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MAR g§ . 1912 


The 


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DEMOCRACY IN EDUC. ATI am: 


N EW YORK 


VoL. I No. 2 


TO PRUSSIA FOR DEMOCRACY! 


THOSE WHO LOOK to “ America for 
iiberty and individual initiative ” will be 
astonished to learn of doings in Berlin. 
There, an association of teachers pub- 
lished a pamphlet in which grave charges 
are brought against the administration. 
The schools are too few in number, 20,- 
000 children being accommodated in 
rented quarters, the classes are over- 
crowded, the teachers are underpaid, 
there are not enough gymnasiums and 
playgrounds, and the equipment is in- 
adequate, etc., etc. To publish these 
charges was bold indeed; but instead of 
disciplining the teachers for their temer- 
ity the authorities published a reply in 
another pamphlet—full of statistics and 
intricate reasoning that convinced no 
one, and ending with the statement that 
“We do not expect the teachers to be 
convinced by this.” The teachers reply 
with a pamphlet in which they confine 
themselves to facts, avoiding subtleties 
of disputation. 

It is significant that the Berlin author- 
ities did take official notice of the charges 
and did make an attempt to discuss mat- 
ters with the teachers “ for the good of 
the service.” It has been suggested that 
much may be gained by conferring with 
the teachers before a feud breaks out. 


It is the aim of this paper to better 
the working conditions of the teacher, 
through sober criticisms of present edu- 
cational administration, and through dis- 
cussions tending toward a general rea- 
lization of the democratic ideal in all 
matters affecting the schools. 





Ceacher 





BBOCAFION FOR DEMOCRACY 
ee 


R CARY, 1912 50 Cents A YEAR 


WHY I CONTINUE TO TEACH. 


FRANK A. MANNY. 
TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHIERS, 
BALTIMORE, Mp. 

IT Is OVER twenty-five years since | 
began to teach. Several of these years 
have been spent in travel and as a stu- 
dent in college, and four in railroad ser- 
vice. All of this time, however, | did 
some teaching and all the time my major 
interest has been in the school. I have 
worked in private and public, evening 
and day, city and country, higher, sec- 
ondary, grammar and primary schools, 

and in the training of teachers. 

It has occurred to me that I ought 
to think over the reasons I have to jus- 
tify me in remaining in the school. From 
the many that come to mind I have se- 
lected the following for statement: 

1. The school seems to offer such an 
excellent opportunity for a major in- 
terest with which minors in other fields 
work advantageously. 

2. A man’s business experience is so 
welcome in the school. The organiza- 
tion of this institution is weak in most 
places and one can do work here with 
great profit, which in other fields would 
more quickly be subject to the law of 
diminishing returns. 

3. The time element is advantageous. 
Where in many other lines one must 
settle down to a certain place in which 
his working hours must be spent, in the 
case of the school man the number of 
fixed hours in the day, days in the 
week and weeks in the year is more 
adjustable. He has a large amount of 
work to do, but he can move it about 
with him to a considerable extent. 

4. I have met so many men and 
women outside of the school to whom 
the presentation of one of the social 
needs of the school means an op- 








10 THE AMERICAN TEACHER 


portunity for service and in so many 
cases a fair, business-like presenta- 
tion of the problem was all that was 
necessary to insure means of working 
upon it. 

5. In the school one is associated with 
such a fine set of working women. The 
imen, on the whole, are not so strong; 
but when one recognizes the need of 
children of both sexes to meet with the 
right kind of men and women, the fact 
is evident that a position within gives 
one a stronger hold upon young men 
in order to influence them to undertake 
this work when they are needed. 

6. A teacher’s relations to parents is 
2 source of much growth and satisfac- 
tion. There’is enough of the difficult 
in this, to be sure, but a frank meeting 
of it so often results in unexpected ad- 
vantages. 

7. Ill health in early life (a thing of 
the nast, however) prevented mv train- 
ing in athletics, sports, etc., so that I 
am deprived of that with 


association 


pupils; but there are many others that 
mean so much to me. The fact, how- 
ever, that 1 am so much in contact with 
the young makes me seek, for the sake 
of balance, much relation with mature 
minds. 

8. So often in life one’s responsibility 
goes beyond one’s authority. In the 
school I find when I am in a so-called 
subordinate position that there are many 


opportunities for me to share in the 
larger problems; and in a so-called su- 


perior position one finds among his as- 
sociates so many who may not be ready 
for large, inclusive ranges of authority 
but who welcome a change to show their 
superior usefulness where it is needed. 

9. I am inclined to think that I have 
done as well financially in the school as 
I would have done elsewhere. At any 
rate I have had a comfortable living. 
In general it seems to me that teachers 
are as well off financially and socially 
as are other members of their families 


who have chosen other work. 


VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND TRAINING. 


I1iNRIETTA 


AS CIVILIZATION ADVANCES, we become 
conscious of the extravagant stupidity 
and brutality of the action of natural 
selection. For a long time we have re- 
sisted the plagues which would have 
veeded out our weaker citizens; an in- 
creasing number of us is manifesting 
strong unwé#lingness to allow poverty 
to do its work of elimination upon the 
unfit. Recently we have become con- 
scious and resentful of the effect of a 
mediaeval system of education upon our 
young people. The strongest children 
have grown up through it, or have suc- 
cessfully avoided it, and have become 
effective workers in the arts, industries, 
commerce, and the professions; but the 
weaker have been pushed into that 
slough of despond, the unskilled trades. 
\bout twenty-three thousand out of 
twenty-four thousand cases studied by 
the Permanent Census Board of New 
York City are there now. A time may 
come when we shall be able to calculate 
the number of architects, decorators, 


wD . 
NODMAN, 


designers, dressmakers, expert dieticians 
and social workers who have been lost 
to our civilization among these twenty- 
ihree thousand. 

There is now a popular demand that 
he children of the community shall be 
repared in the public schools for some- 
ling other than the colleges to which 
the overwhelming majority of them 
never go. There is a movement on foot 
for the conservation of natural ability, 
for its discovery and development to the 
point of social efficiency. 

This movement is as important in its 
effect on the teacher as in that on the 
child. He is brought into creative con- 
tact with the realities of life to-day. He 
discovers that the chief need of society 
is not the soldier or the priest, but the 
citizen: the wage-earner, home-maker,: 
parent and voter. He tests the present 
curriculum by these ideals, and finds it 
wanting. He blames himself for ad- 
ministering so defective a system—for 
giving stones instead of bread. He de- 


+ 
L 
T 
t 
+ 
t 


) 
1 
l 














mands the opportunity to express his 
ideals through his work—as all artists, 
all creative workers, must do. Thus he 
becomes a vital part of the community 
life, through efficiency; he gets the best 
from it through appreciation; he rejects 
old ideals, narrow and selfish, and breaks 
habits which have lost their social value 
through changed conditions. Thus the 
very stone despised by the builders of 
cur commercialized culture will be the 
corner-stone of the greater civilization 
to come. 

An essential part of education for life 
will be vocational guidance and training, 
developing in the younger generation 


the power to give their best to 
society. Vocational guidance is not 
so esoteric as it might seem. Pro- 


fessor Thorndike’s classification of types 
of mind as thing-thinkers and idea- 
thinkers, corresponds in the main with 


our classification of occupations. Those 
requiring thing-thinking are the arts 


and industries ; idea-thinking is required 
in commerce and the professions. In- 
dividuals who are capable of original 
thing-thinking who can make new com- 
binations of lines, colors, or materials, 
will probably succeed in the arts. Those 
who can do similar work accurately and 
rapidly, but must have their designs 
made for them by others, will probably 
succeed in the industries. A similar di- 
vision may be made of idea-thinkers: 
the creative idea-thinkers will find their 
place in the professions, the adaptive in 
crdinary commercial lines. 

Habits of thing-thinking and of idea- 
thinking reveal themselves in children. 
The child who likes to make things or 
to play with things is not hard to dis- 
tinguish from the child who prefers to 
read and to dream. A group of girls 
who had failed in the regular academic 
course in one of our high schools was 
asked recently to write upon the choice 
of a field of occupation, basing this 
chcice upon a study of their own habits. 
Over eighty per cent. chose arts and in- 
dustries, stating that they believed them- 
selves to be thing-thinkers. Thev gave 


as evidence the facts that they liked to 
make dolls’ clothes or their own, that 








THE AMERICAN TEACHER 11 


they liked to embroider, to cook, or just 


to make things with their hands. Some 
said that they liked to make their own 
designs; others, that they preferred to 
copy. These girls had not been given 
a chance, under our orthodox high 
school course, to develop, or even to test 
thoroughly, the ability which might con- 
stitute an important part of their value 
to society. 

It is claimed by some educators that 
the establishment of a special art school 
here, and a special industrial school 
there, will meet the needs of such chil- 
dren. It has been shown by a commit- 
tee of the New York High School Teach- 
ers’ Association that the expense of send- 
ing children to a school in a remote part 
of the city is annually greater than 
would be the interest on the amount of 
money required to establish the desired 
courses in local schools. In many cases 
the expense is prohibitive. 

Those who have attempted to give vo- 
cational guidance know that, without 
vocational training at public expense, it 
is a mockery of the children’s needs. 
Under our present system, in the ma- 
jority of our public schools, we can 
neither test nor develop ability which 
we think we have discovered. 

A community which fails to offer in 
its public schools courses which will 
develop commercial and industrial ef- 
ficiency, and which will thoroughly test 
artistic and professional ability, fails to 
minister to its own needs. Our high 
schools for girls should hasten to offer 
such commercial courses as are now 
given in the Girls’ Hebrew Technical 
School, such art courses as are given at 
the Schools of Applied Design for 
Women, and of Fine and Applied Arts, 
and such industrial courses as are given 
at the Manhattan Trade School. High 
schools in which the equipment for such 
courses is already at hand for use in the 
evening school should offer these 
courses in the day school whenever one 
hundred students desire to take them. 

Children of twelve who can pass ex- 
aminations in reading, writing and 
speaking the English language, and in 
the use of the elementary processes of 











THE 





arithmetic, should be admitted to the 
high schools without being required to 
graduate from the elementary schools. 
The period of compulsory education 
should be extended to the age of six- 
teen, with State aid in cases where the 


AMERICAN 


TEACHER 


earning capacity of the father is found 
to be inadequate. Until we have done 
these things, we cannot boast that our 
public school system is other than a 
flimsy barrier against poverty, misery 
and crime. 


EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATION. 


BENJAMIN C., GRUENBERG. 
(Continued from the January number.) 
__ 10. There must be standardized operations. be saved for the general good—but that is 
There are certain operations that are per- another story. 
> ‘Vveryv . © i , + 2 TH 1 
formed in every school and it would be a 12. There must be an efficiency reward. 


great advantage to the system to have the best 
method for performing these operations estab- 
lished in all the schools. In such a system 
as that of New York City, it is no one’s busi- 
ness, for example, to instruct those who have 
to do the work in the principles of construct- 
ing complex programs, as where there is pro- 
motion by subject. The method of emptying 
different types of buildings for fire or rapid 
dismissal, the method of selecting teachers 
and the method of determining where a new 
building is needed could easily be standard 
ized. The method of gaining an audience 
with the superintendent might be standard- 
ized; some teachers have no difficulty in in 
terviewing the school superintendent in some 
cities, on the most trivial pretext; while others 
cannot get the opportunity even in serious 
cases. 

11. There must be standard practise instruc- 
lions. It is a common thing to hear teachers 
in conversation ask, “How do you admit 
new pupils in your school?” or “ Does your 
principal let you know what he is going to 
rate you?” And it is perhaps just as com- 
mon for pupils to ask one another, “ What 
does your principal do to you when you are 
late?” or “Do you have to pay if you tear 
a book?” These are trivial matters, but for 
that very reason the easiest ones to standard- 
ize. There are official instructions to prin- 
cipals and to superintendents; but the diver- 
sity in practise does not usually mean that 
discretion has been lodged where it can be 
utilized to the best advantage—it means that 


instructions are not worked out with sufh- 
cient foresight to be generally applicable. 
The result is that instructions are either 
all followed implicitly, or all disregarded 
indiscriminately, according to the  tem- 


perament—and the  security—of the in- 


dividual. Efficiency requires that the staff 
prepare instructions upon all matters that 
can be advantageously standardized, that 
the instructions be issued in terms that 


leave no doubt as to their meaning, and that 
they be executed automatically to the end 
that time and energy be liberated for work 
requiring thought and discrimination. Where 
practise cannot be standardized, efficiency re- 
quires that every idea and every experiment 





Human nature being what it is, and our in- 
dustrial system being what it is, it happens 
that there are in the schools, as there are in 
the factory or in the army, many workers 
who do not belong there by reason of tem- 
perament or taste or special talent; they are 
there because, needing jobs, this turns out the 
easiest to get or to hold. As a consequence, 
workers in the schools, like workers in other 
systems, are constantly tempted to soldier. 
Now efficiency requires that workers be 
tempted not to soldier, but to do the very op- 
posite. And one way of tempting them to put 
forth better effort, is to reward them in pro- 
portion to their achievement. This is but an- 
other way of saying that where services are 
for sale the higher price will command the 
better service. We may not resent being 
placed on a par with the factory operative or 
the brick-layer; our salvation probably lies in 
our recognizing what we have in common 
with the other workers of the world. The 
principle of pay for position is sound only if 
we assume that the position determines the 
character and the quantity and the value of 
the work—assumptions that are thoroughly 


false. The only just claim that teachers— 
and other workers—may have against the 


principle of the efficiency wage is that it in- 
volves difficulties of administration. It is 
true that there are temptations to favoritism, 
that there are difficulties in estimating the 
value of teaching services and of personality. 
that we have no very effective machinery for 
the objective rating of teachers—but the prin- 
ciple of the efficiency wage is a sound prin- 
ciple nevertheless, and of general applicability. 


* ts i a 


In considering the measure of efficiency the 
ordinary person, accustomed to monetary 
measures of values, at once thinks of the 
and indeed the matter of cost, using 
the term in its broadest sense, is fundamental. 
Mr. Emerson divides the cost into three 
categories, not according to the nature of the 
cost, but according to its incidence. Thus, 
there is the cost arising from materials and 
supplies, that due to personal service, and 
that of general charges. Each of these items 


cost ey 














THE 


is made up of four factors that operate in a 
dependent sequence in such manner that every 
defect or inefficiency is magnified to the 
great reduction of the total or net efficiency. 

The four factors or efficiencies of cost are: 

1. The efficiency of price. 

2. The efficiency of supply. 

3. The efficiency of distribution 

4. The efficiency of use. 

An illustration from any of the three classes 
of cost incidence will make clear both the 
meaning of the four factors and the nature 
of their interdependence. Take the cost of 
service in the schools. The price or wages 
paid would be considered inefficient if it were 
higher than the prevailing rate for identical 
services. In general, the efficiency of price 
comes very near being 100 per cent. in most 
commercial and industrial operations, be- 
cause competition for markets and for jobs 
prevents an inflation of the price. On the 
other hand, the efficiency experts have for the 
most part concerned themselves with economic 
efficiency rather than with social efficiency, 
and have been content to measure wages paid 
against wages paid in other establishments, in- 
stead of measuring wages paid against the 
cost of living, or against standards of liv- 
ing. The result has been that we have been 
content to tolerate “successful” business or 

“ business-like” administration of public serv- 
ice, shutting our eyes to the kinds of lives 
led by the workers. There has been growing 
a feeling that in the administration of the 
public schools the efficiency of price has been 
attained at a disproportionate social cost; 
that it is more economical for a community 
to employ happy, cheerful, well-dressed and 
well-housed teachers, even though the tax-rate 
be thereby increased, than it is to employ dis- 
contented, skimping, worried teachers—and 

‘save money.” Taking the country as a 
whole the efficiency of price of teachers is 
probably considerably more than 100 per cent., 
trom an economic point of view, and consid- 
erably less than that from a social point of 
view. In other words, we are getting our 
teachers very cheap, in dollars and cents; but 
the cost is high when we consider other fac- 
tors. 

But whatever the price, the factor of supply 
must affect the final efficiency. Thus, if we 
place in a school more teachers than are 
needed to do the work, even if the wages are 
low, there is waste. If teachers are allowed 
to spend working time and working power in 
idleness or in time- -serving, there is waste. 
If nepotism and favoritism concentrate the 
work upon a few that others may receive 
pay for being present, there is waste, even 
though the pay is small. In these cases the 
supply is not proportioned to the need, and 
the oversupply is a factor that diminishes 
the efficiency of each of the other factors. If 
politics leads to the appointment of workers 
who are not needed, the result is the same. 

In the administration of a system, it 
should be the aim to place each worker where 
he will do the most good. The efficiency of 


AMERICAN 


TEACHER I 


we 


distribution in a large system is not often 
very high. In our schools there is some- 
umes an attempt to discover special talents 
in teachers, and to place the teacher of spe- 
cial ability at a special task; but there is al- 
together too little of this. The mechanical 
organization of school systems compels us, 
for the most part, to assign many different 
kinds of ability to uniform, mediocre work. 
We have principals with ideas acting as chief 
clerks; we have high-priced specialists wash- 
ing test-tubes or watering plants; we have 
strong teachers spending valuable time keep- 
ing records of tardy or delinquent pupils, or 
policing a side door. This inefficiency of 
distribution affects the whole system, help- 
ing to reduce the net efficiency, in spite of 
the cheapness of teachers or their over-work. 

In the matter of use, our schools are for 
the most part efficient. The classes are for 
the most part large enough—too large rather, 
very frequently. The apparent waste of time 
and energy results not from having too many 
teachers, but from having defective distribu- 
tion of services; we do not place too many 
workers at a given point, the hours of work 
are not in general too few. More often do 
we find teachers over-worked—and that is 
not efficiency either. 

The same analysis applied to the matter of 
materials would probably show a lower ef- 
ficiency; and if applied to general charges— 
well, we don’t know until we find out. But 
the cost of a large board of education, of 
which only a few members do the actual work, 
may protitably be compared with that of a small 


board in which each membéer works. The 
cost of an “unpaid” board may profitably be 
compared with that of a paid board. The 


cost of a lay board, of varying but diffuse 
talents, may well be compared with the cost 
of a board of experts. ‘The cost of a board 
that is voluntary, and to that extent irre- 
responsible, may be compared to one that can 
be held strictly to account for its services. 
There is a great deal to be said on both sides 
—and as to which type is more efficient, from 
the social point of view as well as from the 
point of view of dollar-cost-per-unit, we shall 
never know until we find out. 

Consider the cost of supplies, comparing 
price paid with prices obtainable, comparing 
quantities purchased and allowed to lie idle 
with quantities actually needed, comparing 
kinds purchased for general use with kinds 
suitable for special purposes, comparing quan- 
tities actually used with the total consumed— 
and you will have an idea of what efficiency 
of price means. For price is paid whether 
materials and buildings are in use or lying 
idle; whether they are used economically or 
wastefully; whether they are distributed ef- 
ficiently or inefficiently. 

The physiological side of work deserves 
more attention than it has received. Some 
occupations are energizing; some are debili- 
tating. In a given occupation some condi- 
tions make for conservation of energy, others 
make for dissipation of energy. From the 








14 THE 


point of view of efficiency in teaching it is 
highly important that these matters be studied 
by those in charge of administration and 
that our best knowledge be put to practical 
application. We have here the constant con- 
flict between the desire to improve conditions 
and fear of increasing the price. We have 


AMERICAN 


TEACHER 


still to learn that in education, as in market- 
ing, the best is the cheapest; that low price 
is not identical with low cost. 

fAn abstract of Mr. Emerson’s paper before the 
New York High School Teachers Association will be 
printed in the Bulletin of that association. Copies 
of this Bulletin, when issued, may be obtained for five 
cents in stamps from the President, Wm. T. Morrey, 
Bushwick High School, Brooklyn.—Ep. ] 


ARISTOCRATIC AND DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION. 


Henry R. LINvILte. 


It 1S GENERALLY BELIEVED that Germany, the 
strictest monarchy of enlightened Europe, ex- 
hibits a commendable example to America in 
supporting universities that are perfect demon- 
strations of democratic government. The 
September Atlantic Monthly contains an in- 
teresting article on “ Aristocratic and Demo- 
cratic Education,” by the Secretary of the 
Carnegie Foundation for Teaching, Dr. Abra- 
ham Flexner. Dr. Flexner calls attention to 
the fact that Germany is a strong and effi- 
cient monarchy. During its training of those 
who are to manage its schools and universities, 
there is going on a constant selection of per- 
sons who will carry out the established policy 
of the government. The chances are few in- 
deed that the representatives of the govern- 
ment make mistakes in their selections. With 
faculties carefully chosen in the course of the 
long preliminary training, there is really no 
reason why they should not choose one an- 
other to hold any position they like. 

The German universities and lower schools 
are very efficient instruments of progress. 
Technically and socially they stand first in 
effectiveness in all the world. German scholar- 
ship is wonderfully prolific and German in- 
dustrial education yields results that command 
universal respect. One important reason for 
this is the fact that the control of education 
is in the hands of the central imperial govern- 
ment. When the ministry decides what it 
wants, the accomplishment ‘of a project is the 
matter of a very short time. 

Once a German university is established the 
policy of the institution and its relation to 
German life and affairs are settled permanently. 
When new adjustments are demanded in the 
intellectual life of the nation, the old uni- 
versities are not expected to adapt themselves 
to a new environment. A new university is 
started which is allowed to stand for so much 
of an advance as is considered advisable. The 
recently organized University of Frankfort 
had on its Board of Organization four Social- 
Democrats, members of the radical party of 
the nation. Although the voting power behind 
these four numbered over three million men, 
they were unable to influence the policy 
of the university in the least. In other 
words, the new institution was to be regarded 
by the ministry as an agency for reflecting the 
intellectual outlook of the established govern- 
ment, and not the outlook of the people. 


In the United States, Dr. Flexner says, the 
actual accomplishment of an educational pro- 
gram comes a long time after the decision 
of leaders on the question. Nothing can be 
done until the tacit consent of a considerable 
body of the public is obtained. There must 
be some form of public support. 


There is no restraint on experimenting in 
American education; in fact, everybody ex- 
periments. But there is no central power to 
decide when there has been enough of experi- 
menting. There is no body of officials whose 
business it is to decide on a national scale 
upon carrying out an educational policy. Thus 
we are behind Germany in the effectiveness 
with which we organize our education. Ger- 
many experiments, but in narrow limits. We 
experiment broadly, but as yet we do not get 
the full benefit of our experimenting. 


Dr. Flexner considers it of the greatest im- 
portance that we have in America many 
societies of citizens who by their interest in 
educational problems hasten the inauguration 
of many useful undertakings. 


Although the author does not write of the 
administration of our American universities, 
one cannot help wishing that he had dealt 
with the phenomenon of autocracy in the gov- 
ernment of our educational institutions. The 
very difficulty of bringing our educational pro- 
jects to a head in democratic America must 
have had a great deal to do with the beginning 
of the “business administration” or “one- 
man power” in educational government. As 
much of a seeming anomaly as it is in demo- 
cratic America, it is not difficult to under- 
stand its prevalence, once we admit the neces- 
sity for “ getting results” in the shortest pos- 
sible time. 

One advantage of our greater educational 
freedom, as Dr. Flexner points out, lies in 
the comparative ease with which our youth 
may rise from the less educated and less pros- 
perous ranks to the top. Besides, we have a 
vastly greater proportion of the people who 
are interested in the advantages of education. 
Doubtless a greater proportion of the Ger- 
man people are educated, broadly or narrowly, 
but the government is doing it all, and in its 
own way. We go about our education more 
slowly and less effectively, but we do it our- 
selves, and probably get out of it a great deal 
of training in initiative. 
































American Teacher 


Democracy in Education; Education for Democracy 








Published monthly, except July and August, by 
Tue Moons Pusiisuinc Company, 
20 East 42d Street, New York. 
Aurrep B. Kurtner, Secretary 

B. Russet. Herts, Vice-President and Treasurer. 








Henry R. Linvitre, Editor-in-Chief, 
Benjamin C. Gruenserc, Managing Editor. 





Address all manuscripts and other communica- 
tions to THE AMERICAN TEACHER, 
20 East 42d Street, New York. 


Subscription price, 50 cents for the calendar 
year. 








Copyright, 1912, by Tue Moops Pusiisninc Company. 


_ 


FEBRUARY, 1912 No. 2. 








VoL. I, 


THE AMERICAN TEACHER will give 
space to editorials, signed articles and 
letters on these and kindred topics: 

1. The teacher and his work. 

2. Teachers as such, and as clerical 
assistants. 

3. The part of teachers in the admin- 
istration of their schools. 

4. Conditions that favor the develop- 
ment of social power in the teacher. 

5. Teachers’ movements at home and 
abroad. 

6. The elimination of 
thinking custom. 

7. Successful experiments in teaching. 

8. The prevention of the isolation and 
waste of the useful results of experi- 
ments in teaching and in administration. 

9. The testing and the application of 
ideas versus the suppression of ideas. 

10. Educational, social and hygienic 
conditions in the schools. 

11. Plans for making school life pre- 
pare naturally for adult life. 

12. The demands of intellectual, eco- 
nomic and civic life upon the schools. 

13. The work of the schools in de- 
veloping character and honest thinking. 

The editors invite the active co- 
operation of everyone who is in sym- 
pathy with the idea of Democracy in 
Education and Education for Democ- 
racy. 


fruitless, un- 


THE AMERICAN 








TEACHER 
SUPERIOR TEACHERS. 


Own THE First of January a law went into 
effect in New York establishing new salary 
schedules for teachers in the public schools of 
The City of New York. These schedules pro- 
vide for increased salaries for women teachers 
in the elementary schools and for all teachers 
in the high schools. They lower salaries for 
male elementary school teachers to be ap- 
pointed hereafter. No one is to have his 
salary reduced through the operation of this 
law. On the basis of lists of teachers in actual 
service in the schools, a calculation was made 
of the amount of money necessary to put 
into effect the new schedules; this amount 
(about three and a half million dollars) was 
allowed by the Board of Estimate. 

After the law was passed, the Board of 
Education was called upon to devise plans for 
putting it into execution. These plans, as pub- 
lished, include a regrading of teachers who 
were in the service at the time the law was 
passed, with the result that the teachers find 
themselves deprived of a certainty of salary 
increase up to the new maximum; in other 
words, the full benefit of the increase is not 
to be generally distributed as contemplated 
by the framers of the law and as anticipated 
by the body of teachers. Of course there is 
heart-breaking and wailing and gnashing of 
teeth, and there is talk of going to court, 
and there is anger and a pitiful waste of 
good nervous energy. 

Now, according to all theories of efficiency 
it is not only proper for the authorities to 
recognize the principle of the efficiency wage 
—it is their duty to put this principle into 
practice, and they will no doubt seek to justify 
their introduction of the new category “ su- 
perior teacher” on the ground of this duty. 

But if the authorities attach so much im- 
portance to the principle of the “ efficiency 
wage,” it is extremely unfortunate that they 
did not take steps to adopt it before this 
time. Its adoption at this time practically 
nullifies the purpose of the new salary law 
for thousands of teachers, and if thousands 
of teachers entertain the suspicion—nay, the 
firm conviction—that the Board has delib- 
erately adopted its plans for the purpose of 
nullifying the increase-of-salary law, they 
may be quite wrong, but the authorities have 
only themselves to blame for the situation. 
For years they have conducted the affairs 











THE 
of the schools in a manner well adapted to 
alienate the confidence, if not to develop the 
mistrust, of the teachers. And thou- 
sands of the teachers are saying to them- 
selves and to each other, “It fraud; it 
is a steal.” And in their hearts is bitterness. 


now 
is a 


position to say 
flim-flam. but 


Of course, no one is in a 
that the act of the Board is a 
to those who are not acquainted with the in- 
it looks like 


reasons 


ner workings of the machinery 
a flim-flam; and for these 

There has been a great deal of juggling 
with the designations of different classes of 
teachers: junior and _ assistant; assistant 
principal and assistant to principal; acting 
principal and teacher in charge, etc. 

There has been juggling with other terms, 
such as bonus and additionai salary, etc. 

There has been arbitrary curtailment of 
credit for years of service, depriving teachers 
of what they considered their rightful par- 
ticipation in the increase ostensibly provided 
by the law. 

There has been arbitrary 
groups of teachers to be considered for in- 
crease of salaries. 


selection of 


There has been a sad lack of definiteness 
and uniformity in the rating of teachers and 
in the methods of their 
for higher salaries. 


determining claims 


There has been a systematic attempt to 
restrict the benefits of the new law in a way 
that will consume but a portion of the funds 
claimed as necessary for putting the law into 
effect. 

If there is suspicion that the whole pro- 
ceeding is an attempt to hoodwink the “ tax- 
payer” with a fine show of protecting the 
City’s treasury, the authorities have but them- 
selves to blame, for they have failed to take 
into their confidence a considerable part of 
the public. Autocratic methods naturally arouse 
suspicions in a even when the 
despots have the most benevolent of inten- 
tions. 

If there is suspicion that this proceeding is 
an attempt to coerce the teachers by making 
their positions and their promotions less se- 
cure than they have been heretofore, through 
making their advancement depend upon star- 
chamber conferences of officials not in a posi- 
tion to have direct knowledge of their work, 
the authorities have but themselves to blame. 
Secrecy and indirection have a way of arous- 


democracy, 


AMERICAN 


TEACHER 


ing suspicion, even when they are used with 
the best of intentions 

Let us have an ethciency wage. But let 
us also have frank dealing and administration 


that inspires confidence. 


A CORRECTION. 


THE ERRONEOUS IDEA has gotten abroad that 
the school system of New York City exists for 
the purpose of providing comfortable positions 
with good pay and easy work for several thou- 
sand needy men and women. That is all a 
mistake. In the first place, the positions are 
not comfortable, most oi them, and the pay is 
not exactly good, all things considered, and 
the work is not really easy, where there is any 
work at ali. But beyond these trifling details, 
the idea is all wrong anyhow. 

For the public school system of New York 
City, notwithstanding the City’s not-altogether- 
creditable political record, exists for the bene- 
fit of the public, and not for the benefit of the 
teachers.’ It exists that the public may save 
the trouble and expense of policing and dis- 
ciplining and supporting 10 per cent. of its 
membership ten or fifteen years hence, because 
schooling of a certain kind and extent will 
reduce the necessary police and jail work 
by a considerable margin. It exists that the 
public may have the satisfaction of seeing 
the bulk of its children grow up into moder- 
ately decent, and healthy and effective and 
happy men and women. It exists that the 
public concerned with the elections in the 
third or fourth presidential administration 
hence may be adequately prepared to partici- 
pate in the functions of citizenship. 

The schools do not exist for the benefit of 
the teachers, or even of the janitors or the 
contractors who sell us pencils and ink and 
paper. They exist for the benefit of the chil- 
dren of the public, the children who will soon 
constitute the public, and for the public that 
needs to be protected against the mischief 
latent in these children. 

The schools do not exist for the benefit of 
the teachers, or the janitors or even of the 
contractors who sell us supplies. Neither do 
they exist for the purpose of affording a 
market for brick and mortar and sundry other 
building materials that the manufacturers and 
dealers in these materials are willing and 
anxious to sell to the City. Nevertheless, the 
contractors and dealers in building materials 
find the business of serving the public profit- 
able and satisfactory; they are expected to 
render honest service and they certainly get 
fair remuneration. If they did not receive 
adequate remuneration, they would not con- 
tinue the business. Moreover, the officials of 
the public, who have to arrange the contracts 
and the remuneration of these people, under- 
stand business; they understand what a busi- 
ness man is entitled to receive, and they see 
that he receives it in his dealings with the 
City. 





THE AMERICAN 


The schools do not exist for the benefit of 
the teachers or the janitors. Nevertheless the 
janitors and the teachers should find the busi- 
ness of serving the public through its schools 
satisfactory and profitable. If we do not find 
this business satisfactory and profitable, the 
fault may be with ourselves. It may be that 
we are not properly equipped for rendering 
the required service effectively, or with but a 
reasonable expenditure of time and energy or 
other cost. Or it may be that the fault is with 
the gentlemen who have to arrange the con- 
tracts and the remuneration of teachers and 
janitors. These officials may not sufficiently 
understand what to expect of teachers, or 
what teachers have a right to expect of the 
public. 

The schools do not exist for the benefit of 
the teachers. But the teachers have a right to 
be treated by the public as though they were 
human, civilized and decent members of so- 
ciety. That they are not always thus treated 
is unfortunately true. This may be the fault 
of the teachers themselves ; somehow they may 
allow the public to get the notion that they 
are not quite so human, not quite so civilized, 
not quite so decent as some other members of 
society. Or it may be the fault of the public, 
the public not having been sufficiently enlight- 
ened as to the value and the character of 
teachers. At any rate, although the schools 
do not exist primarily to provide comfortable 
jobs for needy men and women, it is not too 
much to ask the public to treat the incumbents 
as though they were really worthy people. 
And incidentally it may not be too much to 
ask of the teachers that they deport themselves 
in a manner that would impress the public 
with their true worth. That’s all. 


REORGANIZATION AND WASTE. 


THE MONTH 1912, contained 
just nine days during which teaching in the 
New York City high schools could be done 
interference from State examina- 
tions, examinations, and reorganiza- 
tion. If “tests” were given to get ready 
for the examinations, there were even fewer 
teaching 1912, there 
probably be ‘ten days, or less, “ of school.” 

We may grant that State examinations are 
useful for other reasons than to enable the 
City to draw State money. These and other 
examinations may even be necessary. The 
great problem for us all, teachers, school of- 
ficials and efficiency experts, is to determine 
how necessary examinations are. 

The time consumed in the two end-term ex- 
aminations and the disorganization and reor- 
ganization which they entail, is at least thirty 
days, or sixteen per cent. of the total number 
of school days in the vear. The present ar- 


or January, 


without 


school 


days. In June, will 


TEACHER 17 


rangement by which the work of each term 
is closed and a new term begun, in the high 
schools of New York costs a great deal of 
money. The actual expense in cash can be 
computed by anyone who has the time and 
the inclination to do it. The outlay of money 
for teaching with little or no teaching going 
on constitutes one phase of our problem, but 
our greatest expenditure must be expressed 


in terms of human energy. 


It is an undeniable fact that January 31 
and June 30 find the teachers of the City 
worn to exhaustion. No one can estimate 
in dollars the cost of the exhaustion of the 
teachers. But the City those 
factors that particularly at the end of the 
school terms, contribute to the waste of its 
human resources. 

The plainly obvious 
down as follows: 

1. The anxiety of teachers to make favor 
able showings in competition 
other in the percentage of their pupils who 
are able to pass the State examinations. It 
is positively stated by some school officials 
that the tests of “superiority” will hence- 
forth involve a minute consideration of these 
percentages. 

2. The considerable amount of out-of- 
work teachers in helping 
pupils to prepare for the examinations. 


should know 


factors may be set 


with one an 


hours done by 

3. The exacting labor of grading the State 
examination papers. 

4. The work of examining papers of those 
classes that do not have the State examina- 
tions. 

5. The strain of trying to keep up the in- 
terest in classes after the work of the term 
done. 
mass of 


has been 

6. The clerical that 
to every teacher who is efficient (and to some 
who are not so), in the clerical business of 
making records 

Every business has its anxieties, no doubt, 
but if the principles of efficiency have any re- 
lation to the satisfaction possible in human 
existence, then it should be clear that long 
continued productiveness is contingent upon 
unimpaired stores of energy. A business in- 
stitution could hardly maintain itself with its 
agents in constant anxiety, living at the top- 
notch of their capacity for giving out energy. 
An idea of Mr. Harrington Emerson’s quoted 
in the January number of THe AMERICAN 


work comes 





18 THE AMERICAN 


EaCmgER, is especially applicable to the rush 
and bang of closing the term’s work in our 
schools, Strenuousmess is not Efficiency. If 
the schools are to serve the function of de- 
veloping physical and mental ability, and 
character, and of preparing young people for 
living happy and useful lives, then much of 
our school “business” is incongruous and 
wicked. 

When the New York 
velops its own efficiency experts, the field for 
their operations will be as great and as full 
of interest as life is to an enthusiastic young 
surgeon. We now use all our teachers as 
clerks in preparing and filing extensive school 
records. This violates a principle of effi- 
ciency because teachers are pocr 
clerks, and because their time costs more by 
the hour, and far more by the results, than 
does the time of trained clerks. Illuminat- 
ing evidence on one point has been given re- 
cently in a remark publicly reported to have 
been made by the City Paymaster of New 
York. He said that usually there are more 
mistakes in the pay rolls of the schools than 
in the pay rolls of all the other City depart- 
ments put together. The pay rolls, except in 
the high schools, are commonly made out by 
teachers acting as clerks. The principle of 
efficiency, supported by the principle of the 
physiological division of labor, ought to de- 
termine our action. Let teachers teach, and 
let clerks do clerical work. 

The larger problem of what to do with our 
examination should be subjected by 
our own specially trained efficiency experts to 
crucial study, untrammeled by official ex- 
igencies of any sort. If we need examina- 
tions we may not need two systems. If we 
can get along with one system of examinations 
we might be able to make it an adjustable 
piece of our educational machinery that would 
not upset all the other parts. 


WHy NOT GIVE a special salary or 
bonus to teachers who have developed, 
on a practical working basis, some pro- 
gressive idea in education? All would 
begin to think and study and the gain 
to education would be tremendous. 


SELF-GOVERNMENT For children? By all 
means, yes! It gives them opportunities for 
exercising executive ability and for develop- 
ing responsibility. Fine! How about self- 
government for teachers? Would they not 
use as good judgment in selecting their prin- 
cipals as superintendents do? 


school system de- 


as a rule 


system 


TEACHER 


MADAM MONTESSORI. 


THE PUBLICATION oF the second article on 
the work of Madam Montessori, the great 
Italian teacher, will be suspended until the ap- 
pearance of the English translation of her 
book. The book is awaited with great expec- 
tations by many who are especially interested 
in the problems of educating very young chil- 
dren, and by others who believe the prin- 
ciples of the new method may have still wider 
application. The promised article for THE 
AMERICAN TEACHER will make clear what 
those principles are. 

We are asked to repeat the announcement 
that the Federation for Child Study has ar- 
ranged for a course of three lectures on the 
methods of Madam Montessori, by Miss 
Grace George, who studied with the great 
teacher in Rome. The lectures will be given 
in the afternoons of three Wednesdays in 
March, the 6th, 13th and 20th. Further par- 
ticulars may be obtained from the Secretary 
of the Federation, Mrs. Thomas Seltzer, 219 
West 100th street, New York. 


FROM THEIR POINT OF VIEW. 


By E—--— M——, Room 22. 

Praise does more towards encouraging a pupil to 
work than finding fault with him. A boy in one of 
my classes was lazy. The teacher kept telling him 
that he was a bright boy, and that if he would work 
only a little harder she was sure he would come out 
high. She kept on telling him this, and at last he 
got down to real hard study and so came out high 
in his standings. Wherefore had this teacher found 
fault with him, I am sure he would have left school. 

When we fail in our lesson, or our map is not very 
well drawn, our history teacher is sure to say, “ No 
hopes for you; if you don’t wake up you'll be taking 
history over again,” and other Bh remarks to dis- 
courage us. I know that if she would only encourage 
us instead of finding fault, she would get better re- 
sults from the class. This I know from my own 
experience. 

Once she told us that we were over the most diffi- 
cult part of our work, and that we should now find 
it more interesting. I noticed that it did a great 
deal towards brightening up our class. 

If the teachers only knew how much good one little 
word of praise does us (instead of finding fault with 
everything and discouraging us so that we begin to 
hate that special subject), we should feel more like 
working. 

Some pupils have left school simply because the 
teachers always found fault with them. There was a 
time when I myself felt like leaving school because 
of the same reason. But I struggled against the 
feeling, overcame my difficulties, and now that m 
teachers are not finding fault with me so much, 
like school a great deal Better. 


Way is club- work in our schools so much 
more vital than the regular work of the cur- 
riculum? Perhaps because the former arises 
out of a need, and the latter out of a creed. 


Train the child’s intellect exclusively and 


he becomes a heartless villain; train his heart 
exclusively and he becomes a religious zealot; 
train his body exclusively and he becomes a 
daring monster; train his hand exclusively 
and he becomes a human machine. The world 
is too full of villains, zealots, monsters and 
human machines. It calls for the all-round 
education of the schools of to-morrow.—S. L. 
ale in Educational Review, December, 
1911. 





THE AMERICAN TEACHER 19 


THE OPEN COURT. 


BROTHERS IN LAW. 


Ediior, THE AMERICAN TEACHER: 

There is a lawyer in Brooklyn who is 
said to have won every suit he has brought 
against the Board of Education on behalf of 
teachers. This would indicate that in the 
interpretation of the various statutes and by- 
laws involved in these cases the teachers 
were in the right and the Board in the wrong. 

Now, several members of the Board of Edu- 
cation are lawyers, and some of them are 
reputed to be good lawyers too. Every step 
taken by the Board has the counsel of these 
lawyers. To a mere teacher it seems strange 
that good lawyers within the Board and good 
lawyers without the Board should differ so 
completely as to the intent of the law. It 
is a cheap cynicism which suggests that it is 
the business of lawyers to have divergent 
views and to promote litigation; but I cannot 
accept this as an explanation. 

In matters involving “chance” the “Ins 
should be right about as often as the “ Outs.” 
Now, while I rejoice in the good fortune of 
the teachers who have been assisted by the 
lawyer in securing justice, I am still puzzled 
to understand why the satisfaction and profit 
of being on the right side should be limited 
to outside lawyers. Their brothers in law who 
happen to be members of the Board of Edu- 
cation ought to be able to guess what the 
law means sometimes, and thus avoid expen- 
sive litigation for the teachers—and for the 
City. How do you account for this curious 
situation ? 


” 


Yours truly, 
MARGARET SKYE BLUE. 
[We must admit that we are quite unable to 
account for it—Ed.] 


IS THERE JUSTICE? 


Editor, THe AMERICAN TEACHER: 

Many centuries ago, Socrates walking the 
streets of Athens and pondering the question 
placed above, arrived at no dubious answer. 
It was a triumphant “Yes!” But then the 
sage lived over two thousand years ago. 
Were he our contemporary and one of the 
“System,” alias a public school teacher, how 
differently—oh, how differently!—would he 
have worded his conclusions. For our 
“system,” from the very nature of its con- 
stitution, has no room for such an entity as 
“justice.” And not only for the justice of a 
philosopher, but even for the common, ordin- 
ary article of the man in the street—that 
which goes under the work-a-day sobriquet 
of “a square deal.” 

Let us suppose this case: A teacher is not 
liked by his principal. There are a thousand 
and one petty reasons why he shouldn’t be 
acceptable to his “boss.” Any one of them, 
or all combined, not necessarily militating an 
iota against the possibility of the teacher in 
question being in every way scrupulously con- 


scientious, one who knows his “trade,” or 
“art,” if you please, thoroughly, and one 
who does his duty as best he can. Still, his 
principal does not like him; perhaps for the 
very fact of possessing the virtues we men- 
tioned. The upshot of the matter is—a low 
rating. He is found to lack “ superior merit,” 
or his “personality” is not flawless, or he 
fails to “co-operate” with his superiors, or, 
finally, he is deficient in record-keeping 
powers. Where shall the poor underling get 
his rights? From his District Superintend- 
ant? Try it! The latter must and will stand 
by the principal, though the heavens fall and 
the earth crumble. For upon this corner- 
stone rests the “system”—this, namely, that 
all-above-you can never do wrong. And this 
hierarchy of infallibility extends upward and 
outward until it involves every link in your 
chains. Hence there results this state of things, 
once you are damned, you are damned ir- 

etrieveably. There is no hope. And thus 
also, the teachers are mighty, mighty careful 
that the sun of the principal’s favor doth not 
turn from them. 

But suppose again—and here I shall make 
a very bold supposition—there were a stand- 
ing committee, a kind of board of arbitration, 
to which the teacher could come with his 
grievances, knowing that he would be given 
a fair hearing and be protected in his just 
rights, would not that be somewhat of an 
advance upon our present methods of pro- 
cedure? This committee might be made up 
of three commissioners, three teachers, a prin- 
cipal, a superintendent and an associate super- 
intendent. A final action would require a 
two-thirds vote. It would thus offer some 
kind of a safeguard to the much-abused 
teacher, tend to check the arbitrary power of 
his “ superiors,” and act on the whole as a 
salutary tonic and corrective to the “system.” 
True, it might make the hierarchical doctrine 
that the “ king-can-do-no-wrong” a bit un- 
certain in its application, but then! 

De Novo. 


TO CONTRIBUTORS. 

THe AMERICAN TEACHER extends to teach- 
ers and principals a cordial invitation to send 
short articles describing work done by them 
or by others in their schools. 

New ways of presenting the essential 
jects would be especially welcome. For ex- 
ample, let the people know how language, 
arithmetic and geography can be taught in an 
interesting, vital way. Many would read a 
short, vivid article giving the but they 
would turn aside from anything resembling 
a syllabus. Let us not have syllabuses. 


sub- 


ideas, 


Is IT TEACHING in itself that we abominate, 
or is it petty officialdom, inadequate salaries, 


nerve-racking strain, deadening routine or 


solemn trivialities ? 








THE SCHOOLS AND THE 
WORKERS. 


AT THE 1911 convention of the Ameri- 
can Federation of Labor, the Committee 
on Education made the following report: 

Your Committee on Education believes it 
best to make recommendations on such live 
issues concerning education that confronts 
not only the laboring people, but all the peo- 
ple of the United States at the present time. 
Accordingly, we have considered the follow- 
ing topics and make the following recom- 
mendations on same: 

First—The time has now arrived when com- 
pulsory education must be had. The different 
States should provide by proper legislation 
that all children between the ages of six and 
sixteen years should be provided with at least 
a common school education and given at least 
the ordinary opportunities for preparation in 
childhood to meet the duties of life. 

We know from experience that existing 
economic conditions make it impossible for a 
large number of the best families among the 
workers to give their children the education 
they should h ave and which they would like 
to give them, and also that a small number of 
our population are not sufficiently alive to 
parental duty to educate their children and, 
on th: contrary, rather lean against same and 
prefer to use the physical efforts of their 
children for their own support, rather than 
educate these children for the children’s good 
in after life. This position of negations 
arises from three causes: First, lack of equit- 
able economic conditions; second, lack of ap- 
preciation of parental obligations, and third, 
remuneration received by said parents for 
child labor. 

Therefore, as these people do not respond 
to the ordinary suggestions of parental love, 
the State must step in and provide a system 
by which these children shall be given at least 
a chance for their lives in the struggle for 
existence going on at the same time. The 
time is long since past when the ignorant and 
uneducated stands any chance against the 
educated, active and well developed man. One 
begins the race of life at such a great advan- 
tage that the other one is never in the run- 
ning with him. * * * this great organiza- 
tion should present to the legislatures of the 
country their recommendation -that strong, 
vigorous and effective legislation be had 
whereby statutes providing for compulsory 
education may be passed and enforced, and 
we recommend accordingly. 

Second—In line with the discussion just 
had, it must suggest itself to all minds that, 
inasmuch as the State is providing public 
schools, that is, schools where tuition is free, 
it should also provide the children in such 
schools with books free of charge.’ There is 
no reason why the teacher should be supplied 
with books free of charge and the pupils 
should have to pay for their books. We know 


THE AMERICAN TEACHER 








that the cost of books to men of large 
families constitutes one of the many reasons 
why children are taken from school at an 
early age and why others are not sent at all. 
We know that a great majority of the pupils 
come from homes whose parents are able to 
purchase books. The parents are also able 
to pay tuition for their children, but the State 
does not charge them tuition, and their children 
sit side by side with those whose parents are 
incapable ‘of paying their tuition. Hence, the 
same situation would arise with reference to 
free books, and if free tuition is good, free 
books are likewise good. 

We recommend that free books in public 
schools be endorsed and the legislatures of 
the country be and they are hereby requested 
to provide that, in all public schools books 
shall be furnished the children at the expense 
of the State. 

We further recommend that the A. F. of L. 
go on record as approving the establishment 
of night schools for persons over sixteen 
years of age) in connection with the public 
school system. 


IF YOU IMAGINE 


ou are familiar with every really 
rst-class magazine, you’re mis- 
taken. Among those whose names 
_ appeared in symposia published 


THE INTERNATIONAL 


(Edited by B. RUSSELL HERTS and RICHARD LE 
GALLIENNE) are the following : 


Booker T. Washington Elbert Hubbard 
Hon. Champ Clark Upton Sinclair 
Ex-President Charles W. Eliot W. E. Burkhart Dubois 


Prof. John Dewey J 

Edith Wynne Matthison Hutchins Hapgood 

Jack London Reginald Wright Kauffman 

Robert Herrick Rheta Childe Dorr 
Charlotte Perkins Gilman 


THE INTERNATIONAL is remarkable for the plays 
and stories which it prints in every number, for the ex- 
ceptionally high standard of its poetry, criticism and 
political and literary essays. 

Of the hosts of letters from subscribers that have been 

received during the past month, the following 
are a fair selection ; 

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vital that I want to congratulate you with all my heart. 
You are doing an important work.” —— OprEN- 
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with great zest. It is certainly needed.” 

MITCHELL KSNNERLEY. 

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CHARLES RANN KENNEDY, Author * Servant in 

the House.” 

“Let me express my vows in the 
monthly pages of THE INTERNATION 

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“I must congratulate you on the appearance and splendid 
literary material in your beautiful megazine. 

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