent, even rapidly fatal, cases of typhoid, there are all possible gradations. * * * The connection of diphtheria, scarlatina, dysentery, and diarrhoea with foul odors and bad drains is now admitted to be a fact, though not always a traceable one.” LX REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. In the report of the State Board of Health of Wisconsin for 1876 (pp. 38-43) we find the following on ventilation : Systems of schooling do not fall within onr province ; hnt tl e construction of edi¬ fices in which the business of training shall be carried on is of paramount importance, upon the evidence before us, when we contemplate the physical wrecks which have resulted from the continual stress on muscle and nerve involved in our efforts to extend the blessing of intellectual culture to the rising generation. * * * Proper ventila¬ tion is impossible unless our buildings are so constructed as to permit of the best proc¬ esses being carried out in their integrity. * * * It is, indeed, too true that in many buildings, private as well as public, upon which large sums have been expended, a difference of from 12° to 15° may be found between the heat of the room at 6 feet from the floor and that of the floor itself. Not long since a teacher said, when speak¬ ing of a very costly structure, that the children taught therein must stand upon their heads if their feet tVere to be kept warm and their brains cool during tuition. * * * Reference has been made to the necessity for additional floor room in school buildings. * * * Many persons suppose that if the requisite space in cubic feet is given for each individual, it matters not whether it is supplied in height or in breadth. No error could be more pernicious. The breathing room of the individual must be com¬ paratively near to his own level, and unless it is sufficient to protect him from breath¬ ing the impurities emitted from his own ana the neighboring lungs and bodies, he cannot fail to be poisoned in a greater or less degree by the noxious effluvia which every animal emits. * * * The most moderate space assumed to be compatible with the maintenance of health is 25 feet of floor space and 300 cubic feet of air space, with the proper ventilation, for each pupil. * * * When that provision has been supplied, the stigma will be removed from our school system, that it causes three- fourths of all the cases of lung disease known to prevail among children. The same article says : Our school system, which is oppressive to both sexes, is specially injurious to girls at the age when they are approaching womanhood. * * * It is a fact within the knowledge of every expert, that our school buildings appear to have been constructed with the express design to superadd physical exhaustion to the other destructive forces that threaten the lives of the future mothers of America. The report of the same board for 1877 (pp. 42, 43) gives the results of some analyses made by Professor Daniells, of the State university, of the air in some of the school buildings in Madison. In one, “in 10,000 volumes of air he found carbon dioxide to the extent of 7.7 ; * * * in the high school room, * * * in 10,000 volumes of air, 8.74 of carbon dioxide ; in the same building, room of second grade, 10,000 volumes of air contained 11.9 of carbon dioxide; * * * and the worst result of all, in the fifth ward school, in the primary room, at 3 p. m., on the 22d of March, there being 54 pupils present, one-fifth less than the whole number in the grade, 10,000 volumes of air exhibited 25.6 of carbonic dioxide, or five times the maximum quantity which, under natural conditions, may be found in the atmosphere and respired without danger. The ill effects which must have resulted, and which doubtless are continuing to result, to the constitutions of the children from breathing carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, mephitic gases and exhalations, and dead decomposing animal matter, in air largely deficient in oxygen, the life sustaining property, cannot be described in any adequate degree ; but the imagination of the discreet reader will not fail to suggest that the largest benefit to be hoped from school training at that age could not offset the terrible evils which such an atmosphere must entail.” The report of the State Board of Health of Louisiana for 1877 (pp. 72, 73) presents the following statement from one of the sanitary inspectors of New Orleans: I must earnestly direct attention to the fact that in many of the school rooms the children are horribly overcrowded. To appreciate the extent of this outrageous treat¬ ment of little children, consider by contrast a properly constructed building, such as the McDonogh School, which allows for each pupil 23.02 feet of superficial space and 345.30 feet cubic space, and some of these marked “bad,” which allow to each child 6.88 superficial feet and 75.43 cubic feet space, and others which give but 4.77 super¬ ficial and 51.79 cubic feet of space, while others finally allow only 3.81 of superficial and 30.48 cubic feet to each person. It is impossible to describe the manner in which these poor children are not only crowded, but packed, the ceilings and the openings inade¬ quate to afford such ventilation and light as are indispensable to health and comlort. * * * When cold or wet necessitates the closing of doors and windows, the atrnos- HYGIENE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LXI phere is quickly converted into sucli an intolerable stenck as to force a compromise: with tko weatker, and tkese kave to be opened partly ; when tliis is done, the children, are subjected to irregular currents of cold damp air, a most fruitful source of illness. A keated stove in suck a room only adds a powerful source of vitiation. Tke president of tke State Board of Healtk of Maryland, in kis report for 1876 and 1877 (pp. xxv, xxvi), considers tkekygienic condition of sckools, especially as affecting tke eyesigkt of tke pupils. He says : Tkat eye diseases are alarmingly on tke increase, especially in large cities, is a lamen¬ table fact, which skould force itself upon tke attention of tke sanitary and educational authorities of tke State. Many of tke eye troubles, especially near-sigktedness, unques¬ tionably originate during sckool life, and ever afterwards render tke eyes of tke sufferers more liable to take on destructive diseases. Defective ventilation, imperfect lighting, badly arranged desks, crowded sckool rooms, and over zeal on tke part of tke. teachers in forcing the brain at tke expense of other organs are some of tke preventable causes of eye diseases among our school going population. Near-sightedness, when thus acquired, not only annoys tke individual sufferer for tke rest of life, but may be transmitted to the next generation by “ hereditary taint,” so that our imprcrved civili¬ zation, under educational pressure, will in time ingraft bad eyes upon our whole peo¬ ple. * * * The paramount importance of strong eyesigkt, especially to that class of our fellow citizens who, from tke inexorable logic of necessity, must either educate their ckildren in tke public sckools or permit them to grow up in absolute ignorance, is beyond all question ; and hence it behooves tke authorities, both State and munic¬ ipal, not to distribute with tke incalculable blessings of education an evil of so serious a nature as defective vision. Prof. J. J. Chisolm is now engaged in making a scientific examination into tke sani¬ tary condition of tke eyesigkt of tke pupils in the public sckools of Baltimore, and will make a full report for the next biennial publication of tke State Board of Healtk. Hon. James H. Smart, State superintendent of public instruction for Indiana, devotes several pages of kis report for 1876 (pp. 96-102) to tke consideration of tke subject of sckool hygiene, remarking emphatically: It is utterly impossible to teach a successful sckool in a poorly warmed and ill ventilated house. Pure air is necessary to tke proper application of tke mind on tke part of tke pupils. Listlessness, peevishness, idleness, and mischief as frequently result from impure air as from a bad disposition. Foul air irritates tke body and stupefies tke mind certainly and quickly. A ventilating apparatus constructed in a country school-house would pay for itself in less than a week in tke increased efficiency of tke sckool. * * * A great deal of sickness among ckildren may be traced directly to badly warmed and ventilated school-houses. I believe also tkat tke founda¬ tions of permanent diseases wkick sometimes manifest themselves in after life are not infrequently laid in tke same places. After recommending certain methods of heating, ventilating, and lighting, he says: It is my duty to call tke attention of sckool officers to tke evils here spoken of; it is their duty to apply tke.remedy. If they do not, I think it would be the duty of tke Legislature to require them by statutory provision to do so. A committee appointed by tke Medico-Legal Society to confer with tke sckool au¬ thorities of New York City, “with a view to suck legislation as may promote tke health of sckool children,” addressed to tke president of tke board of education of that city a letter, from wkick tke following are extracts : 1 At tke outset of our inquiries, our attention has been arrested by a report of tke committee on by-laws, &e., of tke board of education, under date of March 15, 1876, not yet adopted and recommending a continuance or at best only slight modifications of conditions which we are convinced are utterly inconsistent with due care for the preservation of tke health of tke ckildren in the public sckools. * * * We first notice the conclusion of your committee in regard to tke amount of air space required. * * * u jn fixing the sitting capacity of rooms, tke following shall be a minimum allowance of floor surface and air space per pupil: In tke three lower grades of pri¬ mary sckools and departments, five square feet and seventy cubic feet ; in tke three higher grades, six square feet and eighty cubic feet ; in tke four lower grades of gram¬ mar sckools, seven square feet and ninety cubic feet ; in tke four higher grades, nine square feet and one hundred cubic feet.” * * * Suck a capacity of sckool room space, though confessedly greater than tkat wkick now is and hitherto has been 1 The Sanitarian, voL iv, 1876, pp. 210-213, 506. LXII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. allowed thousands of children in the public schools of New York, is not, so far as we have been able to learn, consistent with physiological law or with the opinions upon this subject of those whose scientific judgment is entitled to deference and respects * * * In regard to the deleterious effects of an excess of carbonic acid alone in the air we breathe, there is no difference of opinion among competent authorities. All agree that when it reaches the proportion of 1 volume per 1,000, it is dangerous to health ; if not immediately, none the less certainly in its cumulative effects. It creates a general indisposition of both body and mind, stunts bodily and mental development* and particularly predisposes to scrofula and consumption ; and its excess in crowded apartments is usually an index of the presence of other deleterious agents due to the same cause. But, besides these, there are still other gases frightfully abundant in the school- houses of New York, due to the emanations from latrines and privies. For example : Primary School No. 1, on Ludlow street, one of the newest and best arranged and ap¬ pointed, besides being overcrowded and unventilated, is tainted throughout the halls, and at times by way. of the fanlights over the doors in the class rooms, with the odors arising from the latrines in the basement, which are emptied only “ once or twice a week.” The seating capacity of this building is given as 1,700; actual register, 1,440; attendance 1,329; square feet in 12 rooms, 3,264; , cubic feet in the several class rooms varying from 33 to 41 for each child ! * * * That the children in our public schools should be exposed to poisons generated by means of these foul and dis¬ gusting latrines, only to economize the water needed to keep well constructed water- closets in order, is simply inhuman and ought to be at once amended. The habit of wetting coal in bulk in the cellars, which is sometimes practiced, causes it to emit poisonous gases deleterious to health, and it should be forbidden. * * * * * * * Lofty ceilings are regarded by some as a principal means of insuring a sufficient measure in cubic feet for each person. Unless ventilation is secured for the upper por¬ tion of a room, a lofty ceiling only makes that portion of space above the tops of the windows a receptacle for foul air, which accumulates and remains to vitiate the stratum, below. * *■ * * * * * In fixing the “sitting capacity,” it should be borne in mind that the smaller the allowance the greater the necessity for the constant admission and change of air. * * * If the cubic space be small, the means for change of air must be large in the inverse ratio. Thus, with a space of 100 cubic feet, in order to maintain the air at a healthy standard it must be changed thirty times an hour, which is not practicable without exposing the inmates of the room to dangerous currents. * * * Every individual actually poisons fifteen cubic feet of air every hour. To prevent this, thirty cubic feet, at the least, should be provided hourly, which proportion, for five hours’ daily school session, requires 150 cubic feet as the smallest space .compatible with effi¬ cient ventilation without dangerous exposure to draughts. The same committee, in a subsequent report, dwells upon the injustice of enforcing the compulsory law while the school buildings are in their present condition : School-houses where young children are herded and forced to sit for hours in a viti¬ ated atmosphere, in constrained positions, do not come up to the standard. It would be cruelty to animals, not to speak of tender little ones, to add to this torture by in¬ crease of numbers without increased accommodation. The idea of compulsory attend¬ ance under these circumstances is preposterous, and at variance with all wise and beneficent law and the common rights of humanity. At a meeting of the New York Medico-Legal Society, January 3, 1877, 1 where the subject of school hygiene was under discussion, Dr. Agnew said: There is a school in one of the most densely populated sections of the city of New York, in the tenth ward, where there are on an average about 1,600 children in the primary department, where rooms are so dark that the blackboard exercises could not be distinguished by the eye, and the gallery classes so crowded that there is scarcely room to move. * * * It would be accounted cruelty to animals to keep them under such unsanitary conditions ; how much more is it cruelty to children to keep them there for any length of time. At another meeting of this society, February 7, 1877, Dr. O’Sullivan stated:2 It is but a day or so since I entered one of the new school-houses of this city [New York]. * * * I entered the primary class room on the ground floor, and found there sixty-nine little ones with their teacher. There was a small window facing a side wall not more than two feet distant. * * Through this small window they 1The Sanitarian, March, 1877, pp. 124, 125. 2 Ibid., May, 1877, pp. 209, 210. Lxm HYGIENE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. received all tlie light they had, and it wag admitted so as to strike their hooks imme¬ diately over the right shoulder. When the door was opened it led immediately into the playground, and the watercloset was in close proximity to it, so that the effluvium could not help hut enter with all its freshness into the school room. * * * This was all the ventilation and light provided. I went into the upper rooms of the pri¬ mary department, and there I found the teachers in one of the middle rooms, and the children seated as close as they could be packed, and I was informed by the principal that the gloom was so great on a dark day that the little ones could not see the figures on the blackboard. * * * Yet this is one of the recently erected school edifices, “ erected at great expense,” because of the “ modem improvements,” by the great city of New York. * * * I went up into the top or highest floor, the male department, * * * and there I found, with but one exception, that the benches were placed in a position where the light entered in a manner not according to the laws of hygiene — and there was a defect in the sight of the children. And to add to the insalubrious state of aft airs, the waterclosets used by the teachers were placed in close proximity to the class room, and communicated with it by an open window ! And I have been informed * * * that there is a new school-house on the west side * * * in which there is the same arrangement throughout.1 The report of the Board of Health of the City of Boston for 1875 (pp. 43-51 and 76, 79, and 80) contains the results of the inspection of 111 schools in 10 school-houses of that city, “ representing, so far as possible, every variety of distinguishing quality:” The time chosen in each instance was the last hour of the morning or of the after¬ noon session, when the room had been occupied at least an hour, and when the air would probably be found at its worst. A specimen of the air was obtained from the middle of the room, the jar being filled at the level of the scholars’ heads. At the same time, the temperature of the room was taken at the floor level and at the level of the pupils’ heads. Finally the condition of the window sashes and of the ventilat¬ ing registers, whether open or shut, was noted ; and a note was also taken of the state of the atmosphere to the sense of smell, with the number of desks in the room and the number of children present. * * * Parkes, the eminent English authority on hygiene, * * * has found that the organic products of respiration begin to be manifest when the carbonic acid in the air of an inhabited room reaches the proportion of .6 per 1,000. * * * Pettenkofer, who is at the head of German sanitarians, makes the limit of purity .7 of carbonic acid in a thousand volumes of air, beyond which an unwholesome degree of vitiation begins. The smallest amount of carbonic acid found in any of the 111 rooms examined, was .57, the greatest 3, and the average of all the rooms was 1.18. Concerning the tem¬ perature of the rooms, it is said : Some notion of the probable effect upon health of a continued exposure to a super¬ heated atmosphere which is at the same time vitiated by respiration may be ob¬ tained by entering almost any of our school rooms at the latter part of a half day’s session in midwinter. To a sensitive person leaving the outer air and coming at once into such a room, the impression is one not easily forgotten. The blast of hot foul air is sickening. The marvel is that children do not more frequently succumb to the inevitably depressing influence of such unwholesome conditions. * * * It may be set down as a safe standard rule that the temperature of school rooms should range between 65° and 6S° Fahrenheit (18.5° and 20° centigrade). It need hardly be stated here that the ordinary temperature of school rooms is above 68°, and that a point in excess of 70° is very commonly found. * * * If anything is worse than an exces¬ sive degree of artificial heat, it is the quick transition" to the opposite extreme. It is a frequent thing in school room experience that the teacher, becoming suddenly aware that the air is too warm for comfort, directs that the window sashes be opened at the top to effect a speedy relief. The consequence is that the inevitable wave of cold out¬ side air sweeps over the uncovered heads of the children, and a fresh accession of cases 1In the New York Times of May 29, 1878, we find the following : “At the meeting of the hoard of health yesterday a report was presented by Dr. Janes and Sanitary Engineer Nealis in relation to the condition of grammar school No. 48, in West Twenty-eighth street, between Sixth and Seventh avenues. The report set forth that they found the gratings intended for supplying fresh air to the cellar tightly covered, preventing the circulation that should keep the air pure. In one of the class rooms there was a leakage of gas from a defective pipe, and it was stated that the leakage had existed since the last vacation. In another of the class rooms on the third floor, used for instruction in writing, the light is inadequate, and its continued use for that purpose will tend to seriously impair the sight of the pupils. The ventilating shafts from the sinks in the yard terminate at the windows of the class rooms on the second floor, and discharge foul and deleterious odors into the class rooms when the windows are open. A copy of the report was ordered to be sent to the board of education.” LXIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. of bronchitis or of more serious pulmonary affections is the resnlt. An instance of this thing was observed in the inspection of the Chapman School. A room showed at the desk level a temperature of 77° ; three-quarters of an hour later the same room was revisited, when the thermometer indicated 61.7°, a fall of 15.3°! Between the two visits the teacher had “ aired” the room to some purpose; the air was pure enough, surely, and the coughing and sneezing of the children gave warning that it was cold enough also. If such a sudden change should occur in the outer atmosphere it would be considered a fruitful cause of increased sickness in the communitv. * ****** The universal testimony of the teachers in the course of the investigation was to the effect that they could not rely on the special means provided for the ventilation of their rooms. * * * The system of flues and shafts as at present disposed in school- house construction must be supplemented by opened doors and windows. This report, in conclusion, says : It is sometimes said that the matter of school-house ventilation is discussed and agitated more than its real importance warrants. * * * The need is not of less but of more agitation, not in the direction of impracticable sanitary speculations, but to promote the realization of feasible, indisputable sanitary principles. In 1876, the health department of Cincinnati1 ordered a chemical examination to be made of the air in some of the public schools in that city and the results are em¬ bodied in their report for that year. Atable is given showing “ the number of volumes of carbonic acid in 100,000 volumes of the air of several rooms in each of the twen¬ ty-six schools examined.” Concerning this table, Professor Hough, who made the examination, says: “The foregoing figures indicate most conclusively that in a large majority of cases the ventilation of our school-rooms is injuriously defective. A very large majority of the pupils of our public schools are breathing, for several hours each day, an atmosphere containing more than one-tenth per cent, of carbonic acid. In many cases the degree of vitiation reaches nearly if not quite double that amount.” Measurements were made of 265 rooms with a view of ascertaining the amount of air space allowed to each pupil. Professor Hough estimates 1 1 from 200 to 300 cubic feet as the smallest allowable air space for each pupil under the present methods of ven¬ tilation.” Of the 265 rooms measured it was found that “only 29 afford 300 cubic feet or more per pupil; 236 afford less than 300 cubic feet per pupil; 166 afford less than 200 cubic feet per pupil; 22 afford less than 108.5 cubic feet per pupil ; and 14 afford less than 100 cubic feet per pupil.” Of these 14, several gave less than 90 cubic feet per pupil, and one only 56.7. “ The relation of these magnitudes to the neces¬ sary conditions of respiration is fearful.” Attention is also called to the imperfect lighting of many of the rooms as calculated to permanently injure the eyesight of the pupils. The report of the public schools of the District of Columbia for 1876-’77 (pp. 11, 12) contains the results of an inspection by the health officer of the District of some of the public school buildings of the city of Washington, concerning which he says: The whole story of the condition of the rooms inspected may be epitomized in a very few words, viz : Altogether insufficient air space ; practically no ventilation, except by windows; unequal distribution of heat; coal gases from sheet iron and cast iron stoves, and generally unsuitable character of the buildings. * * * The average air space to each occupant of the rooms inspected is approximately 170 cubic feet, the air displaced by the bodies, desks, &c., not deducted (twenty of the buildings averaging much below those figures, three being below 100 cubic feet), and had the average of the rooms been taken, it would quite likely have been found to be, in some instances, even below that of the lowest building. With no other than the exhala¬ tions of the occupants, therefore, to vitiate the air, taking the above average, viz, 170 cubic feet, the whole atmospheric contents of the rooms should be changed every sixteen and a half minutes. * * * In the absence of definite analysis, we may estimate approximately that, by the window and door method, the relative quantity of the deadly poisonous property, carbonic acid gas, constantly present in most of these rooms when occupied, is not less than from eight hundredths to fifteen hundredths per cent. * * * An admixture of 1 per cent, in respired air is sufficient to produce death in a short time, and no person can safely remain any long time in an atmos¬ phere having more than seven hundredths per cent, of this gas. 1 Report of the Board of Health of Cincinnati, 1876, pp. 148-159. HYGIENE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. LXY Dr. Edward R. Cogswell, in liis report on tlie sanitary condition of Cambridge, Mass., p. 353, says of the school-houses of that city: In nearly all of them, however, improper hygienic conditions are found. In some, a prominent defect is in the method of warming ; in others, the trouble arises from the location and condition of the privies and urinals ; while adequate means of ventilation are wanting in nearly all. * * * It too often happens * * * that, owing to the frequent changes in the members of the city government, the experience gained by one board in the building of school-houses is lost to the city when the erection of others becomes necessary. The school committee, who have the exclusive charge of the schools, * * * have no authority in the matter of the construction of school- houses. At the meeting of the New York Medico-Legal Society, February 7, 1877, a paper on s ll i i £ o 1 <3 M £ •f s I g n II 1 ! A i 3 HI p. = “! ill II i III £ h a 11 11 § * £ I e3 fa 3 II l 1 £ O O 3 a* > 5 ■a 1 s 3 £ ® -- = 111 “ 8 I 1 § a - = 0 rz P o li:| 1 *1? 1 I a i 3 31 ’-1 I1 = a tb II !l O s 11 § ► £ 2,355 2 3 3 2 3 0 0 2 720 166 3 2 3 3 2! 0 0 3 1,075 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 0 2 1, 200 1 1 1 0 1 I 1 0 0 1 650 1 1 1 1 l! 1 1 0 1 1 3 2 1 2 7,443 '1,245 7 4 8 5 4 ♦ 8 5 1 6 6,200 500 5 1 5 3 3! 3 2 0 3 2,150 50 4 1 2 2 3 2 3 1 2 440 2 1 1 0 2 2 1 1 1 2,150 500 2 0 5 4 3 3 1 0 3 270 205 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 1,850 25 4 2 3 1 3 4 2 1 1 2,775 j 25 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 2 13,892 220 7 7 6 5 5 4 1 4 1,600 70 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1,659 420 3 2 3 0 3 2 1 2 3 250 30 1 0 2 2 1 1 0 0 2 14,223 1, 497 9 3 8 4 5 5 5 4 1,800 500 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 500 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5,818 346 9 5 9 3 9 9 7 6 9 23,080 3 6 3 1 2 2 2 13, 720 ! . 420 11 7 11 9 8 8 4 5 7 13 10,430 1,213 13 5 13 11 9 11 4 4 11 13 1,025 25 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 500 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 14,150 525 5 1 8 7 4 5 3 6 1,125 25 3 0 1 2 3 0 0 2 3 2,772 105 2 3 2 3 3 0 1 2 2,540 30 2 0 3 6 2 2 0 1 0 3, 503 281 5 2 5 2 3 5 5 2 4 285 25 3 1 8 1 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 e 1 142,141 j 6, 460 119 51 128 81 87 99 59 32 92 145 LXXII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, Table III. — Appropriations for normal schools. Name of school. State Normal School, Florence, Ala . . . Lincoln Normal University, Marior Ala . Normal department of Arkansas Industrial University, Fayetteville, Ark . Branch Normal College, Arkansas Industrial University, Pine Blufi^ Ark . California State Normal School, San Jos6, Cal . Connecticut State Normal School, New Britain, Conn . Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale, Ill . Cook County Normal and Training School, Englewood, HI . Illinois State Normal University, Normal, HI . Peoria County Normal School, Peoria, HI . Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind . . Northern Indiana Normal School and Business Institute, Valparaiso, Ind . Iowa State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa . Eastern Iowa Normal School, Grandview, Iowa . Eastern State Normal School, Castine, Maine . "Western State Normal School, Farmington, Maine . Normal department of Maine Central Institute, Pittsfield, Maine . Baltimore Normal School for the Education of Colored Teachers, Baltimore, Md. . . Maryland State Normal School, Baltimore, Md . . . . Massachusetts Normal Art School, Boston, Mass . . State Normal School, Framingham, Mass . State Normal School, Salem, Mass . Westfield State Normal School, Westfield, Mass . .. . Massachusetts State Normal School, Worcester, Mass . . Michigan State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich _ - . State Normal School at Mankato, Mankato, Minn . State Normal School at St. Cloud, St. Cloud, Minn . State Normal School at Winona, Winona, Minn . Mississippi State Normal School, Holly Springs, Miss. . . . Tougaloo University and Normal School, Tougaloo, Miss . Southeast Missouri Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo . College of Normal Instruction, Columbia, Mo . Lincoln Institute, Jefferson City, Mo . North Missouri State Normal School, EIrksville, Mo . Northwest Normal School, Oregon, Mo . Nebraska State Normal School, Peru, Nebr . . New Hampshire State Normal School, Plymouth, N. H . New Jersey State Normal and Model School, Trenton, N. J . New York State Normal School, Albany, N. Y . State Normal School, Brockport, N. Y . State Normal School, Buffalo, N. Y . State Normal and Training School, Cortland, N. Y . . . Appropriation , 1877. [ Appropriation per capita of pupils in tho past ycar.a $5, 000 00 $92 62 64, 000 60 33 33 10, 000 00 1, 600 00 19 04 25, 000 00 44 50 12, 000 00 94 40 15, 600 00 34 36 cl2, 000 00 51 25 24, 700 00 56 65 c5, 300 00 17, 000 00 60 00 dl2, 000 00 7, 500 00 28 00 el, 400 00 6, 500 00 32 25 7, 500 00 28 00 600 00 '20 00 2, 000 00 20 00 10, 500 00 47 73 11, 000 00 50 00 12, 000 00 75 00 13, 900 00 44 23 13, 000 00 76 50 13, 000 00 /47, 000 DO 28 33 9, 000 00 29 41 9, 000 00 40 00 12, 000 00 30 00 3, 000 00 33 70 2, 500 CO 10 77 7, 500 00 13, 000 00 5, 000 00 40 99 10,000 00 17 00 el, 500 00 10, 000 00 30 00 g5, 000 00 20, 000 00 100 00 18, 000 00 23, 000 00 19 14 18, 000 00 64 00 . 18, 000 (10 50 00 a Exclusive of appropriations for permanent objects. 6 Also $4,000 county appropriation. c County appropriation. d City appropriation ; also $10,000 county appropriation. e City appropriation. / Includes $30,000 for new building. g Also $775 city appropriation. NORMAL SCHOOLS, Lxxiri Table III. — Appropriations for normal schools — Continued. Name of school. o u State Normal School, Geneseo, N. Y . Pemale Normal College, New York, N. Y . Oswego State Normal and Training School, Oswego, N. Y . State Normal and Training School, Potsdam, N. Y . Normal department of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C . State Colored Normal School, Payetteville, N. C . Cincinnati Normal School, Cincinnati, Ohio . Sandusky Training School, Sandusky, Ohio . Pennsylvania State Normal School, sixth district, Bloomsburg, Pa . Southwestern Normal College, California, Pa . : . Northwestern State Normal School, Edinboro’, Pa . State Normal School at Indiana, Indiana, Pa . Central State Normal School, Lock Haven, Pa . <1 $18, 000 00 695, 000 GO 18,000 00 17, 398 00 2, 000 00 2, 000 00 66, 685 00 6600 00 10, 000 00 25, GOO 00 10, 000 00 3, 665 00 10, 000 00 Pennsylvania State Normal School, fifth district, Mansfield, Pa . Pennsylvania State Normal School, second district, Millersville, Pa. ... Philadelphia Normal School for Girls, Philadelphia, Pa. . Cumberland Valley State Normal School, Shippensburg, Pa . . "West Chester State Normal School, "West Chester, Pa . Rhode Island State Normal School, Providence, R. I . Preedmen’s Normal Institute, Maryville, Tenn . Castleton State Normal School, Castleton, Vt . Johnson State Normal School, Johnson, Vt . State Normal School, Randolph, Vt . Valley Normal School, Bridgewater, Va . . Concord State Normal School, Concord Church, W. Va . Pairmont State Normal School, Pairmont, TV Va . State Normal School at Glenville, Glenville, TV. Va . Marshall College State Normal School, Huntington, TV. Va . Shepherd College, Shepherdstown, TV. Va . TVest Liberty State Normal School, TVest Liberty, TV. Va . Oshkosh State Normal School, Oshkosh, TVis . ■Wisconsin State Normal School, Platteville, Wis . River Palls State Normal School, River Palls, Wis . State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis . Washington Normal School, Washington, L>. C . Normal department of the University of Deseret, Salt Lake City, Utah. c20, 000 00 6, 500 00 633, 743 00 30, 000 00 11, 132 00 12, 500 00 <£173 00 1, 118 00 2, 372 00 2,644 00 el, 000 00 2, 000 00 2,000 00 650 00 2, 000 00 2, 000 00 2, 000 00 13, 621 00 17, 115 00 16, 002 00 21, 000 00 62, 000 00 2, 000 00 a Exclusive of appropriations for permanent objects. 6 City appropriation. c Provided the school raises $4,000. d County appropriation. e County appropriation, including $400 from Peabody fund. $58 00 37 27 21 00 8 51 20 00 15 00 12 05 21 00 87 41 19 76 11 50 13 50 10 00 20 00 19 60 24 58 36 40 31 00 LXXIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. PROFESSORSHIPS OF DIDACTICS OR PEDAGOGICS. The science and art of teaching is surely a subject so important that it may well he included in the* curricula of our universities and colleges. The State University of Iowa established a chair of didactics in 1873, made it an elective subject for the senior year, and gives the degree of bachelor of didactics to such of its graduates as have taught two years after receiving this instruction. The example seems worthy of im¬ itation.* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The attempt to establish chairs of didactics has been embarrassed by the historic customs of our older colleges. They largely retain the ideas and methods which were brought by the colonists from the mother country, and contemplate the education of a comparatively small number of persons, and this after their minds are measurably mature. Their methods are poorly adapted to instruct immature minds, have been totally abandoned in all intelligent elementary training, and have been modified in secondary instruction. Naturally the learned men at the head of our colleges were considered the leaders in our educational affairs. Often they stood aloof from the elementary school and usually made no effort to modify their own methods for its use. Teaching many other sciences, they omitted the philosophy of education from their curriculum, sometimes^ indeed, acting as though there were no such- subject in the domain of thought. It has been the same spirit, but not carried to the same extent, which has contended against the teaching of the natural sciences. It is this lack of a really comprehensive philosophy of culture, which should include man in all his conditions and relations, that has permitted if not promoted foolish prejudices between institutions of learning founded on a religious and a civic basis respectively, and between those founded by the several religious denominations. A partial cure for this condition has been found in the various college associations which have been founded from time to time. These cannot be conducted with any marked interest and vigor without making our colleges better acquainted and more sympathetic with each other and causing them to assume a better relation to all other phases of instruction. It is not too much to hope that another result will be a more careful consideration of the philosophy of education and adequate provision for the sound and thorough teaching of it. Many institutions whose students defray a large part of their expenses before grad¬ uation by teaching do not give an hour’s instruction in this subject nor make any effort to secure pedagogical works for their libraries. In striking contrast with this apathy is the treatment of the philosophy of education by the German universities. In the following German universities pedagogy is taught by means of lectures for the time stated : xProf. S. 1ST. Fellows lias recently published two articles on this subject in tbe Educational Weekly, Chicago, in which he briefly recapitulates as follows the reasons for establishing chairs of didactics in colleges and universities : 1. It will greatly assist the graduates who, from their superior culture, will occupy chief places and become teachers of teachers. 2. A reflex benefit will accrue to the colleges themselves, in the greater success of their graduates and in improved methods of their own work. 3. Professional educational literature will be improved. 4. The development of a true science of education will he promoted. 5. It will be a deserved recognition by the highest educational authorities of the value and need of professional training for teachers of every grade. 6. Teaching will more justly merit the title of a profession. 7. Higher institutions will become more closely united with our public school system. 8. It will increase and widen the knowledge of the ends and means of education among those who, though not teachers, will hold high official and social positions. BUSINESS COLLEGES. LXXV Hours a •week. Berlin . 6 Bonn . 4 Breslau . 3 Erlangen . 2 Freiburg . 2 Giessen . 2 Gottingen . . 2 Greifswald . 3 Halle . 5 Heidelberg . 3 Hours a •week. Jena . 6 Kiel . 3 Leipzig . 8 Munster . 4 Tiibingen . 3 Wurzburg . 4 Vienna . 6 Berne . . 2 Basel . 2 Zurich . 2 At Jena the subjects of the lectures are: History of education, scientific principles of educating the child, school discipline, methods of instruction, school hygiene, school legislation, school architecture, ancient and modem languages, comparative philology, logic, metaphysics. There are in Germany, besides the ordinary seminaries for the training of elementary teachers, several advanced pedagogic seminaries, whose object is to give the students an opportunity to acquire a more profound scientific knowledge in their specialties before they enter upon their professional duties. These purely scientific institutions are attended only by students and graduates of universities who aspire to the higher positions in the secondary and superior schools. In some of these seminaries great stress is laid on philology, in others on the philosophy of education. There are at present 4 of these higher seminaries at Berlin, 1 at Breslau, 1 at Gottingen, 1 at Bonn, 1 at Magdeburg, 1 at Konigsberg, and 1 at Stettin. TABLE IV. — COMMERCIAL AXD BUSINESS COLLEGES. The following is a comparative exhibit of colleges for business training, as reported to this Bureau from 1870 to 1877, inclusive : 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. Number of institutions . 26 60 53 112 126 131 137 134 Number of instructors . . 154 168 263 514 577 594 599 568 Number of students . 5,824 6, 460 8,451 22, 397 25, 892 26, 109 25,234 23,496 It will be remarked that the commercial and business colleges of the country have so far decreased as to be almost in the position they occupied in 1873. LXXVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table IY. — Summary of statistics of commercial and business colleges. States. *3 o rd o 02 o R o t £ fc Number of instructors. Total number of students, exclud- ^ ing duplicate en- c rolments. g. r of stude: 'i © ■S to *3 a R In evening school. Number of volumes in libraries. Increase in the last school year. | California . 4 31 676 610 66 154 14 2 4 213 213 0 400 Dlinois . - _ * _ - . . 13 71 2, 848 2, 335 613 16, 100 790 7 33 1, 425 1, 075 408 alZ 020 Iowa . 9 36 1, 705 1,070 548 270 5 1 1 53 35 18 2 5 529 447 82 2 13 318 265 53 1, 050 Maine . . . . . . 2 5 378 318 60 Maryland . . . 1 7 341 256 85 Massachusetts . . . . . 4 22 513 343 76 Michigan . 9 24 1, 114 832 353 6, 870 220 Minnesota . 2 7 318 260 128 162 12 Mississippi . 1 10 130 130 0 1, 500 200 Missouri . 5 29 1, 121 1,031 90 17, 813 10 Nebraska . . . . . 1 2 60 30 30 New Hampshire . . . 1 2 100 65 75 New Jersey . 3 20 385 296 89 700 100 New York . 21 90 4, 105 3, 161 1, 150 3, 355 195 North Carolina . . . . . 1 1 12 12 Ohio . 12 36 1, 985 1, 596 562 1, 000 100 Pennsylvania . 12 49 1, 992 1, 409 182 469 75 Rhode Island . 3 19 680 558 122 125 5 Tennessee . . . . . 2 7 283 210 73 Texas _ : _ 1 2 56 29 27 Virginia . 1 1 64 39 25 520 8 W est V irginia _ _ _ _ 3 8 204 141 63 ■Wisconsin . 8 31 1, 753 1, 419 407 1, 425 143 District of Columbia . . . . . 1 2 135 70 65 Total . 134 568 23, 496 18, 055 5,450 64, 933 1, 877 a Of these, 13,000 volumes are in the library of the University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Ind. TABLE V. — KINDERGARTEN. Tlie following is a comparative summary of Kindergarten, instructors, and pupils reported to the Bureau from 1873 to 1877, inclusive : 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. Number of institutions . . . . . ..... 42 55 95 130 Number of instructors _ _ _ _ _ 73 125 216 364 Number of pupils _ _ _ _ 1, 252 1, 636 2,809 4, 090 KINDERGARTEN - SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. LXXVII Table Y. — Summary of statistics of Kindergarten. States. Number of schools. Number of teachers. Number of pupils. 3 3 32 2 22 1 80 1 7 6 10 141 1 30 1 5 40 3 82 Maine . . . . . . . 2 2 39 Maryland _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4 10 48 Massachusetts . 12 22 195 Michigan . 3 4 90 Minnesota . . . 3 g 70 Missonri . . . . . 20 105 1 145 New Hampshire . 2 4 30 New Jersey _ _ _ _ 14 24 451 New York . 22 50 632 Ohio . . . . . . 6 9 89 Pennsylvania . - _ _ 12 22 287 South Carolina . 1 2 24 "Wisconsin _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 6 17 291 District of Columbia . 5 15 186 Total . : . 129 336 3,931 The introduction of the Kindergarten into schools for orphans, and those schools established among the poor and distressed in our cities, is attended with excellent re¬ sults. Mrs. Horace Mann writes that “the charity Kindergarten are doing a beauti¬ ful work in Cambridge, Mass. One of these Kindergarten is supported by the city of Cambridge and the other three by a lady who does not wish to have her name pub¬ lished.” The success of the Kindergarten is much lessened through lack of favorable conditions. But important progress has nevertheless been made (1) in training teachers to instruct in true Kindergarten methods ; (2) in giving to school officers and the public generally a correct idea of what these methods are ; and (3) in bringing a supply of Kindergarten appliances within the reach of those who desire to procure them. It is indeed true that a few thousand only of the many of proper age for this training are as yet reported in attendance upon Kindergarten; but the zealous, self-sacrificing advocates of these improvements have the satisfaction of knowing that their efforts have been rewarded by a more earnest study among parents and teachers of what methods are most fit in the first years of infantile training. They thus benefit tens of thousands who never enter one of these interesting institutions ; and their efforts, also, in not a few cases, have had a most wholesome effect upon the methods adopted in more advanced courses of training. TABLE VI. — SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. The following is a comparative summary of the number of institutions for secondary instruction making returns from 1871 to 1877, inclusive : 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. Number of institutions . 638 3,171 80, 227 811 4, 501 98, 929 944 5, 058 118, 570 1,031 5, 466 98, 179 1,143 6, 081 108, 235 1, 229 5, 999 106, 647 1, 226 5,963 98, 371 Number of instructors . Number of students . . LXXYIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table VI. — Summary of statistics of States and Territories. Number of schools. Instructors. Number of students. Male. Female. Total. Male. Female. In English course. In classical course. In modern languages. Alabama . 7 23 8 a670 278 156 344 90 50 Arkansas . 8 3 6 205 100 105 175 30 5 California . 25 80 126 3, 660 1, 587 2, 073 2, 680 360 1, 004 Colorado . 2 2 14 181 1 ^180 30 2 46 Connecticut . 58 89 126 a2, 047 932 1, 085 1, 377 564 455 Delaware . 13 29 19 608 380 228 406 192 61 Florida . 7 7 32 854 233 621 621 115 39 Georgia . 105 128 85 o5, 849 3, 384 2, 385 5, 926 1, 211 195 Illinois . 24 54 129 2,852 796 2, 056 1,618 407 500 Indiana . 17 625 46 2, 350 981 1, 369 759 124 45 Iowa . .* . 39 65 91 o3, 908 1, 777 2, 006 2, 006 446 453 Kansas . 4 4 21 208 53 155 168 60 4 Kentucky . . . 53 93 162 04,422 1, 913 2, 409 3, 178. 826 509 Louisiana . 10 27 33 904 588 316 816 46 426 Maine . 25 48 50 2, 331 1, 229 1, 102 1, 305 476 201 Maryland . 38 105 87 2, 574 1, 439 1, 135 2,115 531 1, 187 -Massachusetts . 54 98 145 2, 814 1, 162 1, 652 1, 608 509 716 Michigan . 7 19 9 579 281 298 235 16 22 Minnesota . 15 27 49 1, 297 648 649 932 143 169 Mississippi . 11 15 21 ' 709 297 412 603 147 31 Missouri . 17 49 47 1, 400 713 687 915 185 233 Nebraska . 1 2 6 85 85 85 7 15 New Hampshire . 37 64 57 2, 968 1, 567 1, 401 2, 134 56S 204 New .Jersey . 45 112 127 2, 764 1,430 1, 334 1, 526 . 533 480 New York . 217 583 783 al9, 538 10, 153 9,240 12, 653 3,424 3, 867 North Carolina . 33 45 52 o2, 181 1,141 1, 040 1, 869 454 164 Ohio . 44 95 167 a4, 139 1, 836 2, 178 1, 980 577 &2 Oregon . 15 22 40 j 1,451 662 789 921 119 124 Pennsylvania . 93 256 332 6,926 4,161 2, 765 4, 303 1,452 1, 209 Kliode Island . 8 15 29 311 132 179 70 103 88 South Carolina . 9 IS' 22 ol, 074 337 460 575 100 18 Tennessee . 63 96 104 o5, 378 2, 763 2, 555 4,477 902 251 Texas . «. . 14 31 S3 1, 331 730 601 902 93 283 "Vermont... . 30 57 76 2, 994 1,444 1, 550 2, 011 634 322 Virginia . . 26 51 51 1, 366 751 615 1, 029 362 277 West Virginia . 9 5 19 710 290 420 556 39 445 Wisconsin . 16 40 91 ol,827 612 1,168 1, 075 196 510 District of Columbia. . . . 25 34 83 1,048 352 696 821 162 261 Indiah Territory . 1 2 1 60 60 60 3 [sew Mexico . . 2 12 252 27 225 37 7 Utah . 8 14 32 1, 486 803 683 1, 074 77 . 23 Washington _ 1 1 4 60 60 3 Total . 1, 226 1 62, 536 3,427 | 098,371 J 48, 023 | 49,123 1 63, 975 16, 285 j 15, 294 a Sex not reported in all cases. 6 Sex of three not reported* SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. LX XIX institutions f or secondary instruction. Number of students. Number of schools in which draw¬ ing is taught. Number of schools in which vocal music is taught. Number of schools in which in¬ strumental music is taught. Libraries. Property, income, &c. Preparing for classical course in college. Preparing for scientific course in college. Entered college since close of last academic year. Entered scientific school since close of last academic year. Number of volumes. 1 Increase in the last school year. Yaluo of grounds, buildings, and apparatus. Amount of productive funds. Income from productive funds. Receipts for the last year from tuition fees. 34 4 11 8 1 3 2 4, 730 130 O o O $7, 400 8 10 0 2 1 1 2 12, 500 1, 200 107 114 118 17 23 23 20 9, 999 811 802, 000 92, 132 2 2 2 2' 1 340 256 120, 000 10, COO 160 45 23 3 33 35 38 18, 395 483 ■%716, 000 $48, 000 $3, 525 98, 337 84 39 18 3 10 10 9 2,400 320 112, 000 7, 000 410 12, 681 49 25 5 10 4 4 • 4 2, 407 . 305 40, 000 150 150 3, 720 484 212 115 29 21 41 51 5, 360 1, 333 301, 100 32, 000 2, 050 91, 001 62 55 60 5 18 21 21 9,850 975 958, 000 35, 000 2, 800 71,447 20 38 8 5 8 9 7 6, 191 37 194, 000 51, 500 5, 050 16, 247 209 112 78 2 19 23 23 7,826 1, 018 •313, 600 49, 200 3,320 28, 152 4 3 3 740 2 90, 500 5, 600 333 142 102 83 22 38 43 21, 490 1, 134 534, 850 14, 975 3, 450 95, 065 39 22 29 4 - 6 8 8 2, 865 220 62, 000 1, 000 1, 300 8,600 175 58 35 27 13 12 18 8,495 208 315, 000 118, 342 4,614 15,906 116 24 36 6 23 19 18 31, 725 283 666, 200 723, 000 48, 940 78, 300 176 17 27 14 39 27 27 28, 472 662 934, 082 572, 352 36, 396 93, 248 9 3 43 5 5 3 1,610 34 112, 000 6, 370 520 7, 932 54 32 "29 4 11 13 12 8,043 616 267, 500 13, 500 1, 350 33, 730 56 19 18 2 7 7 1 215 172 70, 500 13, 225 45 30 15 1 9 13 13 8,240 100 230, 200 125 12 60, 800 25 1 1 1 2, 000 20 25, 000 0 0 8,000 169 33 26 4 16 14 19 13, 990 227 312, 400 198, 297 11, 857 23, 158 262 74 43 31 32 29 31 15, 745 419 682, 000 49, 000 4, 630 95, 691 1,526 699 433 246 161 135 148 124, 136 14, 431 4, 085, i88 485, 903 29, 279 545, 938 218 76 56 11 11 18 15 10, 949 596 229, 400 8, 000 600 26, 677 235 110 159 13 18 29 31 22, 300 980 609, 900 98, 550 7, 100 61, 676 55 69 27 7 13 12 4,479 194 155, 200 8, 200 4, 000 16, 770 380 158 105 50 72 53 55 55, 202 2,131 4, 538, 800 123, 000 c608, 230 217, 167 15 11 2 5 4 3 7, 216 353 829, 000 130, 000 8, 700 46, 800 67 10 26 6 4 7 6 2, 050 224 104, 250 3, 373 358 196 209 48 17 39 39 13, 832 468 430, 342 18, 000 1, 500 67, 810 85 32 41 2 5 10 10 4, 200 575 146, 500 10, 990 311 72 40 4 18 19 25 13, 008 487 375, 000 148, 500 8, 920 31, 175 116 58 37 7 9 14 13 11, 350 20 179, 300 6, 700 5, 4S0 34, 517 2 5 4 1, 060 20 50, 000 2, 900 25 11 11 1 10 13 12 12, 565 50 276, 000 13, 600 855 20, 865 20 12 103 15 11 14 2, 190 55 26, 500 7, 100 3 1 300 1 2 2 23 0 1 1 3 8 4 1, 806 383 117, 500 7, 300 1, 540 9, 927 1 1 1 100 50 6,090 2, 611 2, 124 649 6S2 742 j 776 499, 871 30, 782 |20,098,312 j2, 967, 564 806, 578 2, 075, 259 cOf this, $600,000 is the income of Girard College for Orphans, Philadelphia, the amount of funds producing it not being reported. LXXX REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Statistical summary of pupils receiving secondary instruction. States and Territo¬ ries. In city high schools (Table II). a i In normal schools (Table HI), b In institutions for secondary in- tion (Table VI). In preparatory schools (Table VII). In preparatory departments of — Total. Institutions for superior instruction of women (Table VHI). Universities and col¬ leges (Tablo IX). Schools of science (Table X). 246 670 211 98 53 1 378 397 205 259 160 1 021 California . 1, 060 78 3, 660 533 46 905 6 282 Colorado . 181 24 114 14 333 Connecticut . 576 0 2, 047 1, 010 50 0 3 683 Delaware . 608 49 67 724 Florida . 854 854 Georgia.! . 211 43 5,849 53 474 149 199 6, 978 Illinois . 2, 166 491 2, 852 200 248 3,346 121 9,424 Indiana . 1,073 346 2, 350 40 30 1, 583 49 5,471 450 94 3, 908 119 2, 317 6, 888 16 208 47 750 1, 021 923 141 4,422 764 820 7, 070 338 50 904 57 356 1, 705 Maine . 374 2, 331 619 3, 324 Maryland . 81 2,574 255 28 347 13 3, 298 Massachusetts . 3, 957 2, 814 2, 325 224 300 45 9, 665 Michigan . 1,200 265 579 33 773 2, 850 Minnesota _ _ . 283 1, 297 497 2, 077 Mississippi . 0 709 346 528 17 1,600 Missouri . 1,439 310 1, 400 366 1,471 26 5,012 Nebraska . 85 384 469 Nevada . . 32 32 New Hampshire . 192 45 2, 968 622 355 4, 182 New Jersey . . 1, 194 2, 764 276 15 34 4,283 New York _ _ _ 4,032 1, 553 19, 538 2,617 645 2, 895 31, 280 North Carolina . 400 2, 181 243 465 3, 289 Ohio . 3j 955 298 4, 139 889 136 3, 246 12, 663 Oregon . 144 1, 451 30 559 2, 184 Pennsylvania . 1, 123 958 6, 926 908 331 1,865 828 12, 939 Ehode Island _ _ 146 311 639 1,096 South Carolina . 228 1, 0 74 164 81 221 ' 1, 768 Tfiimpsspp, _ __ _ . 227 539 5, 378 80 514 1, 634 8,372 Texas . . . . 1, 331 275 223 921 2, 750 VfvrmoTit 58 2, 994 101 3,153 Virginia . 204 1, 366 291 190 75 2, 126 "West Virginia . 320 710 113 50 1, 193 "Wisconsin . ... . 809 1, 827 470 225 Dll 4,242 District of Columbia. 145 78 1, 048 260 1,531 Indian Territorv .... 60 60 New Mexico . . 252 252 Utah . 1, 486 188 1,674 Washinofnn 60 50 110 Total . 24,925 | 8,431 98, 371 | 12, 510 5, 961 28,499 j 1, 609 J 180, 306 a In ninety -five cities. b Strictly normal students are rot included. THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION. LXXXI THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION. The arguments of those who hold that the State has no right to provide education beyond the rudiments may he briefly summarized as follows : 1. The State has the right to educate its children just so far as will enable them to understand their duties and exercise their rights as citizens of a free country governed by the popular voice. A primary education is sufficient for this ; therefore the State has the right to furnish a primary education and nothing more. 2. The high school being patronized by but few and the majority deriving no benefit from it, it is unjust to levy a general tax for its support. 3. “Instead of educating the masses of children so as to prepare them for the pur¬ suits and industries upon which they must depend for a living, high schools educate them in such a way as to make them discontented with their condition and unfit to discharge its duties in a manner most beneficial to their own interests.” 4. Our common school system has been enlarged and extended beyond the original purpose of its founders. The high school has been ingrafted upon the system con¬ trary to the “ original design;” hence it should be cut off. Others who would not abolish the high schools would still radically change the basis of their organization by compelling those who avail themselves of their privi¬ leges to pay a part of the cost of their maintenance. Some of the causes which have operated to produce this opposition to high schools are referred to by'Hon. H. F. Harrington, superintendent of the public schools of New Bedford, in his report for 1877. In discussing the question, “Whether the relations of the high school to the elementary departments of the school system are as close and intimate as they ought to be,” he says : It is my firm belief that the principles and methods by which most high schools have been regulated have tended to implant prejudices which have steadily been gathering head until they are now breaking out in open and bitter hostility. * * * The mistakes of management to which I refer had their source in the idea which pre¬ vailed respecting high schools when they were originated, that they were to be tenders to the college. From this has resulted the habit, on the part of school authorities and high school teachers, of looking upward to the colleges for close links of connection and sympathy, instead of downward to the elementary schools. Thus a gulf of sepa¬ ration has been created between the two classes of schools. He instances some of the particulars in which this state of things has been made manifest, as follows : 1. Many of the studies pursued in most high schools have been of a purely disci¬ plinary or preparatory character, only to be preferred when the scholar has the prospect before him of spending years enough in study to attain a (so to speak) complete edu¬ cation. The interests of those who could hope to remain through only a part of the course — a large percentage of every entering class — and whose studies should there¬ fore have been carefully regulated so as to combine the acquisition of serviceable knowledge with mental discipline, have been disregarded. Many a parent who has maintained his boy in the high school for a year or two, at cost of much privation, * * * withdraws him, when at length he must, only to find that the practical interests of his life have not been taken into account, and" that he has little or nothing in that direction to show for the time he has spent in the school. What wonder that such a parent should feel a sense of personal injury and wrong, and nurse it into a virulent prejudice ? 2. The studies of the high school have not been intimately associated with those of the grammar school, as dictated by the law of regular progression, * * * School authorities and high school teachers have acted very generally as though there were a broad gulf of separation between grammar schools and the high school, as though the two differed not only in degree but in kind. Thus the requisitions for admission to the high schools have implied the" expectation that the candidates have finished the grammar school studies. * * * Then, having leaped the gulf and landed on the high school side, the successful candidates have been put upon the studies prepar¬ atory to a long course of culture which, by iL • great majority, was never to be real¬ ized. Meanwhile, the grammar school studies -finished — have been laid on the shelf to be forgotten. And thus the parent of whom 1 have spoken has had an additional source of discomfort; for he has not only found the studies his child had pursued in the high school to be of small practical use, but that he had been suffered to forget what he had learned before. And nothing has served more effectually to bring the E — VI LXXXII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Iris'll schools into odium and contempt than the fact that so many of their scholars, while accomplished in languages and sciences, have proved ignorant blunderers in elementary knowledge and work. 3. Our cities and towns have erected magnificent houses for their high schools, far more costly than they would be willing to provide for any school of a lower grade, and this lavish expenditure has tended to imbitter two different classes of citizens against the high school : the men of property, whose taxes have been increased to pay it, and the poor men, who, unable to grant their children the privileges of high school instruction, draw angry contrasts between the splendid accommodations which the children of the more fortunate enjoy and the humbler conditions with which their own must be content. These causes of complaint can easily be removed, and Mr. Harrington would accom¬ plish this by “ two radical modifications of the course of study : one for the purpose of adapting it to accomplish a closer relation with the grammar schools, the other to answer the requisition of the great American public, which must inevitably be deferred to in every quarter, sooner or later, that the masses of children must be so educated £ as to prepare them for the pursuits and industries on which they must depend for a living.’ ” “No system of public education,” says Huxley, “is worthy the name unless it creates a great educational ladder with one end in the gutter and the other in the university.” “I will thank any person,” says Everett, “to tell why it is expedient and beneficial in a community to make public provision for teaching the elements of learning and not expedient nor beneficial to make similar provision to aid the learner’s progress toward the mastery of the most difficult branches of science and the choicest refinements of literature.” “ Experience has proved,” says Mr. Francis Adams, “ that element¬ ary education flourishes most where the provision for higher education is most ample. If the elementary schools of Germany are the best in the world, it is owing in a great measure to the fact that the higher schools are accessible to all classes. In England, not only have the aims of the elementary schools been educationally low and narrow, but an impassable gulf has separated the people’s schools from the higher schools of the country. In the United States the common schools have always produced the best results where the means of higher education have been the most plentiful.”— (Massa¬ chusetts State Report, 1877. ) Hon. P. Emory Aldrich, in an address delivered before the Massachusetts State Teachers’ Association, December 28, 1877, said : I affirm, first, that it has been the settled and prevalent policy of these States, as well as of the General Government itself, to grant State or governmental support to schools of every grade, from the primary up to and including the university; and, fur¬ thermore, that this was the accepted theory and practice of the colonies before ,the States were organized as they now exist. And, secondly, I shall contend that this policy should not now be abandoned, but, on the contrary, should be continued and extended to meet the growing necessities of the greatly enlarged and ever expanding field of human knowledge and acquisition. Calling attention to the large and liberal views held upon this subject by the fathers of the Republic, he quotes from some of them. John Adams, in his work on govern¬ ment, says: Laws for the liberal education of youth, especially of the lower class of people, are so extremely wise and useful that, to a humane and generous mind, no expense for this purpose would be thought extravagant. Madison says: Knowledge will forever govern ignorance; and a people who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves -with the power which knowledge gives. * * * Every class is interested in establishments which give to the human mind its highest improvement. * * * Learned institutions ought to he favorite objects with every free people. They throw that light over the public mind which is the best security against crafty and dangerous encroachments on the public liberty. Giving Mr. Madison’s views at greater length than is done in the above citation, Judge Aldrich continues : These sagacious and far reaching views as to the necessity and extent of popular education were by no means peculiar to the eminent statesmen and scholars whose THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION. LXXXIII ■words I Lave quoted, as could easily lie shown by liberal quotations from the writings of many of their most distinguished contemporaries. They are the deliberately ex¬ pressed opinions of men by whose wisdom and foresight States were formed and a nation created. * * * The founders of our institutions clearly perceived that popular government could not rest securely on popular ignorance, and that knowl¬ edge, and not merely the rudiments of it, generally disseminated among the people, is essential to the stability of that form of government which depends for its existence on the will of the governed. Nor were these views first entertained and expressed by the founders of our Republic. They were among the rich inheritances of civil wisdom derived from the colonial period of our history, as shown, among other proofs, by the celebrated ordinance passed in the year 1647 by the general court of the Mas¬ sachusetts Colony. * * * This ordinance, it will be remembered, was founded on the assumed right of the state to require that schools shall be supported by x>u.blic taxation, wherein the youth of the state, whether they be the sons of taxpaying or non-taxpaying parents, may be educated in the higher branches of learning. After quoting the constitutions of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, which con¬ tain substantially the same declaration of principles, Judge Aldrich continues: I only desire now, in passing, to remind you that these are not the opinions of an accidental and temporary majority, of a sect or party, but are rather the solemnly ex¬ pressed and long cherished principles of a whole people ; and also to observe that the duty on the part of the state to promote the cause of education is placed on the same footing precisely as that of promoting trade, commerce, and manufactures. * * * It is within the memory of living scholars when the declaration that this was an open or debatable question would have been listened to with surprise and an emphatic dis¬ sent by every friend of popular education. * * * The public support of high schools and technical schools, wherein the youth of the land may be taught the arts of peace and the duties of civil life, is based on the same principle and justified by the same course of argument as the governmental support of the two technical schools at West Point and Annapolis, in which a few selected young men are instructed in the art and discipline of war. Every community of men organized under any form of government needs, and must have, individuals educated and competent to administer its civil as well as its military affairs. And this is eminently true under such a Government as ours — “ a Government of the people, by the people, and for the people ” — where every State, county, city, town, and school district in the land requires educated men to assume important places of trust and responsibility, and to conduct with intelligence the infinitely complicated affairs of such a popular government. And shall it be said that a Government thus needing for its own existence and successful administration educated men cannot lawfully and without injustice juovide schools for the neces¬ sary education and training of such men f * * * It is too late to deny that superior education is necessary to the state, and it is precisely on this ground of state necessity that the grants to, and public support of, schools should be made and given, and not on the ground that they are mere benefactions to the grantees. Hon. Ezra S. Carr, State superintendent of public instruction of California, in his report for lS76-’77 says: The right of the State and municipal governments to maintain high schools is not legally distinguishable from the right to maintain elementary schools. * * * Schools exist because of a well founded claim, and not because of toleration. The universal recognition of this principle is found in the constitution of every State in the Union. After quoting from the constitutions of Arkansas, Florida, Kansas, and Massachusetts, Mr. Carr continues : Further citations are not required to show that * * the school is created and en¬ couraged as au institution that is pureiy one of X'olitical economy, for increasing the xn’0(luction and accumulation of wealth, and as a means of xueventing pau¬ perism and crime, which is still only wealth.” The right to educate is “ one of those inalienable rights which have never been surrendered by the people either to Congress or to legislatures, because of the right of the x>eox>le to the fruits of intel¬ ligence and x>rotection from the folly and crime which result from ignorance.” * * * Education is not a fixed quantity to be measured by one generation for that which succeeds it. The “ common schooling” of the past century, for instance, would not adequately fit the average citizen of to-day for the necessary business of life. The standard of general intelligence is higher. The demand for secondary and high schools is far more general throughout the United States at the present time than was the de¬ mand for elementary schools fifty or even twenty-five years ago. <£ The school being the creation of the State, and the interests involved being so vital, it would seem to be a legitimate and necessary consequence that all schools should be regarded as to their advancement by the States.” If this be true, graded and high schools are legiti¬ mate, because necessary. LXXXTV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Hon. James H. Smart, State superintendent of public instruction of Indiana, in bis report for 1876 says: Good citizenship requires intelligence enough to make good laws and patriotism enough to obey them and defend them when made. An ignorant man can be a good subject, thinking the opinions and executing the will of others, but he cannot prop¬ erly exercise the functions of good citizenship. The highest form of citizenship necessi¬ tates the highest degree of intelligence. A limitation of intelligence is necessarily an abridgment of citizenship. Every voter of the State is a lawmaker. He expresses his thought through the ballot, and thus his intelligence manifests itself in the laws of the commonwealth. A primary education, a mere ability to read and to write one's name, is not sufficient to qualify one to exercise this high function. * * * The fact that a man sends no children to a school does not justify the claim that he ought not to be called upon to pay for its support. But it is urged by some that while this may be true in reference to the lower schools, because those who do not patronize them are in the minority, it is not true of the high school, for the reason that those who do not patronize it are in the majority. If this objection were sound, then every gram¬ mar school in the State must be struck down, every intermediate and every senior primary school must be closed, because a majority do not patronize them. Every graded system of schools in the State must also be destroyed for the same reason, * * * If the argument be good, then we must limit public education to the sub¬ jects of reading, writing, spelling, and the fundamental rules of arithmetic, because these branches are all that are studied by the majority, and so, because a majority cannot be induced to take a good education, the State shall provide nothing but the mere skeleton of an education. . This principle would limit the schools all over the State to four months, because a majority of the children do not attend the schools more than four months. * * * It would be as logical to maintain that the insane asy¬ lum should not be supported because the majority of the people do not patronize it as to say that the high school should not be maintained because a majority do not send their children to it. * * * The argument of “ original design” is one that is used as a last resort. Suppose, for the sake of argument, that the founders of our school system did not contemplate a perfect system, is that any reason why men with more wisdom and more experience should be bound not to change and improve it ? * * * There is scarcely a law on our statute books, scarcely a State constitution in the Union, that has not been revised, amended, and improved. Experience has shown that the great charter of American liberty, the Federal Constitution, as orig¬ inally constructed, was not adequate to meet the wants of a growing and progressive people. * * * Adherence to “original design” turns us back upon the perfecting future to embrace the prejudices of a dead past ; it blocks the wheels of human prog¬ ress and stays the onward march of civilization. It can be shown, however, that the fathers builded wisely, and that the present system, in its scope, at least, is not a departure from original design. * * * The first constitution of Indiana, adopted in 1816, among other things, provides as follows : “It shall be the duty of the gen¬ eral assembly, as soon as circumstances will permit, to provide by law for a general system of education, ascending in a regular gradation from township schools to a State university, wherein tuition shall be gratis and equally open to all.” * “ * The framers of the earlier constitutions of most of the Northern States held the same broad views, and so expressed them in the instruments which they made. * * * They de¬ clared with singular unanimity that learning and wisdom generally diffused among the masses were essential to liberty, and that it was the duty of the State to forever estab¬ lish and encourage schools, colleges, seminaries of learning, (fee., for the education of the people. A limitation of public education to a few primary branches would be a departure from original design, and not an adherence to it. Air. Smart further says: The term “high school” is, possibly, an unfortunate one, inasmuch as it leads many to suppose that the grade is one above the common school. This is not the case. The high school is an advanced elementary school. It is an integral part of the common school system. * * * Its purpose is to lay the foundations of knowledge merely . * * * It does not make lawyers or architects, engineers or bankers, but it aims to give that common information, that common discipline, without which no man can become a good physician, a good lawyer, a good mechanic, a good business man, or a good farmer. * * * Our so called high schools are common schools in the strictest sense of the term. Hon. John W. Dickinson, secretary of the Massachusetts State board of education, in his report for 1876-’77 says : There will be more educated people in every town maintaining a high school than there would be without it ; and the more educated people there are, the greater will be the development of material resources, the more perfect the security of property and THE HJGH SCHOOL QUESTION. LXXXV of persons, the higher the civilization, and the more complete the facilities for the unmolested enjoyment of all the objects of our natural rights. * * * A further argument in favor of maintaining high schools at the i>ublic expense may be made in showing that they serve to give increased efficiency to the elementary schools. * * * By the standard they establish for admission to their classes and the opportunities they oder for a higher education, the high schools determine what the lower schools shall do, and they everywhere stimulate pupils to remain in the lower schools until what is required has been accomplished. Again, the lower schools, on account of the age and attainments of their pupils, can teach elementary knowledge only. If the high school is taken away, the opportunity for obtaining tree instruction in scientific knowledge is taken away also. * * * If the high school is open to all, that, in connection with the lower schools, will have a tendency to preserve a republican equality, which is always disturbed when the advantages of a higher education are limited' to a few. * # * I consider the high schools to be the crowning excellence of our common school system : and, that they may be as efficient as possible, I would recommend to those who have the direct control of them that they guard against in¬ troducing into their courses of study more topics than can be mastered in the time assigned to the course, and that the topics chosen be those that will lead the student to acquire the most useful information, and at the same time be the occasion of the greatest amount possible of mental discipline. Hon. H. F. Harrington, whose report has been quoted above, presents the claims of the high schools to public support as follows : 1. High schools are important because they give increased efficiency to all the schools below them. 2. High schools are important because they are the best seminaries from which competent recruits can be obtained for the great army of public school teachers. 3. More than all, high schools are important as a branch of a public school system, because they constitute the only trustworthy agency to perform the essential service of bringing worthy representatives of the lower classes into the councils of the State and the organism of society. Abolish the high schools, and at once you draw a broad line of separation between the rich and the poor. You limit the higher education to the children of the well to do, for only the well to do would have the means to pay for it, and this would prove a damaging, perhaps a perilous, venture for the state. Mainly the cultured classes are found to be the governing classes, and among its governing classes society needs the representatives of the poor. It needs them, that there may always be strong men coming to the front, with powers so tempered by culture as to make them wise, * * * to represent the humble class from which they sprung, and demand the consideration due to their needs and their rights. These are the men, too, in the social exigencies which sometimes occur, when passion becomes rampant among the masses and the restraints of law are defied, to throw themselves into the track of the storm and allay its violence. Far better this than the alternative if you do not bestow the culture ; for those who are bom to be the leaders of men will assert their prerogatives whether or no ; and the bom leaders from among the poor, if they be not Tempered by culture, become the ignorant demagogues whose leadership is anarchy. ' * * It is the universal confidence in elementary education as the right arm of a free state which renders the objection to high schools so strong, for it implies that the state does not need high schools. All the while that protests against the contin¬ uance of the high schools are ringing throughout the land, the elementary schools remain as popular as ever. Not a whisper of objection is heard against taxation for their support. They are still lauded as the palladium of liberty ; * * * but in a recent address at Baltimore President Eliot used this memorable language : ‘‘There are those who hold that republics can be saved by the general diffusion of primary education, but the most effectively despotic government of Europe is the one in which this education is most diffused. There is, however, a power in the spread of higher educa¬ tion and the sentiment of honor associated with culture .” Concerning the objection that “the character of the instruction given in high schools is such as to disqualify their scholars for occupations involving manual labor/' Mr. Harrington says : This question opens up to view the chief incentives to the present crusade against this class of schools; and no one can do justice to the subject, nor speculate wisely about the future of these schools, without making those incentives an important factor in the solution of the problem. The fact is, the times have changed; the paramount interests and needs of society have changed ; the expectations of society in regard to its youth have changed, and the instruction in the high schools has not been conformed to the new order of things. Here we find the kernel of the whole matter. * * * . The grand declaratory principle of the fathers, in behalf of education, was, “a popular government can rest LX XXVI EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF EDUCATION. securely only on popular knowledge.” The declaratory principle of the men of to¬ day is, in the language of Governor Robinson,1 “Educate the masses of children, so as to prepare them for the pursuits and industries on which they must depend for a living.” Here is a remarkable change of base ; and it is no wonder that those who are swayed by these new ideas should protest against the conservatism which main¬ tains the work of high schools on its ancient basis and clamor for its modification or its extinction. To so change the present curriculum as to make it serve more directly to prepare the scholars for the pursuits and industries on which they must depend for a living is, says Mr. Harrington, “beset with perplexing difficulties. One is this: that a course of such a character, to be effective, should occupy several year§ ; whereas the most of those who would be specially benefited by it leave the school before the lapse of two years. Another difficult problem is, to decide what place in such an arrangement shall be provided for the girls, who form so large a portion of the school. And a third difficulty is suggested by the question whether there shall be two separate courses of study, one having reference to general culture only, the other to industrial pursuits. ” But “a beginning can surely be made,” and for that purpose he makes the following recommendations : 1. That during such part of the first year in the high school as may be necessary the studies of the grammar schools be thoroughly and comprehensively reviewed by the entire class. * * * 2. That the number of sciences in the course be reduced, that they may be the better learned ; that those retained be such as will be of the most advantage. * * * 3. That the study of the classics be positively forbidden to all who are not to- remain in the school throughout the entire course. * * * 4. That such studies as are essential to a sound practical education be made im¬ perative, no matter what other studies they may exclude. * * * 5. That special care be taken, by means of well adapted text books and methods of teaching, to secure to the essential branches a positive practical bearing. The report of Hon. W. T. Harris, superintendent of the St. Louis public schools, for 1876-77, contains an elaborate argument in “ justification of the public high school,” from which the following is extracted: The limit to public education is found in the means and the will of the community which affords it. If the community regards education as a disagreeable but necessary charity, the extent of the education will not be great aud its results will not have high value. If the community looks upon education as a right, but a right to be allowed only within the narrowest limits, its value as an instrumentality in the solu¬ tion of social problems will be correspondingly small. If the community proposes to do the best by itself, it will place as large a limit as it may in justice to its other interests, and will debate the quality and fitness of the education and not its amount ; it will feel that every dollar spent for education is more than a dollar gained to the ©ne who spends it, both in the decreased need for the expenses for other common interests and in the increased value of every educated citizen. In this eou ntry. the probable limit, for local communities at least, is the high school. 7f * Tf The necessity of the work of the high school, briefly stated^ is that a high school exerts upon the grammar school a leverage which could not be obtained so economi¬ cally by any other instrumentality ; * * * that the leverage gained by a high school grade is necessary for the load to be lifted and not for the employment of the lever ; that the grammar school demands a high school, and not that a high school requires the grammar school ; that the grammar schools determine the necessity for a high school, and not that a high school needs the grammar school ; that a high school ex¬ ists for the grammar schools, and not that the grammar schools exist for a high school. * * * Asa matter of practical experience, it has been found in communities that the work was improved in quality and that it cost less with a high school course than without it, despite the fact that misconceptions of the true office and relation of a high school have in many cases led to a mismanagement which prevents our seeing the re¬ sults in their clearest light. * * * Every one knows that unless he goes far enough to secure success, his capital of time, labor, and money is wasted. * * * The suffi¬ ciency of education must be determined by the previous considerations of political necessity and reciprocity of duty between the citizen and the state, modified by this consideration, the ability of the community to obtain what it may desire. * * * The education which fifty years ago would have been generous no longer fits a man 1 Message to the New York Legislature. 1877-T8. THE HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION. LXXXVII for the contests of life. * * * We frequently meet the suggestion that prominent men of the past were provided with but a scanty education preparatory to a useful, influential life, and we do not reflect, as we should, that prominence is merely rela¬ tive. If these men, so distinguished iu our histories as revered in our memories, could be fairly brought into relation with our own times, they would possibly lose much of their preeminence. * * * Therefore we must inquire in regard to the education which we furnish as to its sufficiency for the objects which justify its mere existence. Those who regard education as a right will admit that the right is value¬ less unless sufficiently extensive to pay for its assertion. * * * Hence, in public schools, regarded as the people’s schools, * * * it is reasonable, and indeed imper¬ atively necessary, that a sufficiency of education should be furnished notwithstanding the fact that many will, from the necessities of their individual life, be unable to avail themselves of these advantages. A writer in the Educational Voice for November, 1877, considers the objections that have been offered against the high school in Pittsburgh, Pa., as follows: 1. It is claimed that it is an outgrowth of the extravagant notions of the last few years. This cannot be true, since the high school was established in 1855, when our people were noted as being more conservative and economical than those of any other city in the country. 2. It is said that it is properly no part of the public school system, and that it was never the intention of the founders of the free school system to furnish, at State expense, an education beyond a knowledge of the three R’s. We think we can show that those who hold this view are sadly mistaken, and for evidence we refer them to the constitution of the State, and when we offer this in evidence we want it under¬ stood that it is not a document made by a ring, or by a packed convention, or by a corrupt legislature, but one ratified by the sovereign people, who at the ballot box made it the fundamental law of the Commonwealth. Article 10 says: “The general assembly shall provide for the maintenance of a thorough and efficient system of pub¬ lic schools, wherein all the children of this Commonwealth above the age of six years may be educated, and shall appropriate at least one million dollars each year for that purpose.” Now, since the law considers all to be children who are under twenty-one years of age, it seems strange that the framers of the constitution intended children to remain fifteen years in school studying only reading, writing, and arithmetic. 3. It has been claimed that the maintenance of a high school makes the public school system expensive. The founders of the high school were of a different opin¬ ion ; they believed that it would lessen the expense of the taxpayer, while it would at the same time make the system more complete and the education more thorough. Were they mistaken ? Let us examine and see. If the pupils now in the high school were sent back to the ward schools they would form forty separate classes (a class in each school). These forty classes would require forty "teachers, while in the high school they are taught by twenty. This would necessitate an increase of twenty teachers, and consequently an increased expenditure. * * * Each of the forty schools would require apparatus and models for illustrative teaching, while at pres¬ ent one set of these in the central building is amply sufficient. 4. It has been stated that persons are taxed to support the high school who are not permitted to send their children to it. This is certainly true ; but it is equally true with regard to the grammar department of the ward schools. There are thou¬ sands of citizens who are from various causes compelled to take their children from the ward schools before they reach the grammar rooms, and because this is true is it to be inferred that the grammar schools should be abolished? The same argu¬ ment would abolish all grades of schools. If none were to pay taxes except those who are directly benefited, it would indeed be difficult to keep the Government machinery in order. If men were to refuse to support the Army and Nary because their children were not soldiers and sailors, or if they objected to being taxed to support workhouses, jails, and penitentiaries because they had no children there, these useful institutions would soon cease to exist. The taxes for the support of schools are levied and col¬ lected on exactly the same principle : indirect benefit. But it may be said that we must show that there is an indirect benefit to the whole people in maintaining the high school. * * * Let us compare the condition of two sections of country where the people differed on the question of education. New England early adopted the theory that it is the duty of the State to support both common and high schools, and as a result of that education she presents to-day the most prosperous, intelligent, and the freest people on the face of the globe. Can her prosperity be justly attributed to any other cause ? Her climate is cold and rigid, and her soil is barren and stony, and she possesses but few of the natural advantages which are the pride of other States. Compare this section with the two Virginias, States possessing as many natural advantages as are possessed by any part of this great country, and see if the great difference in their prosperity can be attributed to any other cause than the difference of opinion of their people upon the question of LXXXYIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. education. The area of New England is 41.000 square miles, while that of Virginia is 61,000. The population of New England is over 3,000,000, while that of Virginia is hut 1,500,000. When, two centuries ago, the English commissioner of foreign plantations inquired of the colonial governors with regard -to the condition of their respective settlements, the governor of Virginia replied: ’ I thank God there are no free schools or printing presses, and I hope we shall not have these hundred years ;” while the governor of Connecticut answered, “One-fourth of the annual revenue of the colony is laid out in maintaining free schools for the education "of our children.” Both these policies have home their fruits. The same writer quotes from the pen of the late Philotus Dean as follows : A public school system should be established for the whole people, and be good enough for the average wants of the whole people, imparting to them that average grade of skill and information which suits the age and times ; in fact, be the people’s educating institution. Such a system keeps pace with the passing age, commands respect as being adequate to the wants of the people, and consequently as giving an equivalent for its cost. Such a system cannot fall under the odium of caste, as be¬ tween the rich and the poor, a point of importance in a true republic. Such a sys¬ tem, by creating a fair average state and more general equalization of intelligence, tends to prevent society from separating into widely diverse strata, in which the masses and a favored few figure as extremes of intellect and ignorance, leadership and vassalage. * * * The best check against injurious and insidious social error is a sound thinking, well instructed people. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION ABROAD. I present the following items respecting secondary schools in several European countries as affording material for interesting comparisons. PRUSSIA. According to Dr. Engel’s statistics, the Kingdom of Prussia, with a population of 25,000,000, has 447 secondary schools, with 6,432 teachers and 132,612 pupils. The object of the secondary schools in Prussia is to give the foundation of a general scien¬ tific and literary culture and to develop the moral power of the student. The second¬ ary schools are divided into Gymnasien and Progymnasien, Realschulen of the first and second order, and Hohere Biirgerschulen. They are for boys from about 9 to 18 years of age. Secondary schools for girls are still very few in number, and are almost exclusively private institutions. The Gymnasium is at the head of all the secondary schools, and leads directly to the university, while the Realschule leads to the higher technical schools. Both the Gymnasium and the Realschule of the first rank have a nine years’ course ; but the Progymnasium, the Realschule of the second rank, and the Hohere Burgerschule have only a six or seven years’ course, and their graduates are not entitled to matriculation in the university. The Gymnasium is intended for those who desire to study espe¬ cially the ancient languages and mathematics, and whose aim is to prepare for higher situations in the service of the state or the church ; the Realschule is for those who desire to study the natural sciences, mathematics, and modem languages. As the pupils of the Realschule are to become civil engineers, architects, &c., they do not pass to the university, but finish their education in the higher technical schools. The following is an example of the course of study in a combined Gymnasium and Realschule. Students in the Realschule pursue the same course as those in the Gym¬ nasium, except that they omit Greek entirely and substitute mathematical and scien¬ tific studies for the classical work of the last four years of the Gymnasium course. Religion. — Religious instruction (catechism, explanation of the Bible, and church history) is given twice a week in every class by clergymen of the recognized denomi¬ nations. Latin (6 to 10 hours a week). — Grammar is taught and applied to the reading of the classics and to written exercises. The following authors are read : Caesar; Ovid ; Livy; Sallust; some of Cicero’s orations, epistles, and philosophical writings ; Virgil’s ^Eneid ; Horace’s odes, satires, and epistles; Tacitus’s Germania : Juvenal; Terence; Plautus ; and Roman literature. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION ABROAD. LXXXIX Greek (4 to 6 hours a week). — Grammar is completed and the following authors are read and translated: Xenophon, Homer, Herodotus, Plato, Sophocles: Greek litera¬ ture. Hebrew (2 hours a week). — This language is obligatory only for those who intend to study theology : the study comprises grammar, etymology, and reading. German (3 to 6 hours a week). — Grammar, etymology, prosody, and literature are taught, and exercises in German composition are continued through all the classes. French (2 to 4 hours a week). — The grammar is studied through. German pieces are translated into French, and French authors are read and translated iuto German and Latin. French compositions and letter writing are also practised. Mathematics (3 to 5 hours a week). — Instruction in mathematics comprises the whole of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, planimetry, stereometry, and trigonometry. History (2 to 3 hours a week). — General history is taught, as well as the history of Germany and Prussia and of the province in which the school is situated. Geography (2 hours a week). — Geographical instruction includes the whole of physi¬ cal. political, and mathematical geography, with map drawing in all the classes. Natural history (2 horns a week). — Natural history comprises the general introduc¬ tion and the elements of mineralogy, botany, and zoology. Physics (2 hours a week). — In physics the pupils pursue a very exhaustive course of mechanics, electricity, magnetism, light, and heat. Drawing (2 hours a week). — Free hand, geometric, and ornamental drawing is obli¬ gatory in all the classes. Gymnastics (2 hours a week). — Obligatory in all the classes. Singing (2 hours a week). — Obligatory in all the classes. FEAXCE. Public schools. — The public secondary schools of France are of two kinds — lycdes, or lyceums. and communal colleges. The lycdes are maintained, by the state. The communal colleges are maintained by the municipalities but may be aided by the state. The instruction in both is classical and modem. The latter is intended, to suit the requirements of practical life by teaching the natural sciences and the mod¬ ern languages instead, of Greek and Latin. Alike in the lycees and in the commu¬ nal colleges, all the teaching staff have to furnish guarantees of their capacity to teach the subjects intrusted to them. The guarantee generally takes the form of a university degree varying in kind and in rank according to the post to be tilled by the holder. At the end of 1885, the date embraced in the report of M. Duruy, the last report previous to M. Bardoux's, France had at work 77 lycees and 251 communal colleges. Three of the 77 lycees (those of Strassburg, Metz, and Colmar) and 15 of the 251 com¬ munal colleges have been lost to France in consequence of the war of 1870 ; but new ones have in the meanwhile been added, so that on the 31st of December, 1876, France had 81 lycees at work, with 5 others building, and 252 communal colleges. In 1865 the lycdes had 31,321 pupils : at the end of 1876 they had 40,995 pupils, an aver¬ age of 506 pupils to each lycee, about one half of whom are boarders and the other half day scholars. The communal colleges had in 1865 a total number of 32,881 pupils ; at the end of 1876 they had 38,236 pupils, with an average of 152 for each college. These 81 great secondary schools of the first class and 252 of the second all have a public character and are subject to public inspection. The modem or special instruction in these schools is constantly growing. The lycees are the stronghold of the classics, yet in the ly cees the number of boys on the modem side or department had risen from 5,002 in 1885 to 8,628 in 1876. The teaching of the natural sciences, of geography, modem history, literature, and languages, is being continually strengthened. In the communal colleges the development of the modem department is much greater still. Of the 38,236 pupils in these colleges at the end of 1876, 9,232 are little boys, not yet going beyond primary instruction ; of the xc REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. remainder, 14,992 are in the classical department and 14,012 in the modem department. The number of teacherships for the modem languages has more than doubled in these colleges since 1865. Private schools. — The private secondary schools in France are of two kinds, lay and ecclesiastical. There were 803 of them in 1876, against 935 in 1865 and 1,081 in 1854. It is in the lay establishments that the diminution has taken place. The lay private schools had in 1865 43,009 pupils to the 34,897 of their ecclesiastical rivals. The pro¬ portion is now reversed, and the ecclesiastical private schools have 46,816 pupils while the lay private schools have but 31,249. The ecclesiastical schools are either under episcopal control, or they belong to one of the teaching orders, among whom the Jesuits have the chief place. The former schools have nearly 12,300 pupils, while the latter have nearly 20,000. Schools for girls. — The absence of public secondary schools for girls in France has often been regretted by educators visiting that country. The want is to be supplied at once. BELGIUM. Belgium had, in 1875, 198 secondary schools, viz : 10 royal athenaeums, 50 state mid¬ dle class schools, 31 communal colleges aided by the state, 3 communal colleges entirely sustained by the municipalities, 84 colleges under the control of the clergy and religious orders, and 20 private institutions under the control of the laity. The total number of pupils in 1875 was 17,881, of whom 13,454 were attending state institutions. The royal athenaeums occupy the highest rank among the secondary schools. They include two sections, one for classical instruction which corresponds to the German Gymnasium, and one for industrial education corresponding to the German Real- schule. The classical course lasts six years and the industrial course four years. ENGLAND. Secondary education in England was not affected by the elementary education act ©f 1870. It is carried on in the great endowed schools and in private institutions. At the head of the endowed schools — in England styled public schools — are Eton, Rugby, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Shrewsbury, St. Paul’s School, and -Merchant Taylor’s School, with a total of about 3,000 pupils. Besides these there are 2,160 endowed and private schools, 1,254 of which are called institutes, 603 grammar schools, 153 colleges, 92 academies, and 58 classical and commercial schools. The term “ public schools” applied to the above named institutions is not to be construed as in this country. The public schools of England do not give gratuitous instruction to their pupils, as do the schools called public in the United States. The Queen’s letter appointing the royal commission to inquire into the condition of public secondary schools in 1861, named Eton, Winchester, Rugby, Westminster, Charter- house, Harrow, Shrewsbury, St. Paul’s School, and Merchant Taylor’s School. The reasons, probably, which suggested this selection were, that the nine named foundations had in the course of centuries emerged from the mass of endowed grammar schools, and had made for themselves a position which entitled them to be placed in a distinct category and classed as “public schools.” These nine have certain features in com¬ mon distinguishing them from the ordinary grammar schools which exist in almost every country town in England. Many of these latter are now waking up to the re¬ quirements of the new time and following the example of their more illustrious sisters. The most notable examples of this revival are such schools as those at Sherborne, Giggleswick, and Tunbridge Wells, which, while remodelling themselves on the lines laid down by the public schools commissioners, are to some extent providing a train¬ ing more adapted to the means and requirements of the middle classes than can be found at any of the nine public schools. The modern foundations — Marlborough, Haileybury, Uppingham, Rossall, Clifton, Cheltenham, Radley, Malvern, and Welling¬ ton College — are schools which have taken their place in the first rank, and, while PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION. XCI following reverently the best traditions of the older foundations, are in some respects setting them an example of what the public schools may become. In order to get a clear idea of the secondary schools which are commonly called public in England, these three classes must be kept in mind: the nine old foundations recognized by the royal commission of 1861 ; the old foundations which have re¬ mained local grammar schools until within the last few years but arc now enlarging their bounds; and, lastly, the modern foundations which started from the lirst as public schools, professing to adapt themselves to the new circumstances and require¬ ments of modem English life. The public schools of England fall under one of these three categories. In view of the inadequacy of the present organization and condition of secondary education in England, strenuous efforts are now made by men of great ability and in¬ fluence to bring about a change, and to establish a system similar to that inaugurated for elementary education by the act of 1870. Not less noteworthy is the energetic and wide spread movement in favor of second¬ ary education for women. Prominent in this movement is the National Union for Improving the Education of Women, which, among other objects, strives to promote the establishment of secondary schools for girls. TABLE vn. — PREPARATORY SCHOOLS. Detailed statistics of preparatory schools will be found in Table VII of the appendix. The following is a comparative statement of the statistics of these schools as reported to the Bureau for 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, and 1877 : 1873. | 1874. 1875. 1876. 18 i i . Number of institutions . 86 91 ; 102 105 114 Number of instructors . 690 697 j 746 736 796 Number of students . 12, 487 ! i 11,414 : 12, 954 12, 369 12, 510 XCII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table VII. — Summary of statistics of preparatory schools. States. 1 j Number of schools. Number of instructors. Number of students. Preparing for classical course in college. Preparing for scientific course in college. Other students. Entered college since the close of last aca¬ demic year. Entered scientific school since close of last academic year. California . 5 i 36 44 422 14 5 1 3 4 20 Connecticut . ° 51 363 107 540 46 11 Georgia 1 2 53 Illinois . 3 25 76 57 67 10 4 Indiana 1 3 «40 1 Iowa 2 8 20 1 99 1 Maine . 7 26 271 8 340 62 1 Maryland . . . 2 14 14 o 239 6 1 Massachusetts . 21 142 al, 231 180 914 181 30 New Hampshire . 5 36 421 20 181 72 8 New Jersey . . . 4 24 49 29 198 31 New York . 20 179 621 205 1, 791 112 35 Ohio . 6 80 347 68 474 59 3 Pennsylvania . 9 55 175 77 656 30 8 Rhode Island . 5 42 174 30 435 18 2 South Carolina . . . 2 5 36 12 116 Tennessee . 1 5 20 30 30 112 Texas . . 1 14 10 15 250 4 Vermont . 3 8 9 92 4 1 Virginia . 5 16 al59 22 110 15 3 Wisconsin . 4 22 al76 60 234 23 8 Total . 114 796 4, 260 989 7, 261 770 156 a Includes a number of students preparing for both courses. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION OF WOMEN. XCIII Table VII. — Summary of statistics of preparatory schools — Continued. States. •Libraries. Property, income, &c. C x t- ^ £ a ^ 1 ■ _z p 5 2 IE at -3 § ® * < * § V' ‘3 ~ 3 ^5 H California . 5,211 311 $171, 000 . $9. 500 Colorado . 2,000 20 . 1, 509 9,400 34o 435,000 $148, 500 S10, 150 12.550 Georgia . 0 0 10, 000 Illinois . 3,400 150 42. 000 . 3, 633 Indiana . 0 0 300 0 Iowa . 7,900 200 65,000 13,000 1, 300 3, 373 Maine . . 1, 645 200 109,500 62,000 3, 450 14 213 Maryland . 2,300 50 64, 500 * . 15. 000 Massachusetts . 22,070 600 750, 950 279,600 1 21, 121 143,533 New Hampshire . 7,637 24 210,000 252,588 14,291 8,470 New Jersev . 275 5 136,000 20,000 2, 400 7, 697 New York . 14,421 363 L 101,008 82,493 5, 487 50, 864 Ohia . 26,100 50 633,000 120,000 8, 887 41, 009 Pennsylvania . 8,675 280 355, 500 60,000 4, 200 37. 602 Shode Island . - . 3,500 125 246,000 104 000 6.000 30,449 South Carolina . 1,200 400 25,000 300 L100 Tennessee . 4000 . 2 -200 Texas . 1,000 V ermont . . . 1,250 40 55, 000 10.000 6C0 1. 300 Virginia . 4, 750 50 58,000 . 16, GOO Wisconsin . . 3,300 150 120,000 8,000 400 8,078 Total . . . 126. 034 3.363 4. o91, 7o8 L 157, 181 '• 556 • TABLE m — SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION OF WOMEN. Statistics in detail of schools for the superior instruction of -women -will he found in Table VUJL of the appendix. The following is a comparative summary of institutions, instructors, and pupils from 1870 to 1877, inclusive : 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. ! 1874. j 1875. 1876. 1877. Number ef institutions . 33 136 175 205 209 222 225 22$ Number of instructors . 378 1, 163 1, 617 2. 120 2, 285 2, 405 2. 404 2, 306 Number of students . 5, 337 12, 841 11, 288 24, 613 23, 445 23, 795 23, 856 23, 022 j ! I would also invite attention to the following summary by States : XCIY REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, Table VIII. — Summary of statistics of insti States. 05 ! p cr, .5 © 1 * | | 1 ^ Corps of instruction. Number of instructors in prepara¬ tory department. Students. Total. © A a © Number in preparatory de¬ partment. Alabama . 10 78 19 59 14 211 California . 2 7 3 4 25 46 Connecticut . 3 27 4 23 ! 2 50 Delaware . 1 13 4 9 1 49 Georgia . r . 17 100 40 60 15 474 10 96 19 77 9 248 2 16 3 13 39 9 25 2 23 Kansas . . i . 2 9 47 Kentucky . 21 1)151 43 93 24 764 Louisiana . 4 18 3 15 2 57 Maine . . ; . 9 16 9 rj Mar viand . j 0 I 55 10 45 28 i Massachusetts . 10 160 46 114 4 1 224 j Michigan . . . . 2 15 4 11 2 -33 Minnesota . 9 15 2 13 Mississippi . 7 50 12 38 9 346 i Missouri . 13 109 22 87 17 366 New Hampshir e . 4 32 g 24 355 New Jersey . 55 19 36 1 15 New York . 15 243 50 193 54 645 North' Carolina . 9 87 26 61 21 243 Ohio . 12 ‘ 129 30 99 8 136 J ■Oregon . 1 12 2 10 Pennsylvania . 13 149 47 102 13 30 j 331 South Carolina . . . 3 24 7 17 3 81 Tennessee . 18 5131 36 83 20 514 j Texas . 8 57 16 41 10 223 j Y ermont . . . 1 13 6 IT Virginia . . . . 12 102 I 42 60 10 190 ; "West Virginia . . . . . . . . 1 10 3 n "Wisconsin . 3 24 7 17 225 | Total . 220 2,028 546 1, 455 277 5, 961 a Classification not reported in all cases. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION OF WOMEN. XCV tutions for the superior instruction of women. Students Libraries. Property, income, Is umber in collegi¬ ate department. J t tk In special or partial course. X X © CS £ — ! .2 : « ; .•§ T § ! ® £ | is 1 I ? „ . a. C £ : £ 3 is *g C (9 f — « | 1 M “ K of ? C— « C * © <3 © 1 X ^ j 1 T3 ' £ | i PS €22 39 21 a 963 g 9,675 j 25 $427,000 | $21, 050 72 1 0363 1 2, 500 i . 1, 500 5, 000 50 4 a230 . . . 1, 900 100 118,000 2, 500 37 0 0 86 | 1 1, 300 0 50,000 $0 $0 3,500 SS6 33 48 1 441 1 17 12, 180 400 I 428,500 j 38, 800 548 196 11 oi, 120 ; 8 10,625 245 i 565, 000 8,000 42,869 53 6 0 al49 i 1 1, 300 70,000 I 0 0 11, 200 900 i 1 2, 700 100 25,000 5,000 31 2 1 81 j 1 j 703 20 100,000 0 0 2, 938 922 18 19 a2, 146 j 15 s 10,950 303 418,000 | . 50, 510 83 1 1 j 237 j 3 ! 800 100 86,000 i 20, 000 1,600 2, 100 50 46 a313 2 1 3, 050 100 83, 000 ! 65,000 4, 000 7,500 172 9 15 a398 3 ! 8, 378 78, 500 20,000 784 131 7 al, 250 2 38,106 1, 455 j 1, 315, 000 495, 000 i . I 32,900 74,538 112 6 j 2 153 1 j 1,130 45 j 25,000 ! 1 8,000 44 j al53 1 j 1,100 20,000 i 3, 009 386 3i 4 a 815 6 5, 760 460 152,000 ! 39, 460 623 1 95 j j 22 al. 171 ii ! 5,400 30 277, 500 j 20, 000 1,600 43, 440 88 j 60 1 a 649 3 ; 2,700 ; 73 122,000 i 111, 200 5, 870 4,190 45 | 4 4 j a436 2 : 3,700 25 j 345,000 ! 11,000 904 i 82 20 a2, 447 2 28,912 604 1,288,639 ! 40, 400 4,424 184, 228 352 28 12. cS52 | 6 6,150 j 50 j 319,000 ! 5, 500 330 27,500 766 I 138 20 al, 097 5 j 16, 793 65 825. 000 i 34,951 Tl| 10 111 550 50 30,000 j 417 | 120 i° al, 203 ! 6 j 17, 225 400 799,000 j 41, 950 2, 675 ! 53,582 217 > 299 j 3 ! 800 100 50,000 | 1, 000 60 ; 4, 500 994 | 76 22 a2, 016 18 27, 060 1,040 ; 492, 500 j 30,000 2, 100] 56, 401 439 I 12 4 a 778 7 j 1,385 235 j 112, 500 j 6, 000 500 15, 147 56 1 45 1 al47 1 I 800 80, 000 | 2,000 120 2,900 559 j 15 1 al, 071 11 1 3, 400 275 ! 36,000 : 37,260 120 ! 120 1 172 127 3 527, 3 4,900 1,600 j 146, 000 | o 0 27,000 10,685 1, 337 254 a23, 022 , 150 231,932 7,900 8, 895, 639 j 866, 050 56,179 820, 064 & Sex not reported in all cases. XCYI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Several of tlie institutions in Table VIII did not report completely ; for example, one of tlie two Indiana schools reporting did not state bow many of its 60 students were in preparatory, regular, special, or graduate courses of study. This is so fre¬ quently the case that the column giving the total number of students in all depart¬ ments of these colleges is greatly lessened in value. I have, therefore, caused the accompanying graphic to be prepared, so as to em¬ phasize the necessity for making complete reports ; many States appear in it to great disadvantage simply because the presidents of the women’s colleges in such States did not answer all the queries necessary. Degrees conferred by institutions for the superior instruction of women. Alabama. . Delaware . Georgia. .. Illinois.. .. Indiana . . . Kansas ... Kentucky. Louisiana . Maine .... Maryland . Minnesota Mississippi Missouri . . . States. New Hampshire New Jersey . . North Carolina . . Ohio . . Pennsylvania | South Carolina.. Tennessee . Texas . . Vermont . . Virginia . . 'Wisconsin . . a % 73 18 4 25 19 14 20 131 23 3 23 12 Total 652 TABLE IX. — UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES. The following is a statement of the aggregate number of this class of institutions, with instructors and students, as reported to this Bureau each year from 1870 to 1877, inclusive : 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. i 1875. | 1876. 1877. Number of institutions . 266 290 298 323 343 355 356 351 Number of instructors . 2,823 2,962 j 3,040 3, 106 3,783 | 3,999 3,920 3, 998 Number of students . 49, 163 ! 49, 827 1 1 45, 617 52, 053 1 56. 692 i 58, 894 1 ' ! 56, 481 57,334 , Diagram No. 4, Showing m mcmap to total mmtcr of student* in Mops for - SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. XCYII Table IX. — Sunmary of statistics of universities and colleges. States and Terri¬ tories. Number of universities and col¬ leges reporting. Number reporting date of char¬ ter. Number not reporting date of charter. Number reporting only prepara¬ tory students. 0 CO © ‘So © 1 <2 P s •_3 © 0 5? © X! a p 6 Number not reporting classifica¬ tion of students. Number not reporting students. Number not reporting libraries. Number not reporting. Year t rt © ka H 0 «8 §5 -g 5? <0 Number three years. B 0 0 Number over four years. g 1 Alabama . 4 4 0 0 4 0 0 0 ft 1 0 3 Arkansas . 4 4 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 California . 33 13 0 1 10 1 1 2 2 10 0 1 Colorado . 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 Connecticut . 3 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 Delaware . 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Georgia . 7 6 1 0 6 0 1 1 1 4 0 1 Illinois . 28 26 2 1 26 1 0 4 0 26 0 2 Indiana . 17 14 3 2 15 0 0 2 1 15 0 1 Iowa . 18 16 2 0 18 0 0 2 0 17 0 1 Kansas . 8 8 0 2 6 0 0 1 0 6 1 0 Kentucky . . . 13 13 0 0 13 0 0 2 0 8 0 4 Louisiana . 6 6 0 1 3 0 2 2 1 4 0 1 Maine . 3 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 Maryland . 8 8 0 1 6 0 1 0 1 5 0 1 Massachusetts 7 7 0 1 6 0 0 1 0 7 0 0 Michigan . 9 9 0 0 8 0 1 2 1 7 0 1 Minnesota . 5 4 1 0 3 0 2 2 1 3 0 1 Mississippi . 4 4 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 Missouri . 16 16 0 4 12 0 0 3 2 8 1 5 Nebraska . 4 3 1 1 2 0 1 1 1 3 0 0 Nevada . 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 New Hampshire. . . 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 New Jersey . 4 3 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 New York . 26 28 3 0 26 0 0 2 0 22 0 4 North Carolina .... 8 6 2 1 6 0 1 1 2 5 0 1 Ohio . 32 31 1 2 30 0 0 5 1 26 1 4 Oregon . 6 6 0 0 5 0 1 1 1 4 0 1 Pennsylvania . 27 26 1 2 25 0 0 3 1 21 0 5 Rhode Island . 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 South Carolina .... 6 6 0 0 6 0 0 1 0 5 0 0 Tennessee . 21 21 0 1 19 0 1 6 1 16 1 3 Texas . 10 8 2 3 7 0 0 1 1 8 0 1 Vermont . 3 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 Virginia . 7 7 0 0 ! 7 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 Vest Virginia . 3 3 0 0 3 0 . 0 ft 0 3 0 0 Visconsin . 9 9 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 Dist. of Columbia. 4 4 0 0 4 0 ! 0 0 0 4 0 0 Utah . 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Washington . 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Total . 351 328 | 23 1 27 310 2 i 12 49 23 270 7i i 43 go © to P o o © > 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 8 E — YII XCVIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table IX. — Summary of statistics of States and Terri¬ tories. Preparatory department. Collegiate department. | Number of instructors. Students. © 3 1 o 0 0 m GQ O s 1 0 £ Corps of instruction. Whole number of students. Students in classical . course. Students in scientific course. !« 0 In 48 cS l s Total. Male. 1 Preparing for classical course. Preparing for scientific course. Male. © i Male. | Femalo. 2 98 98 25 10 50 49 390 3 259 164 63 28 16 100 1 5 22 905 679 226 140 437 754 168 828 319 90 170 88 69 3 0114 34 30 30 10 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 55 853 815 3 28 68 4 67 33 34 6 35 5 11 13 2 4 149 118 31 65 8 49 457 264 36 9 1 67 03,346 2,131 954 958 1, 037 ’■147 241 1, 731 784 154 279 116 7 41 1, 583 1, 013 570 437 448 30 146 1, 503 645 133 191 86 42 45 o2, 317 1, 353 840 618 662 189 135 993 436 173 149 129 49 9 750 507 243 309 237 43 175 50 9 67 49 1 17 820 595 225 241 169 94 875 278 80 99 60 18 8 356 265 91 27 52 24 4 28 373 327 15 31 3 18 347 339 8 175 169 58 301 214 16 20 10 9 7 300 300 300 131 1,573 1,515 25 27 6 67 21 773 489 284 250 275 .... 104 765 371 95 201 85 1 16| 1 497 337 160 109 69 110 53 170 | 90 9 33 15 2 10 528 501 27 105 111 24 OO Amount of productive funds. • Income from productive funds. 3 © Ch § <9 ^ SO Jl £ "3 c C I/! - - CD TJ r. c 2 ao *5 3 £ CD Cm ° 35 c^S bfl - a bfi < 13, 750 220 5,600 $480, 000 $312, 000 $24, 600 $10, 000 865 42, 000 19,000 1,850 5,600 45, 904 1,834 8,480 L 423, 000 862, 000 10, 900 108, 459 130 000 8, 000 $7, 500 125, 693 979 20, 000 556, 384 638, 057i 39, 318 68, 008 6, 000 50 3,000 75, 000 83, 0001 4,980 600 0 30, 200 1, 375 11, 300 620,000 467, 202 35, 935 23,250 13, 000 $2, 000 97,725 1,160 17, 250 2, 568, 000 2, 022, 000 114,887 91, 669 23,000 53, 428 1,146 12, 432 1, 002, 500 847, 412' 54,200 20,' 100 23, 000 22, 000 38, 390 2, 312 8,347 923, 000 624,642 55,067 36,274 11,864 10,000 18,230 1, 350 1,480 544, 000 46, 000 3, 913 19, 080 26 275 12, 000 36, 001 1,211 13, 500 806, 000 746, 000 46,834 38,349 240 10, 000 5,025 300 1,500 185, 000 . 1 36, 200 968 15, 900 505, 000 560, 000 35, 400 20,734 118,000 25, 146 2,341 4,400 200, 500 3, 027, 570 181, 734 6,590 32,265 600 250, 491 3,711 17, 018 1, 200, 000 4, 307, 491 275, 549 206, 107 1,028 246,000 43, 000 1, 172 3, 750 1, 123, 000 438, 528 80,963 6, 169 120, 000 18, 008 3, 062 1, 210 286, 136 437, 260 26,821 5,026 19, 000 5,600 8,877 659 4,000 547, 405 55, 000 1,850 3, 730 34,321 71, 350, 2,140 11,400 1, 229, 000 722, 000 128,667 83,705 63, 200 2,750 250 200 220, 000 20,000 5,700 20, 000 200 54,835 100, 000 450, 000 25, 000 21,400 1, 000 100, 000 57,300 2, 000 24, 980 1, 420, 000 1, 313, 667 79, 003 48,608 6,960 90, 600 237, 184 6,452 15, 700 6, 589, 848 3, 725, 281 448,080 341,374 150,564 320,077 22,500 125 34,700 512, 000 168, 800 10,040 21, 980 7, 500 227, 974 3,410 40, 375 2, 724, 716 1,681,458 168,500 80, 521 23,000 261,274 3,100 5o 1,875 263, 000 121,782 10,900 8,038 5,000 40,000 138, 790 9,731 74,306 4, 254, 500 1, 593, 000 118,870 142, 530 122, 000 50, 000 459 632, 527 40, 364 27, 881 64,225 43, 000 50 7, 700 722, 000 486, 000 39, 200 4,000 42, 100 55,000 34,037 728 9, 750 1, 337, 500 1, 193, 300 76*818 41,502 37, 670 11, 985 1, 150 4,525 342, 000 65, 000 2, 200 34, 900 34, 700 1,728 369, 100 205, 250 14,413 5,190 12,000 73, 600 600 19, 200 1, 425, 562 364,700 24,222 49,901 30,000 94,000 8,090 310 3,500 290, 000 147, 000 9, 800 4,496 12,000 41,726 2, 085 6, 050 913, 250 725,000 54,767 75,922 42,360 7, 500 44, 000 1,250 3, 000 760, 000 140,000 4,319 10, 236 4,600 2, 597 2,500 5,000 500 50 2, 012, 951 56, 423 406,428 36, 689, 401 29, 247 927 2, 257, 904 | 1, 680, 122 513, 977 1,841, 546 b Also 505 sex not given. c REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Statistical summary of number of students in institutions for superior instruction ( not includ¬ ing students in preparatory departments ). States and Territories. Number of students in colleges. Number of students in schools of science. Number of students in schools for the superior instruction of women. Total number of students reported in these insti¬ tutions. 390 167 752 1, 309 100 90 190 California . . . 897 202 317 1,416 3 16 19 Connecticut . 921 230 180 1,331 37 37 74 0 458 198 967 1,623 1, 738 233 872 2, 843 1, 545 18 119 1, 682 1, 042 302 200 1, 544 176 140 34 350 Kentucky . . . 893 110 1, 382 2,385 Tjmisiana _ _ _ 52 180 232 Maine . . . . . . . . . 376 118 313 807 Maryland . . . 310 406 370 1, 086 Massachusetts . 1,640 564 1, 026 3, 230 Michigan . 781 154 120 1, 055 Minnesota _ _ _ _ 172 153 325 Mississippi .................................................. 299 469 768 Missouri ...... _ _ _ _ ....... _ ..... _ _ _ _ _ _ ... _ • 742 86 805 1, 633 "Nebraska _ _ _ 94 13 107 New Hampshire . . 315 101 294 710 New Jersey . . . 814 189 421 1,424 Xew York . -.. 3, 194 1, 480 1, 802 6,476 North Carolina . .• _ 475 76 * 609 1, 160 Ohio _ _ _ ............. _ ................ _ .... _ 2, 685 149 961 3, 795 Oreo-on _ . 313 49 81 443 Pennsylvania . 2,063 982 872 3, 917 Khode Island ................................................ 235 43 278 South Carolina . 354 37 218 609 Tennessee _ _ _ 1, 234 1, 502 2, 736 Texas . . . . . . . . ... _ 728 331 555 1, 614 Vermont _ _ _ _ 186 19 147 352 Virginia. . . 892 394 881 2,167 "West Virginia . 167 44 120 331 "Wisconsin . 724 9 302 1,035 "Distrie.t, of Colombia _ 156 156 Total . 27, 201 6, 950 17, 061 51, 212 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. Cl Summary of college entrance examinations in 1S77. Number admitted. Xumber ejected for deficiency in — Name. Location. X 1 x ' ! i Con ditio media — i cr- i a 7E IE X « >» ^ X g ; | jp ; 5 >i , r : ? 1 ® ^ Trinity College . Hartford, Conn . 1 « 9 19 18 26 a24 2 2 3 al 3 Wesleyan University . Middletown, Conn .. 62 4 29 36 52 11 . 2 Illinois W esleyanUniversity Bloomington, HL - 75 ; 50 I 0 0 0 i 0 So | 75 1 5 3 4 0 ! 9 0 0 0 3 Indiana University . Bloomington, Ind . . . 58 53 ! 5 0 5 53 ; 0 0 0 0 0 Fort Wavne. Ind. . . . 40 ■ 35 4 ... 1 . 3 Franklin, Ind . 9 4 4 1 1 j.... Earlham College . Eichmond. Ind . 17 9 i s (*> 3 ; &4 4 : (C) 1 d3 4 Parsons College . Fairfield, Iowa . 18 i 9 4 0 3 1 j 2 0 0 11 Mt. Vernon. Iowa . . . 55 27 18 i 16 2 J 4 6 4 Lane University . Lecompton, Fans . . . 21 0 21 1 21 | 21 0 0 0 0 0 Cpntrp CoTlegft _ _ _ Danville, Kv . 44 34 ; 3 j 4 0 Concord College . ! New Liberty, Ky - 67 : 25 j 2 .... 28 j 12 .... 4 6 .... Jefferson College, St. Mary's St. James Parish, La. 37 : (i 5) - e22 Bowdoin College . Brunswick, Me . 64 * 20 i 7 i 17 13 L.. 1 1 1 ...J 5 ^ John‘s ColW^ _ Annapolis. Md . 25 ! 2 _ , Xxjvola College _ Baltimore, Md . 104 1 (6 4) o 0 0 0 0 Amherst College . Amherst, Mass . 112 26 89 32 45 51 Tufts College . College Hill, Mass... 23 5 , io | 6 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 “Kalamazoo College . Kalamazoo, Mich _ 8 2 1 i | 3 1 .... Carleton College . 1 Northfield, Minn. . . . 18 ! 5 j 6 | 6 6 3 ! ° 0 0 0 0 Washington University. St Louis, Mo . 9 i 3 I 1 | 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 Doane Colles'e _ ... Crete, Nebr . 6 2 i 2 j 2 Bulgers College . N ew Brunswick, N. J 59 | 24 | 2 11 21 j 6 /i fl fl fl fl College of New Jersey . Princeton, N. J . 177 i 69 47 j 37 j 50 17 16 14 17 11 20 St. Stephen's College . Annan dale, N. V _ 1 20 15 ! 3 ! 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 Brooklyn Collegiate and Brooklvn, N. V . ! 79 j 28 14 i 0 12 J 3 3 0 12 8 , 10 Polytechnic Institute. St. Lawrence University . . . Canton. N. F . j j 19 12 1 ' 2 5,2 0 0 2 0 • 2 Hobart College . i Geneva, N. V . 16 9 | 3 | 6 3 0 0 10 0 1 Madison Universitv . Hamilton. N. V . ' 24 14 1 3 1 2 8 j.... 4 4 4 .... 4 College of St. Prancis Navier New Fork. N. V _ 65 i 38 1 j 2 ; 5 : _ 10 9 . 10 Columbia College _ New Fork, N. F _ ; 100 ; 23 34 , 27 j 44 , 12 ; University of liochester . . . Bochester, N. F _ 36 1 28 1 4 j 3 ! 1 8 Union College . Schenectady, N. F .. o66 29 12 14 26 ! 0 | University of NorthCarolina Chapel Hill, N.C....1 90 | 75 H 3 .... 16 North Carolina College - Mt Pleasant, N. C .. . 4 0 j 0 | 2 4 2 o 000 .... Wake Forest College . Wake Forest, N. C . - 7.40 _ _ _ _ Buehtel College . 1 1 Akron, Ohio . 18 10 ' 5 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 Baldwin Universitv . Berea, Ohio . 35 25 | 4 j 3 ; 3 j 1 j 5 3 2 2 4 Hebrew Union College . Cincinnati, Ohio . ' 12- | 10 I a In English, history, and geography, & Conditioned in history. eNot required. dFor deficiency in history, e Includes those admitted to “commercial course.” /Number deficient; no student was rejected for a single deficiency. ^ Number admitted, h 34 of these -were admitted. CII EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF EDUCATION. Summary of college entrance examinations in 1877 — Continued. Name. Location. St. Xavier College . Kenyon College . Denison University . Marietta College . Urbana University . “Wilmington College . Ursinus College . . Pennsylvania College . Haverford College . Mercersbnrg College . "Westminster College . Western University of Pennsylvania. Augustinian College of St. Tliomas of Yillanova. Brown University . College of Charleston . Erskine College . East Tennessee University. Bethel College . Maryville College . Christian Brothers’ College . Mosheim Institute . Eisk University . Greeneville and Tuscnlnm j College. Southwestern University . . Baylor University . University of Y ermont and State Agricultural College. Middlehury College . Horwich University . Lawrence University . Beloit College . University of Wisconsin. . . Bipon College . Howard University . Xational Deaf-Mute College Cincinnati, Ohio . Gambler, Ohio - Granville, Ohio . Marietta, Ohio . Urbana, Ohio . Wilmington, Ohio. . . Freeland, Pa . Gettysburg, Pa . HaverfordCollege,Pa Mercersbnrg, Pa ... . Hew Wilmington, Pa Pittsburgh, Pa . Yillanova, Pa . Providence, B. I . Charleston, S. C . Due West, S. C . Knoxville, Tenn McKenzie, Tenn .... Maryville, Tenn _ Memphis, Tenn . Mosheim, Tenn . Hashville, Tenn . Tuscnlnm, Tenn Georgetown, Tex . . . Independence, Tex. . Burlington, Yt . Middlehury, Yt . Horthfield, Yt . Appleton, Wis . Beloit, Wis . Madison, Wis . Bipon, Wis . Washington, D. C . . . Washington, D. C . . . Total Total number of candidates. Humber admitted. Humber rejected for deficiency in — Without conditions. Con “a Hi ditio 'o g O ned: J JO 1 r. | 3 in — 1 § 3 1 CS >5 3 S ‘ 3 Latin. o 9 1 o m IS a 3 a f > n s d. f, P< c O % * ci ^ ac .2 ^ 3 X > - •z t£ .A 0 ^ J R £> ® 2 | ® 7 . M * 34 25 4 10 53 126 8 63 10 28 160 ! 2^. 107 44 140 114 67 437 909 2 4 30 10 . 14] 60 Connecticut . 160 363 0 45 107 0 0 675 84 39 123 49 25 74 484 65 212 8 199 988 Illinois . 62 76 958 55 57 1,037 121 2, 366 20 40 437 3S 448 49 1,032 209 20 618 112 662 1, 621 309 237 546 333 241 142 169 885 Louisiana . . . . 39 22 61 Maine _ _ 175 271 58 g 512 Maryland . 116 14 175 24 2 169 13 513 Massachusetts . . ............ 176 1,231 300 17 180 45 1.949 Michigan . . - . 9 250 3 275 537 Minnesota . . 54 109 32 69 264 Mississippi ...... . . . . 56 105 19 ni 17 308 Missouri . 45 330 30 401 26 832 Nebraska . no 100 210 New Hampshire . 169 421 33 20 643 New Jersey . 262 49 29 34 448 New Tort . . ......... _ 1 526 621 C1Q 699 205 357 4 257 North Carolina . 218 206 76 85 Ohio . . . . 235 347 949 no 68 759 2 468 Oregon . 55 136 69 114 374 Pennsylvania . 380 175 633 158 77 329 828 2,580 Rhode Island _ .... _ 15 174 o 30 0 219 South Carolina . . . . 67 36 96 10 12 78 299 Tennessee . . . . . 90 975 IQfi 30 344 1 323 Texas _ ... _ _ G~ zu 1 0 Oi D 151 -LUO 99 32 15 246 539 Vermont . . . OO 311 9 79 392 Virginia . . . . 116 159 58 09 an Vest Virginia . •£0 ~ g JLO 56 50 4-U. 163 "Wisconsin . . ..... _ 176 OA9 1 1 fin 433 1 OKS District of Columbia . ZD 20 ODD 132 ±1 - ou -L, UOO 164 Indian Territory . 3 3 New Mexico . Utah . 23 0 23 ■Washington . 20 20 Total . 6,090 4,260 8, 275 2,6n 989 6, 985 1,609 30, 819 CIY REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. STATEMENT RESPECTING AMERICAN COLLEGES. Several foreign ministers who represent their countries in Washington have applied to me for information on various topics connected with American colleges, such as their courses of study and the degrees conferred by them. I have caused several copies of the following statement to he made for their use ; hut finding that the matter is of general interest, I publish it in this report. COLLEGE NOMENCLATURE. By the term “ superior instruction ” educators in the United States somewhat vaguely describe all grades of instruction above that given in high schools, academies, normal schools, and commercial schools. The nomenclature of institutions of learning here is quite perplexing to foreigners, and even to many natives. This arises from several causes, of which the two most important will he mentioned. These are, first, the dif¬ ferent meanings assigned to the words “ college,” “ university,” “seminary,” &c., by the various nations from which the people of the United States descend; and, secondly, the different ways in which institutions of learning are incorporated in the several States. A few instances will show what is meant. In Pennsylvania, the Girard College is really a school for orphans, whom it appren¬ tices at a specified age. In Connecticut, Yale College, having an extensive and varied course in the classics, mathematics, and the moral, mental, and political sciences, has also schools for superior instruction in technology, fine arts, law, medicine, and divinity, yet it does not possess any university title, although it is one of the very best of American universities. Again, Harvard College, the oldest in America, is the nucleus of Harvard University, which, in addition to the college proper, consists of schools of technology, divinity, law, medicine, dentistry, and agriculture, besides having a fine astronomical observatory, a botanical garden and herbarium, a very large library, and two museums, one of American archaeology and ethnology and the other of comparative zoology. The College of Physicians and Surgeons in Phila¬ delphia is a society of resident medical men, chartered for certain specified purposes, but not intended as an educational institution. Again, the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York is a corporation supervising all the chartered col¬ leges, universities, law schools, and medical schools, and nearly all the academies and academic departments of union schools in the State; but, as an educational corporation, it has not a single professor, teacher, or student. On the other hand, many so called “universities” have only classical and scientific departments or courses ; some have only the classical department ; some, especially in the South and West, combine work usually done in schools for secondary instruction with their collegiate work. This will be further alluded to. It will be observed, therefore, that the nomenclature of institutions for superior in¬ struction in this country does not by any means indicate with certainty the character of the instruction given in them, but only that they profess to instruct in one or more of the numerous subjects which by common consent are classed together under the name of “superior instruction.” CHARACTER OF COLLEGIATE INSTRUCTION. Collegiate instruction may be divided generally into two kinds, which have in com¬ mon many studies : one of these is composed, to a great extent, of instruction in Latin and Greek ; the other devotes more attention to mathematics and natural sciences. The courses are generally four years in length, and they are called classical and scien¬ tific. Religious connection of the colleges. — Another peculiarity of schools for collegiate in¬ struction here is the influence which the different religious denominations have in their foundation and support. Unlike the Protestant communities in Northern Germany, Holland, and England — which had great monastic foundations, buildings, and funds that could be directed to the training of clergymen for the new religious beliefs of SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. CV those countries — the colonists in America were forced, out of their own narrow means to establish schools, colleges, and seminaries for the preparation of their clergy and teachers or else to import these from the Old W orld ; other religious motives and causes have continued to produce the same effect. No religious sect, however numer¬ ically small, is satisfied till it has the control of some college where its spiritual teach¬ ers and the chief men of its laity can be educated in the principles and practices of its belief. Consequently we find that the greater number of American colleges have a decidedly denominational connection of one kind or another. There is , however, an increasing number that, remaining religious in spirit, have outgrown special sectarian limitations. Of course, too, the intellectual, moral, and social standard of the college varies in like manner with the intellectual, moral, and social condition of the American communion to which it owes allegiance. State colleges. — In addition to the colleges above mentioned, several American States have established colleges and universities not sectarian in their character, but sup¬ ported partly or wholly from public funds. These funds originally were derived from the sale or lease of the ‘ ‘ university lands ” given to the newer States on their admission into the Union. Still other institutions of this kind have been founded by the benevolence of private citizens. Their positions depend much on the rules imposed by their founders. Women in colleges and universities. — About one-half of the universities and colleges established for the instruction of young men also admit the other sex. In addition to these there is a large number of institutions which devote themselves to the higher instruction of young women only. In most of the mixed colleges a special ‘‘ladies’ course” is established, and in general the standard of qualification necessary to obtain a diploma is lower for women than for men. In a few cases, however, the curriculum is superior in extent and variety to that of many so called colleges for the instruction of young men. The subject of mixed instruction has excited great discussion and has brought out the most contrary opinions, but it is quite impossible in this short state¬ ment to do more than note the fact. Colleges for colored persons. — Race prejudice was so strong in some parts of the United States that the friends of the colored people found it advisable and necessary, even before the late war, to establish schools and a college for their special instruction. This feeling of prejudice is disappearing. It is much to the credit of some of the best colleges in America that they deny their privileges to no one on account of race ; among these may be mentioned Dartmouth, Tale, and Harvard. The deaf-mute college. — Even the deaf-mute are provided with facilities for higher culture. At the national capital a college for deaf-mutes has been in successful opera¬ tion for several years. It gives an excellent education in classics, mathematics, science, philosophy, physics, and natural history, and its graduates are eagerly sought for as teachers in other institutions for the deaf-mute. PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION. The subjects usually considered in this country matters for professional instruction are theology, law, medicine and surgetry, dentisry and pharmacy, engineering, naval and military science, and the like. Most of the schools for teaching these subjects are connected with colleges, but generally the connection is one of a corporate character only. For instance, Harvard College is at Cambridge, but the medical and dental schools of Harvard University are in Boston, and the agricultural school is at Jamaica Plain. The medical and law schools of the University of Georgetown are in Wash¬ ington. Xormal (or pedagogic) training in this country has been confined to the training of teachers for elementary and secondary schools. It is not, therefore, considered a branch of superior instruction ; though several colleges have normal departments or courses of instruction in which teachers for the lower grades are instructed. In the same way, commercial schools are not considered a part of superior instruction, although many so called colleges give instruction of this kind. Quite recently, however, a few CVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. colleges liave instituted professorships of pedagogy, respecting which allusion is made elsewhere in this report. United States military and naval schools. — The only schools teaching military and naval science under the protection of the National Government are the Military and Naval Academies at West Point, N. Y., and Annapolis, Md., respectively. From the gradu¬ ates of these schools, officers of the line and staff in both services are generally selected. Medical officers of the Government. — Medical officers of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Marine Hospital Service, and Revenue Marine Service are selected by competitive examination after due public notice. The quarantine service is not yet under Federal control ; but strong efforts have been made to work a change in this respect. State military academies. — Several of the States have chartered military schools ; in these, mathematics, engineering, French, German, military tactics, and drill are taught, often exceedingly well. Instruction in tactics is also given at several other institu¬ tions, among which may be mentioned the colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts which have been established under the provisions of the act of Congress approved July 2, 1882, and the several acts amendatory thereof. COLLEGES OF AGRICULTUBE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS. The act of July 2, 1862, granted to each State of the Union, out of the public domain, 30,000 acres of land (or land scrip for an equivalent amount) for each Senator and Rep¬ resentative then in Congress from the State.1 The State must use the money derived from sale thereof in “ endowing, supporting, and maintaining at least one college where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agri¬ culture and the mechanic arts in such a manner as the Legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe.” — (Section 4 of the act of July 2, 1862.) It will be observed here once more that the Federal Government avoids interference with local rule. It charters institutions of learning only in the District of Columbia. Elsewhere, institutions of learning are chartered by territorial or State Legislatures or under the provision of general State laws. INDEPENDENCE OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE. American colleges and professional schools, even when endowed from public funds, are not much under public control or supervision. After receiving their charters — which usually authorize them to have a corporate seal, to hold real and personal prop¬ erty, to teach and charge fees therefor, and to confer appropriate degrees — there is not much connection between them and the States. The State of New York is an excep¬ tion to this general usage. All academies chartered by the State and all colleges and professional schools (excepting schools of theology) are parts of the general corpora¬ tion known as “The University of the State of New York,” which has been mentioned already. Detailed information respecting American colleges and professional schools will be found throughout the annual reports of this Office, but more particularly in the statistical tables of the appendix. DEGREES IN COUESE. When students have pursued the course of study laid down by the authorities of a college or professional school, and have passed such examinations and paid such fees as are prescribed, they are given diplomas which certify that they have so studied and that the corporation has granted them a degree ; this is called a degree in course. The usual degrees in course on graduation in this country are as follows : Collegiate. — Classical, a. b., bachelor of arts; scientific, b. s., bachelor of science. Professional. — Theology, B. d., bachelor of divinity; medicine, m. d., doctor of med- iEor example, Delaware had two Senators and one Representative in Congress; Delaware therefore received 90,000 acres (land scrip). SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. CYII icine; dentistry, d. d. s., doctor of dental surgery; pharmacy, pn. g., graduate in pharmacy; law, ll. b., bachelor of laws. The great improvement and extension of scientific and polytechnic instruction dur¬ ing the past fifteen years have made it advisable to give -degrees in course at gradua¬ tion in civil engineering (c. e.), agriculture (b. agr.), mining engineering (m. e.), architecture (b. arch.), and other branches. Usually a degree in course called master of arts (a. m.) is conferred three years after graduation on bachelors of arts who are engaged in literary or professional pur¬ suits and who pay to their college a fee prescribed by its regulations. There are exceptions to this rule. The University of Virginia never gave this degree except to persons studying and passing examinations in certain specified branches. Harvard Tale, and some other colleges have discontinued the practice. The degree of bachelor of divinity is not conferred by most of the theological schools. Thus, in 1875, this degree was conferred on only 158 graduates, while the theological seminaries graduated about 400 other students who were undoubtedly equal in literary and professional attainments and in fitness for the pastoral office to those who received that degree. In the same year 26 schools of law conferred the degree of bachelor of laws (ll. b.) on 841 graduates. It maybe said with truth that at least as many more persons must have been admitted to practice by the various State courts without attending law schools or taking degrees.1 The degree of doctor of medicine (m. d. ) in course was conferred in 1875 by 61 schools of medicine, the number of such degrees conferred being about 2,300. There can be no doubt that others in various ways2 entered the medical profession during the same year without a diploma. Less than four hundred degrees in course were conferred on graduates in dentistry and pharmacy. It will be seen from the above facts that the ranks of the professions in this coun¬ try are not filled exclusively by graduates from institutions for superior or profes¬ sional instruction. The community, however, is beginning to look with disfavor on those who enter the professions without previous thorough preparation, and it may be said with confidence that in the course of time few will be found in the professions who are not graduates. HONORARY DEGREES. American colleges are much in the habit of giving honorary degrees. This practice, copied from the two great English universities, has been carried on without due dis¬ crimination. It is confined almost entirely to the colleges proper ; no school of the¬ ology during the year 1875 ^ave any honorary doctorate of divinity; no school of law conferred any honorary doctorate of law ; only 5 honorary doctorates of medicine were conferred by the medical schools. The colleges gave honorary doctorates as follows : 138 in divinity, d. d. ; 2 in medicine, m. d. ; 68 in law, ll. d. ; 19 in philosophy, ph. d. ; and 4 in music, mtjs. d. They also conferred 130 honorary masterships of arts. It is true that most of these degrees were conferred on men who had graduated from college and that most of the recipients were professional men, but the practice is one very liable to abuse and is discountenanced now by some of the leading schools. Owing to the facility with which charters can be obtained from most State legisla¬ tures, it is quite easy for unscrupulous and designing men to be corporators of a “col¬ lege” or “university;” or they can become the possessors by purchase of the charter of some decaying corporation with a sounding name. When a charter is secured by either of these methods an imposing series of diplomas certifying to the conferring of various degrees is prepared ; advertisements are published which inform the public that for a specified sum of money and the presentation of a satisfactory thesis the applicant will be given the degree he desires. The thesis is unimportant; the fee is the principal reason for conferring the distinction. Many foreigners have obtained degrees from such schools, to the scandal and disgrace of our country. It may be set 1 Admission to the bar is a matter entirely in the hands of the courts. 2 Sometimes without any authority ; sometimes by license of medical societies. CVIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. down as an invariable rule that any “college” or “university” or professional school which grants degrees in absentia on the payment of certain “fees” is a fraud. Fortu¬ nately the number of such institutions is not large. FREE SCHOLARSHIPS. In many colleges, and in nearly all schools of theology, there are scholarships obtainable under certain conditions, so that poor students can receive help from the income thereof ; but scholarships in medical schools and law schools are almost unknown. CONDITIONS OF ADMISSION. As the colleges are quite independent of the State in their management, so they are also as regards conditions of admission to their curriculum (except in the State of New York); generally, however, students desiring to pursue a classical course of instruction are required to prepare themselves for it by studying some of the easier Latin and Greek authors, the English branches, arithmetic, geometry, and some alge¬ bra ; but these requirements vary much. APPOINTMENT OF PROFESSORS. Professors are usually selected by the board of trustees of the college they serve. The State has very little to do with their selection or the payment of their salaries. In sectarian colleges the professors are usually selected from the educated men of the denomination ; and the desire that these institutions should supply facilities for supe¬ rior instruction as extensive as those afforded by rival colleges produces a healthy competition. By this means the requirements of the curriculum are continually im¬ proving. An additional motive for improvement is the high standard maintained by non-sectarian colleges. Professors in professional schools are generally selected on account of their pub- ’ lished writings or the reputation acquired in their professional career. In theological schools they of course belong to the religious denomination for which the seminary is founded. GENERAL REMARKS. From the foregoing remarks the reader will observe that the American university, when fully developed, differs from the German or the English university. The English universities at Oxford and Cambridge are substantially several colleges for instruction in classics, logics, mathematics, and mental and moral science, professional instruction being given almost entirely in London and other large cities of Great Britain. The German university leaves the care of ordinary instruction in classics, mathematics, and similar studies to the Gymnasien, Realschulen, &c. It teaches by means of lect¬ ures, and confines itself to a very high character of instruction in philology, philos¬ ophy, mathematics, law, medicine, and divinity. CONDITION OF SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. The present condition of superior instruction in this country is, on the whole, en¬ couraging to all lovers of sound learning and solid culture. Institutions of long estab¬ lishment are broadening and deepening their plans ; institutions of recent foundation are pushing into the field untrammelled by tradition and full of the spirit of the age with which they are solely identified. Boston University. — Prominent in the highest grade among the later institutions stands Boston University, rich in endowment, imbued with advanced ideas of impar¬ tial and universal education, brought into closest competition with older institutions, and able, by virtue of the conditions which have called it into existence, to combine exact scholarship and severe tests with elastic methods and eclectic courses — it is unquestionably destined to exercise a determining influence in the new methods of education which the time demands and for which it is expectantly waiting. The position of Boston University with reference to the department of theology SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. CIX acquires peculiar importance from the educational policy adopted in State establish¬ ments. In the endeavor to preserve that perfect religious impartiality harmonizing ■with the principle of our constitution, these institutions have made no attempt to give instruction in theology. Universities of private origin are free from the conditions that limit State action, and the University of Boston congratulates itself that “it stands for all sciences and not for a part of them.” The Johns Hopkins University. — As the founder of the Johns Hopkins University gave no limitation to the interpretation of the word, the trustees after ample counsel and reflection developed an organization which corresponds more nearly to the German university than any other American college. The increasing attendance of American students upon the lectures of the German universities, the enrolment of graduate students at Harvard and other of our institu¬ tions, and the need of advanced instruction for students looking to professors’ chairs led the trustees to determine that the first object of their care should be “the philosophical faculty of a university,” to give superior instruction in mathematics, science, and the languages. The academic staff consists, at present, of the president and six professors, including graduates of the universities of London, Oxford, Cambridge, and Gottingen, of American colleges, of a medical school, and of a technical school — men who to the highest scholastic honors have added large and varied experience in practical affairs — while the associate instructors, lecturers, and fellows represent a still wider circle of institutions, thus centring in the university at the outset influences the most vigorous and stimulating. Recognizing the responsible relation of a university to the antecedent grades, the trustees have made arrangements for the reception of graduates of the Baltimore City College and of private schools of the city, and courses of study leading to the bacca¬ laureate degree have been marked out for such schools. This is necessarily a measure of local application, but the pervading spirit of the university is comprehensive, liberal, and national. For the second year 104 students were registered, as follows: 20 fellows, 38 other graduates, 24 matriculates, and 22 special. The traditional class system is here abandoned, each student upon entering being assigned to a member of the faculty, who acts as his official adviser with reference to his studies. All advance¬ ment is determined by rigid tests, and the examinations for the degrees conferred, namely, a, b., ph. b., a. m., andPH. D., are thorough and impartial. The library of the university is being gathered with reference to its special needs. The relation between the Peabody Institute and the university relieves the latter from the necessity of establishing a general library upon a liberal scale, while at the same time securing to the students the invaluable facilities of a large, well chosen, and constantly increasing library and a comprehensive series of scientific journals and transactions, purchased with reference to the wants of students. It will be especially in the power of the university to advance science by stimulating original investigation and research, and publishing the results to the criticism of the world. The earnest of its purpose in this direction is the activity of the three scientific laboratories, physical, biological, and chemical, and the list of books and papers published by resi¬ dent members of the university during the last two years. The influence of the university is not confined to its resident members : its liberal spirit and its power of wide adaptation are illustrated in such special efforts as the “ teachers’ class in physiology ” and the afternoon public lectures. The latter effort has been maintained from year to year with increasing success. It reacts to the ben¬ efit of the university by arousing the interest of the best people and by inciting young men to prepare for the large opportunities of which a glimpse is thus afforded. Vanderbilt University. — The want of additional means of higher education in the South and Southwest led several conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, between the years 1871 and 1873, to take measures for the organization of a university. Their efforts excited the interest of Cornelius Vanderbilt, who, on the cx REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. 27th of March, 1873, made a donation of $500,000 to the enterprise, 'which amount he subsequently doubled. As the result of th '-s generous gift, Vanderbilt University was established in Nashville, Tenn., October, 1S75. The university is organized with four distinct departments, as follows: The depart¬ ment of philosophy, science, and literature, and the biblical, law, and medical depart¬ ments. The courses are eclectic, allowing the student the privilege of pursuing those studies which are suited to his special taste, previous preparation, or proposed busi¬ ness in life. As a temporary substitute for the lack of efficient preparatory schools, a preparatory collegiate department has been established in connection with the university, whose students will be under the same government and enjoy the same privileges. The facilities for instruction and investigation in the different scientific schools include the full appointments of physical, astronomical, and chemical laboratories, and a museum of natural history and mineralogy. It is purposed to so arrange the university curriculum that a student of ordinary ability may obtain the degree of bachelor of arts in four years and that of master .of arts in five. Graduate students may reside at the university for any length of time, and be entitled to the advice and assistance of the professors and to the use of the university library and to examination for higher degrees. A judicious system of scholarships and fellowships is designed to extend the influence of the university. Drury College. — Peculiar interest attaches to all movements for superior education in the far West, because of the important part they must assume in maintaining the intellectual life of our own people constantly moving toward the setting sun, and in moulding into the spirit of our civilization and institutions the foreign emigrants that pour into our new lands. Drury College, Springfield, Mo., a coeducational institution under Congregational auspices, is one of the recent foundations in this field. While designing, as did the first, colleges of our infant colonies, to instruct youth in the sacred Scriptures and the principles of Christianity, it has no organic connection with any religious denomina¬ tion and allows no effort for the promotion of sectarian interests. It has preparatory and collegiate departments and is anticipating a growing want in its special arrange¬ ments for musical and art culture. Colorado College is favorably situated for the work of education in the West. It occupies a commanding position in that great block of territory comprising Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Arizona, exceeding by 50,000 square miles the extent of the thirteen original States. On the south is a mixed population of 10,000 Americans, 20,000 Indians, and 100,000 Mexicans. The dearth of educational facilities in this immense region is scarcely credible. Large and populous villages are wholly destitute of schools, communities with a population of a thousand souls have perhaps two months’ schooling in the year, and, even at that, many teachers employed can scarcely read and write. Adverse influences are insidiously working to secure control of edu¬ cational interests. To the west is polygamy, antagonizing all that is best in American liberty and all that is purest in society. Colorado College has pushed into the field by establishing schools auxiliary to the college at Santa F6 and Salt Lake City. The work of the college proper is wisely adapted to the wants and the special resources of its section. The college compre¬ hends at present three general courses of study, viz: English and normal course, preparatory classical course, and the college course proper. As it has been made a station of the United States Signal Service, students from the higher classes are formed into a corps for the study of meteorology and for practice in the use of instruments according to the regulations of the Signal Service. The price of tuition has been placed at $25 a year, with the design of making the college practically free to alL SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. CXI HEALTH OF COLLEGE STUDENTS. I present here nearly the whole of Professor Hitchcock’s paper on the physical train¬ ing of the students at Amherst College, Massachusetts. It was read before the Amer¬ ican Public Health Association at Chicago, in September, 1871: Probably the first idea of the department of physical education and hygiene in Am¬ herst College originated in the mind of the late President Stearns. In 1859, in his report to the trustees of the college, when he mentions the death of two members of the senior class as probably hastened, if not actually caused, by a neglect of the laws of health, the whole board of trustees was incited to the immediate erection of a building, the nucleus and beginning of the department. This building is called the Barrett Gymnasium, in honor of the late Benjamin Bar¬ rett, of Northampton, Mass., the largest donor to it. The edifice is of stone, two storied, well lighted and ventilated, and warmed in the cold season. The lower story contains dressing room, bowling alleys, spirometers, lifting and rowing machines, and the apparatus for securing vital statistics. The upper room is 50 by 75 feet, of smooth hard pine floor, with a clear space of 40 by 50 feet. At one end of the hall is to be found much of the heavy apparatus, consisting of the horizontal bar, rack bars, vault¬ ing horse, batule board, spool ropes, peg pole, incline board, perpendicular pole, hori¬ zontal, vertical, and inclined ladders, swinging and travelling rings, Indian clubs, lifting weights, and a few other kinds. At the other end are a small platform for the leader of the class exercises and a piano to secure harmony and rhythm during the exercises. Above this platform is a gallery for the spectators of the exercises, of whom there were 3,635 during the year 1876-’77, 842 of them being ladies. The gymnasium is open during all the hours of daylight and may be used by any member of college at his will, save that he may not interfere with the exercise of a class when occupying the floor. No restraints w hatever are put upon the students in using the building or its apparatus, save instructions as to the proper and healthy use of the heavy apparatus and impressive caution to the freshmen and newcomers not to use excessively until inured to work and familiarity with the apparatus by a period of training. The title of the department was proposed by Dr. Nathan Allen, of Lowell, one of the trustees and graduates of the college, of which he has been an early and long tried Mend, and the most devoted and faithful guardian to the department, of which he may well be styled the godfather. The duties of the professor of this department were established by the trustees, upon the suggestions of Dr. Allen, as follows : “ The duties of this professor shall be: First, to take charge of the gymnasium and give in¬ struction to the students in gymnastics. Second, to take a general oversight of the health of the students and to give such instruction on the subject as may be deemed expedient, according to the general plan stated by the president in his report and under the direction of the faculty, like all the other studies. Third, to teach elocu¬ tion, so far as it is connected with physical training. F ourth, he shall give lectures from time to time upon hygiene, physical culture, and other topics pertaining to the laws of life and health, including some general knowledge of anatomy and physiol¬ ogy. Fifth, the individual appointed to have charge of this department shall be a thoroughly educated physician, and, like other teachers and professors, shall be a member of the college faculty. It is distinctly understood that the health of the stu¬ dents shall at all times be an object of his special watch, care, and counsel.’’ At the same time, the faculty believed that the exercises in the gymnasium should be conducted according to the following ideas: “First, the main object shall not be to secure feats of agility and strength, or even powerful muscle, but to keep in good health the whole body. Second, that all the students shall be required to attend on its exercises for half an hour, designated for the purpose, at least four days in the week. Third, the instructor shall assign to each individual such exercises as may be best adapted to him, taking special care to prevent the ambitious from violent action and all extremes, endeavoring to work the whole body and not overwork any part of it. Fourth, that while it may not be expedient to mark the gradation of attainment, as in the intellectual branches, yet regularity, attention, and docility should be care¬ fully noted, so as to have their proper weight in the deportment column of the stu¬ dent’s general position. Fifth, that some time shall be allowed out of study hours for those volunteer exercises which different men, according to their tastes, may elect for recreation, and particularly that the bowling alleys be not given up to promiscuous use, but be allotted at regular hours to those who wish to make use of them : all these volunteer exercises, of whatever kind, to be under the supervision of the gym¬ nasium instructor. Sixth, that the building shall always be closed before dark, that no light shall be used in it, and no smoking or irregularities of any kind shall be allowed in it. Seventh, that the instructor ought to be a member of the faculty, and give in to it his marks and occasional accounts and receive directions as other officers of the college are accustomed to do.” CXII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. The department has now been in operation for seventeen years. During nearly the whole of the first year it was under the direction of Dr. John W. Hooker, son of the late Dr. Worthington Hooker, of New Haven, Conn., who left on account of sick¬ ness and soon died. And for the remaining sixteen years it is interesting to observe that, though it has been experimental in the work of college education, yet it has been carried on so nearly according to the plan and views of its originators that to a mere looker-on it might seem as if the work of the department began and ended with the daily exercises of the four classes in the gymnasium. But in this department much of the work is done with individuals and in ways where it is not known or seen by the multitude. Each of the four classes in college meets the professor for an exercise in the gymna¬ sium of half an hour’s length on four days in the week. In this way the student pre¬ sents himself for a public visit to the professor, and may always have a private inter¬ view either before or after the exercise if either desire it. , The hours for the exercise are mainly at the beginning and close of the day, as both the most valuable time for exercise and those which best adapt themselves to the college routine. Each class has its own captain and as many other officers as are best adapted to manoeuvre and handle the class in its movements. The general method of the conduct of the exer¬ cises is military. The required exercise of each man and class is best known as that of light gymnastics, or those bodily exercises performed by a class with one or two pieces of apparatus in the hands, each movement timed to music and all simultaneous and uniform ; and the only apparatus successfully used at Amherst is the pair of wooden dumb-bells, weighing less than a pound apiece. The students here have universally preferred the bells to the rings and wands, though these have been thoroughly tried. Each class has its own “exercise” or series of bodily movements with the bells, and these are so managed as to give free, lively, graceful, and vigorous work to the whole muscular system during the time of the exercise. In addition to the bell exercise, marching by the file and flank is considerably practised, and during the cold months running or “double quick” movements. This running is encouraged, that the stu¬ dent may gain the very valuable assistance that it gives to the “ wind” by furnishing warm air to the lungs, and a more rapid relief by sweating and greater freedom to the body by the smaller amount of clothing required than if the necessary amount were taken in the cold temperature of out of doors. This exercise varies from fifteen to twenty minutes, and with the temperature from 55° to 60° the student almost always finishes with a moist skin. The remainder of the half hour is occupied in voluntary exercise. Some use the heavy apparatus, about one in eight, or take a longer run ; others dance, use clubs, sing, pull rope, toss in the blanket, turn somer¬ saults, and occupy themselves in any proper manner to secure exercise, sport, or recre¬ ation. This amount of exercise includes all that is required of the student, and satisfies probably three-fourths of the whole number. The use of the bowling alleys is entirely at the option of the student. Some, however, who are not quite normally robust or who are specially advised to it, frequent, the gymnasium for the second half hour in the day, either following special directions or enjoying themselves as they like. Others, on account of their robust nature, require more muscular work in order to discharge their superfluous energy, j ust as some people require more food than do others. It might be thought that accidents would happen here frequently, and that there has been such an exemption from everything of this sort seems to be owing to a special providence. There has never been a serious result from accident since the building was opened and dedicated to the better culture of the body, unless it be to one young man who fell and was kept from gymnasium exercise for three months. Before this department was established it was thought that requirements of bodily exercise would be irksome to students and difficult to secure. But experience here has shown that the disposition to shirk this branch of college life has not been so marked as in some of the intellectual departments. Some statistics have been gath¬ ered to illustrate this point. In 1868-’69 attendance on chapel and gymnastic exercises was compared. Nearly 84 per cent, of the class were present at the gymnasium and 80 per cent, at the chapel. Similar observations in 1870 gave 13 per cent, of absences from chapel and 6 per cent, from the gymnasium. It was at first thought that it would be necessary to excuse many from gymnastic exercise. The past year, however, may be taken as a sample for the sixteen years, during which year only one junior and two freshmen (each with a defective arm) have not been required to attend. There has been no instance in the history of the department where the exercises as required have worked the least injury to the student; but, on the other hand, there are scores of men in whom a marked improvement has evidently taken place as a direct result of the required physical training as practised here. The military method, though a little used, is not sought after. It seems idle to talk about military rules and life where there is no military authority to carry out the reg¬ ulations. Were the college a State or Government institution, a military department would be in place and possibly sustained and prospered. But to talk about military SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. CXIII rules and methods without the authority of the ball and chain, the guardhouse, or power of life and death in the officer, seems worse than idle. College students will generally chafe under that rule which degrades them from the agents of tree will and choice to a rnero live machine except when “ the coimtry calls.” The definition, or perhaps description, of hygiene, as understood in this department, is best given in the words of the late Dr. E. A. Parkes : “ Taking the word hygiene in its largest sense, it signifies rules for perfect culture of mind and body. It is impossi¬ ble to dissociate the two. The body is affected by eveiy mental and moral action; the mind is profoundly influenced by bodily conditions. For a perfect system of hy¬ giene we must combine the knowledge of the physician, the schoolmaster, and the priest, and must train the body, the intellect, and the moral soul in a perfect and bal¬ anced order. Then, if our knowledge were exact and our means of application ade¬ quate, we should see the human being in his perfect beauty, as Providence perhaps intended him to be ; in the harmonious proportions and complete balance of all his parts in which he came out of his Makers hands, in whose divine image we are told he was in the beginning made.” With this definition for an inspiration, it is one of the duties of the professor in this department to give a course of lectures on health* to the freshman class immediately upon its entering. The subject relates more especially to the health of student life"; not merely to individual sanitary rules, but to the peculiar necessities of care in so closely compact a body of young and growing men in college : not to those condi¬ tions peculiar to the body alone, but to those interesting relations and interdependence of body upon mind and vice versa. This department also gives instruction in human anatomy and physiology. The cabinets are well supplied with natural and artificial preparations of the human body, which furnish to the student a proper acquaintance with the structure and uses of the organs of the body, such a knowledge as ought to be familiar to every person of so called liberal culture. The anatomy and physiology which is technical or professional is not offered to the student, but only such knowl¬ edge as may be gained by a tolerable acquaintance with the skeleton, the manikin, and most of the enlarged papier mache models of Auzoux. As a stimulus to study in this direction, two prizes for the best recitations and examination in these sciences are annually given by Hon. E. H. Sawyer, of Southampton. A course of lectures, reci¬ tations, and laboratory work in comparative vertebrate zoology is undertaken by the senior class. This is arranged so as to give the student an enlarged plan of the verte¬ brate kingdom rather than the study of species. The professor in this department is expected to know the physical condition of all students during term time. This does not mean that he only sees them at the gymna¬ sium exercise, but that he makes himself acquainted with their habits, bodily condi¬ tion, and whatever in the physical sense may react upon their mental state. This means that he offers suggestions where he may discover deficiency, excess, imprudence, or ignorance of many of the conditions of student hygiene and life ; and the regula¬ tions of the faculty are such that these suggestions may if necessary have the force of a requirement. The visiting of the ill and disabled students requires a share of the time of this professor ; for, while the diseases of college life are seldom alarming, or very distressing, or numerous, yet for students living in dormitories and boarding houses, without home comforts and nursing when ill, much care is often necessary to give comfort during and freedom from the disorders which affect young men at the college period of life. It is to be hoped that the next step in physical education here may be to establish a sanitarium or an equivalent to the hospital of an army. The amount of time lost in sickness by the students is a fact determined by this de¬ partment. Dr. Jarvis says that the amount of time lost by each laborer in Europe is from nineteen to twenty days each year; and the Massachusetts Board of Health says that in 1872, in that Commonwealth, each productive person lost thirteen days by sickness. A man here is put on the sick list if he is absent more than two consecu¬ tive days from all college exercises. With this as a comparison, between the years of 1861-’62 and 1876-’77, inclusive, 23.3 per cent, of the college have been entered on the sick list : or, every student in college has constructively lost 2.64 days each year by illness, and every sick student has averaged 11.36 days of absence from college duties. During this same period, 48, or three each year on an average, have left col¬ lege from physical disabilities, although 16 of these have returned and entered again their own or a succeeding class. The causes which produced these removals were : in 7 cases, constitutional debility; in 6, typhoid fever: in 5, consumptive tendencies; in 6, weak or injured eyes, and single cases because of other infirmities. During this period of sixteen years, 16 students have died while connected with the college. In connection with this subject it is instructive to learn that dyspepsia, thongh formerly prevalent in college, has lost its foothold here of late years. For the past sixteen years it has not once so occurred as to be recognized as a cause of loss of time to any student. Pork, too, is mostly banished as an article of food. The students will not eat it. The maladies which have visited Amherst students for the sixteen years past have been, in the order of their frequency : Colds, including the few of lung E — YHI CXIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. fever and influenza, 35 per cent. ; physical accidents, 9.47 per cent. ; hoils, 4.82 per cent. ; eyes, 4.56 per cent. ; and so on in decreasing ratio of numbers, with febricula, typhoid fever, quinsy, debility, mumjis, bilious fever, diphtheria, bilious trouble, stomach irritation, intermittent fever, measles, teeth, and forty-five other causes which yielded 164 cases, or 12 per cent, of all the cases of sickness. The months of the year during which college sickness has prevailed have been care¬ fully recorded. The record, however, can be made out only for nine months, as vaca¬ tions cover so much of the other months that it would not give completed results. April also has always had a short vacation. The percentage of cases has been as follows : In J anuary . 13.8 In February . 16.6 In March . 16. 4 In April (part of the month) . 6. 3 In May . .* . 12. 8 In June . . . . . 6. 3 In September . 10.3 In October . * . 9.7 In November . . . 7.7 Total . 99.9 In addition to the items secured upon the maladies of students, Dr. Hasket Derby, of Boston, is now instituting a series of personal examinations of every student, in order to determine the effect of college life upon near-sightedness. In due time with¬ out doubt his results will be given to the public. The vital statistics of the students of the college have also been secured. These include the age, weight, height, finger- reach (distance between tips of the middle finger of each hand), chest girth (average between “full” and “repose”), chest range, arm girth (biceps), forearm girth, capacity of lungs, and a simple test of muscular strength. The results are the averages of the data secured from 1,171 students, with 20,458 items of record: Age, 21 years, two months; weight, 139.146 pounds, 63.11 kilograms; height, 5.653 feet, 1.723 metres; finger reach, 5.783 feet, 1.763 metres; chest girth, 35.786 inches, 9.09 decimetres; chest range, 3.416 inches, 8.7 centimetres; arm girth, 11.620 inches, 2.95 decimetres; forearm girth, 11. 059 inches, 2.81 decimetres; lung capacity, 240.871 cubic inches, 4.095 litres; strength, 10.747 times. Probably the most important feature of this department consists in placing it on the same level with the other departments of the college course. As, however, it is of so different a nature and unlike the ordinary methods of so called school culture, it has taken time and experiments to carry the system along to its present condition. In our educational institutions some method is adopted to inform the student — and generally the public, too — where his position is in the institution and how he pro¬ gresses. In mental growth and culture this can be determined by recitations, exam¬ inations, and exhibitions, since the mental powers should grow through the whole range of mental maturity, and the design of intellectual work is to secure the highest develox)ment of mind within its normal limits. But the young man who enters col¬ lege in his twentieth year has approximated to his highest physical growth and pow¬ ers ; and moreover the design of the college physical education is not to produce ath¬ letes or physiological prodigies, but only to establish health, and well preserve the body up to the normal standard, and promote the harmonious culture of both. Hence “rank” cannot be assigned to a man if he excels his classmate in heavy gymnastics. To encourage this might be injurious. And to discriminate between four-fifths of a class as to the best gymnasts with dumb-bells would be next to impossible, as this proportion of a class perform the exercise equally well. And yet to secure a proper attention to obedience of the laws of health, and particularly the taking of sufficient and regular exercise in a proper manner, is what is attempted to be done for the Am¬ herst student ; and if he but gives the attention and care to the needs and culture of his body as required in this way, he receives an increment to his college rank or stand¬ ing which is recorded on the books of the faculty : in this way the student has a personal incitement to discipline in this department. There is also an inducement to the same thing in another way and by the means which are always so effectual to the college student : a spirit of class pride and honor. By the generosity of Mr. John H. Washburn, secretary of the Home Insurance Company, New York, a yearly prize of $100 is given to “the class which during the year shall most faithfully discharge its duties in the gymnasium and carry out most fully the instructions of the professor of hygiene.” This prize has been awarded for the last four years, and has shown valua¬ ble results in “bracing up” the easy, indifferent, want of energy element of society, which is not wanting in a college ; the very character needing push, snap, and tone to make it enjoyable of itself and of use to mankind. The following data gathered at different periods show the effect of the class prize: In 1868-J69 the attendance on SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION. cxv gymnastic exercises, including the excused absences, was 88 per cent, of the class ; during October, 1870, the ratio of absence to attendance with the same data was 1 to 17.5; and during the summer of 1876-’77 the average attendance of the classes, under same conditions, was 93.5 per cent. It is not possible to make definite statements as to the value of this department, since no numerical records of data were had concerning these matters before its crea¬ tion. Hence, criticisms, adverse or otherwise, must depend on hearsay, opinions, and general impressions. It is a general opinion that the young men carry themselves in their walk with more erectness and elasticity, not to say grace, than did the former college students. Soon after the establishment of this department, boarding house keepers noticed a better appetite on the part of the students and a demand for the more substantial edibles, such as bread and meat. The opinion of the college faculty is most decided that the introduction of the new department has done much to im¬ prove the health of the students. Prof. W. S. Tyler, the oldest member of the fac¬ ulty at Amherst, speaks as follows upon this matter : “If I were asked to specify what I consider to be the most marked characteristic and distinctive excellence of the Am¬ herst gymnastics, I should say that it is the union of recreation and amusement with exercise, of the voluntary and spontaneous with the required and the prescribed; in a word, of play with work. To succeed in doing this would be of course, according to Dr. Bushneli’s well known distinction in his article on ‘Work and play,’ to bring heaven down to earth. And this is just the success which these gymnastics have achieved.” One merit of the system as practised here has been its humanizing or levelling in¬ fluence. The best scholar in Ms class may stand shoulder to shoulder in the gymna¬ sium between two very ordinary scholars and constantly be made to realize that he is not equal to either of them in physical attainments or endurance. And here a man may not choose Ms comrade on account of Ms literary or social qualities : one of the things perhaps wMch may help to prepare him for the battle of life and the develop¬ ment of proper sympatMes and self-denial. A moral consideration of some significance has presented itself in the college within the last 12 or 15 years, wMcli is the de¬ crease in the demands for college discipline. TMs has gone so far that during the last year not a single student was removed from college for improprieties of conduct. The drinking of intoxicating liquors and the useless expenditure of money in style and show, wMch once were decidedly prevalent M college, have been less during the last few years. If any of these things are credited to the department under consideration, it is no doubt very much owing to the giving up of many petty rules when so new an element was introduced into the college; and tMs very relinqMshment places the student much more under Ms own control, government, and self-reliance. TABLE X. — SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE. The following statement shows the number of institutions and departments of this class, with instructors and students, as reported to this Office in each year from 1870 to 1877, inclusive. The numbers under 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, and 1877 include the national Military and Naval Academies : 1870. 187L 1872. 1873. 1874 1875. ! 1876. 1877. Number of institutions . Number of instructors . . . Number of students . 17 144 1,413 41 303 3,303 70 724 5,395 70 749 8,950 72 609 7,244 74 j 75 758 ! 793 7,157 j 7,614 74 781 8,559 CXVI REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table X. — Part 1. — Snmmai'y of statistics of schools of science. States. 'o o ■o 0B *3 1 Preparatory depart¬ ment. Scientific department. Numbor of State scholarships. § ro o to © © £ 2 t 13 © © a 3 | Instructors. Students. Corps of instruction. Students. Male. © •a 2 © rR In regular course. 6 pH § 3 £ Numbor of graduate students. i 1 53 r. 120 47 Arkansas . l 3 100 60 12 84 3 3 100 0 California . i 0 0 0 33 126 13 3 0 0 Connecticut . l 0 0 0 32 188 12 30 27 1 i (&> (&) (&> (&) (&) 2 5 165 34 17 198 250 20 Illinois . . 1 1 107 14 24 227 0 6 0 0 1 40 9 7 16 1 1 0 o 1 0 0 0 16 273 29 0 0 1 12 140 0 0 "Kentucky . . 1 3 8 110 300 Maine . 1 8 104 10 4 Maryland . 1 13 0 6 41 5 0 0 Massachusetts . 2 6 45 0 47 344 59 12 11 9 Michigan . 1 0 0 0 8 141 12 1 0 0 Minnesota . . 1 4 o 0 Mississippi . 2 2 17 <&> (&) o 0 Missouri . 2 3 .10 16 3 42 1 1 0 0 Nebraska . . 1 0 0 0 5 13 Nevada . 1 New Hampshire . 1 12 24 12 23 New Jersey . 1 0 0 0 11 41 5 0 40 0 New York . 1 0 0 0 42 201 10 14 (&) 0 North Carolina _ _ 1 o o o 12 75 1 93 Ohio . . . . 1 o o o 12 49 100 0 Oregon . 1 4 49 60 Pennsylvania _ 1 3 71 22 11 57 2 Rhode Island . . 1 43 (*> South Carolina. ... _ 1 (d) (d) (d) 3 37 Tennessee .. _ 1 <&) <&) (6) (h) (&) Texas . . . 1 331 Vermont . 1 0 0 0 9- 15 4 0 0 (b) Virginia _ _ 2 4 8 224 1 200 'West Virginia . 1 3 50 10 44 36 "Wisconsin . _ _ _ 1 9 Total . 40 34 671 155 383 3, 366 311 . 79 | 1,129 53 IT. S. Military Acad’y- 1 47 264 TJ. S. Naval Academy. 1 0 0 0 67 360 0 0 0 0 Grand total . . . . 42 34 671 155 497 3, 990 311 79 1,129 53 a College not yet established. & Reported with classical department (Table IX). c The income of $50,000, which has accrued from the national grant, at $100 a scholarship annually, d Reported in Table YU. SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION. CXVII Table X. — Part 1. — Summary of statistics of schools of science — Continued. States. Libraries. s 5 g > S > 5 Property, income, &c. fed P. ® <*-. 2 a I p, 02 "3 3 Alabama . Arkansas . Calif oijiia . Colorado . Connecticut . Delaware . Florida . Georgia . Illinois . Indiana . Iowa . Kansas . Kentucky . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts . . . Michigan . Minnesota . Mississippi . Missouri . Nebraska . Nevada. . New Hampshire . New Jersey . New York . North Carolina. . . Ohio . . Oregon . . Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina. . . Tennessee . Texas . Vermont . Virginia . W est Virginia . . . "Wisconsin . . 2, 220 500 (a) 5,000 (a) 14,000 11,049 449 1,050 500 4,500 2, 000 35 3,648 1,007 1, 500 0 6,500 100 4,306 231 (a) 52 1,678 200 250 300 (a) 2, 500 (a) $100, 000 170, 000 (a) $259, 300 130, 000 (a) $20,744 10, 400 $750 2, 000 5,000 40, 000 (a) (a) 8, 000 0 0 200 1,500 20 (a) 16, 000 111,000 359,411 239, 695 485, 202 131, 791 150, 000 145, 000 100, 000 925, 000 195, 803 (a) 28, 905 45, 960 20, 000 280, 123 (a) 17, 000 (a) (a) 258, 000 319, 000 310, 000 500, 000 238, 101 165, 000 135, 000 390, 000 237, 175 (a) 94,646 18, 250 29, 460 20, 313 40, 000 20, 491 9.900 8,000 6.900 40, 500 16, 000 (a) 5,679 1,250 0 40 2, 751 0 0 0 1,500 0 10, 665 47, 000 0 0 0 375 11,500 35,444 11,000 23, 000 12, 500 0 15, 218 6,000 5,000 36, 837 (a) 30, 000 7,500 Total. 1,200 (a) (a) (a) 1, 000 200 (a) (a) 100 1, 950 1,200 50 400 2,000 120, 000 (a) (a) (a) 500, 000 5, 000 500, 000 80, 116, (a) 125, 500, 4,800 6, 960 (a) 7,500 30, 000 150 1,200 (a) 2, 075 0 900 0 (a) 0 5, 000 (a) 2,784 7,000 7,000 (a) 339 500 300 500 10,000 (a) 200, 000 (a) 303, 050 250, 000 500, 50, 191, (a) 196, (a) 306, 110, 30, 000 3, 000 7,500 (a) ' 14, 955 (a) 34, 268 6,600 (a) 585 520 1,500 0 16,250 7, 500 80, 337 | 4, 283 | 15, 200 5, 111, 817 } 5,491,895 j 410,470 IT, S. Military Acad’y - IT. S. Naval Academy. Grand total. . 26, 735 19, 247 310 900 3, 000, 000 126,319 j 5,493 | 15,200 8, 111, 817 5, 491, 895 410, 470 71, 111 555, 253 71,111 | 268,649 0 '6286,604 0 (6) a Reported with classical department (Table IX). 6 Congressional appropriation. CXVIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table X. — Pabt 2. — Summary of statistics of schools of science. States. Preparatory depart¬ ment. Students. Scientific department. Students. 14 California . Colorado . Indiana . Louisiana . Massachusetts . . Missouri . New Hampshire New Jersey . New York . Ohio . Oregon . Pennsylvania . . . Yirginia . Total . 34 140 37 73 131 959 405 330 20 32 12 453 330 238 2, 4S2 60 28 20 40 78 States. Libraries. Property, income, &c. Numbor of volumes in general libraries. Increase in the last school year. Numbor of volumes in society libraries. Value of grounds, buildings, and ap¬ paratus. Amount of product¬ ive funds. Income from pro¬ ductive funds. Receipts for the last year from tuition fees. 1 1 © 2 A eS t “ s' <3 f -J 1 1 g « * California . - . Colorado . 110 24 0 §14, 500 $137 $1,750 Indiana . . 0 0 135, 000 6$250, 000 $15, 000 0 o Louisiana . Massachusetts . 6,000 150 150, 000 739, 835 103, 424 7,408 Missouri . 1, 000 80, 000 2, 500 o New Hampshire _ 2, 000 30 4, 000 155, 000 9,300 3, 840 o New Jersey . 5, 000 200 50 630, 000 700, 000 38, 355 18, 367 New York . 10, 000 186 2, 000, 000 30, 770 Ohio . 100, 000 Oregon . Pennsylvania . 34,500 1, 000 350, 000 Yirginia . . 5,500 200 1, 000 393, 000 40, 000 2,400 15, 000 25, 000 Total . 64,110 1, 790 1,050 3, 856, 500 1, 884, 835 168,479 78, 022 26, 750 a Not folly organized. . 6 Exclusive of a bequest lately made of §105,000. SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION. CXIX A review of facts brought out in the reports of the colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts1 allows no doubt that they are solving the problems which have been intrusted to them. The close study of their history in each State will convince a can¬ did judge, I am confident, that they are adjusting themselves — (1) To science: Already they have here and there promoted its progress and this stimulating influence increases ; still more generally they have drawn upon the ad¬ vancement of science for the benefit of their instruction. (2) They are equally adjusting themselves to the condition and necessities of industry. The reports of the boards of agriculture of the several States show that their meet¬ ings have received valuable contributions from these institutions, and that they have aided in disseminating important information concerning the various interests of agri¬ culture. . A few instances will illustrate the nature of this practical service and of the rela¬ tion bet ween The colleges and the boards. From the report of the Michigan Board of Agriculture for 1877 it appears that farmers in the State, excited by representations against a popular and productive variety of wheat, applied to the State Agricultural College for information on the subject. The board of agriculture ordered an investi¬ gation, which was made by the college professor of chemistry and his assistant. The result proved that neither in the chemical composition nor in the physical properties of the flour made from this 'wheat did there exist any cause of complaint. Thus a serious disturbance of opinion, which would have affected the cultivation of more than 1,200,000 acres, was averted. The connection between the board and the college is very intimate in this State, the board of agriculture having, in fact, the management of the college. The act establishing the Vermont Board of Agriculture makes the president of the State Agricultural College one of the board. The entomologist of the board of agri¬ culture is the professor of zoology in the University and State Agricultural College. His address on “Certain injurious insects,” published in the report of 1877, suggests the investigations of general interest that come within the scope of this board. The Board of Agriculture of the State of New Hampshire authorized its secretary and Mr. J. W. Sanborn, superintendent of the college farm, to initiate experimental work on the farm and on certain “quasi stations” for the purpose of giving authori¬ tative instruction to farmers about matters of farm and stock management. The first results have been already reported by Mr. Sanborn. The last day of the convention of the State Board of Agriculture of Maine was occu¬ pied by the students of the State college, who reported the results of experiments at the college farm. The importance of introducing such practical exercises in the colleges of this grade is universally acknowledged. In the proceedings of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society for 1877-78, it is recorded that a resolution was passed expressing as the sense of the convention that one or more of the regents of the university should be practical farmers. It appears from the State University report for Missouri, 1876-77, that the State Board of Agriculture has been transferred to the Agricultural College, thus concentrat¬ ing the forces working in the cause of agriculture and increasing their efficiency. The general importance of the experiments made on the college farms is not their only merit. They afford work for the students, which often is even more necessary to the class of young men attracted thither than to those entered in purely literary insti¬ tutions. In some of these colleges a certain amount of labor is required ; in others it is optional with the students. The prices paid vary, according to the nature of the 1 Illinois Agricultural College, Irvington, chartered in 1861 and organized in 1866, has been suspended because of a decree of court which gives its lands and buildings to the State. Originally meant to be an agricultural college in fact as well as in name, it received from the State a landed endowment which yielded a fund of $56,000. The treasurer of the institution wasted this fund in private speculations, and the State, failing to recover it from the college, obtained a decree as above stated. cxx REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. work and the skill of the student, from 4 cents to 15 cents per hour, as will he seen from the following table : Hourly compensation of students in agricultural colleges for icorlc on the farm. Minimum. [ Maximum. 8 cents. 4 cents. 10 cents. 9 cents. Town, A grieultnral College _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Tndiaua AjriftnltnTal College _ _ _ Kansas Agricultural College . . . . . . . 7 cents. 10 cents. 10 cents, compensation.” 10 cents. 10 cents. 15 cents. "Maine A fTicultural College _ _ _ _ _ "Maryland A «Ticultnral Colleo'e __ _ “Very liberal < 10 cents. Massachusetts Agricultural College . . . . Michigan Agricultural Collecre _ _ _ __ _ _ Missouri Avricultural College . . . . . ............ 10 cents. Agricultural department of Cornell University, New "York . Ohio Agricultural and "Mechanical College . . . . (a) “Pair wages.” “Liberal pay.” Pennsylvania State College . . . . "Virginia, Agricultural College _ _ _ _ ............. _ a Though the rate paid to students by the hour at the Ohio College is not given, it appears that the amount of $459.69 was expended for student labor during the year 1876-’77. Illinois, Kansas, and Maryland agricultural colleges report that students, with skill, industry, and economy, can defray a large part of their expenses hy work on the college farms and gardens. In the report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College it is stated that “ indigent students are allowed to do such work as may offer about the college and farm build¬ ings or in the field, but it is hardly possible for one to earn more than from $50 to $100 a year, besides performing other duties.” In the agricultural department of Cornell University employment is not guaranteed to any students, yet a limited amount is furnished them at such prices as would or¬ dinarily be paid to other persons for doing the same work. The relation thus established between the agricultural colleges and practical indus¬ try makes them important factors in the great labor problems of the day. At the same time they are bearing their part in the general progress of education and thus becom¬ ing more and more important as educational centres. They send many students into the teachers’ ranks and make valuable contributions to the literature and discussions of education. VACATION SCHOOLS. The number of schools for instructing advanced pupils during vacations has formed a marked feature of the year. In several preceding years such schools existed, some of them for the field study of geology, botany, zoology, and kindred topics, and some in convenient localities for instruction in chemistry, ichthyology, drawing, music, languages, methods of teaching, and so on. But in 1877 these means of summer in¬ struction expanded into greater proportions than in any previous vacation period The States north of the Ohio River were dotted with institutes for teachers who, in¬ stead of resting, were trying to prepare for higher work. More than fifty such insti¬ tutes were held in Indiana alone, besides many in other States. One of these was to instruct teachers in the art of elocution ; another was to prepare them to give draw¬ ing lessons in their schools ; others were for the study of the natural sciences, for which last Butler University, in Indiana, also sent out a number of its students, under competent instructors, on a summer’s walk through the mountain ranges of the South. In the East, besides the usual summer schools of Harvard professors — one of these, also, a field school in the South — there were a summer school of biology, zoology, and bot- THEOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. CXXI any at Salem, Mass., under the auspices of the Peabody Academy of Science there ; a normal institute of great proportions at East Greenwich, R. I., for instruction in music, elocution, drawing, and modern languages ; a school of languages at Amherst College, and several kindred ones in other portions of New England, as well as in New York and Pennsylvania. A scientific expedition to the Rocky Mountains, under the charge of Prof. Sauborn Tenney, of Williams College, Mass., was arrested by the death of Professor Tenney, July 9, while en route. Another from Princeton College carried its students to the Yellowstone and brought back large treasures for the college cabinet. TABLE XI. — SCHOOLS OF THEOLOGY. The following is a comparative statement of the number of schools of theology (including theological departments) reporting to this Bureau each year from 1870 to 1877, inclusive, with the number of professors and number of students : 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. Number of institutions . Number of instructors . Number of students . 80 339 3, 254 94 369 3, 204 104 435 3, 351 110 573 3, 838 113 579 4, 356 123 615 5, 234 124 580 4, 268 124 564 3, 965 Table XI. — Statistical summary of theological seminaries. Denomination. Roman Catholic . - Protestant Episcopal . Presbyterian . Baptist . Lutheran . Congregational . Methodist Episcopal . Christian . Reformed . United Presbyterian . Cumberland Presbyterian . . . Free 'Will Baptist . Methodist Episcopal South . . Unsectarian . Reformed (Dutch) . Universalist . African Methodist Episcopal Mennonite . Methodist . Moravian . New Jerusalem . - . Union Evangelical . Unitarian . United Brethren . Total . Number of seminaries. Number of professors. Number of students. 18 93 575 16 65 263 16 82 674 16 62 772 13 38 252 9 64 347 7 51 383 3 4 31 3 8 62 3 11 65 2 11 61 2 10 43 2 8 68 2 17 120 2 5 40 2 9 48 1 6 8 1 4 50 1 1 3 19 1 1 1 4 32 1 6 19 1 2 33 124 564 3, 965 CXXH EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF EDUCATION. Table XI. — Summary of statistics of schools of theology. States. | Number of schools. 5 23 © P •*3 SQ _a c o © o | Endowed professorships. Students. Libraries. Property, income, Ac. Present number. m % 85 z © r3 © > "3 ® © © g a ® ’« £ ? ^ s e m £ £ ® 5 ■§ | a 12 -g y 3 n © e Graduates at commencement of 1877. Number of volumes. Increase in the last school year. 8) .9 E3 § 1 So O O £ Amount of productive funds. Incoiuo from productive funds. Alabama . 1 2 18 2 3 800 $5, 090 California . 2 12 2 14 7, 500 290 110, 000 $30, 000 Connecticut . 8 29 8 150 3 124 13 25, 500 247,544 $15, 000 Georgia . „ . 2 2 500 72 9, 000 Illinois . 13 51 19 376 30 75 65 50, 850 490 537, 000 760, 150 44,350 Indiana . 1 4 23 6, 000 150, 000 Iowa . 3 12 4 20 2 2 12 6,800 500 230, 000 91, 000 6,200 Kansas . 1 2 4 3, 000 25, 000 Kentucky . 6 10 5 123 .... 42 12 19, 600 2,125 38, 500 565,884 31, 900 Louisiana _ 1 Maine . 2 9 8 66 0 18 3 19, 200 150 190, 000 170, 000 9,750 Maryland . . . 5 20 57 34 27, 061 355 72 000 3 100 210 Massachusetts . 7 53 17 294 9 132 77 73,945 1, 636 581, 835 1, 100, 712 81, 576 Michigan . 2 5 1 25 2 3 1, 500 300 30, GOO 2,000 Minnesota . 3 15 32 8 6 3 4, 500 90, 000 15, 000 Mississippi . 1 5 0 12 1 0 1,500 100 5,000 0 0 Missouri . 4 13 2 57 1 39 9, 200 40, 000 40, 000 2, 000 Nebraska . 1 3 5 1 10 500 10, 000 New Jersey . .. 4 35 21 287 171 85 73, 633 3,118 894, 000 1, 034, 275 62, 500 Kew York . 13 63 24 692 15 300 201 94, 028 3,337 692, 500 1, 412, 208 94,950 North Carolina . .' 3 9 75 3 2 600 200 50, 000 Ohio . 14 58 17 351 .... 6 [ 99 97 63, 500 4, 050 805, 000 522, 000 61,400 Pennsylvania . 16 83 21 398 n | 147 130 100, 555 2,652 408, 000 1, 321, 922 83,641 South Carolina . 1 5 40 9 18, 916 35, 000 Tennessee . 5 17 112 2 10 7, 000 30, 000 660, 000 47, 200 Texas . 1 2 6 Virginia . . 5 17 9 205 .... 61 36 23, 600 200 275, 000 266, 000 14, 000 'Wisconsin . 2 18 1 162 13, 000 1, 000 150, 000 25, 000 2, 000 District of Columbia. . 2 10 120 2 22 2,200 40, 000 Total . 124 564 164 3, 879 86 j 1,189 869 654,988 20, 575 5, 472, 835 8, 294, 795. j 558,677 TABLE XII. — SCHOOLS OF LAW. The following is a statement of the number of schools of law reporting to this Bureau each year from 1870 to 1877, inclusive, with the number of instructors and num¬ ber of students : 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. | 1875. • 1876. Number of institutions .... _ 28 30 37 37 38 43 42 Number of instruct ors . . 99 129 151 158 181 224 218 Number of students . .......... _ 1,653 1,722 1,976 2,174 2,585 2,677 2,664 SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE. CXXIII Table XII. — Summary of statistics of schools of law. States. Number of schools. | Corps of instruction. Students. Libraries. Property, income, &c. Present number. Present students who have received a degree in let¬ ters or science. Graduates at the com¬ mencement of 1877. Number of volumes. Increase in the last school year. V alue of grounds and build¬ ings. Amount of productive funds. Income from productive funds. Receipts for tho last year from tuition fees. 2 5 23 8 8 1 10 67 28 8,000 150 $10, 000 $600 2 5 9 1 16 600 $415 Illinois . 3 15 168 35 53 50 4, 800 Indiana . . . 2 Iowa . 3 13 133 31 98 1,964 104 3, 950 Kentucky . . 2 6 23 12 960 Louisiana . 2 4 23 7 $15, 000 2, 500 Maryland . 1 3 60 21 0 0 0 0 0 3, 300 Massachusetts _ 2 18 360 180 47 19, 000 500 a51,614 11, 668 20, 950 Michigan . . . 1 5 385 155 8, 195 Missouri . 2 11 109 144 3, 930 111 4,740 New York . . 4 20 646 313 13, 775 140 North Carolina . 2 2 20 Ohio . 2 6 120 1 29 1, 409 383 4,262 Pennsylvania . 2 10 103 24 300 50 6, 330 South Carolina _ ... 1 1 12 4 9 Tennessee . 2 5 76 5 10 150 15, 000 5, 600 "Virginia . . . 2 10 137 5 27 3, 800 8, 300 "Wisconsin . 1 11 38 12 10 520 200 District of C olumbia . 4 15 299 6 116 301 1 10, 000 600 1, 811 Total . 43 175 2,811 601 1, 227 53, 799 1, 639 30, 000 71, 614 12, 868 76, 113 a Also one-fourth interest in a fund of $413,092. TABLE XIII. — SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE. The following is a comparative statement of tlie number of schools of medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy reported to the Office each year from 1870 to 1877, inclusive, with the number of instructors and students : 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. Number of institutions . Number of instructors . Number of students . 63 588 6,943 82 750 7, 045 87 726 5,995 94 1,148 8,681 99 1, 121 9,095 106 1, 172- 9,971 102 1, 201 10, 143 106 1, 278 11, 225 I CXXIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Tajble XIII. — Summary' of statistics of schools of medicine , of dentistry, and of pharmacy. States. I. Medical axd SUEGICAL, 1. Regular. Alabama . 'California . Connecticut . . . Georgia . Illinois . Indiana . Iowa . Kentucky . . Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts . Michigan . Missouri . New Hampshire. . . . New York . . Ohio . Oregon . . Pennsylvania . South Carolina . Tennessee . Texas . 1 . Vermont . Virginia . District of Columbia Total . 2. j Eclectic. Georgia . Illinois . New York . Ohio . Total . 3. Homoeopathic. Illinois . . Massachusetts . Michigan . Missouri . New York . Ohio . . . Pennsylvania . Total . 20 13 25 68 32 19 41 23 19 24 34 33 65 8 142 92 8 111 8 12 7 18 19 28 87 8 12 29 153 Students. 50 111 56 136 568 194 315 583 183 116 297 231 360 484 96 1, 673 927 33 1,048 60 115 18 92 94 147 7,987 105 107 267 © £ 3 p ■ £ Si g C £ | 'g H > o g £ O <0 479 282 176 75 71 200 216 160 1, 180 103 27 115 17 101 23 154 25 11 166 59 128 304 44 24 115 36 114 145 22 330 279 6 334 19 46 12 33 26 17 657 [2,351 36 33 26 121 42 | 180 39 72 2 11 2 103 17 246 59 45 13 105 43 62 53 Libraries. 500 2,500 4,800 50 3, 000 4,000 2, 400 4,660 400 3, 550 1,700 L 206 1,200 1,500 50 3, 000 40 500 60 100 35, 056 1,000 160 200 1,000 I 200 2, 000 200 1, 260 2, 000 5,460 I 295 Property, income, &c. 2 a © 2 § $150, 75, 200, 55, 105, 7, 75, 10, 160, 25, 90, 230, 117, 25, 367, 247, 2, 802, 50, 50, 000 1, 000 20, 000 50, 000 30, 000 80,000 | $30, 000 14, 000 2,500 84, 365 1, 000 1,200 5,000 364, 250 0 P. ,-3 s s $2, 300 500 130 5, 513 100 72 350 4,612 0 $10, 395 2, 187 34,000 7, 000 12, 000 3,500 14, 525 6, 975 9,400 38, 504 4,381 39, 870 48, 875 14,400 2, 500 41,000 2, 800 3, 120 4,000 3,500 502, 315 I 13, 577 302, 932 180, 000 52, 500 120, 000 3, 000 130, 000 80, 000 50, 000 435, 500 50, 000 2, 000 3, 000 3, 000 2, 500 5,000 26, 690 15, 500 10, 000 3,450 . i 12,585 221 ! 14,000 . ! 13,680 58,000 i 2,721 j 69,215 a Of these but one reported. SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE. cxxv Table XIII. — Summary of statistics of schools of medicine, $c. — Continued. States. | Number of schools. Corps of instruction. Students. Libraries. Property, income, &.c. Present number. o c £ 2 . * £ § ■3d! g-g § 5 3 ® § 2 ffl © +=> ,H © > 3s M-s s o • o 2 3 o 15 | as £ 3 Z t* 2 jz S o Number of volumes. Increase in the last school year. *5 ® ^ ci r§ g 3 - O =3 &*§ © as — cC > ~ o > "5 3 2 © = C S <5 © > | O i - ^ | p o ! I | 1 Receipts for the last year from tuition and other fcos. II. Dental. 1 10 5 1 $750 $500 2 28 62 3 36 50 50 12,500 . 9, 660 2 26 41 2 29 78 3 17, 000 . 8, 071 1 11 43 12 150 75 10, 000 . $0 $0 1, 400 1 15 1 5 200 300 2; 000 1 16 92 5 14 40 3, 500 7,175 Ohio . 1 7 20 6 8 50 6 12, 000 0 0 2,340 2 275 5 I 15, 000 I 10,650 Total _ _ _ 11 168 553 22 140 568 134 71, 050 . 1 . 41,796 m. Pharmaceu¬ tical. California . . 1 4 37 4 798 Illinois . 1 5 61 5 1,000 0 5,000 o o 1, 800 Iova . 1 Kentucky . . 1 3 19 28 .. . ! 8,000 1,500 Maryland . _ _ 1 3 64 11 425 15 ] 6,000 Massachusetts . 1 3 58 75 300 20 500 2, 000 75 1,700 Miehio-nn 1 9 69 28 ! Missouri 1 3 50 16 25 New "York _ - 1 5 230 0 55 1,271 ■"d 22,800 2,300 9,400 Ohio . 1 3 85 52 150 500 460 3,500 Pennsvlvnnia. 1 3 318 88 2, 258 125 76, 000 16,000 . I 1, 550 Tennessee 1 6 12 2 2 District of Columbia 1 3 23 5 75 20 2,000 0 0 1,050 Total . 13 50 1,026 2 369 5, 504 27! 98, 000 41,260 3,925 19,748 TOTALS. Medical and surgi¬ cal: Regular . 66 878 7, 987 657 2,351 35, 056 ! 160 2, 844, 200 502,315 13, 577 302, 932 Eclectic . . . 4 i 29 479 42 180 1,000 1 200 ! 180, 000 26,690 Homoeopathic .... 12 I 153 1,180 246 380 5,460 i 295 435, 500 . 58,000 2, 721 69, 215 Dental 11 168 553 22 140 568 | 134 71, 050 . 1 41,796 Pharmaceutical .... 13 50 1, 026 2 369 5,504 | 271 98, 000 41,260 | 3,925 19,748 Grand total. .. 106 1,278 jll,225 969 1 3,420 47,588 ! 1, 060 1 3, 628, 750 | 601, 575 20,223 I 460, 381 CXXVI REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. The friends of medical education would he surprised to learn the small number of volumes reported in medical libraries. Special attention to their organization, increase, and use would not fail to add to the competency and efficiency of the profession. Too much credit cannot be given to Surgeon-General J. K. Barnes, U. S. A., and to his assistant, Surgeon J. S. Billings, U. S. A., for their efforts to organize, increase, and catalogue the National Medical Library at Washington, which undoubtedly has no superior. It is to be deeply regretted that the publication of the catalogue has been so long delayed. The benefit of its publication to the profession, and thus to the world, will be incalculable. Next to the medical library opportunities in Washington are those in Philadelphia. The library of the College of Physicians, that in 1875 numbered over 19,000 volumes, is steadily increasing, as is also the library of the Pennsylvania Hospital, which con¬ tained at the same time 12,500 volumes. The medical department of the University of Pennsylvania has the benefit of a medical library containing more than 3,000 volumes, founded by Prof. Alfred Stilld. Dr. W. H. Mussey, of Cincinnati, has done great service to the profession by con¬ tributing to the Public Library of Cincinnati, Ohio, the Mussey medical collection, amounting to some 5,000 books and pamphlets gathered by his father and himself. Dr. J. M. Toner, of Washington, offers his library of 18,000 books and pamphlets, on a few apparently reasonable conditions, to the profession in the State of Illinois, to be kept in Chicago, and with it a fund of which the income would meet the expenses of an annual lecture (to be entitled the Toner Medical Lecture) on some sub¬ ject relating to medicine. SCHOOLS OF PHARMACY. The responsibility of a pharmacist has been little understood. Outside of cities and villages physicians generally prepare their own prescriptions. Formerly, in many in¬ stances, the medical student prepared and administered the medicines for the patients of his preceptor. The pharmacist, in a measure, bears the same responsibility as the physician. What the exact share of the responsibility exercised by the apothecary is, is reaching a clear definition in law and in the decisions of the courts. The schools of pharmacy may be expected to emphasize this responsibility both with the manu¬ facturer of drugs and medicines and with the dispensing pharmacist. Even the ap¬ prentice has been held criminally responsible in the courts. He delivered laudanum for paregoric, causing the death of an infant child. The judge said: “If a party is guilty of negligence, and death results, the party guilty of that negligence is also guilty of manslaughter.” Indeed, a universal appreciation of the moral responsibility of a dealer in drugs (that they should be exactly what they are represented to be) would add greatly to the efficiency of our schools of pharmacy. TABLE XIV. — UNITED STATES MILITARY ANT) NAVAL ACADEMIES. In Table XIY of the appendix will be found the statistics of examinations of candi. dates for admission to the United States Military and Naval Academies for the year 1877. TABLE XV. — DEGREES. The following summary shows what degrees on graduation have been conferred in the several States by the institutions mentioned in the various statistical tables in the appendix: COLLEGE DEGREES. CXXYII Table XY. — Statistical summary of all degrees confcn’ed. g m 0D a 1 CD frj - 1 ; c , i \ > Medicine. Law. . z 1 § >> | f. tL’ X X i . | X i J * j c . § ! d = =: c Grand total . 08,685 6356 3, 305 108 846 6 198 24 5 3 iSO 150 3,213 5 &49 58 Total in classical and scientific co, 565 6349 2, 695 108 825: 6 198 24 i ^ 3 94 148 920 .. 761 58 colleges. Total in colleges for women .... d651 1 60S 21 1 Total in professional schools . . . 2,469 6 2 ; e86' 1 2,293 5 88 /1I0 4 74 4 3 rq |= ~ 1 3 - ; 15! ..j gj = f4S 4 30 4 3 ,TT77 ~ 44 44 .... Professional schools . 18 . .... 3 .... 15] - . j . _ . 14 7 14 1 _ |73 .. i= p a 5 1 ~| n 14 14 1 .. 5 . i .. Professional schools . 1 r California . . gU\ 5 28 1 23 1 4 , — — 1 3 3 '32 L.I i [□ .. 1 - Classical and scientific colleges qo 9i 5 28 1 23 ! 4 .... 3 i Colleges for women . . ! ! . .... i 1 ! Professional schools 35 .... :: 3 32 .. _ j | - Colorado .'. . . 1 . p = i i i i l n Classical and. scientific colleges- Colleges for women . .... 1” . . .....! Professional schools . .... Connecticut . 314 10 206 i 5. 2 j 52 h i 22 4 4 -.1 28 i Classical and scientific colleges . 314 10 206 5 2 .. 52 22 4 4 ..j 28 i Colleges for women . | . | . . Professional schools . r Delaware . 35 j 2 32 i i= j B i II i i .... i_ Classical and scientific colleges . 16 2 13 i j 3 i . L.I i Colleges for women . 19 19 Professional schools . r ...J.J.... . Florida . j — i . 1.71 _ . Classical and scientific colleges. : . Colleges for women . ! . ... L.i . LI... .. Professional schools . . ,...| . !.. Georgia . 253 H 178 2 i 11 1 3 .7 j 8 47... ] 14 j i Classical and scientific colleges. 114 11 65 2 11 8 21 . . 14 i Colleges for women . 113 113 j 3 ! . Professional schools . 26 P a Includes 89 degrees not specified. 6 Includes 2 degrees not specified. c Includes 67 degrees not specified. d Includes 22 degrees not specified. e There were also 530 graduates, upon whom in most cases diplomas were conferred. /Includes 7 degrees not specified. # Includes 4 degrees not specified. CXXYIII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table XY. — Statistical summary of all degrees conferred — Conttnued. g 3 CD o a < DC j 1 b 0 « 0 m > 0 0 j < (H O O O H S g O 3 n < yA d s § A fcT, § 3 W ■ d X 0 O m O 0 h s s d 32 3 j >; g 1-1 c CQ lr? - 3 ~ d x 0 >> § £ i || 0 1 s ] X 5 £ 0 5 a o704 29 185 11 80 18 r ] 24 13 [ 2531.. 143 5 Classical and scientific colleges. a409 29 160 11 80 — 9 I 13 39 .. r 102 5 Colleges for women . 25 25 1 18 1 | PrdTessional schools . 270 .... r 15 1 214 i 41 al29 14 52 9 39 | 1 1 3 36 1 1 Classical and scientific colleges. aS6 14 1 9 39 | l 1 1 Colleges for women . 7 7 I . l 3 Professional schools . 36 1 36 Iowa . 401 7 124 36 ~10 f= j i 3 4 130 .. ! 98 3 Classical and scientific colleges. 284 7 124 .... 36 10 3 4 x13|.. I 98 Colleges for women . 1 1 3 117 .... 1 117' 1 _ 1 _ Kansas . 25 3 15 10 1 1 i l 2 !" Classical and scientific colleges. 19 2 9 10 ~~ i 2 Colleges for women . 6 1 6 1 1 Professional schools . i j 1 .- Kentucky . 6303 7 90 1 11 = 1 i= 1 5 j 175' 1 1 ' ■ v Classical and scientific colleges. 676 7 42 1 7 5 ! 1 Colleges for women . 52 4* 4 Professional schools . 175 '"I .... r Louisiana . 47 1 12 1 = =| 351 |=. ! Classical and scientific colleges. 4 1 4 1 Colleges for women . s 8 .. R Professional schools 35 i 351 ! 1 _ Hake . 144 5; 87 4 99 3 1 25! . = . Classical and scientific colleges. 130 - 73! 4 29| 3 1 25 L J Colleges for women . . . j 14 Professional schools . r'1 1 :::: n 1 _ _ Maryland . 208 3! 22 1 3 — =i 1 i^j.. 21! 1 Classical and scientific colleges . 16l 13| 1 3 li 1 Colleges for women . 9 1 9 Professional schools .... _ 183 . ! 162 ' - - 1 21 _ 1 Massachusetts . 7S8| 22 BTsj 8 52i 13 ~3 1 39| 5 210! - - 1 ~ioo' ~6 Classical and scientific colleges. 6S4| 22 373 8 52| 13 "sj l| 31 5 1141-- 6 Colleges for women . looj Professional schools _ . 104 ... 8 96 . . j _ Michigan . 449, nj 84i 4! 52 1 26 4j 165:.. | 122. 2 .... Classical and scientific colleges. 419 n 84 4 52| 11 2e| .. 4 135I-.I 122 2 Colleges for women _ Professional schools . . 30 . 1 30| . . j 1. a Includes 1 degree not specified. 6 Includes 27 degrees not specified. COLLEGE DEGREES, CXXIX Table XV. — Statistical summary of all degrees conferred — Continued. All classes. a U a Science. i * o 1 02 o £ Art. Theology. Medicine. 1 > < In course. | Honorary. In courso. Honorary. In courso. Honorary. In course. Honorary. 1 In course. 1 Honorary. | In courso. 1 Honorary. In courso. Honorary. 1 In courso. 1 = o =1 Minnesota . a38 17 12 . . . . Classical and scientific colleges. c29 15 5 I 9 2 7 Mississippi . . 57 6 46 11 1 r 5 Classical and scientific colleges. 15 6 9 6 1 5 42 37 5 Professional schools . .... _ .... 1 Missouri . &330 cl 37 24 4 1 38 i 176 2 35 1 Classical and scientific colleges . dllO c5 31 20 — ! 4 1 I i ! 5 35 1 ell 6 4 1 ... 209 2 38 171 2 i “ ° * Nebraska . 5 3 |7 1 2 1 . ! Classical and scientific colleges. Colleges for women . 5 3 2 | . Professional schools . . ! r" . ii •11 Nevada . 7 | 1 . ... 1 Classical and scientific colleges. Colleges for women . .... Professional schools . i 1 — .... _ _ New Hampshire . /57 9 6 17 1 - 1 i 22 7 i 1 HI Classical and scientific colleges. Colleges for women . 39 9 6 17 i 1 7 i 22 i /18 8 L. Professional schools 1 :::::: m L _ New Jersey . 231 10 195 1 36 i 4 n 2 ! . 2 .... Classical and scientific colleges. Colleges for women . 227 10 191 1 1 36! ij li 7 7 2 4 4 .... ~ Professional schools . .... .... New York . 1, 236 42 321 9 136 7 19| 7 3 i 17 626i 7 7ii ~8 _ 1 Classical and scientific colleges Colleges for women . 929 41 321 9' 136 19| 7 7 1 319 131 8 Professional schools . . 307 1 i 1 307 . =! V n _ North Carolina . 43 23 37 7 5 1 7 7 i2! 4 1 1 Classical and scientific colleges. Colleges for women . . 18 25 23 12 25 7 5 1 _ 77l 12 4 Professional schools . . 1 — 4 == =i 1 a Includes 9 degrees not specified. d Includes 15 degrees not specified. 6 Includes 16 degrees not specified. e Includes 1 degree not specified. c Includes 2 degrees not specified. / Includes 10 degrees not specified. E — IX CXXX REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table XY. — Statistical summary of all degrees conferred — Continued. All classes. cc o & s xn o to s < < ( £ H s 0 D H Medicine. es < © m © a s f* a o W © 02 § © § o 6 02 5 o © a w s s- o - I § a & 02 O >5 6 5° 3 o © h S © 02 C © M ! 6 02 0 © 3 z Omo . 755 34 232 10 48 li 3 l 19 ! 16 427 1 ! 26 5 263 33 213 10 48 1 3 l 19 16 5 19 19 453 1 427 1 | 26 34 1 13 21 r l 34 1 13 21 l _ _ Pennsylvania . 951 35 297 9 61 j~3 . 19 l 14 18 536 ~2 24 2 Classical and scientific colleges. 512 33 281 9 61 3 ; i9 ~l 2 18 125 11 1 14 14 425 2 2 12 .. 411 ! 2 72 2 68 2 | 4 ~ n Classical and scientific colleges . 72 2 68 2 | 4 Colleges for women . Professional schools . ! . _ 1 _ South Carolina . ! 78 1 ^ 58 H 2 19 ; 1 Classical and scientific colleges. 39 3 38 1 2! | 1 Colleges for women . . 20 20 .. Professional schools . 19 .. | *' 19 Tennessee . 312 15 192 61 14 = 2 1 3 i 8 54 47 It Classical and scientific colleges - 179 15 61 6 14 ~~2 ~ 3 8 52 47 1 Colleges for women . 131 131 Professional schools . 2 2 _ _ _ _ Texas . 55 2 43 12 2 1 Classical and scientific colleges. 32 2 20 12 2 177 Colleges for women . 23 23 1 . L Professional schools . I . _ _ _ Vermont . a,74 9 32 4 B 3 l r j=' 2 33 i 2 l .. Classical and scientific colleges . a71 i 9 29 4 3 3 l 2 33 2 Colleges for women . 3 ■ 3 Professional schools . 1 _ 1 _ _ Virginia . 6162 4 39 58 1 3 26 27 1 I Classical and scientific colleges . 126 4 28 57 1 3j 13 27! 1 Colleges for women . 623 11 1 Professional schools . . 13 rl 13 "West Virginia . 9 6 3 i=! □ 77 .... .... 1 li_ . ! Classical and scientific colleges. 9 6 3 _ Colleges for women _ .... .... Professional schools . ... g ' - j LJ 1 - =1 = =1 — .... =r= = a Includes 3 degrees not specified. 6 Includes 11 degrees not specified. PUBLIC LIBRARIES. CXXXI Table XY. — Statistical summary of all degrees conferred — Continued. m x < <5 S 7 ~ 26 S U2 | | 1 «H £ ! < S § i I x b ? Z >> 1 X z ? Z WlSCOVSEf . 133 B 71 .... 45 . 1 ; 2 7 4 10 1 Classical and scientific colleges. nJ s ! 59 - 45 . j 1 i 2 4 .. 10 1 Colleges for -women . 12 .... 12 .... Professional schools . . n ! r Distbict of Columbia . 85 i 5 i 14i 1 . 11 5 .. 15 ~3 Classical and scientific colleges . 30 1 ^ 14 1 | . j.., lj 1 .. 15 3 Colleges for -women . Professional schools . 5 5 .... TABLE XVI. — PUBLIC LIB RABIES. Special improvement has been noted during the year in the use of two classes of educational libraries : (1) those in connection with colleges and universities, and (2) those connected with public schools, the improvement in both instances largely depend¬ ing upon the methods and efficiency of the librarian. Public libraries have in many instances been characterized by marked increase of usefulness from the same cause. Mr. Justin Winsors efforts in connection with Harvard University Library have been conspicuous in their favorable effects upon college library management generally. 1. The improvement in this department of library work is well illustrated by the fol¬ lowing summary of the circulation in the library of Colby University, Waterville, Me. Circulation of books in the library of Colby University. Academic year. i 5J x — i r 1 § 32 : > ! I 11 i li Pemarks. 1868-’69 . 342 6. 7 Library np two flights ; open twice a week ; S. P. S., librarian. 1869-70 . 442 8.4 Library moved to new building : students not allowed beyond an iron bar, 20 feet from the door. 1870-!71 . ' 636 1 12 1871 72 . ! 541 10.4 1872-73 . : 761 14.6 First assistant librarian himself took out 87 volumes ; second assistant librarian himself took out 76 volumes. 1873-74 . 1 867 | 14 j Edward TV. Hall librarian ; no assistant. 1874-75 . 1 1, 258 15.3 Library open from 9 to 9.30 daily; iron bar removed, and tables instead. 1875-76 . 2,021 22.2 ' Open 9 to 9.30; also, Wednesday and Saturday p. m.; students freely admitted to alcoves. 1876-77 . 2,944 27 Assistant required, to charge books. The gratifying increase in the usefulness of the library thus shown was not at all due to any improper influence or any shortening of the time of loans which would CXXXII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. increase the number. It arose from the labors of the present efficient librarian (Prof. E. W. Hall) in cataloguing, indexing, and making accessible the contents of the library; from his effort to procure, by gift or purchase, desirable books actually in demand; from appointing the library hour at the close of chapel service, when the students would all be assembled near by within the building, and from throwing open the alcoves to the free inspection of the students. It is affirmed that there has been no trouble arising from admitting students to the shelves. Not a volume has been missed, and there is very little misplacing of books. The saving in assistants and delay in procuring books would far more than equal a loss of fifty dollars’ worth of books a year. 2. The better use of books in connection with elementary and secondary schools has been aided by the efforts of intelligent teachers, who have made it their aim to ac¬ quaint themselves with the taste for reading among their pupils, and to guide it aright by suggesting authors and topics. The influence of the Library Journal and of the conferences of librarians has contributed greatly to the increased efficiency of libraries as a means of education. LIBBABY OF COXGEESS. The following is taken from the report of the librarian, Mr. A. R. Spofford, for the year 1877 : Extent of the collection. — Rapid progress in the growth of the library and all its interests, except the provision of adequate space for its fast accumulating treasures, has characterized the year just closed. The number of readers has been far greater than ever before, the majority of whom are serious students in quest of authorities and information, and it is at times impossible to furnish adequate accommodations, within the narrow space at command, both for the readers and for the members of Congress themselves. The enumeration of books January 1, 1878, exhibits an aggregate of 331,118 volumes and about 110,000 pamphlets. Of the books, no less than 39,796 belong to the law de¬ partment of the library. At the date of the last annual report the library contained 311,097 volumes. The increase during the last year was thus 20,021 volumes, derived from the following specific sources, namely : Books. Pamph¬ lets. Bv purchase . By copyright . _ . 7,682 8, 952 849 5,340 By deposit of the Smithsonian Institution . . . . . . . . . 2, 231 2, 184 By donation (including State documents) . . . 1, 030 320 Bv exchange . . _ _ __L . . . . 126 655 Total . 20, 021* | 9,348 i To this should be added maps and charts, to the number of 2,622, acquired during the year 1877. Copyrights. — There were entered, during the calendar year 1877, 15,758 publications, as against 14,882 for the year preceding, 1876.1 This is an increase over the preceding . year of 876 publications. The aggregate of copyright fees paid into the Treasury 1 The following data from the Leipziger Catalog exhibit a classification according to subject of the ■boohs pnblished in Germany daring 1877: Independent works, 14,000, in over 20,000 volumes; number of different authors, excluding anonymous writers, 10,000; encyclopaedias, bibliography, and science of literature, 872; theology, 1,258; law, politics, and statistics, 1,329; medicine, 755; natural science, ■chemistry, and pharmacy, 740; philosophy, 163; schoolbooks and pedagogy, 1,629; books for the young, 485; classics, Oriental languages, and antiquities, 520 ; modem languages, 445 ; history, 739; geography •311 ; mathematics and astronomy, 166 ; military works, 347 ; commerce and industry, 525 ; architecture, mining, engineering, and navigation, 378 ; shooting, hunting, fishing, and forestry, 103; agriculture and horticulture, 392; belles-lettres, 1,126; popular works, 540; masonry, 17 ; miscellaneous, 507 ; maps, 336. To each thousand inhabitants there are 103 subscribers for political newspapers in all Germany. The figure is much larger in the south, where it varies from 125 to 150, than in the north, where it does not reach 100. Alsace-Lorraine is the least reading province in Germany, counting only 35 subscribers to every 1,000 inhabitants. PUBLIC LIBRARIES. cxxxnr amounted to 613,076. Tlie deposits of publications protected by copyright, under the law requiring that two copies of each book or otberpublication entered be transmitted to the Librarian of Congress, show the following result for the year under the various, designations of articles which are lawful subjects of copyright : Books . 8,952 Periodicals . 7, 03G Musical compositions . 5, 710 Dramatic compositions . 158 Photographs . 1, 688 Engravings and chromos . - . 1. 888 Maps, charts, and drawings . 2, 298 Prints . 154 Designs . 81 Total . 27, 958 As two copies of each publication are deposited, the net additions to the collections of copyright material in the library foot up 13,979 articles, of which 4,476 are separate books! besides a still greater number of periodicals. Xeic catalogue. — The printing of the new general catalogue of the library, so long ready for the press, is now proceeding. This catalogue will embrace the titles of all the works in the library up to 1877, including both books and pamphlets. The ar¬ rangement will be that most generally approved, by authors’ names in a single alpha¬ bet. Embodying as it will the titles of a larger collection of English and American literature, to say nothing of other languages, than has ever been embraced in the printed catalogue of any existing library in a single alphabet, it is hoped that it may be found a work of reference of the highest utility to all. Index to the documents, debates , and laus of Congress. — This work, embracing as it does the contents of over 1,500 volumes, is one of such magnitude as to require the most careful application both of industry and of time to the work involved. There have already been indexed the Annals of Congress, 42 volumes : the Register of De¬ bates, 29 volumes : nearly the whole of the Congressional Globe and the Congressional Record, 135 volumes; with 18 volumes of the Statutes at Large, up to the last Con¬ gress. There still remain to be indexed a great proportion of the executive and other documents of Congress. Meanwhile there has been offered to the Committee on the Library, on certain "conditions as to printing, the index of documents alone, pre¬ pared in manuscript by the officers of the Boston Public Library and assumed to be approximately complete. With a view to avoid delay, the librarian recommends that the Library Committee consider the expediency of accepting these already pre¬ pared materials for an index, with such revision and additions as may be found im¬ portant, the whole to be printed in one alphabet, with the index to the debates of Congress and the laws. Under each topic of legislation there can then be traced its history, with complete references to its discussion in both* houses of Congress, to all reports or documents bearing thereon, and to the laws affecting the subject, in chron¬ ological order. Documents relating to French discoveries and explorations. — During the year, the second volume of the publication of original historical documents exhibiting the French dis¬ coveries and explorations in the northwestern regions of the United States and on the Mississippi has been received from Paris, and the third volume approaches completion. The recommendation is renewed that as the cost to the Government of each set of this work in six volumes is about twenty dollars and as the edition is small (being only 500 copies), the librarian be authorized to exchange copies of the work with his¬ torical societies and other libraries for books, periodicals, and pamphlets, deemed of equal value, to enrich the collections of Congress. The great interest and value of the letters and papers embodied in this collection, as throwing light upon the aborig¬ inal tribes and pioneer settlements in what are now great and populous Common¬ wealths, fully vindicate the wisdom of Congress in making the moderate appropria¬ tion necessary for this publication. Resolves, ordinances, and acts of the Continental Congress and the Congress of the Confed¬ eration. — The librarian was charged by act of March 3, 1877, with the editing and preparation for the press of the resolves, ordinances, and acts of the Continental Congress and the Congress of the Confederation, “to be taken from the journals.” After a thorough examination of the printed journals, in thirteen volumes, and a careful comparison of them with the original manuscript journals of the Congress, preserved in thirty-nine volumes in the Department of State, the librarian found that such large and important omissions had been made in printing these inestimable records of our early political history as to justify him in suspending any attempt at a selection or a fragmentary publication from the journals until Congress should be con¬ sulted as to the expediency of printing the originals in full. County and toicn histories. — Under the joint" resolution of March 13. 1876, and the proclamation of May 25, of the same year, recommending that the several counties and towns in the United States cause to be preyjared a historical sketch of each county CXXXFV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. or town from its foundation to tlie year 1876, and that a copy in print or manuscript he filed in the Library of Congress, there have been received up to date two hundred and twenty-five historical memorials, which are carefully laid aside and catalogued for binding and preservation. While it maybe regretted that the suggestion of Congress has not been to a larger extent complied with, no such contribution to our historical literature can be wholly without benefit. New building for the library. — The librarian renews, for the sixth time, his earnest appeal to the judgment and patriotism of Congress, that this body will no longer permit the great collection of literature and art confided to its care to suffer injury and loss in its present narrow and inconvenient quarters. The space which five years ago was too small for the library is now, through the accumulation of nearly one hundred thousand additional volumes, utterly inadequate not only to store the books, pamphlets, maps, charts, engravings, and other works of art, but it is at times uncomfortably crowded by those persons laudably seeking to make the best use of its rich and overflowing stores. A new library building has become a positive and im¬ mediate necessity to furnish room for the readers, to say nothing whatever of room for the books, nearly seventy thousand volumes of which are now piled upon the floors in all directions. LIBRARY OF THE OFFICE. The increase of the library in books and pamphlets relating to education is highly gratifying. The removal, however^ to other quarters has been very damaging to it as well as to other office material. The value of the library and the demands upon it in the office work have become so great that I have withdrawn from other important work one of the clerks best informed in library matters, to arrange, classify, and catalogue the material already collected, in order that it may be more available for use in the investigations of the Office or of visitors. Closely connected with the library are the collections of educational appliances. Often the sight of the plan of a building, or of an article of educational apparatus, will furnish a basis of judgment more correct than could be obtained from any description in words. The collection of these plans and appliances from foreign countries in the possession of the Office is already valuable. Indeed, a visitor may now obtain from the library and museum together information the acquisition of which might other¬ wise involve extensive travel. Table XYI. — Summary of statistics of additional public libraries for 1877. States. ■California . Connecticut . Illinois . Iowa . Kansas . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts . . Michigan . New Hampshire New Jersey . New York . ■Ohio . Pennsylvania . . . Number of libraries. Number of volumes. Y olumos added during last library year. Y olumes issued during last library year. Amount of permanent fund. Total yearly income. Books, periodicals, ^ and binding. H * b n* l exp end- res. ‘3 .9 n o5 S3- j! '3 m 1 734 36 1, 650 $384 $18 $362 2 929 67 2, 800 430 80 212 4 6, 959 2, 565 16, 006 $64, 000 5, 089 649 1, 583 4 7, 067 2, 086 5,342 500 2,002 865 1, 081 2 2, 952 390 17, 419 680 300 3 649 89 2, 225 62 114 1 2, 800 0 315 165 150 11 11,844 2, 384 5 sS Fund and in¬ come. Yearly expend¬ itures. 'o 3 M < © 1 1 ! >5 C 77 x >> - i « ’~Z. .1 £ ft 2 £ 3 00 0B m 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 1873 j Subscription . . | Social . . 900 200 900 $1, 666 $450 | $150 1873 Subscription . . i Social . 1, COO : 1,506 0 700 320 $380 1877 Subscription . - j Social . ! 1, 000 3, 000 al, 500 L000 850 1 877 Free _ ! Public . J . 600 1876 i Free . 1 Public . . j 2,075 802 10, 750 0 400 275 1810 Subscription . . ! Social . 1 1,200 50 4,900 1,000 60 60 25 1852 Subscription . . i Law . ; 1,440 30 0 220 220 0 1876 Subscription.. Y. M. C. A . 844 146 2, 200 0 350 1 1868 j Subscription . . ! Social . | 800 100 2,400 0 225 100 75 j 68 69 70 71 72 78 74 75 76 6 Not yet open; building not completed. ^ CXLII REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Adding the totals of the two preceding summaries to the statistics of the Special Report on Public Libraries, published by this Bureau in 1876 (see also the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1875, p. cvii), we have the following aggregates for the 3,771 public libraries now reported : Total number of volumes . 12, 458, 050 Total yearly additions (1,592 libraries reporting) . 457, 824 Total yearly use of boohs (811 libraries reporting) . 9, 206, 782 Total amount of permanent fund (1,746 libraries reporting) . $6, 761, 497 Total amount of yearly income (919 libraries reporting) . 1, 399, 113 Total yearly expenditures for books, periodicals, and binding (843 libraries 586, 279 reporting). Total yearly expenditures for salaries and incidental expenses (711 libra- 742,275 ries reporting). It should be noted, however, that the figures for these items are but approximately true for the libraries of the country, inasmuch as they do not include the very consid¬ erable increase of the 3,647 libraries embraced in the Special Report on Public Libra¬ ries or the increase of the 76 libraries embraced in the Commissioner's Report for 1876, from the dates thereof to the present time. EARLY AMERICAN LIBRARIES. The Special Report on Public Libraries, chapter I, contains historical sketches of most of the important libraries formed in the colonial period. Sketches of a few ad¬ ditional libraries established before the Revolution were given in my last annual report. To these should be added the following brief notices of early subscription or social libraries at Concord, Mass., and Brookfield, Mass. Concord. — “There is a pretty library belonging to a company, the books of which were raised by subscription.” — (A topographical description of the town of Concord, Mass., in 1792. In the Massachusetts Historical Society’s Collections, first series, vol. 1. ) BrooJcfield. — “ Several gentlemen of learning, taste, and benevolence among us are endeavoring to promote and encourage improvements, and a social library is begin¬ ning to exist in the first precinct.” — (A description of the town of Brookfield * * * in addition to the account which is given in the Historical Discourse (A. D. 1775) rela¬ tive to the Settlement of Brookfield of the Rev. Dr. Fiske. In the Massachusetts His¬ torical Society’s Collections, first series, vol. 1.) TABLE XVII. — SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. American philanthropists and educators may fitly congratulate themselves that our nation was the first to provide deaf-mutes with collegiate or superior instruction. The National Deaf-Mute College at 'Washington is doing excellent work in all its departments. It has already furnished well trained deaf-mutes to several of the State institutions in which elementary and secondary instruction is imparted. This coor¬ dination in the responsibility of deaf-mute instruction is having a most beneficial: effect upon the several institutions engaged in the work. SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. CXLIII Table XYH. — Summary of statistics of institutions for the deaf and dumb. Instructors. Number under instruc¬ tion during the year. ac 1c ^ 1 ® | « 1 £ | 1 Mftlo. .2 © £ ] •la U ® BJ o u = Alabama . . .. . i 6 0 50 30 ; 20 170 Arkansas . i 3 0 63 38 25 | 130 0- California . i 5 o 79 49 30 i 162 i 2 Colorado . i 2 0 26 12 14 30 0 Connecticut . 2 ! 21 i 1 j 291 177 114 2,178 60 Georgia . i ! 4 2 85 45 40 277 3 Illinois . . . . . . . . 2 23 a4 459 258 201 1,260 13 Indiana . ' . 1 16 3 363 223 140 j L 158 10 Iowa . . . . 1 g 156 82 74 436 - Kansas . 1 6 0 115 54 61 178 0 Kentucky . 1 5 1 111 55 56 636 11 Louisiana . . . 1 3 0 40 24 16 218 4 Maryland . 2 10 2 120 75 45 213 a Massachusetts . 2 15 1 147 75 72 267 i Michigan _ _ _ _ _ 1 513 2 286 153 133 663 Minnesota . . . 1 6 4 103 68 35 187 2' Mississippi . . . . .. 1 8 1 50 25 25 cS5 Missouri . 1 11 2 230 127 . 103 598 5 Nebraska . 1 4 0 55 30 25 78 I 0 New York . 7 72 7 1,104 601 503 3,431 72 North Carolina . 1 514 1 113 55 58 6 Ohio . 2 I 25 6 533 299 234 1,680 Oregon . 1 3 1 28 15 13 43 0 Pennsylvania . . . 2 24 3 471 270 201 1,864 11 South Carolina . . . . . . 1 3 547 Tennessee . . . . . 1 5 0 100 52 48 Texas . 1 4 1 56 37 19 148 1 "Virginia . . . . 1 58 51 ; 107 68 39 473 6 W est Virginia . 1 5 1 66 39 27 126 0 "Wisconsin . . . . . . 1 10 3 182 113 69 483 District of Columbia . 1 9 3 107 94 - 13 350 30 Total . 43 ; 346 50 5,743 ! 3,243 2,453 j 17, 522 254- a Three of these are mutes. 6 Including those in the departments for the blind, c Since reorganization in 1871. CXLIV REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Table XVII. — Summary of statistics of institutions for the deaf and dumb — Continued. States. Libraries. Property, income, &c. Number of volumes. Increase in the last school year. Value of grounds, buildings, and apparatus. State appropriation for the last year. Income for the year from tuition fees. Expenditure for the year. 500 a$50, 000 o$18, 000 $0 a$13, 500 0 35, 000 64, 000 0 10, 000 a200, 000 a36, 000 900 c34, 420 Colorado . 50 10 15, 000 cZ7, 000 0 7, 000 2, 200 100 250, 000 41, 287 54,460 Georgia . 800 0 35, 000 12, 000 0 14, 607 3, 000 500 416, 432 e99, 500 89, 816 Indiana . 3, 050 15 650, 000 65, 884 0 65, 884 Iowa . 600 100 121, 500 /48, 350 0 /55, 000 Kansas . . 150 35, 000 22, 000 o 22, 000 Kentucky . 600 25 150, 000 20, 972 20, 869 Louisiana . 300 0 225, 000 15, 000 0 8, 000 Maryland . 2, 000 270, 000 38, 000 605 37, 834 Massachusetts . . . 635 135, 000 13, 125 3, 153 25, 239 Michigan . al, 200 0 o400, 000 a43, 500 0 043, 260 Minnesota . 700 20 110, 000 21, 800 0 21, 000 Mississippi . 100 0 40, 000 11, 000 0 11, 000 Missouri . 600 0 105, 000 40, 500 0 32, 711 Nebraska . 436 126 40, 000 12, 980 0 9, 000 New York . 4,107 321 620, 615 gl39, 627 M27, 632 250, 267 North Carolina . . 200 alOO, 000 042, 500 0 o42, 500 Ohio . 2, 500 100 800, 000 84, 299 0 85, 499 Oregon . 0 0 6, 000 0 Pennsylvania . 5, 015 13 500, 000 49, 817 79, 817 94, 073 iSouth Carolina . a50, 000 a6, 000 Tennessee . . 125, 000 24, 000 0 22, 297 Texas . 300 75 40, 000 14, 720 0 13, 143 Virginia . al, 700 26 al75, 000 a40, 000 036, 179 West Virginia . 350 0 a65, 000 a28, 000 0 25, 084 Wisconsin . . 1, 000 100, 000 31, 500 o 31, 500 District of Columbia . 3, 000 150 600, 000 ill7, 525 1, 911 53, 292 Total . 35, 093 1, 581 6, 458, 547 1, 113, 599 255, 305 1, 229, 434 a Including departments for the blind. &Eor salaries and contingent expenses; $150 are allowed for each pupil in attendance. c Current expenditure for both departments ; excludes expenditure for building.